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I GREAT FLYERS II , ,.

~. ~rief Studies of Designs

T . H • E f SII\1E I UNIVERSITY I !

I\U\SI\@ NASAlUSRA Univenity Advanced Design Program foEAT FLYERS II Brief Studies of Aircraft Des~

edited by

G. M. Gregorek and T. N. Ramsay InstTuctoTs

1 NASAlUSRA University Advanced Design Program

J

T . H . E OHIO srA1E UNIVERSITY

Aeronautical and Astronautical Research Laboratory

2300 West Case Road Columbus, OH 43220-1949 Phone 614-292-5491 '-I

, I -''1/ C !

Compiled in 1991 by the NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION AND UNIVERSITIESSPACE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION UNNERSITI ADVANCED DESIGN PROGRAM

Universities Space Research Association/University Advanced Design Program operates under Contract NASW~4435of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Material in this document may be copied without restrictions for library, abstract service, educational or research purposeSj however, republication of any portion requires the written permission of the authors. Moreover, an appropriate acknowledgment of this publication should be stated.

This report may be cited as:

Gregorek, G. M., Ramsey T. N. et al. (1991): Great Flyers II: Brief Studies of Aircraft

Designs. USRA/University Advanced Design Program, Houston, pp. xx~yy.

This report is distributed by: UNIVERSITIESSPACE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION UNIVERSITI ADVANCED DESIGN PROGRAM 3600 Bay Area Boulevard Houston, TX 77058 PREFACE

This second volume of Great Flyers follows the format established in the first volume: three ..view drawings of distinguished aircraft, their specifications, and a brief discussion of the 's design concept. Each aircraft presented was selected and reviewed by a senior student of Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering at The Ohio State University (OSU) as part of the requirements of ME 694A, Vehicle Design Seminar. The seminar is the first course in a three-course sequence on Advanced Aeronautical Design, made possible by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) funding and administered by the Universities Space Research Association (USRA). In addition to this written assignment and attendance at lectures by noted aircraft designers, the seminar included a tour of the U.S. Museum in Dayton, Ohio, where several of the aircraft selected for study by the students are displayed.

Ohio State is one of 43 universities in the NASA/USRA Advanced Design Program, which embraces the disciplines of both space and aeronautics. The Advanced Design Program stresses the systems approach to engineering design in which members of the design class work as teams to solve a problem of national interest. At OSU, the seminar assignment of the first course exposed the students to the entire history of aircraft design. When assembled, these brief summaries represented important lessons in design, which were of sufficient interest to publish for distribution to a wider audience. Volume I of Great Flyers was well received. I hope Volume II will be of equal interest.

It may be of interest to detail the subsequent work of the OSU ADP class of 1990-91, the group that wrote these reviews. During the second and third quarters, the class developed a conceptual design for a two-stage-to-orbit transportation system. The first stage, powered by air-breathing engines, took off horizontally and accelerated an orbiter to Mach 6 at 100,000 feet. At that point, the orbiter was released and flew into orbit either by power or by a combination seramjet and rocket. Two design teams produced two different design concepts; each team was divided into two groups, one to examine the first .. stage designs and the other to focus upon the second-stage orbiter concepts. The design groups were led by group leaders who coordinated the work of the team of student specialists, just as in industry preliminary design organizations.

The three-course sequence ended with the two design teams presenting their differing concepts to a panel of NASA and industry personnel in May, 1991. This oral review was followed by the submission of two comprehensive design reports to NASA and USRA.

G. M Gregorel<,PrOfes5OT The Ohio State University

CONTENTS

Boeing B-17 D. T. Detwiler ...... • •...... ••. .• . . . .•...... • ...• ...... • 1 Douglas Aircraft OC-3 D. G. Pheils ...... 5 Spitfire D. W. Groat ...... • ...... • ...... •. ... . 9 Lockheed P -3S S. M. Kelman ...... • .. . • ...... •...... •....• •. •... . 13 Douglas A-20 M. T. Masterleo . . •...... •... •...... • . ....• •. 17 Consolidated B-24 M. L Bonello ...... 21 Chance F4U Corsair K. E. Thornton ...... 25 Nonh American B-25 ]. E. Giuliani ...... 29

Nonhrop P-61 L B. Davis . .. .•.• ....•.....•... .•...... •. ..• . . 33 Messerschmiu 262 ]. M. Younkman ...... • . . ... •...... • .• .. .•. .. . .•... . 37 B-29 D. D. Sujudi .•...... • ...... •...... •...... • . ... ••. 41

Nonhrop YB-49 R. S. Cleaves . .. •.•...... ; ..• . . •• .. •...... • ...... •.. .•• 45

Convair F-I02 ]. B. Cunningham ... .. •...... •...... • .... . •...... •• .. 49 N onh American X-IS L E. Marin • • . . . . . • ...... • ...... • .. • ...... • 53 Saab-Scania Viggen JA37 ]. O. Akerjordet ...... •• .. .. •.... •....•...... 57 I Lockheed U -2R B. S. Richmond .. ••. . • ...... •...... •..• •. •... .• ... . 61 McDonnell Douglas F-15 ]. D. Tressler ...... '" .65 Sac! Aerospatiale E. O. Medici • ...... 69 Gossamer Albatross D.]. Ensminger ...... 73 Voyager D. D. Lowe• . ..•...... • . . .•.. • .....•. .• . .•.. . 77 Mikoyan Gurevich 25 T. F. Dietrichs ...... SI Piaggio P-lS0 R.J. Leiweke ...... S5

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/ Boring 8-17

BOEING B ..17 ======D.T. Detwiler

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer...... •...... Boeing Dare of First Flight...... July 28,1935 Number Built...... 12,731 Length ...... 74.8ft Span ...... 103.8 ft Root ...... 19 ft Tip Chord ...... " ...... 7.08 ft Wing Sweep...... 8.15° Wing ...... 4.50 Wing Aspect Ratio ...... •.....•...... • 13.68 Operating Empty Weight...... •...... •..... 48,726 lbs Maximum Weight...... 65,000 lbs Maximum ...... • ...... •...... 46 psf Maximum Level Speed...... •...... •...... •.•...... 218 mph ServiceCeiling ...... 35,600 ft Range...... 2000 miles Engines...... •...... •...... (4) Wright R·1820 Cyclones ...... (each) 1200 hp

In May 1934, a competition for a new multi-engine name "Flying Fortress" was given to the aircraft by a was announced by the U.S. Air Corps. Boeing reporter covering the unveiling ceremonies. designed and constructed a four·engine aircraft for this The Flying Fortress underwent many changes from its competition. The aircraft, designated Model 299, was initial version, the Model 299, to its final version, the rolled off the assembly line on , 1935. The first B-170, but its basic design and structure remained the flight was made on July 28, and the aircraft flew from same. The aluminum body of the B-17 was a combination Seattle to Wright Field on August 20 for the competition. of a light metal frame surrounded by a thin aluminum The 299 averaged 252 mph and set a distance record covering. This combination formed a strong and rigid of 2100 miles nonstop. strUcture. The basic shape of the all-metal was circular The initial performance of the 299 during the com· with raised sections for and radio compart­ petition was very promising but, on October 30, 1935, ment. The were composed of a framework of metal the aircraft was lost in a crash during a test flight. The tubing covered with sheet metal. A symmetrical NACA crash was caused by an control lock that was was used for the cross-section. The horizontal and not removed before flight. This accident prompted the vertical stabilizers of the tail were constructed similarly government to devise a formal. written preflight checklist to the wings. '-, elevators, and made up that is still used today. the flight-control system of the aircraft. These surfaces The Air Corps was so impressed with the 299 before were all cloth covered and each surface had a . the crash that it awarded the contract to Boeing. Thirteen The B-17 was capable of carrying 6000 Ibs of bombs more aircraft were ordered and redeSignated YIB·17. The on 2000-mile missions or IO,BOOIbs of bombs on short- 2 0..... FI,...-1903-1991 range missions. It was armed with twelve .50-caliber ma­ bombs on target using the Norden Bombsight. The 80 chine guns and carried 6380 rounds of ammunition. Guns 17 was also an exceptionally durable aircraft. It stayed were placed in dual turrets on the top and bottom of in the air after taking severe damage from enemy fighter the aircraft. There were two remotely sighted guns in planes and antiaircraft guns. German pilots the tail and single gun emplacements on each side of claimed it took twenty 20-mm shells to down one B- the waist and nose of the aircraft. 17. The B-17 was powered by four supercharged Wright During the war in Europe 8017 Flying Fortress R-1820 Cyclone engines. Each produced 1200 hp giving shot down 6660 enemy aircraft and dropped 640,000 tons the aircraft a maximum speed of 318 mph. The fuel tanks of bombs onto enemy targets. of the aircraft held 2490 gallons of gas, which gave the B-17 a maximum ferry range of 3700 miles. The B-I7's crew of ten included pilot, co~pilot,navigator, bombardier, BmLIOGRAPHY I radio operator, and four gunners. The 8017's great success can be attributed to two Alwyn T. Uoyd and Terry D. Moore, (1981), B-17 Flying factors. It was able to fly at 25,000 feet and still drop Fortress in Detail and Scale,TAB Inc. \

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DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT DC-3=== D.o. Pheils

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer. .••• ...... •.••.•.•.••...... •• ••.••... DouglasAircraft Date of Fir't Flight...... December 17,1935 Number Built ...... 10,655 (USA), 7500 (USSR) Length ••..•...•••...•.•...••..•.•...•..•.••...••••.•••..•••... 64.4 5 ft Height...... '" .16.96 ft Wing Area·...... ••••••••••••••••••...•...•••...•...... ••••..• 987 'q ft Wing Span . ...••...... •••....••...•...•••...... •••..••.•.. 95 ft Operating Empty Weight •••..•.•.•..•..•.. . ••...••...•...... 16.865 lb, Maximum Takeoff Weight...... • ...... •...... 25,200 Ib, Maximum Speed (at 8500 ftJ ...... 230 mph High Speed Cruise (at 6000 ft) ...... 194mph EconomicalCruise (at 6000 ft) ...... •..•••...••..•.•.....•.•.••. 165 mph ServiceCeiling ...... •...... 2 1,900 ft Range (max payload)...... •••.••.....•..•••..•••...•••.•••..• •350 mile, (max fuel) •.•••...... •....•.....•.•••..•...•••..•.••. 2125 miles Engines...... (2) 1200 hp Pratt and Whitney R·1830·51c36 Twin Wasp Radial Piston Engines

The DC·3 i, considered by many to be the most versatile the fabric-covered control surfaces. The transport was and most widely loved aircraft of all time. It was the equipped with two wing.mounted Pratt and Whitney first to support itself fmancially as well as mechanically. Twin WASP radial piston engines. each capable of while being used in passenger carrying and utility roles. delivering 1200 hp. These engines were equipped with In 1934. the Douglas company was requested by Cyrus controllable.pitch. three·bladed. two-piston. hydro·con· Rowlett Smith. president of American . to develop trollable propellers. The DC·) was outfitted with two an enlarged version of the DC·2 to be used as a "sleeper" main and two auxiliary fuel tanks holding a total of 510 for U.S. transcontinental . The first flight of the gallons of fuel giving it a cruising range of approximately prototype was on December 17. 1935. piloted by Carl 2125 miles. A. Cover. from Clover Field. Santa . The first The semi ..monocoque construction of the fuselage con .. Douglas Sleeper Transport (DST) was delivered to sisted of a smooth, riveted skin constructed from an extra in mid 19)6 and began passenger service light. aluminum alloy with a thin coating of pure from Chicago. Illinois to Glendale. California on July 4. aluminum. This gave the DC·) high resistance to corrosion

1936. contributing to its long life. Also, its almo~t However, it was the 21 ..seat, day version of the DST, circular cross·section provided a cabin height that allowed designated the DC·). that was to make Douglas Aircraft most passengers to stand upright in the offset aisles. The the world leader in commercial transports of the period. gear is a retractable tail.wheel type. with a fully.

losing that status only at the beginning of the jetliner casearing tailwheel, and the cantilever tail unit is con~ era with the introduction of the . structed of metal. The rX:>3is a cantilever low .. con .. It was the load carrying capacity of the DC·3 wing sisting of all·metal construction with the exception of that led to its fame. commercial success. and long service 6 0.- FI,eTS-1903-1991 life. The Douglas engineers designed a wing consisting Throughout the entire period of production, there was of a thick metal skin that carried much of the load itself, little significant change in aircraft design. The same was supported internally by a nearly indestructible netwotk not true of powerplants. As new engines became available, of welded boxes. Even if several of these boxes were severed they were installed to provide enhanced performance and the structure of the aircraft would be preserved. This load carrying capabilities. Manufacturer's lists show 11 was in contrast to assembled spars and ribs covered with different civil and military Pratt and Whitney twin WASP fabric that was common to aircraft wing designs of the engines installed in prewar and wartime production time. aircraft, of between 1050 and 1200 hp. There were also The wing was manufactured in three sections. The 13 variants of the Wright $OR-1820 Cyclone, with ratings center section was built integral with the fuselage to insure from 920 to 1200 hp. The initial versions had 920-hp absolute rigidity and to eliminate the need for carry­ Wright Cyclone engines but 1200-hp Pratt & Whitneys through spars that obstructed the aisles. This wing were soon offered as alternatives in the DC-3A. Delivery structure was strong enough to support the engines of the last manufactured DC-3 for () was mounted on a stub ..wing center section, one on each side made on March 21,1947. of the fuselage. With an extraordinarily long service life of over 45 Pioneered in the DC-I and carried on into the design years, more than 500 of the Douglas DC-3 aircraft of the DC-3, the DC series developed the innovative remained in service through the early 1980s for airlines concept of landing flaps termed "Douglas air brakes." This of various sizes throughout the world. gave the plane great versatility during wartime operations and as a peacetime utility aircraft serving smaller airports. BffiUOGRAPHY The Douglas air brakes consisred of split Green, W. (1978) The Encyclopedia of the World', Com­ flaps built into the lower side of the wing to increase mercial Aircraft, Crescent Books. and for slow, restricted . When hinged Ingells, D. (1966) The Plane that Changed the World, Aero full-down, the flaps caused a gain in lift of 35% and a Publishers Inc. drag increase of 300%. jerram, M. (1981) The World's Classic Aircraft, Galahad When America entered World War II in 1941, 507 Books. DC-3s had been delivered. During the war, the DC-3 Mondey, D. (1983) The Concise Guide to Commercial was produced on a large scale as C-47s and R4Ds. In Aircraft of the World, Temple Press. the U.S. close to 10,000 aircraft were manufactured, and Mondey, D. (1981) Encyclopediaof the World', Commercial a further 2000 or so were built under license in the USSR and Private Aircraft, Crescent Books. with the designation Lisunov Li-2. The DC-3, in various Munson K. (1982) U.S. Commercial Aircraft, Science Books forms, was almost certainly the only aircraft to serve in International. all major combat zones in World War II. When the war Rossiter, S. (1990) Legends of the Air, Sasquatch Books. ended, thousands became available for civil use virtually overnight, forming the nucleus of fleets around the world. ..-

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Manufacturer ...... Supemtarine Date of First Flight. ...•••...••..•••••••.....••••••...... , 1936 Number Built. ..•.....•.... •...... •...... ••••...•••.•.•• 20,351 Length . •....•...... •••...••••...... •..•.. 29.92 ft Height ...... ••.••.•...... ••••...•••••••. . 11.-f2 ft Wing Span ••...•••••...... ••••...... •••.•. •.•••.....•..•••. 36.83 ft Root Chord ••.... •• ••.••••••.••..••••.....••••..•....•..•.....•. 8.1 7 It Tip Chord •••...... ••.•...... ••••...... •••...... ••.•.•.•.•••... 2.25 It Wing DihedraL • ...... ••.... •. •• •••••••.....•..•.•.....•...... •• 6.6° Wing Aspect Ratio ...... •...... ••.•••....••••...•... 5.52 Operating Empty Weight •••.....•••••.•.•.•.•...... •• 810 lbs Maximum Takeoff Weight ••••••....••••.. . ..• . ••...... •.... 5784 lbs Maximum Level Speed...... • • ...... •••..•..•..••...... ••.... . 370 mph SeroiceCeiling . ...••••••.....••.•.•...... •• ...... 34,000 It Range...... ••... ..•.. ••• ....•••. ••.•.... ••••.•.... .• • .435 nautical miles Engine .....•.•••...... ••••••...... •••. (I) 1030 hp Rolls-RoyceMerlin V-12

"A designer never looks at his aircraft and calls it fin­ with the designer." The result was first flown on March ished. He is always looking into the future, looking at 5, 1936. ways to improve his design long before it flies. An aircraft The first Spitfire, designated the Mk I (Mark I), in­ is never complete to its designer,t' said Reginald Mitchell, corporated some rather radical designs including an chief designer at Supermarine Aviation, who, in 1927, , retractable tail wheel, and an all stressed designed and built the S-6B seaplane for the Schneider metal skin construction. This made the Spitfire very sleek Seaplane Races. The plane shattered the world speed and maneuverable, but also made it difficult to build record by 200 mph when it screamed over the finish line quickly. As a result the Spitfire's counterpart, the , bore the brunt of in the , at 407.5 mph. even though it was inferior to the Spitfire, because the This relentless pursuit of perfection led to arguably the fabric covering of the Hurricane made it easier to greatest in Britain's history, the Super .. manufacture and repair. marine Spitfrre. The engine that Mitchell decided on was the RoDs­ Originally, the Spitfire was to be an all-metal Royce Merlin V-12 with 1030 hp, the most powerful with fixed and a fabric-covered fuselage. But engine available at the time. The first 77 Spitfires were seeing that this design would be obsolete before its maiden equipped with a two-blade wooden propellers that were flight, and, taking into account the increasing Nazi threat, soon replaced with a three-blade, variable-pitch prop that Mitchell got permission to scrap this aircraft for a high­ increased the ceiling by 7000 ft and imp

