View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE

provided by Harvard University - DASH

Cosmopolitan: A Tale of Identity from Ottoman Alexandria

The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters.

Citation Jasanoff, Maya. 2005. Cosmopolitan: A tale of identity from Ottoman Alexandria. Common Knowledge 11(3): 393-409.

Published Version doi:10.1215/0961754X-11-3-393

Accessed February 18, 2015 10:22:37 AM EST

Citable Link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3892592

Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University's DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn- 3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of-use#LAA

(Article begins on next page) Symposium: Imperial Trauma, Part 2

COSMOPOLITAN

A Tale of Identity from Ottoman Alexandria

Maya Jasanoff

July 20, 1767, Alexandria, Egypt: a muggy season, when haze mutes the sun and the sea sits fl at. Around noon, Etienne Roboly walks to the old port, northwest along the great curve of the harbor. He is the chief dragoman, or interpreter, for the French consulate, and has lived in Egypt for some thirty years. He knows the place about as well as anyone. As dragoman, Roboly not only interprets between French, Turkish, and Arabic (the word dragoman is derived from the Arabic verb “to translate”) but often conducts negotiations with Ottoman and Egyptian authorities himself. Well-versed in local protocols, and deeply acquainted with the customs agents, Roboly also dabbles in private commercial ventures of his own: trading, and sometimes smuggling, through Alexandria with the help of collaborators in other Mediterranean entrepôts. This has been a diffi cult summer in Alexandria. Fever, which visits the city with nearly annual regularity, is rife. Demands and extortionate taxes (known as “avanias”) from the port offi cials are becoming more frequent and more appall- ing. Westerners are moving cautiously. All this the dragoman knows. But in his long Turkish-style robes, the usual clothing for men of his profession, Roboly attracts no notice. He, at least, should be safe. Then suddenly there is a hand on his shoulder. It is the hand of a well-dressed Turk, who knows Roboly’s name, his business, and some of his acquaintances in Constantinople. Is the man a friend of a friend? Roboly walks on further with him. Within minutes, catastrophe is upon

