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Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's In

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Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's In U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY and the NATIONAL PARK SERVICE—OUR VOLCANIC PUBLIC LANDS Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions— What’s in Yellowstone’s Future? ellowstone, one of the world’s Ylargest active volcanic systems, has produced several giant volcanic eruptions in the past few million years, as well as many smaller erup- tions and steam explosions. Although no eruptions of lava or volcanic ash have occurred for many thousands of years, future eruptions are likely. In the next few hundred years, hazards will most probably be limited to on- going geyser and hot-spring activity, occasional steam explosions, and moderate to large earthquakes. To better understand Yellowstone’s volcano and earthquake hazards and to help protect the public, the U.S. Geological Survey, the University of Utah, and Yellowstone National Park formed the Yellowstone Volcano Ob- servatory, which continuously moni- Midway Geyser Basin in Yellowstone National Park appears otherworldly tors activity in the region. beneath stormy skies. In the background, steam vigorously rises from the hot waters of Grand Prismatic Spring, known for its rainbow colors produced by thermophilic (“heat loving”) or- ganisms. Grand Prismatic is the largest hot spring in Yellowstone and the third largest in the world. This and other hydrothermal (hot water) features are among the main attractions for visitors to the park (inset photo). Each year, millions of visitors come These features are fueled by heat from a large reservoir of partially molten rock (magma), just a few miles to admire the hot springs and geysers of beneath Yellowstone, that drives one of the world’s largest volcanic systems. (Photograph courtesy of Robert Fournier; inset courtesy of Susan Mayfi eld.) Yellowstone, the Nation’s fi rst national park. Few are aware that these wonders water carry huge quantities of thermal en- into the atmosphere as mixtures of red-hot are fueled by heat from a large reservoir ergy to the surface from the magma cham- pumice, volcanic ash (small, jagged frag- of partially molten rock (magma), just ber below. Continuing up-and-down ground ments of volcanic glass and rock), and gas a few miles beneath their feet. As this motions on the Yellowstone Plateau refl ect that spread as pyroclastic (“fi re-broken”) magma—which drives one of the world’s the migration of both hydrothermal fl uids fl ows in all directions. Rapid withdrawal largest volcanic systems—rises, it pushes and magma below the surface. of such large volumes of magma from the up the Earth’s crust beneath the Yellow- Ground motions, earthquakes, and hy- subsurface then caused the ground to col- stone Plateau. drothermal activity are all current manifes- lapse, swallowing overlying mountains and Stresses in the crust produce movements tations of volcanic activity at Yellowstone. creating broad cauldron-shaped volcanic on faults, causing earthquakes to occur. In the not-so-distant geologic past, Yellow- depressions called “calderas.” Thousands of small quakes are recorded stone has produced many major volcanic The fi rst of these caldera-forming each year by the seismographic network eruptions, which have repeatedly reshaped eruptions 2.1 million years ago created of the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory its natural wonders. a widespread volcanic deposit known as (YVO), a partnership of the U.S. Geologi- the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, an outcrop of cal Survey (USGS), the University of Utah, Caldera-Forming Eruptions which can be viewed at Golden Gate, south and Yellowstone National Park. Faults and The Yellowstone region has produced of Mammoth Hot Springs. This titanic fractures also allow surface water to pen- three exceedingly large volcanic eruptions event, one of the fi ve largest individual etrate to depth and become heated, rising in the past 2.1 million years. In each of volcanic eruptions known anywhere on the again to produce hydrothermal (hot water) these cataclysmic events, enormous vol- Earth, formed a caldera more than 60 miles features, such as geysers. Steam and hot umes of magma erupted at the surface and (100 km) across. U.S. Department of the Interior USGS Fact Sheet 2005-3024 U.S. Geological Survey 2005 A similar, smaller but still huge erup- charged with dissolved gas, then moved tion of a lava fl ow, which would be far less tion occurred 1.3 million years ago. This upward, stressing the crust and generating devastating. Since Yellowstone’s last caldera- eruption formed the Henrys Fork Caldera, earthquakes. As the magma neared the sur- forming eruption 640,000 years ago, about located in the area of Island Park, west of face and pressure decreased, the expanding 30 eruptions of rhyolitic lava fl ows have Yellowstone National Park, and produced gas caused violent explosions. Eruptions of nearly fi lled the Yellowstone Caldera. Other another widespread volcanic deposit called