Mitchell was not able to see the success of his fighter carriers, the Seafire was equipped with four 20~mmcannon in the defense of Britain, for he had died on July 11, and the monstrous Rolls-Royce Griffon engine that 1937, of tuberculosis. produced 2375 hp. Since the exhaust gases roared out The RAF, for fear of losing what few Spitfires it had of the engine at speeds approaching Mach 2, some of available at the outbreak of the war, put only its best this power was obtained simply by redirecting these gases pilots in them. As a result, the Spitfire soon earned itself rearward through six exhaust baffles on each side. The a reputation as the savior of Britain as the combination Seafire, even though the fastest and most heavily armed of pilot skill, increased firepower I and superior aircraft of all the previous Spitfires, was produced too late for sent Nazi planes to the ground in droves. the war and entered service in the RAF from post-WWII Late in 1943, three RAF pilots returned to base with until the early 1950s. news that they had just shot down, "an unknown German With the exception of the canopy and , the aircraft with a ." This aircraft turned out Spitfire underwent very few changes in its general ap .. to be the Focke Wulf Fw-190, a new and deadly weapon pearance over the course of the war I which compliments designed by . It was soon learned that the the design abilities of Reginald Mitchell who, despite Fw-190 was seemingly superior to the Spitfire in almost doctors orders, sacrificed his health and ultimately his every respect, but designers at Supermarine just dropped life for the development of the Spitfire. in the improved Merlin engine with 1660 hp and the Spitfire soon triumphed over Hitler's latest creation. BffiLIOGRAPHY Before the war ended the Spitfire underwent eleven Bill Gunston, The Anatomy of Aircraft, Longmeadow Press, modifications, each incorporating an improvement over Stanford, . the previous design. Such improvements included self Lawrence Holland, Their Finest Hour, instruction manual sealing fuel tanks, armored pilot's seat, a , for Batde of Britain flight simulator IBM PC, Lucasfilm four-bladed prop, and fitted belly tanks. Games Inc. The final model, the Mk XI, was designed as a naval The RAF at War, Epic of Flight, Time-Life Books. carrier plane and dubbed the Seafire. Designed with Designers and Test Pilots, Epic of Flight, Time-Life Books. clipped wings that folded for storage aboard aircraft \ I F-58

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LOCKHEED P ..38======S.M. Kelman SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer• •...... ••• ...... • •••••. Lockheed Da'e of First Flight...... •••• •••...... •.•....••••.. .january 27, 1939 Number Built . ....••••...... ••••••...••..•••....•••...•.•...•... /0,037 Length •••••. .. . . ••• •••...... •...... • . ...••••••• •. .•.••... 37.83 ft Wing Span....•••...... • •...... • ••...... •...... •.. . . 52 f' Height.: ...... 12.83 ft Wing Area ••...... ••.•••• •...••.....••..•.•.•.•••.• •...•••.. 328 fel Empty Weight . ...••••••••.....••••••••••••••••...... 12,800 lbs Maximum Weight. •...... •••...... •••...... •••••...... 21 ,600 lbs Wing Loading . .•••....•...... ••...... •. ... •.....••• ...... 63.1 psf Maximum Speed (at 25,000 ftJ...... 414 mph Service Ceiling ...... 44,000 ft Range• ••.....••.•..••...... •.••...... •••••....•••.•...... 2,600 miles Engines ...... •...... (2) Alli.50n V-I7JO-l JII-1 /3 Thrust...... (each) 1475 hp

The Lockheed P-38, called the Lightning, took on the The pilot, nestled in the center just behind the full brunt of World War II seeing action in both the machine guns and , had an engine to either side European and the Pacific theaters. As the first USAAF to protect him from incoming enemy fire. It is interesting fighter to down a German aircraft, and the first USAC to note that ,the cockpit window must be closed upon plane to land in Japan after V-J Day, the P-38 was the takeoff to avoid turbulent flow over the tail assembly. only U.S. pursuit aircraft in continuous production Called the Atlanta in its development stage, the P- throughout the war. It had roles of pursuit, fighter, night 38 went through several modifications and improvements fighter, , bomber, and photographic-recon­ during the war. In all, the Ughtning had 34 different naissance aircraft. designation numbers from the earliest experimental XP- America's top-scoring pilot with 40 kills, Major Richard 30 to the latest photographic-reconnaissance FO-l. l.ock­ Bong, flew a P-38. Close behind were Major Thomas B. heed had proposed to the a carrier aircraft design McGuire with 38 kills and Co!. C. H. MacDonald with based on the P-38, that would have folding wings and 27 - both in P-38s. By the end of the war, 38 other arrester hooks on a strengthened P-38H airframe. The pilots had reached the status of "Ace" flying P-38s Navy, however, did not care for the idea of a Iiquid­ exclusively. In fact, no other U.S. fighter has downed cooled-engine aircraft that required large amounts of deck more Japanese aircraft than the P-38. space. Its unique twin-boom layout housed the turbo-super­ One of the most notable kills by a P -38 was made charged engines, radiators, and main undercarriage wheels. on April 18, 1943, after U.S. Navy cryptographers decoded With the placement of the armament in the central a message that Admiral Yamamoto would be flown to nacelle, there was no need for the added weight of Ballale airfield on Shortland Island to make an inspection. . To improve stability and reduce a The 339th Fighter Squadron was called to intercept the torque problem, the propellers counter rotated outward. transport. Sixteen P -38s led by Major John MitcheU were

As seen from the rear I the port propeller turned counter.. assigned the task. The 5OO-mile journey from Henderson clockwise and the starboard propeller turned clockwise. Field, , to Shortland Island was accomplished 0...... F1yers-1903-1991 using 165- and 310-gallon drop tanks. The P-38 pilots The P-38M was the . It was a modified outfought and downed at least five Zeros and two bomber­ version of a P-38L painted with a glossy black finish. This transports, including the Mitsubishi Ki.Z1 carrying the was a two-seater aircraft with the operator behind Admiral, with the loss of only one P-38. Captain Thomas the pilot which nessessitated a redeSigned canopy to ac­ G. Lanphier fired rhe final salvo that sent the transport comodate the radar operator. Its fearures included an ANI down in flames. APS-6 radar in an external radome beneath the nose,

In late 1941, the RAF put in an order for Lightnings. relocated radio equipment, and anti~f1ashgun muzzles. The American authorities were not eager to give the This version of the plane was introduced near the end British the turbo-supercharged fighter to use against the of the war. Germans. What they sent the RAF was a non­ As a photo-, the P-38 had supercharged airplane that had propellers rotating in the increased range and was used heavily in North Africa. same direction. Only three were delivered and they were The Luftwaffe pilots would not engage the Lightnings called the Lightning I. Since their performance was at any altitude for fear of being shot out of the sky. unsatisfactory, they were used as trainers and became The Lightnings found a new use as low-level bombers, known as the Castrated Lightning I. taking out tanks and road transports. It was rumored that Original armament consisted of one Z3-mm Madsen the Germans called the Lightning "The Forktailed Devil." cannon with 50 rounds of ammunition and four .50-caliber The last 113 P-38s were built by Consolidated Vultee. Colt machine guns with 1000 rounds per gun. In later At the end of the .war, many Lightnings were scrapped, versions, the Colt guns were replaced by .50-caliber and a few were sold as surplus, to be used for aerial survey Brownings. Other in the center nacelle were the and air races. Still others were sold to foreign military 37 -mm and later the ZO-mm Oerlikon. services with 12 sold to in the late 1940's, the A triple-cluster of 4.5-inch rocket launchers on either last country to use the P-38s, and with the retirement side of the center nacelle and engines was first used on of the final aircraft, so ended the military service of this the P-38G, or 1600-lb bombs could be carried beneath historical warplane. Today, the P-38 lives in museums the wing center~section.In another set~up,racks (or and hangars of a few people lucky enough to own a legend. carrying 14 below the outer wings were used. These racks could be strengthened to hold ZOOO-Ibbombs or BffiUOGRAPHY 300-gallon drop tanks. At maximum capacity, the P-38 Francillon R.J. (1987) Lockheed Aircraft since 1913. could carry a load heavier than the standard bomb load Whitehouse A. (1971) The Military Airplane. of the contemporary B-17 and B-24 bombers, both of which have four engines.

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.. ~ .. • DoNgLuA.20 17

DOUGLAS A ..20======M.T. Masterleo

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer ...... Douglas Date of First Flight...... August 17, 1939 Length •...... 48 ft Wing Span .....• • ...... • •• ...•••. ,., .•...•...•••...... 61 ft Root Chord •. ...••••.•...•.•.••.. •...... , ••...... •••...... ••.. 12 ft Tip Chord . .••••...... ••...... ••••••...... ••••. , •..•.•••.... 2.5 ft Wing Sweep...... ••..•...... , ••••...... ••...... •..••.•. 0° Wing Aspect Ratio • ... •••• •.. . ••••...... •...... ••• 8 Operational Empt, Weight ...... 17,200 lb Maximum Takeoff Weight. •...•••...... •.•...... ••.....•...... 30,000 lb Maximum Cruise Speed (at 10,000 ft) • ...... , ...... 308 mph Typical Cruise Speed (at 10,000 ft) ...... 230 mph ServiceCeiling ••...... ••...... •••....•••...••...... ••••• 25,000 ft Range...... •...... ••••.... •••...... ••••• 1025 miles Engines• •.•....•••.••...... ••••• , . , ..... , .•••. , .... (2) Wright R·26oo·23 Power• ••••...... •••..•••..•...••••...... ••...... (each) 1600 hp

The initial design of the A·20 was in response to a theaters throughout the war. The versatility of this new need for an attack bomber which could fly at both high aircraft was demonstrated by the many types of missions and low altitude with equal ease. The response to this it performed. need came from Donald Douglas, and Ed The A·20's were used for standard high and low altitude Heinemann, who had worked in concert to develop the bombing, as well as specialized bombing roles. These A·!7 attack bomber. The project was absorbed by the specialized roles included day and night hops, naval at its El Segundo division. The torpedo bombing. as well as missions that were unique changes which accompanied this absorption resulted in to the A·20. Certain of these unique missions required the birth of the model 7·B, the prototype for the A· that the standard A·20 be modified in ways that produced 20 series. some of the most exotic of the war. The A·20 first flew August of !939, and from its first One of the more interesting of these variations was flight the aircraft was known as a pilots plane. The aircraft the Havoc·! which was fitted with a solid nose, housing was fast, indeed at 3!7 mph it could out perform most four .303.caliber machine guns. This was in addition to fighters of the day. It was also maneuverable and com· the normal four forward firing guns standard on the A·20. fottable to fly. The pilots and crews knew they had some· The aircraft also carried the A.1. Mk. VI radar, giving thing special, when they climbed aboard the A·20. the Havoc·! the ability to bomb at night, a role that Though the Douglas A·20 was not involved in any it was exclusively used for in World War II. outstanding military operations throughout World War Some of the other Havoc A·20's were also altered and II, its many variations performed in front line service for fitted with a 2700 million candle power Helmore G.E.C. the duration of the war. The A·20 had twelve distinct . The light was housed in the nose of the aircraft designated variations with even more specialized variants and the batteries filled the internal . This along serving in campaigns in the Pacific, Europe and Russian with the early air interception radar enabled the "Tur· 18 G.- F1,...-1903-1991 binlite Havoc's" as they were known to search for and All of the variants, no matter what their specialty role iIluminate enemy fighters. low, high, intercept, or night bombing, shared the same Some of the III A-20's even experimented with basic shape. This is a testimony to the engineering thought a top turret and racks of 60 Ib rocket projectiles mounted involved in the design of the original DB-7 / A-20 attack on the wings. The rocket racks never caught on, however bomber. It can truly be said that the A-20 series was the top turret did. All latter models of the A-20 were a series of great flyers. fitted with a top mounted twin .50-caliber machine guns. Finally, one of the strangest roles that the A-20's per­ BIBLIOGRAPHY formed was that of aerial mine layer. The planes that were assigned to this role would tow bombs on long cables Green, WiIliam, 1960, FamousBombers ofrheSecond WorUJ stored in their internal bomb bays. The mine would hang War, Vol. 2, Hanover House Edition, Great Britain. suspended 2,000 feet below the aircraft and directly in the path of incoming enemy bombers.

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CONSOLIDATED B ..24 ===== M.L. Bonello

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer...... • ..... •...... Consolidated Date of First Flight...... DecembeT29, 1939 Number Built...... •...... , ...... 2738 Length .....•...... •••....••..•....•••... . .•...... •.• 66.33 ft Wing Span ...... 110 ft Root Chord ...... Not Available Tip Chord ...... Not Available Wing Sweep...... 0° Wing Dihedral...... 0° Wing Aspect Ratio ...... •...... 11.55 Operating Empt) Weight ...... 56,000 lbs Maximum Takeoff Weight...... 71,200 lbs Maximum Wing Loading...... Not Available Maximum Cruise Speed (at 25,000 ftJ...... •...... 303 mph Service Ceiling...... '" ...... 35,000 ft Range...... 2850 mi Engines...... 4 Pratt and Whitnf) Twin Wasp R-1830-43 engines

With the outbreak of World War II, the fuselage to provide more cargo area and ease in loading.

Army became interested in obtaining new four~engineThey were constructed on two box#spars with built~up bombers. At that time, it only had the Boeing B-17 Flying ribs covered by aluminum alloy sheet. The main fuel tanks Fortress that had not undergone any rejuvenations in were located in the center panels. recent years. They asked the engineers of Consolidated Other features on the aircraft were the twin vertical Aircraft Corporation to design a new bomber with be!!er tail-rudder configuration and its tricycle-type landing gear. flight characteristics than the B-17. The major specifi­ It was the first plan.e to employ such a landing gear con­ cations were speeds above 300 mph, a ceiling of 35,000 figuration. The front wheel retracted forward into the ft, and a range of 3000 miles. fuselage while the back structures retracted sideways to On March 30, 1939, a contract between the Army rest in open wing stowage. The prototype was powered and Consolidated Aircraft was signed for a single prototype by four 1200-hp Pratt and Whitney Twin Wasp and the mock-up to be completed in nine months. Before I4-cylinder, air-cooled radial engines. It was armed with the prototype had even been tested, the U.S. Army, Britain, and had already placed orders for the .30-calibre machine guns that were hand held. aircraft. The bomb bay was capable of accommodating 8000 One of the outstanding features of the prototype was lbs of bombs that were stowed vertically in the forward a wing configuration using Davis . The airfoils were and rear compartments. A catwalk connected the flight designed for high lift characteristics and it was claimed deck with the rear of the fuselage. The aircraft also had that they reduced profile drag by 25% at low speeds and roller-type doors that retracted into the fuselage. This 10% at high speeds. The airfoils were equipped with Fowler configuration reduced drag considerably when the doors area-increasing flaps. The wings were placed high on the were open. 22 o..at FI,.... -1903-1991

The tests of the prototype were successful, although plant and 303 in their Fort Worth plant. Douglas the maximum speed attained was only 273 mph. The contributed ten from its facilities in Tulsa, Oklahoma. first batch of aircraft produced from the XB-24 design Douglas was assigned to build Lberators by the govern­ were purchased by the British, who gave the configuration ment to help Consolidated fill their goal of 2000 planes the name "Liberator." These aircraft were built to British per month. The Ford Motor Company was also requested specifications and used mainly as transport vehicles. In to produce sub-assemblies of the craft to aid in the mass June 1941, the U.S. Army Air Corps received the first production of the liberator. Various versions of the same B-24A liberator. It was also used mainly for transport. (like the various armaments on the B-24D) The XB-24A was then improved upon to become the were made because these aircraft were produced so rapidly XB-24B. This configuration had self-sealing fuel tanks, that changes were being made between the time that and the mechanically-supercharged engines were replaced the plane got on the assembly line and when it got off. by turbo- that enabled the aircraft to attain The B-24D version of the Lberator was the first to speeds of 310 mph, 10 mph over the initial flight spec­ enter operational services with the United States Air ifications. In addition, because of the new engine can ... Force bombing unit. They were employed by the Coastal figuration, the oil-cooling system was moved from beneath Command of Britain and the the engine to the engine.sides. This resulted in the elliptical and fitted with radar systems to detect submarines at conftguration of the cowls that was seen on all subsequent night. Their main purpose, however, was bombing. versions of the liberator. The B-24C was the result of B-24D's were involved in every theater of World War these changes. II from Wake Island to China to Germany. There are The B-24D was very similar to the B-24C in that its many amazing stories of a single bomber engaging in general configuration was the same except the addition combat with multiple Axis fighters and winning the of R-1830-43 engines and more defensive armament. In encounter. When a squadron of B-24D's were being addition to the .50-calibre, hand-held nose gun, the fitst attacked or dropping bombs on their targets, they had 94 B-24D's were equipped with a four hundred r.p.g. for the ability to concentrate all of their firepower on one the dorsal turret and a six hundred r.p.g. for the tail target which made them deadly to encounter. turret. The maximum bomb load was still 8000 Ibs. After the B-240, there were other modifications of Throughout the production of the B-24D's, increasing the aircraft to produce the B-24E,G,H,L,M,N, the XB- amounts of armor wete added. Eventually the B-24 24F,K, the XB-41 , and the C-87, which was a cargo contained three hand-held nose guns, two guns in the aircraft. Th~aircraft had mooifications in armament, de~ Martin upper turret, two guns in the Consolidated tail icing capabilities, and, in the last versions, a single tail turret, a single ventral gun, and two waist guns. Thus, surface. the B-24D was equipped with ten .50-calibre guns. Its Even though the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation's bomb load was increased to 12,800 100and its maximum Lberator was such a widely produced and used aircraft, gross weight increased to 71,200 lbs. it was usually in the shadow of the Boeing Flying Fortress. The Consolidated B-24 was the most widely produced It was frequently referred to as an ugly duckling because airplane for the United States and its allies in World of its tricycle-type landing gear and low position from War II. A total of 18,188 liberators and liberator variants the ground. It is unfortunate that such an adaptable and were produced between 1939 and 1945. Of the B-24D widely used aircraft never got the recognition that it series, Consolidated produced 2425 in their San Diego deserved. I

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• CHANCE = K.E. Thornton

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer...... Chance Vought Date of First Flight ...... May 29, 1940 Number Built.. " ...... 12,571 Length 33.69 ft • ...... Wing Span ...... 40.98 ft Height ...... •...... 14.77 ft Maximum Operating Weight...... 15,0791bs Empty Weight...... 8873 lbs Maximum Speed...... 462 mph ServiceCeiling ...... 44,000 ft Range (with ) ...... •••••...... ••.•••... 1735 miles Engine. .... ',' ...... Pratt and Whitney R-2800-32(E) Daub'" Wasp Thrust ...... 2850 hp