Common Knowledge 11:3 Copyright 2005 by Duke University Press

393 sailles, July sailles, 1 (hereafter cited as AN): AE B/I/ AE AN): as cited (hereafter . Etienne Fort to the ministry of foreign affairs in Ver- in affairs offoreign ministry the to Fort Etienne . COMMON KNOWLEDGE 394 23 , 1767 the Archives Nationales in Paris. in avolume correspondence of up diplomatic in bound Versailles, in superiors tohis Alexandria in French consul the from aletter in incident aboutI read this ship Ottoman the on board dragged and abused, Roboly beaten, is dragoman. the toarrest vizier grand the by him. The Turk, it turns out, is an offi an is out, turns it Turk, The him. ( in part by Edward Said, who famously identifi Inspired Egypt. Ottoman in desire imperial of European origins about the ous anticipated. Ihad than identity and empire, of nation, toquestions evance rel- held greater story life his that discover soon Iwould next? tohim happened What arrested? dragoman the was story. Why of the rest about the wondering day, ontenterhooks for the Iwas closed and archive the on, read Before Icould opportunities. out overseas seeking European, of a“marginal” type very the tion) occupa- of his who seemed (not because least character piqued this by been had mycuriosity and myreadings, in Roboly encountered earlier Ihad frontiers; rial crossing and cosmopolitan mixing. cosmopolitan and crossing for considerable potential contain of difference—also rhetorics and hierarchies develop they empires—while that point the It underscored relief. into identity it unfolded in the dispatches, cast the ambiguities as particular, in of Roboly’s story or nations. national cultures between borders the versuswithin imperial fi necessarily allegiances nor individuals’ did drawn; clearly seem always West, not and did East even powerless, empowered and between lines The ties. authori- French Ottoman by commerce against levied avanias regular or the onshore, of French sailors escapades drunken the antiquities, murder, apostasy, madness, adultery, encounters: and of incidents trove were atreasure records consular The domain. imperial Muslim, Eastern, an in living French nationals for life of daily part formed that relations cross-cultural of the evidence repeated as discourse of Orientalist foreshadowings not much found so the historians—I cultural by consulted rarely diplomats—documents French of memoranda and dispatches the In terms. different power in and of culture questions to frame helped domains, Ottoman in minority weak relatively and asmall constituted when Europeans and shape, totake beginning were only ambitions European back period to the 1798–1801 , Archives Nationales de France, Paris Paris France, de Nationales , Archives I had been drawn to these volumes in the fi the in volumes tothese drawn been I had ) as the launchpad of modern Orientalism, I wanted to turn the page page the toturn Iwanted Orientalism, of modern launchpad the ) as 109 . before the French invasion. Looking to these decades, when decades, tothese Looking French invasion. the Reala 1 , where he is imprisoned in chains. in , where imprisoned he is I was researching cultural exchange onimpe- exchange cultural researching Iwas cer of the sultan, armed with an order issued order issued an with armed sultan, cer of the ed the French invasion of Egypt rst place because I was curi- Iwas place because rst t neatly t neatly conductor named Mohammed elAdl. Mohammed named conductor atram with alove affair beginning by Britain in he not had experienced freedom enjoyed a RedCross), International for the ForsterM. (working E. novelist the Austrian Jewish parents in Jewish parents in Austrian and toBritish there, born also was Hobsbawm Eric historian The Suez Canal. the in Alexandria in character. major Muslim a single including without novels about Alexandria four towrite managed rence Durrell, Law- memorialist, prose best-known city’s C. P. the poet, Greek; was Cavafy, non-Egyptian, Alexandria remained a byword for diversity. The city’s greatest or were non-Arab of residents its athird when approximately century, twentieth Jupiter.or Serapis,” who worship “those be concluded, must wrongly Hadrian Emperor sects—Orthodox, Arian, Monophysite, Gnostic—that of Christian awealth such and Romans, Jews, Greeks, “Christians,” Egyptians, by antiquity in a baffl fi history’s perhaps was city The times. ancient garia, Australia, and Jamaica. Modern Alexandria boasted an international aura, aura, international an boasted Modern Jamaica. and Alexandria Australia, garia, far-fl oversuch extending empires not)(and within occupied briefl Ottomans, by the and Arabs Founded the by ruled city. Romans, conquered the by Greeks, the imperial an was Alexandria past, its of most during For, setting. togeographical it as does history much toits as owes cosmopolitanism age-old city’s But the Mediterranean. shores of the the linked always have that migration and culture, of trade, crosscurrents the considering no surprise come as may innovations. and survivals mixtures, and aplace ofis fusions This walls. onthe Horus and Medusa join Egypt, of Ptolemaic pantheon weird fi bulls, Apis and serpents, knotted Crowned, hawk. and ibis, jackal, breastplates—but they are topped with and the animal skirts, armored sandals, heads wearing legionaries, of Roman of bodies are There the Egyptian gods: busts. portrait Roman are heads their other—but clenched, one the before foot fi Egyptian see you can of ash-Shuqaffa, combs Kom cata- the In streets. the beneath winds of that tombs labyrinth the in ancients, and Modern Egypt 2 Kom elKom Shoqafa, Alexandria 3 dria, Egypt: Sarapis, (London: Flamingo, Byzantium of Shadow the in AJourney Mountain: Holy the . Anthony . Anthony Sattin, . Jean-Yves Empereur, Alexandria, Roboly’s home, had been a hub of cosmopolitanism since Roboly’s home, ahub been had of cosmopolitanism Alexandria, Alexandria’s status as a haven for foreigners, entrepreneurs, and outcasts outcasts and entrepreneurs, forforeigners, ahaven as status Alexandria’s 2 You can still descend directly into the cosmopolitan world of the cosmopolitan the into directly descend You still can (London: Indigo, y by the French and later by the British, Alexandria has fl has Alexandria British, French the later by and the y by The Pharaoh’s Shadow: Travels in Ancient Travels Ancient in Pharaoh’s Shadow: The 1995 1998 1888 A Short Guide to the Catacombs of of Catacombs the to Guide A Short ). Cf. Dalrymple, William , trans. Colin Clement (Alexan- Clement Colin , trans. ), , to a father who had emigrated from Tuscany from towork on who emigrated had , toafather 382 – 84 1917 . 2000 . The same year, another Briton in Alexandria, Alexandria, in Briton year, another same . The 4 ), The Italian poet Giuseppe Ungaretti was born born was Ungaretti Giuseppe poet Italian The 40 . 5 From From

rst melting pot, and was inhabited inhabited was and pot, melting rst CT: Yale University Press, 5 Harpocrates, tan Community soun, Has- Jacques with eds., Yannakakis, Ilios and Ilbert ert 4 . Michael . Michael Haag, . On cosmopolitanism in modern Alexandria, see Rob- see Alexandria, modern in cosmopolitanism On . ung regions as Algeria, Bul- Alexandria, 1860–1960: The Brief Life of a Cosmopoli- gures, standing with fi 1997 , trans. Colin Clement (Alexandria, Egypt: Egypt: (Alexandria, Clement Colin , trans. 3 And well into the Alexandria: City of Memory ), 18 gments of the – 88 . 2004 ourished ourished ), 28 sts sts ed – 53 . (New Haven,