rhyolite have been responsible for forming fl ows of rhyolite and basalt (a more fl uid va- the Mesa Falls Tuff. many of the world’s calderas, such as those riety of lava) also have been extruded outside The region’s most recent caldera-form- at Katmai National Park, Alaska, which the caldera. Each day, visitors to the park ing eruption 640,000 years ago created the formed in an eruption in 1912, and at Long drive and hike across the lavas that fi ll the 35-mile-wide, 50-mile-long (55 by 80 km) Valley, California. caldera, most of which were erupted since Yellowstone Caldera. Pyroclastic fl ows from If another large caldera-forming eruption 160,000 years ago, some as recently as about this eruption left thick volcanic deposits were to occur at Yellowstone, its effects 70,000 years ago. These extensive rhyolite known as the Lava Creek Tuff, which can would be worldwide. Thick ash deposits lavas are very large and thick, and some cov- be seen in the south-facing cliffs east of would bury vast areas of the United States, er as much as 130 square miles (340 km2), Madison, where they form the north wall and injection of huge volumes of volcanic twice the area of Washington, D.C. During of the caldera. Huge volumes of volcanic gases into the atmosphere could drastically eruption, these fl ows oozed slowly over the ash were blasted high into the atmosphere, affect global climate. Fortunately, the Yel- surface, moving at most a few hundred feet and deposits of this ash can still be found in lowstone volcanic system shows no signs per day for several months to several years, places as distant from Yellowstone as Iowa, that it is headed toward such an eruption. destroying everything in their paths. Louisiana, and California. The probability of a large caldera-forming Today, most of the landforms within the Each of Yellowstone’s explosive caldera- eruption within the next few thousand years Yellowstone Caldera refl ect the shapes of forming eruptions occurred when large is exceedingly low. these young lava fl ows. Cliffs surrounding volumes of “rhyolitic” magma accumulated the Upper Geyser Basin near Old Faithful at shallow levels in the Earth’s crust, as little Lava Flows Geyser are the cooled steep fl ow fronts of as 3 miles (5 km) below the surface. This More likely in Yellowstone than a large highly viscous (thick and sticky) magma, explosive caldera-forming eruption is erup- -/.4!.! VOLCANIC HISTORY AND RECENT SEISMIC ACTIVITY IN THE YELLOWSTONE REGION 9ELLOWSTONE )$!(/ .ATIONAL0ARK +),/-%4%23 +),/-%4%23 79/-).' -),%3-),%3 --/.4!/.4!..!! 7979/-).'/-).' Yellowstone is home to one -AMMOTH(OT-AMMOTH(OT ' of the world’s largest active ! 3PRINGS3PRINGS . ) volcanic systems. Cataclysmic ! - 4!.!4 4!.! . / eruptions in the past few million 9 / years created huge volcanic -/. - -/. 7 79/-).' 79/-).' depressions called “calderas.” The youngest, the Yellowstone (EBGEN(EBGEN ,AKE,AKE Caldera, was formed 640,000 years ago. Since then, about 80 ../22)3'%93%2/22)3'%93%2 eruptions of rhyo- "!3)."!3). #ANYON#ANYON .ORRIS.ORRIS lite (thick, sticky 6ILLAGE6ILLAGE %80,!.!4)/. lava) and basalt --ADISONADISON 0OST CALDERAVOLCANICROCKS (more-fl uid lava) "ASALT have occurred. The -/- / 2HYOLITE caldera’s interior ..4 4 )$))$!(/$ !.!! 7ITHINCALDERA TO is largely covered !(/! . ( ! YEARSOLD / -)$7!9'%93%2-)$7!9'%93%2 by rhyolites, most "!3)."!3). 9ELLOWSTONE 7ITHINCALDERA TO erupted in the 500%2'%93%2500%2'%93%2 YEARSOLD past 160,000 years. "!3)."!3). /UTSIDECALDERA ,AKE Large hydrother- 4HE9ELLOWSTONE#ALDERA mal (steam)-explo- "OUNDARIESOFOLDER sion craters formed )SLAND)SLAND ' in the past 14,000 . CALDERAS DASHED ) 0ARK0ARK / WHEREUNCERTAIN ( - years are located ! / (YDROTHERMAL EXPLOSION $ 9 near Yellowstone )$!(/ )$!(/ ) CRATER 7 79/-).' 79/-).' &AULT Lake and in major geyser basins. Re- %ARTHQUAKEEPICENTERS cent earthquakes (EBGEN,AKEMAGNITUDE (1973 to 2002) were concentrated .ORRISMAGNITUDE between Hebgen 3MALLERQUAKESn Lake and the Norris 0ARKBOUNDARY Geyser Basin and 3TATELINE along faults. 2OAD 2 once-slow-moving rhyolite lavas. Some Earthquakes (equivalent to $70 million in 2005 dollars) narrow ridges and valleys on the Canyon- From 1,000 to 3,000 earthquakes typi- and killed 28 people, most of them in a Norris road are corrugations on the surface cally occur each year within Yellowstone landslide that was triggered by the quake. of a 110,000-year-old rhyolite fl ow. These National Park and its immediate surround- Geologists conclude that large earth- roughly concentric ridges formed as the ings. Although most are too small to be felt, quakes like the Hebgen Lake event are un- thick, pasty lava slowly oozed northeast- these quakes refl ect the active nature of the likely within the Yellowstone Caldera itself, ward, wrinkling its surface. Within the cal- Yellowstone region, one of the most seismi- because subsurface temperatures there are dera, rivers and streams commonly occupy cally active areas in the United States. Each high, weakening the bedrock and making it the gaps between individual lava fl ows, and year, several quakes of magnitude 3 to 4 are less able to rupture.
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