The Corsair was designed by Rex Beisel and Igor relatively clean aerodynamic shape, could easily attain 500 Sikorsky. These gentlemen were faced with the task of mph in a vertical dive, which loaded the aircraft up CO designing a naval fighter around the largest propeller and 9 g's during the pull-out from the dive. At high altitudes, the most powerful engine to be fitted into a fighter of compressibility effects caused trouble such as buffeting the time. The result of the design challenge was the and trim changes that led to extreme structural strain, Corsair. Because this was a naval fighter, expected to sometimes even failure. The other redefined requirement operate from aircraft carriers, strong and relatively short was that all aircraft were required to be able to recover landing gear was required. To meet the propeller require­ after a to-revolution spin. During flat spins, the test pilot ment and the fact that this was to be a carrier fighter found himself fighting the concrols of the Corsair and the designers chose an inverted , which gave not winning. The aircraft had more force on the control the necessary clearance for the propeller and the short, surfaces than the pilot could overcome with the stick. strong landing gear it needed. This wing also gave the If nOt for a spin chute the aircraft would have been lost. aircraft visual distinction few other aircraft could match. The Corsair was versatile, rugged, and long lasting, but As with other carrier aircraft of the time, the Corsair lacked shipboard finesse (ease of landing on an aircraft had folding wings to save space on the carrier. They also carrier), so it began its operation in the Pacific Theater reduced the aircraft's damage potential while on the with the United States Marines as an island-based fighter. carrier because there was less area exposed to attack. and With the cockpit placed so far back on the fuselage, the only a forcible direct hit would damage the aircraft beyond pilot had difficulty seeing the flight deck of the aircraft repair. carriers in order to land. With patience, practice and The powerful engine enabled the Corsair co be the caution, by the summer of 1944 it was operating off of first United States warplane to exceed 400 mph in level some carriers, although the British, who were using the flight. Testing the Corsair led the Navy to redefine two plane also, had cleared the plane nine months earlier for of its older test requirements. All fighters and dive bombers carrier operations. The Corsair had two large oil coolers had been required to maintain a zero-lift (vertical) dive located in the wings, one on each side of the fuselage for 10,000 ft. The Corsair with its powerful engine and that "whistled" in flight. As the Marines gained air su- 26 GTea. FI,.n-1903-1991 periority, the Japanese nicknamed the airplane "Whistling difficulty finding other fighters to engage because of their Death." spectacular 11 to 1 kill ratio. The second is that pilots Through its long production history the aircraft had found the Corsair a very capable ground attack plane three producers and several variants. Aiding in Vought's that could carry a variety of stores for this mission. production were the Goodyear and the Brewster com­ The Corsair demonstrated its ruggedness and durability panies. The Goodyear aircraft were designated FG and as a ground attack airplane in the . Charles a total of 4008 were produced. Goodyear also produced Undbergh had convinced pilots in World War)) that 10 of its own version, designated F2G using a 3000-hp 4000 Ibs of bombs could be carried by the Corsair. In Pratt and Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major, a 28-cylinder, Korea it was routinely loaded with 4000 Ibs of bombs four-row radial engine. The Brewster company produced and sent on ground strike missions, often accompanying 735 Corsairs under the designation of F3A. the newer and more powerful Douglas Skyraider. In December 1952 the last of 12,571 Corsairs came In WW )) and Korea, Corsairs were equipped with radar off the assembly line. Its military career began with the and used as night fighters. The Koreans had slow, wooden, United States in the 1940s and ended in the mid- light bombers, undetectable by radar, that skimmed the when the last South American country withdrew it from treetops to bomb ftont line troops and supplies. It was service. the job of the Corsair to go up at night to find these The Corsair used various armament schemes. Originally planes and destroy them. designed to carry two guns in the fuselage and two in The Corsair lives on in the hearts of many and in the wing, this armament was changed to six .sO-caliber the sky today. It was featured on the television show Browning machine guns in the folding outer wings, which "Baa Baa Black Sheep," and can often be seen today gave the aircraft considerable punch. The F4U-1C had at airshows, museums, and air races. With its large, four lO.. mm cannon as its armament. Later types carried powerful radial engine, distinctive look, and distinguished a 160-gallon drop tank to extend range and two 1000- service, the Corsair will always be a popular air .. Ib bombs or eight rockets. Bombs and rockets were added plane .. .indeed a great airplane. for two reasons. The first is that pilots were having

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NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION B ..25 J.E.Giuliani

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer. .... •...... • ...... Date of First Flight...... August 19, 1940 Number Built...... -11 ,000 Final Model...... B.251 Length ...... 52.917 ft Height...... 15.750 ft Wing Span ...... 67.583 ft Wing Area ...... 610 sq ft Wing Sueep ...... •...... 0° Wing Dihedral (inner wing panel)...... 5° (outer wing panel)...... 0° Operating Empty Weight...... 21,100 lbs Combat Weight...... 33,500 lbs Maximum Weight...... 41,800 lbs Maximum Speed...... 272 mph Normal Operating Speed...... •.•.... . 200 mph Service Ceiling ...... 24,200 ft Range...... 1350 miles Engines...... (2) Wright Cyclone Radial R·2600·29 Power(sea level)•...•...•.....•.•••••.•••••••.•••••..•.••• . (each) 1700 hp (13,000ft) ...... (each) 1450 hp Armament...... (18) O.5.in. Colt.Browning Bomb Load . .••.....•.•.•••••••••••••••.••.•....••...••••••••• .3200 lbs

Hailed as one of the best and most versatile medium capable of outstanding performance. After the incorpo' bombers of World War II, the North American Aviation ration of numerous design changes to increase the payload B~25"Mitchell" saw action in every theater of the war. and flight performance of the NA·40, North American Produced in larger quantities than any other twin ..engine Aviation was awarded a contract for the production of bomber at the time, the B·25 played important roles in 184 of these bombers under the designation B·25. With the Australian, Chinese, Dutch, English and Russian Air the outbreak of war only a few weeks earlier, the bomber Forces, as well as the American Army Air Corps. was ordered straight from the drawing board. Approx· The design of the B·25 came about in response to a imately one year later on August 19, 1940, the B·25 made 1938 Army Air Corps circular proposing a twin'engine, its maiden voyage as 24 of the aircraft were delivered medium.range attack bomber. A number of proposals resulted from the circular, but the design conceived by to the Air Corps. the North American Aviation company was selected. This In its original form, the B· 25 carried a bomb payload design led to the January, 1939, test flight of a prototype of 2400 lbs. Its defensive armament consisted of a bomber titled the NA·40·1. Even the initial reports from .30·caliber machine gun in the nose and one in each flight testing suggested that the twin'engine bomber was of the 2 waist positions. The tail of the aircraft was 30 a.- FI,.n-1903-1991 protected by a single .50-caliber gun in a tail-gunner standard Army 75-mm field gun. Weighing 900 Ibs and position. firing 3-in 15-lb shells, the 7S-mm cannon could be fired As the B-25 saw service, many modifications were approximately three times in an attack and proved to undertaken to improve the aircraft's performance. These be quite accurate. included self-sealing fuel tanks, heavier armor and To further improve its forward attack capabilities, the improved defensive armanent consisting of upper and B-25H variant saw the introduction of four additional lower surface Bendix turrets. These improvements brought .50-caliber machine guns mounted on the side of the about 2 new models of the B-25: the B-25A (40 produced) aircraft in packages below the pilot and a lighter version and the B-25B (120 produced). of the 7S-mm cannon with automatic loading. Defensively, After the attack on Pearl Harbor and the outbreak the lower Bendix turret was eliminated in favor of a of war in the Pacific, the majority of the B-25s were completely new arrangement of rearward ..firing armament assigned to the 17th Bombardment Group (Medium), consisting of two waist ..mounted .50 ..caliber guns and twin which operated over the Pacific. As a result of its excellent .50-caliber machine guns mounted in a overall performance, the B-25 was chosen for one of the position. The B-25H, therefore, carried the extraordinarily most impressive offensive operations of the war I the daring potent armament of fourteen .so-caliber guns, a 75-mm bombing attack on Tokyo, japan. This operation, which cannon and a bomb payload of up to 3200 pounds. • was devised to reassert America's presence in the Pacific, Production of the B-250 and B-2SH models, 405 and called for an aircraft with exellent range, handling, and 1000 respectively, led to the final version of the B-25. payload capabilities: a total range of 2400 miles and a Designated the B-2Sj, this version was produced in larger bomb load of 2000 Ibs. The aircraft would have to be quantity than any other model with 4318 aircraft built agile enough to take off from the flight deck of an aircraft between 1943 and 1945. Two versions were produced. · carrier, and have the endurance to bomb targets in Japan One reverted to the Mitchell's original bombing role and fly to landing sites in China. With practice the B-25 replacing the 75-mm cannon and forward firing armament crews were able to reduce their takeoff runs to the 700 with a transparent nose fairing and bombardier's position. to 750 ft required for an unassisted carrier launch. On Since this design was not suited for the Pacific theater the day of the attack, in , 16 B-25B Mitchells where attacks were performed at low altitudes, the second led by Lt. Col. james H. Doolittle took off successfully B-25j model saw eight .50-caliber guns mounted in a solid from the flight deck of the U.S.S. Hornet, 800 miles from nose fairing, eliminating the 75-mm cannon. Combined the japanese coast. Industrial targets in Kobe, Yokahama, with the package of four guns mounted underneath the Nagoya, and Tokyo were successfully bombed. The pilot, the B-25j was the most heavily armed of the important role that the B-25 played in this attack helped Mitchells with twelve .50-caliber guns for forward ground provide a much needed boost to American morale after attack and six guns in defensive positions. recent setbacks in the Pacific. The B-25 Mitchell, named after General William "Billy" , Now that the combat ability of the B-25 was proven, Mitchell who in the 1920's was a strong advocate of the large numbers of the Mitchells were being produced. The need to increase America's air power J is one of the select B-25C model (1619 produced) saw the inclusion of an Allied aircraft that can claim to have served on every feature and the B-250 model (2290 produced) major battlefront of World War II. Its excellent overall incorporated redesigned fuel tanks for better range and performance allowed the B-25 to play key roles in many new Wright Cyclone R-2600-29 engines for improved of the offensive operations of the war, especially in the flighr performance. Pacific theater. Reflecting on the performance of this As the war proceeded, the B-25 played an increasingly aircraft and the services that it provided, the B-25 Mitchell important role in the Pacific. Combat reports showed is truly a "great flyer" in the . that the B-25 was achieving considerable success when attacking ground or ship targets with its fixed forward­ BIBLIOGRAPHY firing armament and modifications made to the B-25 Green, William (1959) FamousBombers of the Second Warld production line centered around improving the perfor­ War, Doubleday and Company, Inc., Garden City, New mance of the aircraft in this type of attack. As a result, York. a potent attack craft with unprecedented firepower was Rand McNally Encyc/opedu. of (1981) introduced as the B-250. To improve its air-to-ground Military Press, New York, New York. attack capabilities, four .50-caliber machine guns were mounted in a solid nose fairing in combination with a

NorthnJp P-61 33

NORTHROP P ..61======LB. Davis SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer . ..••••••.•.••..•.••••••••...•...... •••••.. Northrop Date of First Flight. ••••••••••....•••••...... •.•••..•••••.• • May 21,1942 Number Built . ••••...... •...... •.....•••••••••...... •...... • 742 Length ••••..•..•...... •••••...... •...... •...... •• 49.58 ft Wing Span •••••...... 66 ft Height to Prop Hubs ...... •.•••••...... •••••...•.••••...... • 7 ft Wing Chord at Root. .••...••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••. , ....••••.. 12 ft Wing Chard at Tip •••...... ••.•.....••.....•••...... •••..... 6.67 ft Dihedral of Outer Wing ...... 2° Dihedral of Inner Wing...... 4° LoadedWeight. •••...... •.•••••...... •.•..•••••....•••••.. • 38,000 lb, Maximum Speed• ...... ••••..•••••••.•..•..••••••••••.••••••••• .366 mph Ceiling...... •...... •...... 33,100 ft Range ...... ••••...... ••.•...... •.••••...... •••••....• . 3000 miles Engine>...... Pratt and Whitney R-2BOO-65

With little chance of the Germans or Japanese attacking The crew naceDe contained the pilot's cockpit and the United States during World War II, few nocturnal stations for a gunner and radio operator. The gunner's operations requiring the support of night fighters or night compartment was located directly ·behind the pilot's intruders were needed. But it was dear that American cockpit and was connected by an access door. The radio forces recrossing the Pacific towards Japan would be operator's position was in the aft section of the crew vulnerable to nocturnal raids, and so a specification was naceDe and was separated from the other two compart­ issued for a long-range night fighter, which became ments by the and radio equipment. hardware in the form of the powerful Northrop P-61 The inner wing connected the crew nacelle with the engine nacelle. Housed in these inner wings were two Blacle:Widow. fuel tanks and a section of wing flaps. The outer wing Described in cold catalogue language as "an aitplane panels contained an oil tank and cooler in each. Six slotted designed for the interception and destruction of hostile flaps were mounted on the trailing edges of the wings, aircraft in flight during periods of darkness or poor two on each outer panel and one on each inner panel. visibility," the XP-61 prototype first flew on May 21,1942. In the extended position, there was a gap between the By 1943 the production model P-6IA Black Widow of the and the trailing edge of the wing, Nightfighter began to replace the Douglas P-70 Night which permitted a flow of air from the lower surface of Havoc. Black Widows reported for duty in the southwest the wing, to the upper surface of the flap. This tended Pacific with the 18th Fighter Group in May, 1944, and to smooth the air flow over the flap, thereby increasing shot down their first enemy aircraft on July 7,1944. lift at low subsonic speeds and high angles of attack. The The P#61 was a twin,engine, twin ..boom, mid·wing P-61 landed slowly and had a quick takeoff time, which , carrying a crew of three in an enclosed nacelle reduced the takeoff and landing hazards that were typical that divided the center wing panel along the centerline of small blacked-out airstrips. Much of the easy handling of the airplane. The twin booms extended aft from the characteristics were attributed to the flaps and the re­ engine nacelle and supported the tail surfac .. . tractable ailerons, which were a first for any airplane. ~ FI,as-190J-1991

An interesting armament configuracion was chosen for European theater, the Black Widow shot down 58 enemy the P -61: four .50-caliber machine guns were mounted aircraft while losing only 25 to all causes. The last blow on the top turret and four 20~mmcannons were mounted of the war was struck on August 15, 1945, when a P- in the belly. The .50-caliber guns were remotely controlled 61 Black Widow shot down a Nakajima KI-43 fighter. by either the gunner, radio operator, or pilot and could After the war some P -61 s were used as scientific research be traversed through 360". The 2D-mm cannons were aircraft. In April, 1946, a pilotless drone was flown into controlled by the pilot and fired forward. severe thunderstorms to obtain vital stress and remote~ In addition, the Black Widow contained the most control statistics. In August of that same year Larry sophisticated, state-of-the-art radar equipment of the day. Lambert became the first human being to eject from an Developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, airplane when the P-61 was used to test automatic the P-61 carried seven sets of radar equipment (more emergency escape equipment. than any other contemporary airplane). The nose section When the Air Defense Command was formed in 1946, forward of the pilot's compartment was constructed of Black Widows became their Night Interceptors until 1948, resin-impregnated fiberglass enclosing the intercepter when they were replaced by North American P-82 Twin radar. This radar could scan 180° in front of the aircraft Mustangs. The surviving Black Widows were redesignated and detect the presence of another plane 12 miles away. RF-61C in the new USAF until being retired in 1952. In addition to the intercepter radar, the Black Widow When production ended in 1946, a total of 742 P-61 also contained an interrogator and responder J which variants had been built for the USAAF, including 36 identified friendly aircraft, and a defensive tail-warning as the F-15A{RF-61C). Contracts for many more were radar that would ring a bell if another aircraft approached cut back because of limitations of postwar funds. from behind. To power this large fighter the aircraft utilized a pair BmLIOGRAPHY of four-bladed Curtiss electric full-feathering "high Chant, Chistopher. (1983) Warplanes, Winchmore Pub­ activity" propellers. These propellers were powered by lishing Services Ltd, Herts, England. a pair of Pratt and Whitney R-2800-10 Double Wasp Taylor, MichaeIJ.H. 1980.Jane's Encyclopediaof Aviation, radial engines rated at well over 2000 hp for takeoff. Vol. 5, Grolier Education Corporation, Danbury, Con­ Equipped with retractable, tricycle-type landing gear, necticut. the two main gear units extended from each engine Waters, Andrew W. (1983) AU the United States Airplanes, nacelle, and the nose gear extended from the crew nacelle. 1907-1983. Hippocrene Books, New York. When retracted, each gear was completely enclosed by Design Details of the Northrop P-61, Aero Digest, Nov. doors which, when closed, formed the lower contours I, pp. 54-58, 1945. of the . Design Details of the Northrop P -61, Aero Digest , Dec. In retrospect, the P-61 was one of the finest aircraft I, pp. 50-54, 1945. built for military service. During its short tour in the

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MESSERSCHMITT 262,= ==== ].M. Younkman

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer• •••••.•••••••... • ...... •••••• ••••.••... •••• Messerschmitt Date of First Flight...... •••••.•...... •. ••••...••••.. . . .July 18,1942 Number Built ...... •...... •• . .•...... Not Available Length ••. .•••...... ••.....•••••...... •••..•.. 34 ft Wing Span .. .. . ••••....•...... •...•. . 40.96 ft Root Chord . .•....••...... ••• ••...... •... • ..... Not Available Tip Chord ...... ••• •••••••••• ....•.•. .•. .. ••••• ••••••. •.... Not Available Wing Aspect Ratio ...... 6.837 Operating Empty Weight...... • .•.•.....•...... 9742 Ibs Maximum Takeoff Weight...... 14,267Ibs Maximum Speed (at sea level)• ...... •••...... •...... •••••••.. 514 mph (at 19,685 ft) . ..••...... •••••...... •• •. . 540 mph Range (at sea level). ... : ..•••••...... •.•••...•.•.•...... •. 298 miles (at 19,685 ft) ...... 526 mile.. Initial Climb Rate (at sea level). ..••.•••• •••...... •.....••• ••. .. 3937 ft/min (at 19,685 ft) . ..•••••....•••...... •..••••• 2165 ft/min Service Ceiling ...... (approx)34,000 ft Engines ...... (2) Jumo 004B· 1(.2,.3) axial jWw Thrust. •...... •...... ••.....• •••.....••..•.•••.... •(each) 1980 Ibs