Jasanoff • Imperial Trauma: Part 2 395 6 1997 1807–1882 Alexandria, in Society sity Press, sity man Egypt, 1517–1798 Otto- of Development and Organization Administrative and Rashid’s,collected with see J. Stanford Shaw, jointly was which ofAlexandria, revenue customs the On Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798 Rule, Ottoman . Michael J. Reimer, J.Reimer, Michael . COMMON KNOWLEDGE 396 ), 25 – 1962 41 ; Michael Winter, Winter, ; Michael ), resented there by chargés d’affaires. rep- were all Britain Sweden, (sporadically) and Holland, Austria, and of Spain; exception apparent the with region Mediterranean European every from houses were merchant but there commerce, Alexandria’s dominated Maghreb, the from offi their would lose latter (The agents. customs Jewish and governors Janissary of hands the in paper, silver, gold. Power and locally iron, rested textiles, ing leather, import- while untanned and rice, coffee, cotton, exporting lifeblood, its was trade Maritime Mediterranean. southeastern the in port busiest the as and signifi afl was (Rosetta) Rashid reduced Alexandria’s population to fi water bad had supply and epidemics plague of frequent acombination century, he lived. which in city the would shape they as for ill—just and for good rower defi enduring effects. The cosmopolitan possibilities of empire, as opposed to nar- with yetoften together, forcibly at times, brought populations also have empires toforget how it easy is that other each people against divide empires way that Today tothe paid is much attention so cultures. of many it acity was of empires, acity was Alexandria long as As others. among communities, British and Jewish, Syro-Lebanese, Italian, Greek, by marked apopulation with conspicuously most and networks; imperial wider in ontrade built economy an with successors; his and imperialist) ambitious an (himself Pasha Ali Muhammad ruler Egypt’s by century nineteenth the out in laid plan, street agrid and architecture Europeanizing with clerks, a few domestic servants and carpenters, an innkeeper, and, for a time, a for atime, and, innkeeper, an carpenters, and servants domestic a few clerks, and eight businessmen or ten Provence: of whom were from all almost members, la nation rate dwelling units, shops, offi fi into divided was which courtyard, acentral with compound story oquelle an in lived They it. with of civilians aresident population maintained France 109 ces, violently, to Syrian Christians in – Colonial Bridgehead: Government and and Government Bridgehead: Colonial (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer- Princeton NJ: (Princeton, 10 cant, however, as the only port in Egypt capable of harboring large ships ships large capable of harboring Egypt in port only however, the as cant, Alexandria was not bustling in Roboly’s time. By the mid-eighteenth mid-eighteenth By the Roboly’s in time. not was bustling Alexandria In addition to running a permanent consular establishment in Alexandria, Alexandria, in establishment consular apermanent torunning addition In . (English (London: Routledge, , and each year, the consul sent his superiors at Versailles a list of its at alist Versailles superiors sent his consul year, each the , and nitions of national belonging, would shape the life of Etienne Roboly of Etienne life the shape would belonging, of national nitions (Boulder, CO: Westview, Westview, CO: (Boulder, Egyptian Society UnderEgyptian okel , derived from the Egyptian Arabic word Arabic Egyptian the from , derived The Financial ourishing town three times the size. Alexandria remained remained Alexandria size. the times three town ourishing 1992 ), 26 ces, and a chapel. and ces, . the eastern harbor (the only one open to European ships), ships), A house. customs the near and European to open one only (the harbor eastern the I/ rest house; many can still be seen in Islamic Cairo. Islamic in seen be still can many house; rest 7 6 . Vallière to ministry, December December ministry, to Vallière . 108 ve thousand orve so residents, thousand nearby while . The Alexandria Alexandria . The 1768 .) Muslim merchants, particularly 7 The community called itself itself called community The okel was in present-day Anfushi, on on Anfushi, present-day in was wikala 16 wikala is a caravanserai or a is caravanserai , 1769 fteen sepa- ), amulti- , AN: AE B/ AE , AN: (Sulause to ministry, February instead. bakers cheaper patronizing Egyptian started tains cap- sea French when outofbusiness forced hewas but early the until Cairo) in (as Alexandria in baker B/III/ for lists similar and année,” dite dela lecours pendant deresider discontinué ont qui et s’yetablir, venus sont qui ceux compris sont laquelle Janvier lepremier avant etablis s’ysont qui et 8 to his parents by the next available ship. available next the by parents to his sent he was back and moment he apostatized,” at very which at the him to arrest able “was “Happily,” pocket. consul the his in faith of Islamic adeclaration with Egypt up in who turned Languedoc from monk young the was There poignant. and striking, were frequent, intervened consuls the which in cases But the ships. down Muslimnet, women, with settling jobs or on taking Turkish or Maghribi their not say, not through did know, Frenchmen perhaps slipped and how often Turk” ( to“turn decided a Frenchman was. about it how really “national” anxiety acertain suggest may described consuls Alexandria that “French” community French. streamlined The than offi non-French and merchants with business daily their with all non-French conducting of course, neighbors—and, compound their sharing women, non-French to married were men French of most these that is reality likely The it. outside living Frenchunder protection excludednon-French of the residents for instance) Smyrna, for those (unlike also for Alexandria lists Consular subjects. Ottoman possibly of communities these often were. often these of communities kinds amuch more of the complete give image ports Eastern Near up for other drawn protégés and of French subjects lists Contemporary misleading. is picture folk. busy, of secluded, God-fearing nation little modest wigmaker from Grenoble. tize,” he too was saved from himself and packed off to Livorno on a Dutch ship. onaDutch toLivorno off packed and himself from saved he was too tize,” toaposta- he wanted that Arabic out in Turk. he would not “Since crying stop onturning insisted and ofbuyer, alove consequence affair” who “went in mad white turban of an ordinary Janissary.” head a onhis but having cord ofFrancis, St. the Order, habit with of and his the offi consular the where Janissaries, of the aga the with refuge took superior. priest The father his from treatment of ill years suffering after toconvert who decided French priest, of . See, e.g., “Liste des françois qui Resident à Alexandrie, àAlexandrie, Resident qui françois des e.g., “Liste See, . la nation 290 Never were the boundaries of boundaries Never were the , ff. , ff. 23 , but their wives often would have been Greek or Italian, and quite quite and or Italian, Greek been have would often wives , but their , 130 cials were “frozen with surprise” to see him, “still clothed in in clothed “still him, tosee surprise” with were “frozen cials , 160 , 197 1762 . There had been a French aFrench been had . There 1 , , 1766 1753 8 In outline, French the In seemed Alexandria in to be a , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: , and , and cials, in languages, more likely than not, other 10 1771 The Alexandria consuls only listed the males males the listed only consuls Alexandria The la nation 1758 se faire turc faire se , AN: AE AE , AN: 11 12 : Dans : Dans 1750 More shocking was the case of Rashid’s case the was More shocking There was Honoré Olivier, the leather leather Honoré was the There Olivier, 107 more obviously threatened than when than threatened more obviously s, .) ) or convert to Islam. Consuls did did Consuls Islam. to convert or ) 11 are especially thorough and revealing. I/ 13 I/ 12 10 1960 siècles Raoul Clément, 9 . For an overview of French life in Egypt at this time, see see time, this at Egypt in life French of overview an For . 108 970 . D’Evant to ministry, July July ministry, to D’Evant . . Vallière to ministry, December December ministry, to Vallière . See lists in AN: AE B/III/ . . Chaillan to ministry, August August ministry, to Chaillan . ), (Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, Orientale, d’Archéologie Français Institut (Cairo: . . 149 9 – But the tidiness of this 69 okel . Les Français d’Égypte aux XVIIe et XVIIIe XVIIIe et XVIIe aux d’Égypte Français Les , as well as people 290 25 , . The records for Aleppo Aleppo for records . The 1756 18 15 , , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: , 13 1769 1760