During wartime, technical innovations sometimes arise each and would be available by December 1939. The plane that can cancel out overwhelming numerical superiority. was originally conceived as an interceptor- fighter. but The Me 262, had it been introduced in time, could have despite the disagreement from Messerschmitt and high done just that. There is still controversy on whether the ranking military officials, Hitler wanted it converted into Me 262 could have been introduced earlier, some say a fighter·bomber. BMW was overlY'optimistic, however, up to six months earlier, in mass production. There were about when the engine would be ready, and ultimately, problems that the Me 262 had to overcome, but these the inlet of the engine (originally to be placed in the problems were only magnified by interference and ) had to be enlarged, and a total redesign was indecisiveness of the German leadership. The air war over undertaken on May 15, 1940. England may have ended differently had the Me 262 been By July, 1940 the first metal cuts of prototypes were able to participate. However, even as history stands, the completed, but the BMW 003 (officially named) had a Me 262 still has its place as the first warplane employing maximum thrust of only 570 lbs. During this same time, the to achieve operational status. And it was however, Junkers also had been making the Jumo 004. the combat airplane of what would become a new era Their requirements were the same: 1320 lbs of thrust in aerial warfare. at 560 mph. In November, 1940 the first tests were run Design development began in late autumn of 1938. with this engine, but major difficulties were encountered.. The plane was meant to accommodate two new axial The first prototype, the Me 262Vl, was completed with flow turbojets that BMW was designing. The BMW P3302 Junkers Jumo 2100 12.cyllnder, liquid·cooled engine in power plants were projected to produce 1320 lbs of thrust the nose to allow airframe testing while waiting for the 38 !mdt PI,...-190J-1991 turbojets. On AprillB, 1941 the airplane flew, and dives began production by July, 1944. This plane was a single­ were performed to reach operating speeds. A few minor seat interceptor with bombing capabilities. The Jumo problems were discovered and adjustments were made. 0048-1 (-2,-3) engines powered the all-metal, riveted (for The first flight-cleared BMW 003s were ready by easy manufacturing) airplane. The wing skin thickness November, 1941, with a nominal thrust rating of lOIS varied between 1 and 3 mm. The plane also had a bullet­ Ibs each. The engines were mounted to the VI along proof windscreen. Although the Me 262 could not turn with a piston engine for safety, Static tests were performed, as sharply as piston planes it could hold its speed in tight and then On March 25, 1942, under full power from all turns much longer. Acceleration and deceleration of the three engines, the Me 262 lifted off the ground, but at Me 262 was slower than that of piston aitcraft. A slight 165 ft the port engine flamed out followed by the starboard yaw problem was noted but it was easily adjusted for by engine a few seconds later. The engines had to be the rudder. The Me 262 flew efficiently on one turbojet redesigned for a greater mass flow. at 2BO-31O mph and could extend its endurance to a In the meantime Junker's problems were overcome. maximum of 2.25 hours by cutting one engine at 25,000 Their engines were mounted to the Me 262V3 with no ft but had to restart it at 10,000 ft . The Me 262 was piston engine. The Jumo· 004s had IB50 Ibs of thrust capable of landing on one engine, but was considered each and a takeoff weight of 11,000 Ibs. Calculations dangerous. The second Me 262 in production was the suggested that the plane should leave the ground at 112 Me 262B. This airplane was a two-seat trainer and was mph. On July IB, 1942 flight was arcempted, but the in production by November, 1944. By mid 1945 a plane could not take off because of excess drag due to nightfighter version of the Me 262B had been designed. the wing's high when the tail rests on The Me 262C was in production by early 1945 and was the ground. A suggestion to touch the brakes as the aircraft equipped with rocket boosters for assist in takeoff and accelerates to throw the tail into the air was tried and climbing. From a standing start it was capable of reaching the plane became airborne. Once the plane was in the 38,400 ft in 4.5 minutes. air it was a sheer pleasure to fly this new machine. But The first squadton began forming in April of 1944 and the problems wete not yet over. by July 25, 1944 a first encounter with an Allied recon­ Twelve prototypes in all were completed before the naissance plane occurred. The reconnaissance plane was plane was put into production. Tricycle gear (eliminating able to avoid being shot down by maneuvering through the low tail problem), cockpit canopy pressurizing and a series of tight turns and eventually reaching cloud cover. armor/weapon modifications, including adaptation for The Me 262 was most successful at attacking B-17 Flying bombs demanded by Hitler, were the major changes. Fortress formations, because the 262s were faster than Engine problems continued, but were not as severe and the fighter support. The last squadron was overrun by included compressor blade fracturing, exhaust nozzle a U.S. armored regiment on May 3, 1945 in Salzburg­ adjustments, and fuel flow difficulties. Major delays were Maxglan. During its existence, the Me 262 saw only about caused by the difficulty of obtaining materials to build one month of actual combat, but in that one month the turbojets. it had launched a new era of aerial warfare. Three main designs came from the prototypes. The first was the Me 262A, nicknamed the Swallow, which

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o Boeing B-29 41

BOEING B ..2 9·======D.o. Sujudi

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer . .. •...... _•••..••••..•••...... •••. Boeing Date of first flight ...... September 21, 1942 Number built...... 3974 Length ••..••.•••..••••..•••••....•..•.•••...•••••••...... ••..•.. 99 ft Span ••...... •..••••.....•...... •..•..•••...... ••••...••• 141.23 ft Wing Area •.•...... •••••...••••••••...••••••...... 1739 ft Height ...... ••••••..••....••••••....••••.••...... ••...... • 27.75 ft Empty Weight...... 69,610 lbs Gross weight •...... •••••..•....••.•...•••••...••••..•••• • 105,000 lbs Maximum Speed (at 25,000 ft) ••.•....•..••..•...•.••••••••....•••• 365 mph Cruising Speed. .•.•••...... •...... •...... ••. . 220 mph ServiceCeiling ...... •••..•...... •••••••••..•••••...... 31,850 ft Range ...... •••...... •••...••••••.•....••••....••••• • 5830 miles Engines . •.••...•••••••••••..•••••••••••••••••••••.. (4) Wright R-3350-23 Thrust...... ••...... ••.•• . (each) 2200 hp

The name B-29 Superfortress is etched in history as bers, except for the tail gunner, could move to other the first airplane to deliver nuclear weapons. Development areas of the plane using a tunnel that ran between the of the B29 began in 1938 as a study conducted by Boeing nose and mid-fuselage of the plane. The tail gunner had to design a pressurized version of the B~17. Five years an isolated compartment accessible only during unpres .. later, on September 21, 1942, a B-29 prototype, designated surized flight. XB-29, made the first flight. By that time, orders were The B-29's reason for being, the bombs, were carried already placed for 1500 aircraft. in two tandem bomb bays. Bombs were released alternately The B-29 was the first bomber to use remotely between the two bays to maintain aircraft balance. controlled gun turrets. Two turrets were located on top Unmodified, the B-29 could carry a variety of bomb loads, of and underneath the fuselage. Each of these turrets usually divided into four 4000-lb bombs, eight 2000-lb was armed with two .50-caliber machine guns (later bombs, twelve lOOO-lb bombs, forty 500-lb bombs, fifty variants carried four machine guns in the upper· front 300-lh bombs, or eighty lOO-lb bombs. Some modified turret), and each could be controlled from primary or versions only had a single bomb bay, which was used to secondary sighting stations. A fifth turret was located at carry a single 22-ton bomb. Others were also modified the very aft end of the tail section. The usual tail armament to carry a Block Buster under each wing. of two .5Q--caliber machine guns and one 20 ..mm cannon In its time, the B.. 29 was the heaviest production could only be controlled by the tail gunner, who sat directly airplane in the world. To deal with problems during takeoff under the rudder. This configuration, instead of manned and landing, Fowler-type flaps were installed. These turrets, was considered most suitable for the operating devices increased the lift coefficient of the wing as well altitude of the B-29. as the total wing area. The B-29 was the first U.S. bomber to have completely To lift all this weight, four 2200-hp Wright R-3350 pressurized crew stations. For practical reasons, only crew twin-row radial engines were used. Each of these 18- areas were pressurized, not the entire fuselage. Crew mem .. cylinder piston ~ngineswas fitted with two turbo"super .. +2 a..... FI,...-1903-11191 chargers. The propeller shaft was geared down to 35% of the basic B-29, having only the tail turret, allowing of the engine RPMs to maintain good propeller efficiency. it to achieve a higher top speed and increased bomb load. It was decided that the best use of the Superfortress The KB-29D was a tanker version equipped with a would be in the Pacific theater in the war against Japan. refueling system known as the Flying Boom, which was B-29s were deployed at Kharagpur, on April 2,1944, an aerodynamically controlled swiveling and telescoping and on June 5 of that same year, conducted the first arm located at the tail. The F-13 was used for photo operation, a raid on . B-29s were also based in reconnaissance. An escort variant was fitted with 19 Chengru, China. Ten days after the bombing of Bangkok, machine guns, two 20~mmcannon, and a 37,mm cannon. the B-29s of Chengtu carried out a raid on Japanese A B-29B was further modified to carry the first manned territory. This was the first bombing mission on the supersonic airplane, the Bell X-I, for air launching. These Japanese mainland since the Doolittle raid of April 18, and other modifications extended the life of the B-29. 1942. After the U.S. captured the Mariana Islands (about After years of honorable service, the last of the B-29s 1400 miles south of Tokyo) in the summer of 1944, B- was redred in 1960. 298 were also operated from there, resulting in more frequent and devastating bombing of Japan. The Super­ BmUOGRAPHY fortress was effective in reducing Japan's industrial might Angelucci, Enzo (1981) The Rand MeN ally Encyclopedia and in lowering its citizens' morale. Its most historic of Military Aircraft Rand McNally and Company, mission was flown on August 6, 1945, when the B-29 Chicago. Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Bowers, Peter M. (1968) Boeing Aircraft ,ince 1916, Funk Hiroshima. On August 9, another B-29, BackseaT,dropped & Wagnalls, New York. a second bomb on Nagasaki. Six days later, Japan Waters, Andrew W. (1983) All The United States Airforce surrendered unconditionally. Airplanes,1907-1983, Hippocrene Books, New York. During its years of service, many modifications were made to the basic B-29. The B-29B was a stripped version

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...,. La 7 t t- Northrop YB-49 45

NORTHROP YB ..49======R.S. Cleaves

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer . .. •...... Northrop First Flight Date ...... October 24,1947 Number Built ...... 2 Wing Span ...... 172 ft Root Chord ...... 37.5 ft Wing Sweep...... 2 BO Wing Dihedral...... I 0 Empty Weight ...... B9,600 lbs Loaded Weight...... 216,600 lbs Service Ceiling ...... 40,000 ft Range (with 10,000 lb payload)...... 2BOOmiles Maximum Speed (at 30,000 ft) ...... 520 mph Engines...... (B) AllisonJ35-A-5 turbojets Thrust ...... (each) 4000 lbs

Prompted by the limited range of existing bombers, placed between these and the engine nacelles. All control namely the B-29, the Air Force issued a specification for surfaces were hydraulically controlled, including leading an advanced bomber capable of carrying a 1O,0OO-lbpay­ edge slats designed to open at . The fuselage nacelle load over 5000 miles or a 72,OOO-lb load over shorter was fully pressurized and had room for a nine ..man crew distances. This bomber was to have a top flight speed consisting of pilot, co.-pilot, oombardier, navigator, flight between 300 and 400 mph at an altitude of 35,000 ft. engineer, radio operator, and three gunners. Because of Among the contractors hired by the Air Force, the XB ..35's slower speeds, heavy armaments were Northrop Aircraft, founded by John Northrop, had required. Of these, there were gun housings including worked as far back as 1927 on a "" config­ six turrets above and below the wings armed with .50- uration. Such a plane would have reduced drag charac­ caliber machine guns. The XB-35 was also equipped to teristics and therefore longer ranges and expanded payload carry a reserve crew of six and required the placement deployment potential. A flying wing flew for the Air Force of six folding bunks toward the rear of the fuselage. The in July 1940, and by September 1941 had made over 200 pilot's cockpit was located left of the centerline under test flights. a pop-up bubble canopy, while the bombardier's station In 1942, design work for the advanced XB-35 started was placed to the right side of the aircraft, on the lower with the help of the Wright Field Engineering Division surface of the wing, with forward vision through the and by June 25, 1946, a prototype of this aircraft was leading edge. The second XB-35 was delivered in 1947 delivered. The XB-35 was the predecessor to the YB-49 and the "winterized" version was designated the YB.. 35. and was pusher-propeller-driven by four 3250-hp Pratt By October 21, 1947, the YB-35 was fitted with eight and Whitney R-4360-17/21 engines. Allison turbojets and redesignated the YB-49. Each engine The XB-35's alLnetal wingspan reached 172 ft and nacelle was fitted with vertical stabilizers designed to had a root chord of 37.5 ft. The wing had a sweep angle improve directional stability. The crew was reduced to of 280 and a 10 dihedral. Directional control surfaces seven and of these, only one was a gunner. The empty were mounted on the wing tips and'-the elevators were weight of the YB-49 was 89,600 Ibs and it weighed 216,600 46 GTeat Flyen-1903-1991

Ibs at takeoff. This included 37,400 Ibs for bombs alone. reconnaissance version with a greater range, but also The top speed of the YB-49 was 520 mph as compared reduce its top speed. In 1949, the YRB-49 A contract was to the YB-35's of 393 mph. In spite of this advantage, canceled, but not until after the first airplane was built. the aircraft's range was considerably reduced as the It had four engines mounted inside the wing, and two turbojets on the YB-49 required more fuel. beneath in pods. It flew on May 4, 1950. The YRB-49A The flying wing design was characteristically unstable. had a six-man crew and carried highly sophisticated camera Because there were no horizontal control surfaces to equipment to function at a ceiling of 40,000 ft. longitudinally stabilize the main wing, there was only a Bad luck in the form of a midair explosion on June 5, small region of stability in the performance envelope. In 1945, killing aU five of its crew placed the final nail in using the flying wing deSign, Northrop was forced to put the YB-49's coffin and a second identical explosion on strict tolerances on the amount of c.g. travel. This and March 15, 1950 drove the Air Force to cancel the entire the omission of any horizontal control surfaces resulted YB-49 project. Upon investigation of the wreckage, the in an easily,manufactured, unstable aircraft. Because of most likely cause of the explosion was the design. instability problems, the aircraft proved to be a poor The report stated that the tanks were not designed . However, in 1948, the YB-49 set the properly for the wings in which they were mounted. endurance record, staying aloft for 9 hours and 30 minutes. However, this problem was thought to have been fixed

_-covering a distance of 3458 miles at an average speed before the second explosion occurred. of 382 mph. This led the Air Force to believe that a reconnaissance version of the YB-49 would be a viable BffiUOGRAPHY concept. In fact, in -February 1948, it was decided that Gunston, Bill (1988) Anatomy of Aircraft, Longmeadow 30 airplanes would be built for this purpose with the Press. designation YRB-49A. Of these, nine of the previous XB- Aallion, Richard P. (1983) Designersarul Test Pilots, Time­ 35's were to be converted by reducing the number of Ufe Boks, Inc. engines from eight to six. This would provide the .. 1._.1

.::. eon..... F.I02

CONVAIR F ..I02======J.B.Cunningham

SPECIFICATIONS

ManufactUTer...... • . • ...... •... . . Om,",ir Date of First Flight...... October 24, 1953 Number Built ...... 975 Length ...... •. •...... •..... 68.33 ft Wing Span ...... 38.08 ft Height...... 21.17 ft Maximum Speed. .••.. • ••••••.• • • • •••• ••• •••• •• •••••• • • •• • ••••• •810 mph Cruising Speed• ••••• •• • •• •••••••••••••• •••••• ••.••••••••••••••. 600 mph Weight...... •...... 31,559Ibs Range ...... 1000 miles Service Ceiling ...... 55,000 ft Engine ...... (1) Pratt and Whitney J·57 Thrust (with )...... 16,000 lbs

The idea behind the Convair F·102 was to design a Rule" that had the promise of large reductions in the supersonic, all·weather, fighter iet that could quickly in· aircraft drag as the plane approached Mach I. tercept and destroy enemy aircraft. The concept was tests with small models had convinced initiated to add a fighter to the military inventory that Whitcomb that if the cross·sectional areas of aircraft were would keep the United States' air superiority intact. smooth, with ho discontinuties or rapid cross ..sectional With this in mind, the Convair engineers designed and changes, the wave drag would be reduced to the low values developed a prototype of the F·I02 deSignated as the of simple axisymmetric minimum drag bodies. After YF·102. According to the engineering data, the YF·I02 discussions with Whitcomb, the engineers decided to apply was expected to easily break the . This was the "Area Rule" to the F·I02 configuration. to be accomplished by using a wing planform and The original F·102 design had a typical cylindrical the brute force of the new Pratt and Whitney J·57 iet fuselage. Engine inlets, cockpit canopy, wing, and vertical engine. At that time, the J·57 was the most powerful surfaces caused the distribution of cross.sectional area of iet engine available at 16,000 pounds of thrust when the aircraft to have several discontinuities and rapid afterburner was used. The highly swept, sharp leading increases, The engineers modified the fuselage shape to edges of the delta planform could cut through the minimize these area changes. The most noticeable result supersonic shock waves while at the same time providing was the wasp.waist look caused by the reduction of the a large internal volume for fuel storage. During the initial fuselage cross·section as the added cross·sectional area flight tests, however, the fact that the YF·102 would not of the wing was smoothed. Area was even added near go supersonic became painfully clear: as the aircraft the tail to provide additional smoothing. The new wasp accelerated, the transonic drag rise was much larger than waist shaped aircraft was designated the YF·I02A. When expected, and the thrust from the J·57' could not push wind tunnel tests of the new configurations looked the airplane through the sound barrier. promising, full·scale design was completed and the Faced with this problem, the Convair engineers went prototype YF·I02A was quickly fabricated. to NASA Langley Research Center to confer with Dick On December 20, 1954, almost nine months after the Whitcomb. Earlier, Whitcomb had proposed an "Are. initial flight, the YF·102A did break the sound barrier so Gwu F1yers-1903-1991 while still climbing. The flight test proved the value of For combat, the F-I02A was fitted with a state-of­ the Area Rule, increasing the top speed of the YF-I02 the~artelectronics guide system. With this new electronic by an incredible 25%. system the job of the pilot was simply to fly the aircraft The F-102A was the world's first supersonic, all-weather to the general vicinity of enemy aircraft. The pilot would interceptor, and in addition, it was the world's first then turn the controls over to the" electronic pilot" who, operational delta-wing fighter aircraft and the first to with the help of the radar, would maneuver the aircraft employ the Area Rule. Produced in the San Diego into an attack position. Once in position the system would production line of Convair, 1101 F-I02s were built, of automatically fire the F-I02A's air-to-air rockets and which 975 were the F-I02As. In addition, 111 were built missiles and then return control to the pilot. as trainers with side-by-side seating, deSignated as TF- 102s.

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o

~ ______7 North Ameriam X-IS 53

NORTH AMERICAN X ..15 ==== LE. Marin SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer. .•...... •...... North American Date of FiT,t Flight...... June 8, 1959 Number Built...... •...... 3 Length ...... •...... •. . 52.45 ft Wing,pan ...... 22.3 ft Wing Sweep (at 114chord) ...... 25° Wing Dihedral...... 0° Wing Alpect Ratio ...... 2.5 Operating Empt:YWeight...... 18,340 lb, MaximumlAunch Weight...... •56,130 lb, Umit Maneuver Factars (before bumout) ...... ·2.0 g to 4.0 g (after bumout) . ..•...... -3.0 g to 7.33 g Maximum Speed...... 6650 ftl, MaximumAltitude ...... •...... •...... 354,331 It Range• •.•••••.•.•.••••••...•••• •• ..•.••• •.•.....•••••••••... 275 miles Engine ...... (I) Reaction Motars, Inc. XLR99 Thrwt (at ,ea level) •••••..•••••••...... • ••...... ••. •50 ,000 lbs (at 100,000ft) ...... •...... "".57,850 lb,

The X-15 project was born on June 24, 1952 when the X-15-2 caused serious damage to the aircraft. It then the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was modified to the X-15A-2 configuration on May 13, (NACA) passed a resolution to explore flight character­ 1963, under the contract AF33(657)-1l614, but didn't istics of atmospheric and exo-atmospheric designs capable make its first flight with tanks until 1966. of Mach 4 to 10 speeds and 12- to 50-mile altitudes. Because this aircraft had to be air launched, the B-36, Because of the vague purpose of hypersonic aircraft at B-50, B-52, and B-58 were looked at as possible carriers. that time, very little support was provided for research. Two 8-52s were chosen because they could be easily Initially, more considerations were given to wind tunnels, remodeUed to carry the X-15s. The redesigning included rocket-boosted models, and other laboratory techniques, increased lift, aU-around improved performance charac­ but after two years it became evident that the most teristics, and better reliability of the B-52s. effective tool was the manned aircraft. In July, 1954, Accompanying the performance breakthroughs of the NACA was assigned technical responsibility for project X~15 were pioneering developments in construction, 1226 that would be financed by the U.S. Air Force and systems, and equipment. This was crucial since this was the Navy. the first aircraft that would require high-temperature Three X-15's were built under the contract number structures and have high ..temperature aerodynamic AF33(600)-31693. There were to be three aircraft built, characteristics. Steel, titanium, and a nickel alloy, ­ designated X-l5-1, -2, and -3, and were assigned the serial X, composed most of the aircraft. Steel and titanium were numbers 56-6670, 56-6671, and 56-6672, respectively. stronger at higher temperatures, but their strength Construction for aU three X-I5s took over two years and properties fell sharply above 800°F. Inconel-X had only on October 15, 1958, the X-15-1 was rolled out in Los a gradual drop in strengrh up to 12000 F and therefore Angeles. On November 9, 1962, an accident involving was selected to be the skin matetial of the entire aircraft. cm..cFI,...-I903-1991

A variety of materials composed the internal structure. skids allowed only for roll and pitch. This was a great High-strength aluminum alloy (2024-T4), 8 Mn titanium oportunity to study skid-type main landing gear, thus the

(the highest strength alloy available), 5AI-2.5Sn, and a x~15 was instrumented to measure gear loads, gear travel, high-strength, weldable titanium alloy (6AI-4V) were and accelerations. used. Fusion welding was necessary throughout the con­ The windshield was made up of a single outer pane struction. and a double inner pane with an interlayer. The outer In the design studies, hypersonic stabilization was one pane was made of aluminum-silicate, 3/8-inch-thick, with of the major obstacles already encountered with the X-I a 25,000-psi temper. The inner pane was made of soda­ and X-2. Since the X-IS was to fly at much higher speeds, Ume and type K interlayer with a 14,500 psi temper. A it became a challenge to design an aircraft that would great deal of knowledge was learned from the X-IS allow for stable flight at Mach 6. The trapezoidal wings windshield: from the type of glass needed for windshields were very thin with an aspect ratio of about 2.5 and and passenger windows in high-speed aircraft, to the in­ a thickness-to-chord ratio of .05. The leading edge was stallation and environmental factors of these new swept 25° at the 114 chord and was very thin but not materials. sharp, and the traiUng edge was blunt with a 2-inch At extreme altitudes where the lifting surfaces could thickness at the root and 0.375-inch at the tip. The wings not be used for stability and control, hydrogen peroxide were not equipped with ailerons, but they had small reaction jets were implemented. The decomposition of hydraulic flaps on the inboard trailing edges of each wing. the hydrogen peroxide created a superheated steam that At that time it was believed that the horizontal tail was exhausted through four nozzles at the wingrips and should be located far above or well below the wing chord eight nozzles in the nose. Each reaction iet could produce plane in order to avoid undesirable shock-wave interac­ 40 to 110 Ibs of thrust. tion. Then it was discovered that it could be placed in The X-15A-2 introduced the concept of using external the plane of the wing between the regions of high tanks to increase engine burn time by 20%. The left tank downwash to eliminate difficulties in stability. The two carried helium for propellant tank pressurization and 793 slab had the same airfoil section and thickness­ gallons of liquid oxygen. The right tank contained 1080 to-chord ratio as the wings. They were placed with 15° gallons of anhydrous ammonia. Thus the left tank was of anhedral, separately, at the aft end of each fuselage about 2000 Ibs heavier at launch. These iettisonable tanks tunnel/chine. This was the first time an all moving slab were brought to ground by parachute for reuse. The stabilaror that could be moved differentially for roll X-15A-2 also used an experimental ablative coating de­ control or symmetrically for pitch control was used in veloped by the Martin Marietta Corporation under the a high-speed aircraft. name MA-25S. Made of a resin base catalyst and glass The supersonic airfoil section of the tail was modified bead powder, it was sprayed on the surface to ablate fric­ to a 10° wedge shape. It had the ability to vary the wedge tion-generated heat at high speeds. It was difficult to apply angle which helped provide quick recovery from a and labor-intensive because it had to be completely divergent maneuver. It also allowed for more research stripped off and replaced with fresh ablator for each flight. flexibility in variation of the stability parameters. The The X-15A-2's powerplant was the Reaction Motors Inc. range of attitudes for reentry allowed by heating conditions XLR99 with a one-hour service life and a throttling range was greatly extended by the ability to enter in a high­ from 30% to 100%. It had a of 276 Ib­ drag condition because of the large wedge angle. The lower sllb at 100,000 ft and duration limited only by propellant portion of the vertical had to be jettisoned just supply. With a dry weight of 915 Ibs, chamber pressure prior to landing to prevent it from scraping the ground. of 600 psi, and oxidizer/fuel ratio of 1.25, it reached a limit maneuvering factors of +4.0 g and -2.0 g before thrust of 50,000Ibs at sea level or 57,000 Ibs at 100,000 ft. burnout and +7.33 g and -3.0 g after burnout were Some the X-IS's accomplishments include: enforced. The X-IS could withstand a maximum dynamic • Peak altitude of 67 miles in August 1963 (3 times pressure of 2500 psf. A pull-out at 7.33 g at maximum higher than any other winged aircraft of its time.) dynamic pressure could only be done once, otherwise, • Study of high-noise-induced metal . the heated structure would be overloaded. • First detailed full-scale drag data in the speed range landing gear was composed of a conventional nose from Mach 2 to 6. wheel assembly and two boat-shaped, steel skid-type main • Spherical nose sensor indicating to the pilot angles gear. landing gear requirements specified a sink rate of of attack, sideslip, and dynamic pressure, an adaptive flight 9 ft/s with touchdown speeds of 164 to 200 kts at a control system that would add safety and reliability to 6° ground attitude. All landing gear was manually future aircraft. The self adaptive system by Minneapolis retracted and extended with aerodynamic downloading (Honeywell MH -96) allowed control with the aerodynamic and gtavity. Nose wheels prevented shimmying and the or jet control system or a combination of both. Nf1I'th Amerialn X-IS 5S

• Provided the development of piloting techniques at sky brightness, supersonic decelerators, and high-tem­ high speeds, high g's, weightlessness, atmospheric exit, and perature leading edges. reentry. • First restartable man-rated throttleable . ll • First "energy management systern in case of a pre .. • Development of nitrogen cabin conditioning. mature engine shutdown, ( estimates energy • Discovered that hypersoniC is turbu­ available and how far it can go without power). The pilot lent and that turbulent heating rates are significantly lower can be directed to a landing area during his glide pattern, than predicted. using a radar map of the flight path and a map of terrain • First direct measurement of hypersonic skin friction over which it is flying. concluding it was lower than predicted. • Emergency between 80 mph and Mach • Discovered hot spots generated by surface irregular­ 4 at altitudes from sea level to 120,000 ft. ities, and methods to correct wind tunnel drag data. • Biological signs closely monitored with an electrocar­ • Studies of hypersonic acoustic measurements used to diogram, a suit/cockpit differential sensor, suit/helmet dif­ define insulation and structural design requirements for ferential sensor, and an oxygen flow sensor. the Mercury . • First fully pressurized suit (A/P 22S-2), predecessor From conception through phases of deSign, construc­ to the suits worn by the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo tion, test, and operation, the X.. lS program continued astronauts and very similar to those worn by U-2, A-l2, for 11 years of exploration that produced data paramount F-12, andSR-71 pilots. in the design of the and other reentry • Cameras measured energy emissions of stars with vehicles. In 1962, four of its pilots received the Robert ultraviolet stellar photography. J. from president John F. Kennedy for "the • Wingtip pod collected samples of micrometeorite and greatest achievement in aeronautics and astronautics in extraterrestrial dust at high altitudes. America, with respect to improving the performance, e Other experiments in horizon ..seeking stabilization safety, or efficiency of air vehicles." On October 24,1968 systems, atmospheric density measurements at high the project flew the 199th and final mission of the most altitudes for high speeds, vapor-cycle cooling, high-altitude technologically complex single-seat aircraft of its day.

SGab-S_14 Viggen]AJ7 57

SAAB ..SCANIA VIGGEN JA37=== ].0. Akerjordet

SPECIFICATIONS

ManufactureT• ••••.••.. . .•••.••••..•.••..•••.••••...•..•.••• . Saab-Scania Date of First Flight...... February, 1967 Number Built. . __ ...•...... 300+ Length ...... 16.3 m Height...... •...... 5.B m Span ...... , •••..•..•...•••...... •••..•.••••• ••.....• 1O.6m Wing area . ...•••••...... ••.•.•....••••••••.••••••••...... 46.0 m Span •...... _...... 5.45 m Canard Area •.•.•...•••...... •.••••...••••••••.••••••.. , .•.•• 620 m2 Normal Takeoff Weight ...... 15,000 kg Maximum Takeoff Weight...... •.•...... 20,500 kg Wing Loading ...... 325 kglm2 MaximumSpeed (at 12,000 m) ...... Mach 2.0+ Seroice ceiling ...... (appro,) 15,200 m Engine ...... (1) RMBA Thrust ...... •...... •..... 6690 kg (11,790 kg AB) Fuel capacity •...... (approx)5700 liteTS

In 1961, the Swedish Air Force (FIygvapnetl together of the canard was the requirement for SIOL performance. with the SAAB-SCANIA aircraft division in Linkping, The canard could control pitch by adding lift to the nose, started the first studies for designing a replacement for thus adding to the total lift. Conventional aircraft use the existing SAAB J35 Draken (dragon). The Flygvapnet elevators to lift the nose by applying a downward lift had specified several design req uirements such as Mach component on the tail, thus sacrificing some of the total 1 low...altitude strike and reconnaissance missions at sea lift. level, Mach 2 at high altitudes, STOL performance On the Viggen, the canard and the wing are closely enabling the Viggen to use suitable Swedish highways for coupled. The canard is also highly loaded making the takeoff and landing, and good acceleration and climb. aircraft naturally longitudinally stable. However, the The first prototype of the Viggen had its Viggen is still extremely maneuverable at all speeds, and in February 1967, and by 1968 the Swedish government it has a reputation of being a "pilot's plane." With its had approved the production of 100 airplanes with an unusual configuration, the Viggen has been described by option on a further 75, and also agreed on the development some to be virtually a supersonic biplane. of the reconnaissance version, SF37. The initial models Most of the Viggen's fuselage is made of aluminum were the AJ37 attack version and the SK37 operational alloys, except for hot areas where titanium is used. trainer. By 1970, the first JA37 rolled out of the SAAB­ Honeycomb is used in control surfaces, canard, fin and SCANIA in Linkoping. undercarriage doors. In order to meet the Flygvapnet's requirement, the The design criteria required the Viggen to be a Mach design team decided to combine a double-delta type main 2.0 aircraft. To meet this goal, the Swedes used a wing, much like the SAAB Draken ]35, with a forward­ redesigned Pratt and Whitney JT8D civilian type engine. mounted canard. One of the key factors in the choice Volvo-Flygmotor added their own afterburner and also

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gunpack gunpack

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first first

1977. 1977.

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include include

reconnaissance reconnaissance

maritime maritime

equipped equipped

long-range long-range

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compressor compressor

introduced introduced

basic basic

raised raised

air-to-surface air-to-surface

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rockets, rockets,

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c Lockheed U-2R 61

LOCKHEED U ..2R-======B.S. Richmond

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer...... Lockheed Date of First Flight ...... August 28, 1967 Number built...... (approx)30 Length ...... 63.08 ft Wing Span ...... 103.33 ft Root Chord ...... ••...... •••...... •. 15.5 ft Tip Chord ...... 3.79 ft Wing Sweep...... •...... 6° Wing Dihedral...... •...... 0° Wing Aspect Ratio ...... /0.67 Operation Empty Weight...... 14,000 lbs Maximum Takeoff Weight...... 37,150 lbs Maximum g Limit •.•••••••.•..••••••...•..•.••••••••••••...••....••• 2.5 Maximum Cruise Speed (at sea level)...... 532 mph Maximum Cruise Speed (at 35,000 ft) ...... 536 mph Normal Cruise Speed (at 72,000 ft) ...... 435 mph ServiceCeiling ..•••••••••.....•.•••••••••••••••••••••••...•.•. •78,000 ft Range ...... 7500 miles Engine .•...... •...... (1) Pratt and Whitney ]75-PW-13B Thrust ...... 17,000 lbs

The existence of the U-2 was revealed to the world one year after the contract with Lockheed, the U.S. Air in May of 1960 when the high altitude reconnaissance Force, and the Central Intelligence Agency was signed. aircraft flown by Francis Gary Powers was brought down Six months later the U -2R was flying its first reconnais­ over Soviet territory by a surface ..to ..air missile. Conceived sanee mission over China. in secrecy in the mid fifties and designed by Lockheed's The U-2R is about 40% larger than the original U-2. Kelly Johnson, the U-2 was produced by the famous The wing span was increased by 23 ft to a total of 103.25 "Skunk Works" of Lockheed. The U-2 had the wide, ft, with a planform area of 1001.4 sq ft, an aspect ratio high-aspect-ratio wings and lightweight structure of a of 10.67, and a lift-to-drag ratio (LID) of 27. This allows soaring . When powered by the J-57 the U-2 could the U2R to fly with minimal drag to increase the range attain then unprecedented altitudes that allowed it to and endurance of the aircraft. The fuselage volume was cruise over hostile territory with impunity. increased 33% by making a larger-diameter fuselage and The U-2R was the second major generation of the family increasing the length by 8 ft for a total length of 63 and was essentially a whole new aircraft designed by ft, increasing the internal fuel capacity from 1320 gal Johnson and his team at the "Skunk Works" in Burbank, to 2950 gal giving the aircraft the capability of 14-hour California. The U-2R is still the best subsonic, high­ missions without refueling, altitude, air ..breathing, reconnaissance aircraft in the One of the biggest advantages of the increased diameter world even though it was designed in the mid 196Os. of the fuselage was that it allowed the pilot to wear a The date of the first flight was August 28, 1967, just full pressure suit with helmet (such as the A/P-22S-2)

at at

or or

is is

ad­

and and

of of

the the

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tips tips

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of of system, system,

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section section

360° 360°

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free-falls free-falls

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consists consists

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FI,....-1903-1991 FI,....-1903-1991

por­

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outer outer

angles angles

repair repair

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legs legs thir

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system system

compressor compressor

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cockpit cockpit

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pilot's pilot's

the the

most most outer outer

for for

ease ease

J75-PW-13B J75-PW-13B

also also

flaps, flaps,

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control control

mission. mission.

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deflection deflection

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axial axial

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autopilot autopilot

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pressurized pressurized

contains contains

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inner, inner,

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compressor. compressor.

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electronics, electronics,

the the

weight. weight.

sections sections

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allows allows

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middle middle communications. communications.

systems. systems.

burner burner

particular particular

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that that

and and

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enough enough

the the

center center

afterburners consists consists

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dual-spool dual-spool

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optical optical

terrain terrain

Along Along

wing wing

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high) high)

the the

spoilers spoilers

and and

60° 60°

section section

from from

middle middle

gave gave

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without without

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control, control,

7 7

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each each

Eight Eight

seat seat

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middle middle

console console

Pratt Pratt

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pressure pressure

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seat seat

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ranging ranging

hardly hardly

was was suit, suit,

additional additional

JP-TS. JP-TS.

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nose nose

assist assist

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navigational navigational

0° 0° and and the the

tubes. tubes.

the the

the the

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cockpit cockpit

Ibs) Ibs)

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engine engine

level. level.

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was was

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Between Between

engine engine

of of

climate climate

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roll roll

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low low

center center

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three three

burn burn

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project project

aircraft. aircraft.

from from

uired uired

sea sea

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configuration configuration

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comfortable comfortable

communications communications

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compressor compressor

inner inner

for for

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4900 4900

change change

dump dump

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the the

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In In recorder. pressure pressure

J75-PW-13B J75-PW-13B

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to to

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req req

the the

is is

engine engine

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nose, nose,

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to to

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of of

fuel fuel

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allowed allowed

of of

are are

indicators indicators

drive drive

console console

Having Having

cruise. cruise.

gear, gear, the the

J57 J57

wings wings

single single

12: 12: stages stages

ranging ranging

17,000 17,000

chamber chamber

sections. sections.

fuselage fuselage

0" 0"

biggest biggest

the the

mission mission

deflection deflection

at at

console console

a a

before before

pressure pressure the the

mirrors mirrors at at

weighing weighing

of of

at at

ejection ejection

15 15

left left

a a

particular particular

Whitney Whitney

section section

This This

The The

compensate compensate

longer, longer,

The The

The The

are are

from from

spoilers spoilers

angles angles

forward forward

with with

sections. sections.

sections sections

on on

aft aft

nozzle. nozzle.

the the

electronics electronics

so~called so~called

and and

and and

right right

landing landing

the the

uses uses

attitude attitude

breathing. breathing.

cains cains

engine engine

tions: tions: electronics electronics

to to

and and

turbines turbines

high high

bustion bustion

ratio ratio

with with

long, long,

thrust thrust

rated rated

Whitney Whitney

fly fly

suit. suit.

where where 62 62 -

, I

Md)onndl no...... F-IS 65

McDONNELL DOUGLAS F.. 15=== J.D. Tressler

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer . ....••• ••.•. •....•...•..•.....•...••.. . . McDonnell Douglas Date of First Flight...... , .Jury27, 1972 Number Built...... (as of 1987) 1060 Length ...... ••. •.•...... •.••• ..••. 63 ft 9 in Wing Span . •. ; ...... •• , ... • ....•••...... ••• 42 ft 9.75 in Root Chord ....•••...... ••••...•••..•••...•. , ... ,. , ....••••....• 19ft Tip Chord . . • •.....••.•...... •...... , ..•••...•••...... ••...• 7 ft Wing Sweep (LE) . ....••••.. • •••.. . •••.. . . , ••.••••.. , ...••..•••. . ••. 45· Wing Anhedral. ••.....•..•...•...... ••..•.••...... •..••.... 1· Wing Aspect Ratio . •••..... , . ..•.•.••••...•••• • ••••.•.•••••..••••..••• 3 Wing Loading (Takeoff) ...... •••.•..••...•••..•• , ••.•••••...••• •. •70 psi Operating Empty Weight...... 28,600 Ib, Maximum Takeoff Weight. ... , .....•...... 56,000 lbs Maximum LetJelSpeed . ...••. . . • ••. •. .•• •..• •••...•..•.. •...•..• 1350 ft/sec SenriceCeiling ...... 65,000 ft Range (ferry) . .•••....••...••.•..• • ••....•...... •••••...••• . 2500 nm Engines ...... (2) Pratt and Whit"", F lOO-PW-loo Thrust (with afterburner) .•••...... •••..••.....••••..••• (each) 25,000 lbs

Establishing air superiority is the best description of to-weight ratio of 1.15:1 with a full internal fuel load a fighter aircraft's purpose. Probably no other aircraft and a ratio of 1.4:1 with half internal fuel load. These fully satisfies this purpose better than the F-15 Eagle. large ratios give the Eagle the ability to accelerate in a The Eagle puts together unprecedented power, agility, vertical climb to supersonic speeds. This ability was put , and versatility, With these capabilities, the F.. to good use in a slightly modified F-15 called the Streak 15 can be adapted for many roles. Eagle to dramatize its incredible power. The Streak Eagle Spurred by the unveiling of the Soviet MiG-23 Flogger was used to break the then-existing time-to-climb records and MiG-25 Foxbat in the mid 196Os, the USAF needed established by a Navy F-4B and a MiG-25. In January, to replace the aging F-4 Phantom with a fighter superior 1975, the Streak Eagle, stripped of weapons, radar, and to present and future Soviet threats. Thus, work began even paint, broke all time-to-climb records flying to 98,425 on an in the tradition of the P- ft in 207.8 sec, breaking the MiG-25 record by 15%. It 51 Mustang and F-86 Sabre. After many paper studies, flew faster than the Apollo moonshot to 49,000 ft and the USAF awarded the contract to McDonnell Douglas bettered the 1'-4B record to this height by 33%. in December, 1969, and two and a half years later, on The high thrust-to-weight ratio along with low wing July 27, 1972, the first Eagle flew. The F-15 had become loading make the Eagle very maneuverable and agile. With a reality. Single-seat versions were designated F-15A and a half internal fuel load the F-15 has a wing loading of two-seaters, F-15B. 57 psf and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 1.4:1 as compared From the very beginning the Eagle proved to be a great to 80 pst and .85:1 of its predecessor, the F-4. These flying machine. Powered by two powerful Pratt and parameters have an important effect on the turning Whitney F100 turbojets, the F-15 can achieve a thrust- performance. As the aircraft banks, more lift is needed

-- ." .. ~.

it it

be be

for for

.. .. and and

by by

of of

F-15 F-15

air, air,

the the

to to

tech­

Eagle Eagle

also also

me me

not not

will will

Eagle Eagle

is is

heac# heac#

its its

loads. loads.

, ,

atcack atcack

20mm 20mm

version version

the the

tracking tracking

is is

plenty plenty

the the

mapping, mapping,

launching launching

generation generation

better better

a a

the the aircraft aircraft

is is

Eagle Eagle destruction destruction

additional additional

navigation, navigation,

variety variety

displays displays for

missions missions long-range, long-range,

launching launching

One One

Eagle

carries carries

range range

redesign redesign

that that electronics. electronics.

and and

role, role,

.. ..

in in

for for for for

advanced advanced

the the

radar radar

with with

and and

ground ground

s s enemy enemy

, , weapon weapon Eagle. Eagle.

future future four four there there

retaining retaining two-seat two-seat

loads, loads,

the the

F.-I5 F.-I5

this this

of of

roles. roles.

a a

perform perform

combat combat

of of

short short

since since

before before

pods pods

is is the the

has has electronics electronics

In In

F-15 F-15

to to

the the

display

carrying carrying surprise surprise

armed armed

operate operate

performing performing It It

while while

of of

advanced advanced

F-15A, F-15A, displays, displays,

is is

array array

trajectory trajectory

is is

adequate

replace replace

of of

air-to-ground air-to-ground

has has

no no

the the

new new

weapons weapons

ASAT ASAT

variety variety

benefit benefit

it it

role, role,

can can monitoring monitoring

premier premier

range. range.

missiles, missiles,

the the is is

to to

different different

missile. missile. warfare warfare potent potent

is is

and and

cockpit cockpit

in in

map map

and and

or or

if if

it it

F-15E. F-15E.

design design

seem seem

, ,

the the

it it

maneuverability, maneuverability,

and and

proper proper

the the

weacher, weacher,

large large

capable capable

and and F-15 F-15

cockpit cockpit

rear rear

new new

task task a a

extensive extensive USA's USA's

for for

that that

may may

greater greater

The The

the the

version, version,

Sparrow Sparrow

the the

aircraft, aircraft,

for for than than moving moving

missiles

so so

new new an an

for for

superiority superiority

The The

diversity diversity high-payload high-payload

cost-saving cost-saving

power, power,

electronic electronic

front front

on on

this this the the

for for

adverse adverse

designated designated

a a

stage stage

additional additional

seat seat

as as

airframe airframe

selection, selection,

its its air air

the the

versatility, versatility,

(anti-satellite) (anti-satellite) ro.-air ro.-air

few few

in in .. ..

large large

decades. decades.

carry carry

tanks tanks

of of

role role

following. following.

its its

been been a a

for for

can can carty

impossible impossible

first first

well well

satellites. satellites.

ait ait

allocate allocate

versatile versatile

delivery, delivery,

single single

and and

all all

in in

fighter fighter

a a

while while altitudes altitudes

two two

adaptable adaptable

as as

superiority superiority

this this

fuel fuel

can can

has has

Although Although

to to

night night

ASAT ASAT

Sidewinder Sidewinder

weapon weapon

superiority. superiority.

modified modified

F-15 F-15

definitely definitely

the the

as as

It It

be be

space space

terrain terrain

more more a a

air air

range range

or or

earned earned

.. .. nearly nearly

high high

enemy enemy

is is With With

the the

in in

Another Another

With With

be be

a a

nearly nearly of of

Eagle Eagle

nology, nology, space space

of of

The The

at at acts acts

of of

and and

weapons weapons

systems, systems,

to-air to-air radar, radar,

day day

deep-interdiction, deep-interdiction,

with with

has has dual-role dual-role

external external

weapons weapons

roles. roles.

must must

cannon. cannon.

seeking seeking

dium dium

Normally, Normally,

necessary. necessary. make make

This This

of of

pilot pilot

.. ..

be be

. .

at at

the the

or or

in in

au au

its its

laser laser

low low to to

Infra­

radar radar

the the

when when

low low

FI,....-190l-1991 FI,....-190l-1991

and and

pulse pulse a a

can can

threat threat hostile hostile

missile missile

Eagle Eagle

mode

include include that that

heads­

target target

to to

as as

upon upon

a a

radius radius

a a

Hughes Hughes

the the

smaller smaller

a a Targeting Targeting

tracking tracking

to to

behind behind

boundaries boundaries

looking looking distance, distance,

a a

the the

recognition, recognition,

GfflIt GfflIt

the the

of of

blink blink key key

compared compared

makes makes

the the

F-15's F-15's

centrifugal centrifugal flying flying

and and

turn turn

which which

in in

Looking Looking

means means immediate immediate

air-to-ground air-to-ground

is is

of of onto onto

continue continue to to

displays displays

while while

equipment equipment

fieW fieW

maintain maintain

room room

mapping mapping

the the

ever ever

depends depends

counter counter

of of access access

are are

target target

The The

and and

Thus, Thus,

This This

has has

to to

shorter shorter

turn turn

can can

multi-mode, multi-mode,

and and

lock lock

to to

. .

most most

start start versions versions

are are

all all

a a which which

it it clutter-free clutter-free

a a

it it

extra extra

system system

feature feature

advancements advancements

to to

also also pilot pilot

radius radius

is is

ground ground in in

(Forward (Forward

minimum minimum

ft, ft,

turns. turns.

lines lines

diamond diamond

will will

targets targets

without without

The The

performance, performance,

Navigation Navigation

gravity gravity

that that

a a It It

the the

speed. speed.

higher

a a

power power

well well

10 10

off off

newest newest

the the

increases. increases.

of of

automatic automatic

the the

turn turn

fly fly

enable enable

present present multi-displays multi-displays

ability ability

by by

that that

FUR FUR fly fly

and and

of of

avionics avionics

warning warning

Further Further

power power

when when

to to

With With

how how

banked banked

it it

the the

The The

take take

cortelator, cortelator,

APG-6J APG-6J

countermeasures countermeasures

that that

can can give give

the the

the the

angle angle

ground. ground.

and and

and and Altitude Altitude

avionics avionics

finder, finder,

on on

main main

It It thrust thrust

jamming jamming

radar radar

, ,

even even

maximum maximum

of of high high

miles, miles, can can

pilot. pilot.

exceptional exceptional has has

The The

The The

the the

ability ability

Since Since

A A

radar. radar.

a a HlJD. HlJD.

enclosed enclosed

bombing bombing

in in

bank bank

JO JO

The The

around around

(Low (Low

foe. foe.

its its

follows follows high high

use use rates range range

reSolution reSolution

alphanumerics. alphanumerics.

combination combination

or or

is is

to to the the

miles. miles.

Night) Night)

systems systems

F-15 F-15

that that

the the the the

boresight boresight

it it

20-

to to

the the

turn. turn.

as as

radar. radar.

fired. fired.

by by depends depends

to to

allocates allocates

the the

above above

speed speed and and

and and

for for

100 100

on on

guidance guidance

of of

circle circle

the the

as as (HUD). (HUD).

has has

is is ground ground

ft ft

faster faster

the the

threat threat a a

higher higher system system

sophisticated sophisticated of of

ground ground

radar, radar,

These These

angle, angle,

capability. capability.

lift lift

for for

missile missile

a a

F-4, F-4,

at at

formidable formidable

LANTJRN LANTJRN

visible visible

pilot pilot

has has

aircraft aircraft

addition addition

cockpit cockpit

missile missile

a a

loading loading

increase increase

from from

very very

display display

missile missile

20-50 20-50

distance distance

bank bank

excess excess

displayed displayed

and and

the the

Red). Red). designator designator

In In

Infra-Red Infra-Red

the the

an an

are are

a a

have have

weapon weapon

tomatically tomatically

counteract counteract

a a

site site

greatest greatest information information

up up

the the

modes modes The The

as as

and and in in

Doppler Doppler

AN/APG-63 AN/APG-63

combat combat

has has

F-15 F-15

radius radius

to to accelerate accelerate

even even

wing wing

develop develop

the the of of

force force

to to 66 66 -

, I

••• •••

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BAC/AEROSPATIALE CONCORDF.II...;.c.:= E.O. Medici

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer...... Briti,h Aero,pacelAero,patiale Date of fir't flight ...... December6, 1973 Number built. •.• ...... 16 Length ...... 203.75 ft Wing ,pan ...... •...... •...••...... 83.83 It Root chord ...... •...... 90.75 ft Tip chord...... Not Available Wing ,weep ...... Not Available Wing dihedral...... Slight Anhedral Wing aspect ratio ...... •...... 1.7 Pas,enger, (max, 32 inch pitch) ...... 144 Operating Empt, Weight...... 173,500 lb, Maximum Takeoff Weight ...... 108,000 lb, Maximum Wing Loading ...••...... ••....•....••...••...... ••. 100 psf Max Cruise Speed (at 51,500 ft) ...... 1974 ft/, Service Ceiling ...... •• • ...... •...... 54,500 ft Range ...... ••...... •.....•....••...... •••...•••••.••. .4090 mile, Engines ...... •...... •• 4 Rolls Ra,ceISNECMA Ol,mpus 593 turbojelJ Thrust . ... -' ...... : ..... •(each) 38,050 lb,

The Concorde was a 50150 joint venture between during high speed flight to improve . A visor British and Aerospatiale. The English and is also raised over the windscreen to reduce drag. French governments (and respective manufacturers). The British Olympus turbojet was almost a perfect signed agreements on November 29, 1962, which match for the Concorde, but it had to grow along with concluded negotiations concerning the development of the plane. Each engine has a short (17%) afterburner a joint effort aircraft. British and a variable nozzle doubling as a thrust reverser. Each Aerospace developed and built the three forward sections engine is rated at 38,050 lbs of thrust. The variable-area of fuselage, one fear section, the vertical tail, and many ramp inlets are made of an aluminum alloy with steel of the systems. Aerospatiale developed and produced the leading edges, which are de·iced electrically. Most of the wings, wing controls, teat cabin, flight controls, and engine nacelles are made of titanium because of its strength navigation sy'tems. The fuselage is pressurized and made and high~temperaturecharacteristics . of aluminum alloy, while the nose and tail sections 3re When compared to subsonic passenger jets, an SST not pressurized. Two were static and fatigue design has a far greater and associated op­ tested and two prototypes completed flight testing and erating fuel cost. This large amount of fuel is used for were granted full passenger carrying certificate of several things besides the engines; it is used as a heat airworthiness in 1975. sink and to maintain correct trim conditions. The 17 To give the pilots a good view during takeoff and fuel tanks are divided into two groups, the main group landing, the entire nose can be hydraulically hinged down· and the trim group. The main group includes five tanks wards. Referred to as a "droop snoot," the nose is raised in each wing and four in the fuselage, which are connected

in in

will will

well well

US, US,

once once

there there

be be

noise noise

with with

would would

future future

hours, hours,

British British

as as

because because

airports airports

powerful powerful

the the

passenger passenger

for for

supersonic supersonic

a a exemption exemption

This This

flying flying

SST, SST,

. .

interest interest

the the

toward toward

many many

improve improve

Concorde Concorde

probably probably

just just

allowable allowable

an an

profit profit

use use

affect affect

associated associated

special special

privileges privileges

a a

that that

the the

will will

at at

With With

than than

including including

SSTs SSTs

at at

and and

projected projected

produced

addition, addition,

have have

of of

and and

(that (that

itself. itself.

noisy noisy

boom boom

flight, flight,

normally normally

In In

More More

do do

so so

landing landing

by by

from from

than than

France. France.

SSTs SSTs

attempt attempt

operate operate

are are

the the

that that

reliable reliable

countries, countries,

class class

to to

sonic sonic

areas. areas.

come. come.

learn learn

and and

fewer fewer

a a

first first

economics economics

to to

drawbacks drawbacks

in in

far far

those those

very very

feasible feasible

the the

can can

supersonic supersonic

land land

above above

Concorde Concorde

most most

the the

is is

the the

is is

we we

years years

Concorde Concorde

and and

Britain Britain

and and

on on

these these

any any

the the

over over

was was

of of

the the

until until

be be

that that

flight; flight;

it it

many many

level, level,

of of

Concorde Concorde

grant grant

Concorde Concorde

flight flight

general) general)

not not

Concorde Concorde

for for

Despite Despite

But, But,

problem problem

focusing focusing

the the

in in

symbol symbol

model model

noise noise

not not

Concorde continues continues Concorde

the the

a a

a a

engines engines

The The

its its

leave leave

might might

be be

SS'Ts. SS'Ts.

as as

again again transport, transport,

service service

Airways. Airways.

the the

flight flight

levels. levels.

for for

will will

of of

jet jet

supersonic supersonic prohibit prohibit

major major

to to

a a

or or

on on for for

the the

FI)'erS-1903-1991 FI)'erS-1903-1991

wing wing

which which

3000% 3000%

cost cost

up up

forces. forces.

low low

Another Another

distance distance

anhedral anhedral

transport transport

equipped equipped

en-

operated operated

rearward rearward

"feel" "feel"

pressure). pressure).

the the

control control

supersonic supersonic

a a

sink, sink,

maintain maintain

is is

of of

are are

ticket ticket

(the (the

at at

drove drove

excessive excessive

amount. amount.

flight. flight.

roll roll

slight slight

to to

located located

a a

heat heat

pilot pilot moved moved

the the

a a

for for

severe severe

is is

This This

supersonic supersonic

aerodynamic aerodynamic

center center

and and

as as

the the

margin margin

prevent prevent

controls controls

for for

system system

the the

most most

Fuel Fuel

drove drove

to to

fuel fuel

independently independently

planform planform

give give

1962. 1962.

insignificant insignificant

ailerons ailerons

encountered encountered

static static

The The

the the

to to

camber camber

the the

also also

turn turn

an an

as as

subsonic subsonic similar

delta delta

the the

three three

a a

in in

since since

and and

used: used:

prevented prevented

depleted. depleted.

aerodynamic aerodynamic

stabilizing stabilizing

using using

of of

compensate compensate

over-control. over-control.

is is

control. control.

either either

has has

by by

constant constant

ogival ogival

to to

cost cost

the the

e.g. e.g.

have have

tho< tho<

widely widely

which which

controls controls

pilot pilot

act act

fuel fuel

mechanisms mechanisms

temperatures temperatures

an an

airplane airplane

has has

temperature temperature

pitch pitch

wing wing

and and

fuel fuel

by by

as as

is is

It It

the the

twice twice

more more

costs costs

factors factors

skin skin

for for

in in

fuel fuel

group group

c.g. c.g.

which which

c.g. c.g.

controlled controlled

Each Each wing wing

automatic automatic

is is

acceleration acceleration

than than

caused caused

the the

being being

hydraulic hydraulic

high high

trim trim

fuselage. fuselage.

Several Several

an an

The The

more more

increase increase

operating operating

from from

loads loads

controlling controlling

with with

elevators elevators

, elevons,

angle. angle.

the the

raises raises

speeds speeds

The The

between between

The The

during during

constant constant

to to 70 70 d 13

GOSSAMER ALBATROSS,==== D.]. Ensminger

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer . •....•. • ..••••.•..••..•••...... •••• Dr. Paul B. MacCreadyJr Date of First Flight. ••...... ••...•....••••...••...•••... . June 12, 1978 Number Built ..••...... ••..•...... •..•.•...... ••.... 2 Length . ..•..•..•••.•..••...•••••..•...... ••....•••...... •..•..•. 33 ft Wing Span •.....••...•.•...... ••••..••••...... ••.•••.. . 93 ft /0 in Root Chord •••...... •...•...•...•••..••...... ••••.••• 5 ft 6 in Tip Chord •...•••••..•••...••••..••...••..••..•••.....•....••.. 3 ft 4 in Wing Sweep. ..•.....•••...•.•..••.•.....••..•••..•••...... ••• .7.50 Wing Dihedral...... •••.••...... ••••..••••... 4° Wing Aspect Ratio ••...... ••....••....••••...•••..•••••...••...• 21.2 Operating Empty Weight (Without PilotIEngine). ...••....•.•••...•••.... 75 lbs MaximumTakeoff Weight (With Pilot/Engine ...... •...••...... •••..•.• 216 Ib, Maximum Wing Loading .•••..•...... •..•...... ••....•.•• • Not Available Maximum LevelSpeed . •••...•••...... •....•.....•••...•••••...... 17 ftl s ServiceCeiling (Maximum Attained) . •••.•...... ••...... •••....••••..•. 35 ft Range . ....•...... •....••....••••..•.•...... •..•••...... •..... 22 miles Engine ...... •••...... •••••...•••.•.••••••...... (JJ Pilot/(J) Propeller Thrust...... Depends On Pilot SHP (Lellfl Flight) •.. .•. . .. .•...... ••.•••.....•...... ••...... 0.27-0.34 • All specifications are approximate.

The Gossamer Albatross, named for the graceful sea meters for any extended time (e.g., no thermal gliding), with the largest wingspan of any bird, has lived up must be controlled and powered by the crew over the to its namesake as a "great flyer." Several man~poweredentire flight (e.g., no outside assistance at any time, aircraft have been built and flown since the turn of the including launch), and must land somewhere in France. century, including Dr. MacCready's Gossamer Condor, Rules designed to guard the pilot's safety were also but none have achieved the records or fame of the included. Albatross. The Gossamer Albatross is a remarkable Man#powered aircraft require designs that are very aeronautical engineering achievement that shows what lightweight and aerodynamically efficient, so that it takes can be accomplished with ingenuity and hard work. very little power to keep them aloft. This is especially Dr. Paul MacCready designed the Gossamer Albatross true for an aircraft required to be flown for an extended with one goal in mind: to win the £100,000 (about time such as the Albatross. The airframe and planform $220,000 in 1979) Kremer Prize for the first man.powered refiec( these (equircments direcdy. flight from England to France over the . The Albatross' planform was essentially that of a flying The Kremer competition was sponsored by the Royal wing. The main wing's extremely high aspect ratio, low Aeronautical Society in Great Britain, which set up wing loading, and use of ground effect make it a very specific guidelines for the flight. These guidelines drove efficient lifting device. The wingspan of the Albatross the Albatross' design. They specified that the aircraft must is very large, within feet of the wingspan of a DC-9. The be heavier than air, must not exceed an altitude of 50 canard was chosen for pitch control because it provides

a a

to to

up up

can can

. .

1979. 1979.

it it the the

of of

of of

Dr. Dr.

Griz­

claim claim

The The

Flight's Flight's

extra extra

Pilot Pilot

and and

even even

1979. 1979.

Triumph Triumph

Bryan Bryan failure failure

and and

finished finished

passing passing

for for succeed, succeed,

hour could could

to to

Oct. Oct.

done. done.

came came

another, another,

Company, Company,

England England

giving giving

Albatross Albatross interface interface

Albatross'." Albatross'."

since since

in in

Cap Cap

to to assistance. assistance.

it it

even even

by by

damaged, damaged,

an an

complete. complete.

at at

be be period period

The The

after after

1979. 1979.

Channel. Channel.

Apr. Apr. about about

Engineering Engineering

Albatross. Albatross. demonstrates demonstrates

flight, flight,

France. France. at at

so so

California, California,

when when

the the was was

a a

work, work,

Throughout Throughout

will will

to to

Time Time

nearly nearly

for for

minimum minimum that that

and and

aloft, aloft,

12, 12,

Mifflin Mifflin

ended ended

he he

the the

for for

a a

problems problems

and and caused caused

level level without without

land land Manpowered Manpowered

Albatross Albatross

repairs repairs

hard hard

over over

unsteady unsteady

were were

Mechanics, Mechanics,

English English

of of

'Gossamer 'Gossamer

strong strong

Qtysstry: Qtysstry:

Folkestone, Folkestone,

weeks weeks

modified, modified,

often often brought brought

flight flight

Mean Mean

"cannot" "cannot"

June June on on

to to

that that

of of

a a

Albatross Albatross waves, waves,

of of the the

Mechanics, Mechanics, the the

nearly nearly

so so

Southern Southern

the the

to to

Channel. Channel.

Allen Allen they they

Challenge: Challenge:

on on caused caused bicycle bicycle

headed headed

1979. 1979.

horsepower horsepower

pilot pilot

on on bit bit steady steady

the the

ergometer ergometer

and and

near near

Albatross Albatross

flights flights

the the

by by

what what with with

a a

Houghton Houghton

Popular Popular

boats boats

in in

the the

of of

very very

pushed pushed

days days

an an

time, time,

Challenge: Challenge:

from from for for

turbulence turbulence

crashed, crashed,

pad pad

the the

try try

Sometimes Sometimes Gossamer Gossamer across across

what what

place place

Nov. Nov. times times

Victory Victory

Time Time

good good

into into Popular Popular

waves waves

on on

changed changed

Gossamer Gossamer

a a

but but

to to and and

" "

Greenwich Greenwich

end end

riding riding flew flew pushed pushed

.

the the

Flight. Flight.

one one

take take

primary primary chase chase several several

was was

caused caused

Channel Channel possible possible

racer racer

the the

keep keep

it it

took took

Both Both

out out

BffiUOGRAPHY BffiUOGRAPHY

Albatross, Albatross,

winds, winds,

times. times.

know know

off off

(1981) (1981)

and and

40, 40, Mean Mean

At At climb. climb.

The The

the the

:

the the

Step

Channel Channel

the the

Triumph." Triumph."

calibrated calibrated

to to

. .

7

crashing crashing

Allen Allen

Albatross Albatross and and

made made

"Winged "Winged

surface surface

would would

to to

not not

"The "The

. .

horsepower horsepower

tow. tow.

and and

flight flight

at at

of of

GeogTa~hic, GeogTa~hic, Head

was was

included included

was was before before

bicycle bicycle

near near

smoothly, smoothly,

air air

pilot

Prize. Prize.

"The "The a a

the the

inspiration inspiration

Albatross Albatross

the the

Giant Giant

References: References:

but but

. .

pedaled pedaled

a a working working

did did

.34 .34

turbulence turbulence

ability ability sensitive sensitive

Morron. Morron.

specifications specifications

countless countless

Bill. Bill.

its its

Reference: Reference:

an an

Bryan

and and

the the

Bill ingenuity, ingenuity,

year year

the the

crashes crashes

to to

Greenwich Greenwich

takeoff takeoff

times. times. inches inches

his his

and and

as as

signalled signalled

historic historic

France France well, well,

a a Human-Powered Human-Powered

and and

above above

for for

Albatross Albatross

Allen Allen

started started

piloted piloted

cramps cramps bill bill

Kremer Kremer

needed needed

National National

accomplishments accomplishments Manpowered Manpowered

Second Second

Allen, Allen, 27 27

Boston. Boston.

for for

of of

workouts workouts

.

design design

as as

little little

time time rebuilt rebuilt

ergometer ergometer

Allen, Allen,

Allen, Allen,

4:51 4:51

Allen, Allen,

Secondary Secondary

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The The

serve serve

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Leg Leg

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Allen Allen

within within

work work

extremely extremely

between between

ships, ships,

several several

flight flight

at at

Bryan Bryan

Allen Allen

MacCready MacCready

The The

"minor" "minor"

and and

this this

exactly exactly

more more

took took

measure measure

The The

50 50

Daily Daily

nt nt

Bryan Bryan

a a

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were were

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FI,....-1903-1991 FI,....-1903-1991

a a

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plans plans

in in plastic plastic

means means

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surfaces surfaces covered covered

Albatross Albatross

body body

direction direction

radio radio

stretched stretched

Kevlar

aircraft, aircraft,

were were most most

made made

small small was was

exhaust. exhaust.

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to to and and

pilot/engine. pilot/engine.

angle angle

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Polaroid Polaroid

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propeller propeller

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carbon-fiber carbon-fiber

surface surface

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entirely entirely braided braided

with with

so so

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decided decided

was was

shape shape sheet, sheet,

athlete athlete

board board with with

these these

oven. oven.

pedals, pedals,

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bottom. bottom.

wires wires

aircraft aircraft on on

roll roll

contained contained

at at

on on

fit fit

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pitch. pitch.

longitudinal longitudinal

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framework, framework, was was

boom, boom,

to to

with with

and and

fresh fresh

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chain chain

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around around

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as as dihedral dihedral

design design

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tubing tubing

the the

tube, tube,

from from

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mounted mounted

to to

stripped-down stripped-down

foam foam

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balsa balsa

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power power

of of

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cables cables

cables cables airfoil airfoil

computer computer thick thick

applied, applied,

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sensor. sensor. with with

bracing bracing

team. team.

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Technology, Technology,

well. well.

of of

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drive drive

independently independently and and

carbon-fiber-reinforced carbon-fiber-reinforced

of of wing wing

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and and

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as as on on

of of

tension tension

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airflow airflow

plastic plastic

mil mil rangefinder rangefinder

the the was was

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very very

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canard, canard,

control control

surfaces surfaces spaced spaced much much reinforced reinforced

Albatross Albatross

pilot pilot a a

indicator indicator be be

steel steel

more more

thick thick

the the

level level

pair pair

.5 .5

aircraft. aircraft.

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the the

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electronics electronics

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making making from from

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heated, heated, heat heat

minimum. minimum.

the the airspeed airspeed

and and

display display polystyrene polystyrene

were were of of

banked banked

majority majority

constructed constructed mil mil

team team

rangefinder rangefinder were were . .

Albatross Albatross

the the

and and

high high

the the

using using

communication communication

and and

Institute Institute

film: film:

of of used used

post, post,

of of designed designed but but

.3 .3

stabilizer stabilizer

be be

had had

stretch stretch

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and and

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wing wing

was was

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metal. metal. airspeed airspeed

bare bare stainless stainless

of of

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ribs ribs

the the

made made

control control

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when when

wing wing

for for

to to

wings wings

a a

aircraft, aircraft,

was was

seat seat

adjusting adjusting was was provide provide

optical optical

sonar

and and

of of

angle angle

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camera

to to

altitude altitude

smoothed smoothed

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made made

heart heart

foam foam

the the

Mylar Mylar to to

appropriately appropriately

used used

could could

hangar hangar

. .

chain, chain,

wing wing

to to

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by by spars spars

was was the the

drivetrain drivetrain

constant constant

parts parts

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an an

vertical vertical

avionics avionics

made made

a a

carbon-reinforced carbon-reinforced

used used

wing wing

a a

pod pod

without without

cut cut

made made

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radio, radio, Albatross Albatross

the the a a

laterally laterally

flexible flexible

were were

thin thin

ribs. ribs.

required. required.

warping warping

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as as was was

trim trim digital digital

wing wing

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tubing. tubing.

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donated donated

MassachUSetts MassachUSetts

propeller propeller

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bicycle bicycle

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metal metal sprockets, sprockets,

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cockpit. cockpit.

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stalled stalled

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VOYAGER~======D. D.Lowe

SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer ...... •.••...... VcryagerAircraft Date of First Flight. .••••...... •...... ••••.•...... june 22, 1984 Number Built . •....•...... •.••••...... •...... I Wing Area ...... • .•...... ••.••..•.•.... 363 sq ft Wing Span ...... 110 ft 10 in Wing Span after winglet 1055 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••• 108 ft 8 in Wing Aspect Ratio •••...... •...... •...... •...... ••.. 33.8 Canard Area ...... , . , ••••...... ••...••...... 61 sq ft Canard Span ...... •...••.•.•...... ••....• ...... 33 ft 3.5 in Canard Aspect Ratio ..••...... •• .....••••.....•••...... • 18.1 Fuselage Length ...... •. •. ••...... ••...... ••..••• 25 ft 4.75 in Fuselage Width(maximum) ...... • . •...... ••••••. 3 ft 3.5 in Height Over Tail Fins •...... •...... •...... •...••••...... 10ft 3.5 in. Cabin Dimensions...... 7ft 6 in long 3 ft 4 in wide3 ft high Weight (dry) ...... •••....•••...... • •27591bs Fuel Weight. .••.••••••...... •...... ••••...... 7011.5 lb Takeoff Weight...... '.' ...... 9694.5 lb Landing Weight ...... •.•...... 2699lbot Takeoff Roll...... 14,200 ft Cruising Speed . •...... •.•.•••....••...... ••.... 115.8 mph Range ••...... •.....•.•.•...... 25,012 miles Engine Manufacturer ...... •••.•...... Teledyne Continental (both) Engine type ...... Pusher: IOL-200 (Liquid-cooled) ...••....••...... •...... • Tractor: 0240 (Air-cooled) Engine Rating ...... ••.....•••.....•...... •..... Pusher: 110 hp ...... ••••••••...... •••.• .....•...... •••••• Tractor: 130 hp • ..Average world flight speed World Flight

By the early 1980s, after designing several airplanes would be too heavy to get off the ground. Through the for home-builders of aircraft, the Vari Viggen and the use of lightweight composite materials, with which he Vari Eze, for example, was ready to accept had already demonstrated expertise, Rutan was convinced one of the last remaining challenges of long distance flight : he could develop an aircraft to circumnavigate the world. an around the world flight , nonstop, with no refueling. His earlier aircraft had already established numerous Several times since World War II, strategic bombers have distance and endurance records in their size and weight performed this feat, but always with several in-flight classes. The Long Eze, for example, had flown from refuelings. It was generally accepted that a plane carrying Anchorage, Alaska to the West Indies in 1981, a distance suffiCient fuel to make the flight without such refuelings of 4563 miles.

a a be be

for for

of of an an

was was

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lift lift

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were were

fuel fuel J

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fuel fuel

for for

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autumn autumn

caused caused

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when when

ratio ratio

with with

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forward forward

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ratio. ratio.

ended, ended,

the the sections sections

problem problem

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weight, weight,

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placed placed

Voyager Voyager

perform perform

overhaul overhaul

after after

on on required required

donated donated

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structure structure

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which which

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to to

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the the

behavior. behavior.

were were

flight. flight.

directed directed

carry carry

level, level,

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manufactured manufactured

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term

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taken taken

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over over

prevent prevent

fuel fuel possibly possibly

flight-test flight-test

the the

lift-to-drag lift-to-drag

aircraft aircraft caused caused

influenced influenced

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test test

by by

propeller. propeller.

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trim trim

through through

high-performance high-performance

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order order

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Voyager Voyager

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factor factor

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fuel fuel

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during during

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avoid avoid

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location location

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times times

Voyager Voyager

Voyager Voyager

and and

range range

failure failure

tests tests

maintain maintain

of of

second second

Hartzell Hartzell nner nner

engines engines

contribution contribution

be be the the

early early

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usual usual

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not not efficient efficient

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gliders. gliders.

running running

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June June

30, 30,

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King King

months months

Hexall

top top four four to to

wing wing The The

tested tested

fabricated fabricated

replacement replacement

so so to to

canards canards

other other

Subsequent Subsequent

Voyager Voyager uncontrolled uncontrolled

Voyager Voyager

encountered encountered

re-design re-design

circumnavigation

the the

a a m flight flight

blades blades

both both

and and around-the-world around-the-world

ranee ranee

Yeager Yeager

on on

by by

TRW TRW

propellers propellers

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donated donated

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by by

specifically, specifically,

18 18 structure structure

is is

Another Another

was was the the

from from

with with

deflection deflection

loads, loads,

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in in

had had

fueling fueling

was was

greatest greatest load load

the the

takeoff takeoff

soaring soaring

above above

determines determines

coupled coupled

maximum maximum

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of of

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the the

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on on

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to to

re­

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fuel fuel

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. .

the the

power power

front front

due due

weight weight

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make make an an

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FI,...-1903-1991 FI,...-1903-1991

weight. weight.

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power power

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and and

drag drag the the

for for

system, system,

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enough enough

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duration duration

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pod pod

with with

are are

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and and

proper proper

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thrust thrust

0."", 0."",

the the endurance endurance

world world

structure, structure,

as as

engine engine

days days

was was

it it

did did was was

large large

hours

more more power power

engine engine

up up depart depart

the the

extent extent

surfaces surfaces

the the

operated operated

perform perform

up up twin twin

excess excess

used used

area area

Voyager Voyager had had speeds. speeds.

the the

the the

trademark. trademark.

the the

the the

maintain maintain

few few

30 30

power power

ground, ground,

be be

to to

be be

one one

duration duration

slower slower

upon upon

high high

during during

space space

a a

air air

the the other other

maximum maximum

logically logically

large large

fuselage fuselage powerful powerful

start-the start-the

to to come come

a a

flying flying level-flight level-flight

to to

to to

be be resistance, resistance,

speed speed propulsion propulsion

engines engines fly fly low low

slightly slightly

the the

a a

Voyager Voyager aircraftj aircraftj

since since

Rutan Rutan

frontal frontal

fuel fuel

to to

the the

the the

therefore, therefore,

decreasing decreasing

at at consume consume

minimize minimize

airspeeds, airspeeds,

therefore therefore the the

lightweight lightweight

or or to to

to to air air Voyager Voyager

a a

cabin cabin around around

the the

the the

had had

off off

and and

nonstop. nonstop.

maintain maintain

propeller, propeller,

the the

needed needed

was was were were the the

require require

spect~ratio, spect~ratio,

over over

the the settings settings

modest modest

depends depends to to at at

center center

Roncz Roncz

uses uses

as as

centerline. centerline. had had

engine, engine,

low low

and and

a fly fly

mounting mounting evolved evolved

reducing reducing

all all

and and

it it

the the

and, and,

of of to to

had had

unique unique

for for

at at

at at

speed speed

would would

By By

required required

34, 34,

provide provide

shape shape

miles, miles,

on on

ascend ascend

a a

off, off,

become become

layer layer

possible possible

pusher pusher

high~

large large

John John

aircraft aircraft

above, above,

approaching approaching

It It

range range

confined confined

operating operating

power power

down down engines engines

airplane airplane

range range

loads loads

be be

. . expected expected Rutan Rutan

a a

reduce reduce

fuselage fuselage

the the minimum, minimum,

be be

slender slender

aircraft aircraft

flying flying

decision decision

Voyager Voyager

by by

course, course, mission: mission:

had had

Voyager Voyager

used used

a a

Further Further

the the

the the

propeller propeller system system

ratiO, ratiO,

reduced reduced

and and

a a

would would

to to

low low

two two

to to

however. however.

fuel fuel

by by

20,000 20,000 either either

That That

operation operation shut shut

therefore, therefore, the the

was was burned burned

1 1

single single

lowest lowest

Burt Burt

same. same.

The The

lessened. lessened.

Of Of

the the

key key

with with

the the

would would

loaded loaded

. .

engines engines

that that

felt felt

conducted conducted

gas. gas.

was was

be be with with

A A

ctor ctor

into into

boundary boundary

turning turning that that

a a

very very

was was

high high

low. low.

a

are are

fuel fuel

the the of of

progressed. progressed.

As As

large large

the the

than than

extended, extended,

maximum maximum

maximum maximum airfoils airfoils

aerodynamic aerodynamic

specific specific

aspect aspect

of of

along along

be be

tr mfort, mfort,

pilot pilot

to to

Mach Mach

would would at at

Hence, Hence,

once

o

fully fully

precise precise

pilots pilots

out. out.

wing, wing,

a a

the the c

contoured contoured

for for

be be

for for

and and

drag drag

surface. surface. mounting mounting

However, However,

propulsion propulsion

was was Rutan Rutan speed speed

Voyager, Voyager,

engines. engines.

made made point point

power power

The The

more more flight flight

aircraft, aircraft,

one one

as as

high high

tank tank

the the

laminar laminar

single single near near

fuselage fuselage

obtain obtain

only only

whose whose

Voyager Voyager

would would single single

a a This This

Two Two

combined combined

crew crew fly fly

a a

the the

wide wide

The The the the

The The

speed speed lift. lift.

remained remained

aircraft aircraft decreases. decreases.

the the

speed speed

flight flight

since since

a a

To To

always always

the the

flight flight

driving driving quirements quirements

with with

efficient. efficient. Reciprocating Reciprocating

forward forward

flight flight

operating operating

take take

thought thought

for for Rutan Rutan

fuselage fuselage fly fly ft ft

airfoil's airfoil's

drag, drag,

specially specially

to to

had had

single single

The The a a

tandem tandem

aircraft, aircraft,

starting starting

configuration configuration

of of

days. days.

of of

airplanes. airplanes. corresponding corresponding

speeds, speeds,

flight flight

could could

when when

aircraft aircraft

mission mission

a a

to to 78 78 79

Michael Bragg tested the canard and measured a maximum The optimum weather window for the flight was es­ lift-to-drag ratio of 140 when the airfoil was clean and timated to be between September and November and a lift coefficient of 0.9 at zero angle of attack. When the plan was a west-to-east flight, but this plan was a tape strip was added at the airfoil leading edge to reversed since the flight was not made until December, represent the turbulent boundary layer caused by rain, so Voyager headed out across the Pacific. Voyager the lift coefficient decreased to 0.5 as the flow separated encountered typhoon Marge and was forced to fly 2000 at the airfoil high point. Vortex generators designed by miles north of the intended flight path over . Professor lerry Gregorek of OSU corrected this flow Though most of the flight was flown between 7000 and separation when attached to the model airfoil upper 11,000 ft, thunderstorms over Africa forced the Voyager surface, ahead of the airfoil maximum thickness. The up to 20,000 ft. Over the Atlantic, the Voyager en­ canard lift was restored at little increase in airfoil section countered a tail wind that pushed its speed to 165 mph. drag. positioned these triangular vortex As a result, an oil warning light appeared for the aft generators on the Voyage, canard surface and reported engine. With leana at the controls, Dick pumped extra no further problems when the aircraft was flown into synthetic oil into the motor, which corrected the problem. rains. Near Brazil, an unexpected storm produced the worst The flight test culminated with Dick, Jeana, and the turbulence encountered and nearly ended the mission Voyager setting the world record for closed-course distance when the Voyager banked nearly 90 degrees. Having in July 1986. This elongated, ellipitical course originated steadied the aircraft, Rutan continued up the east coast at Vandenberg AFB and stretched up the California coast of South America toward the Gulf of Mexico and an from San Luis Obispo to a point 250 miles north of San intended route across Texas but altered course and crossed Francisco. After five days, the Voyager touched down the continent at Costa Rica to avoid SlOrms. at Mojave 11,857 miles later, of which 11,600.9 miles Off the coast of Mexico the aft engine fuel pump failed were within the closed course. The previous record, set so fuel was drawn directly from the tank, bypassing the in 1962, was held by a B-52 that flew 11,336.9 miles. pump. This modification worked until the Voyager With a takeoff weight of 9700 Ibs, Voyager began the descended to 8500 ft in search of lower headwinds. On takeoff roll at Edwards AFB on the morning of December the descent the system devised to bypass the fuel pump 14, 1986, with Dick and Jeana at the controls on their failed and the aft engine quit. With the forward engine way to fly around the world. The wings deflected under not running either, Voyager was a glider until the engines the enormous weight of 7000 lbs of fuel and scraped the could be ,estarted. After this scare both engines were surface as Voyager accelerated. The right winglet kept running for the rest of the mission. was broken, the left winglet detached, and over a foot On the morning of December 23, 1986, Voyager flew of composite material was torn from the undersides of over Edwards AFB where the flight had originated nine the wings. Nevertheless, Dick Rutan pulled the Voyage, days earlier and touched down at 8:06 a.m. into the air at 8:02 a.m. and headed out toward the The Voyager took off with 1192.3 gallons of fuel and California coast. Meanwhile, Burt was in a chase plane returned with 18.3 gallons. The 25,OLZ-mile flight had inspecting the damage to the wings and decided that the been a success, and Voyager's last flight on January 6, 1987, Voyager could continue but directed Dick into a right a short, 18-mile trip to Mojave airport, ended the Story. sideslip maneuver to cleanly snap the right winglet off. 5 Ma.- .. Gure

MIKOYAN GUREVICH 25==== T.P. Dietrichs SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturer. .. •...... •...... Mikoyan Qur""ich Date of First Flight ...... 1964 Number Built...... • ...... Unknown Length ...... •...... 78.15 ft Wing Span ...... • .45.75 ft Height ...... •...... •...... •...... 20.05 ft Wing Area ...... 611.7 sq ft Wing Sweep (LE) ...... •...... ••••••..••••.....••••••....•••••.... .40° Operating Empty Weight...... 44,092 lbs Maximum Takeoff Weight ...... •• . . . •. •• ...... ••.. . 79,806lbs Maximum Speed (with 4 AA-G AAMs) • •...... •....••••••.••••••••• 1849 mph SeroiceCeiling ...... •...... •80,050 ft Combat·Radius...... 702 miles Engines .. •••...... (2) Tumansky R-31 afterbuming turbojet.! Thrust...... (each) 24,250 lb,

One of the most famous events in recent aviation Although the B-70 would eventually be canceled, the history involved Lt. Viktor Belenko and his MiG-25, proposed bomber caused great concern in the Soviet known as the Foxbat to NATO forces. It was a September Union: Their response to this threat was the development day in 1978 above the Hakodate Airport in northern of a new supersonic interceptor. The final decision was Japan when Lt. Belenko and his plane appeared in the made in 1959 for the Mikoyan Gurevich Design Bureau sky. Darting around an All Nippon Airways 727, he dove to design the new supersonic interceptor, designated the for the runway and touched down at just over 250 mph. MiG-25. For the structural design, steel alloys were chosen Utilizing full brakes and the parachute, Belenko and his over aluminum for higher strength. Most of the structure was plane ultimately came to rest at just over 800 feet into arc-welded and the skins stiffened with welded-on steel stringers. The complex structural components were the overrun zone. His defection would turn out to be built through a series of welding processes. This was in the largest single contribution to technical intelligence contrast to the West were it was common practice to in the cold war era. use aluminum as much as possible and to forge many The MiG-25 was developed to counteract the threar of the structural members. However, the main structural of the proposed B-70 Valkyrie that was being developed members for the MiG-25 were indeed forged from steel, by the U.S. The B-70 was to be a supersonic replacement while some aluminum was used on the trailing edges, flaps, of the B-52. In December 1957, North American was and ailerons. Titanium, a relatively new technology chosen to build the new bomber. Their proposal detailed utilized in the West, was used only around the leading a bomber that would fly at Mach 3 throughout its mission edges and tailpipes. The fuel tanks were not of the typical at an altitude of 70,000 ft. It was to be based on the integral type but were built from continuously welded 'compression lift' theory where the aircraft would be sheets of steel. The resultant airframe could pull a designed such that it could trap its own shock wave maximum of 5 g with the fuel tanks much more than beneath its wings, providing more lift and conserving half empty. Most current fighters are designed to pull energy. 9 g with half fuel. The propulsion system was desi&ned

it it

to to

by by

the the

was was

F-15 F-15

The The

was was

have have

initial initial

tevised tevised

point, point,

due due

system. system.

SR-7!s SR-7!s

the the

to to

aided aided

together together

the the

Hakodate Hakodate

Ultimately, Ultimately,

space. space.

counter counter

use use

was was

that that

expense expense

Although Although

information, information,

Force Force

MiG-25 MiG-25

air air

the the

security security

not not

pieced pieced

believed believed

and and

until until

Air Air

at at

the the

would would

produced: produced:

to to

fighter. fighter.

MiG-25 MiG-25

SR-71. SR-71.

was was

Up Up

Soviet Soviet

US US

West West

surrounding surrounding

Soviet Soviet

that that

it it

was was

with with

effort effort

of of

intelligence intelligence

the the

the the miscalculations, miscalculations,

episode episode

the the

the the

the the

of of

of of

tactical tactical

plane. plane. of of

to to

in in

and and

the the

fighter fighter

hysteria hysteria

because because

deal deal

that that

MiG-25 MiG-25

new new

Government Government

within within

associated associated

a a

the the

elusive elusive

amount amount

similar similar

the the

experts experts

penetration penetration

grear grear

US US

of of

tactical tactical feared feared

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capability capability

for for

of of

as as

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following following

Mig-25 Mig-25

for for

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new new

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mystique mystique

US US

the the

a a

was was

led led

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capability capability

incredible incredible

of of

behind behind

Mach Mach

drones drones

the the months months

on on

it it

the the

an an

3+ 3+

dismanded dismanded

belief belief

the the

stringent stringent

requirements requirements

truth truth

MiG-25 MiG-25

fact, fact,

D-2! D-2!

variety variety

In In

Eagle. Eagle.

supposed supposed

consumed, consumed,

after after its its

reports reports

In In

the the

a a

assumed assumed

that that or or

deprived deprived Mach Mach

the the

the the

slowly slowly

Airport, Airport,

ry ry

is is

be be

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at at

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half half

ssa

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Ft,....-190J-1991 Ft,....-190J-1991

more more

e

which which

high high

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poor poor

fighter, fighter,

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by by

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massive massive

thrust thrust could could

0.-

thrust thrust

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percent percent

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through through

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versatile versatile

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driven driven

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12 12

engine engine missiles missiles

of of

allowed allowed

weighs weighs

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of of

interceptor, interceptor,

This This

in in

drawn drawn

supersonic supersonic

are are

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was was

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highly highly

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expansion expansion

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to to

in in

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majority majority

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straight-line straight-line

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due due

therefore therefore

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when when

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The The

percent percent

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inlet, inlet,

While While

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quantities quantities

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deploy deploy

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30: 30:

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believed believed

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design, design,

compression compression comparison comparison

fuel, fuel,

expansion expansion to to

F-!5. F-!5.

supersonic supersonic

is is

generated generated

MiG-25, MiG-25,

of of

at at

a a

speed speed

could could

by by

While While

but but

massive massive

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air air

which which

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performance. performance.

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stricdy stricdy 82 82 o o o o

c Piaggio P.IBO 8S

PIAGGIO P ..1S0 R.]. Leiweke

SPECIFICATIONS

ManufactureT...... •...... Piaggio Date of First Flight...... August, 1986 NumbeT Built...... 14 Length ...... 46.5 tt Wing Span ...... 45.5 ft Root Chord ...... 4.60 ft Tip Chord ...... 1.56 ft Wing Sweep...... • . .•...... 50 Wing Dihedral...... 20 Wing Aspect Ratio ...... 12 Op.,-ating Empty Weight ...... 7370 lbs Maximum Takeoff Weight...... 10,810 lbs Maximum Wing Loading...... 61.1 pst Cruise Speed (36,000 tt) ...... •.•.•...... Mach 0.67 ServiceCeiling ...... 41,000 ft Range(Maximum) ...... 1800 nm Engines ...... (2) Pratt and Whitney PT6A.66 Power (flat rated to 25,000 ft) ...... (each) 850 shp

In 1979 the Piaggio Company decided to design a new executives wanted the luxury of flying at "LearJet" speeds business·class aircraft, the P.180. Several years later as without paying "LearJet" fuel bills. With a few exceptions the design firmed up, the aircraft was named the Avanti, (for example, , Inc.), changes in aircraft meaning "forward" in Italian, and what a step forward design within the general aviation industry have occurred it is! During the last four decades a great deal of effort slowly, and usually as modifications to existing models. has been applied to the advancement of military aircraft In 1979, Dr. Rinaldo Piaggio accepted the challenge technologies; however, many general aviation aircraft in to design a more fuel efficient business aircraft capable use today are still designed accordiog to well established of carrying seven to nine passengers at executive jet speeds conventions developed in the 1940s and 1950s. Aircraft with the same cabin comforts. Specifically, the aircraft manufacturers have been very reluctant to incorporate was to maintain a smooth, quiet ride with a large cabin state#of#the~art aerodynamic and structural advancements height and width, comparable to the LearJet. Dr. Piaggio into unproven designs. The reason for this has been and his engineers knew that a could (with economic; until the early seventies fuel was cheap, and uncompromising aerodynamics and weight reductions) cut manufacturers were building aircraft at low costs while fuel consumption up to 50% compared to existing turbofan selling them as fast as they were made. This situation engine aircraft. However, turboprop noise would have began to deteriorate when the oil embargo of 1973 induced to be reduced in order to maintain a quiet ride. They world·wide fuel rationing and high prices. Not surprisingly, understood that an extensive research and design effort the auto industry moved rather quickly toward fuel· would be necessary to achieve their demanding goals. conscious design of vehicles as consumers demanded more However, to avoid delays in the certification process, miles per gallon with suitable comfort. Likewise, corporate Piaggio decided to use existing powerplants. This decision

, ,

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tail, tail,

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design design

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surface. surface.

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of of

therefore therefore

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if if

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nose nose counter-acted counter-acted

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by by

with with

Engineers Engineers

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wing wing

a a

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up up

pressurization pressurization

speed speed

fuselage fuselage use use

main-wing main-wing

elude elude

with with

garded garded

ifications ifications

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increase lateral stability at high angles of attack and also in the business aviation sector. The Avantihas provided avoid deep stall problems encountered with T-tail the benchmark for a new generation of general aviation configurations. The fuselage was optimized by computer business aircraft that have the potential to reduce these techniques starting from a low drag airfoil surface of costs and extend conventional lifetimes through thought­ revolution. The result is laminar flow over large portions ful design, attention to detail, and high-quality of the fuselage. Attention to detail, including tight man­ craftsmanship. ufacturing tolerances, reduction and/or shaping of external appendages, reduces major sources of interference BIBLIOGRAPHY drag in control surface areas and across the fuselage. Giuseppe, Sacco, Chief, P-180: Reasons and Evolution of Interference effects were modeled analytically by Piaggio An Unconventional Aircraft Design, Theoretical Aero­ in using the computer code VSAERO. dynamics and Flight Mechanics l.A.M., Rinaldo Piaggio, Wind tunnel testing in Boeing's transonic wind tunnel Genoa . revealed that interference at the wing#oacelle junction Keuth, Arnold, Chow, Chuen-Yen, 1984, Foundations of was causing shock-induced stall at high Mach numbers. Aerodynamics, Fourth Edition, Wiley & Sons Publishing, The problem was solved by area rule techniques used New York. to design the engine nacelles. Assuming small perturba­ McClellan, J. Mac, January 1989, Drag Eraser, Flying, tions in a transonic flow field, the area rule states that Diamandis Communications, Inc, New York. an aircraft with a smoothly changing longitudinal cross­ Olcott, John, September 1987, lnflight Report: Piaggio sectional area distribution will have a lower wave drag. P~180Avanti, Business and Commercial Aviation, This is seen intuitively when one looks at the "coke bottle" Murdock Magazines, New York. shape of the nacelles where compressibility effects can become significant in high subsonic flow fields. With the ever increasing operational costs, the quality and efficiency criteria may spenlong~termsuccess or failure

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