, AN: AE B/ AE , AN: , AN: AE B/ AE , AN: 108 . Jasanoff • Imperial Trauma: Part 2 397 for some useful remarks. for some useful langue et Drogmans Yerasimos, Stéphane and Mantica, Emile ville, Neu- François Casa, Jean-Michel by organized exhibition an for catalog the see but dragomans; on written be to 15 10 York: Norton, York: Norton, 14 . Bernard . Bernard Lewis, , . Vallière to ministry, October October ministry, to Vallière . COMMON KNOWLEDGE 398 1759 , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: 1982 preting clan too, furnishing dragomans in Smyrna, Salonika, and Egypt. and Salonika, Smyrna, in dragomans furnishing too, clan preting about since omans drag- producing been had century, nineteenth the into well consulates Levantine French manning found be could scions whose for instance, family, Fornetti The of interpreters. dynasties veritable into often also and families, French-Ottoman eyes of Capuchin friars. Others were born in the Near East, often into mixed watchful the under Turkish Arabic and tolearn or Smyrna to Constantinople were sent off when they boys, young as careers their began French dragomans in beginning dragomans own its trained nations, communities. Christian Eastern various from dragomans their recruited generally empire Ottoman the in embassies pean Euro- quarter. Phanar Constantinople’s in community Greek the from came most century, eighteenth the by converts; and renegades were European empire Ottoman of the courts various the in used dragomans of the Many borders. tural French of the security and interests tothe servant interpreter. Yetjob invaluable as this Roboly’s of Etienne part was them regulating Alexandria—and in community Turk.” turn him of seeing and family his spared “I chains: into him clapped consul when the mistress, Greek grasping his with toIslam vergeof converting on the who gambler, was pimp, and womanizer, Sauvaire, Etienne was there then, And alties. The French king was their master, and they lived in compounds with fel- with compounds in lived they master, and their was French The king alties. loy- suspect, possibly were men of mixed, these hand, other the On present. even offi topay for instance, for France’s dragomans, not It was unusual himself. consul the much longer than region the in lived had dragoman when the case, the often was as too—especially, hands and eyes his as served adragoman ears, and consul’s tongue the More than of diplomacy. heart at the rituals and customs local of the understanding native a had dragomans one hand, the employers. On tohis aliability and asset an both he was such, one. outsider rolledinto As and insider cosmopolitan—an tessential quin- the was adragoman ease, equal almost with Turkish, Arabic French, and (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Yayınları, Kredi Yapı (Istanbul: ), The Muslim Discovery of Europe of Discovery Muslim The 78 108 These and other less extreme crossings were part of daily life for the French for the life of daily were part crossings extreme less other and These Raised partly in foreign lands and trained to speak (among other languages) languages) other (among tospeak trained and lands foreign in partly Raised – 79 . nation . A fascinating book remains remains book . Afascinating was himself, of course, a professional go-between, living oncul- living go-between, aprofessional of course, himself, was 27 , 1758 1600 , and January January , and cial visits and conduct negotiations without the consul consul the without negotiations conduct and visits cial . 16 Enfants de The Robolys seem to have been something of an inter- of an something been tohave seem Robolys The 14 (New 1995 ) III. 17 sur les Offi Porte àla Ambassadeur Priest St. De leCte. M. par envoyé 16 . Names drawn from index entries in AN series AE B/ AE series AN in entries index from drawn Names . . Enfants de langue et Drogmans 15 But France, unique among European European among But unique France, ciers du Roy en Levant,” AN: AE B/III/ AE AN: Levant,” en Roy du ciers 1669 . In Roboly’s day,. In many la nation , the discomfort 17 – 50 ; “Mémoire ; “Mémoire 17 241 . hats and tight trousers. tight and hats of place in robes, and for turbans opted all nearly Western uniforms; and dress “Oriental” wearing choice between the were given French dragomans instance, preference. Until and job, pragmatism and family were by rooted they where empire, Ottoman the homes in totheir been—but hardly had where many were not toFrance— ties Yet protégés. low strongest and “French” their subjects I/ 18 venture Aone-off did. Roboly certainly trade—which private in toengage them paid ships. by incoming Ittax was common, also albeit offi of aportion toreceive for them it customary was salaries, small their mans were not, on the whole, well rewarded for their work. In supplement to by keel even onan back helpto French set commerce offi high-ranking with friendships ever. his Using than moreRoboly necessary was fl the obstructed generally and unloaded, tobe cargoes allow “unheard-of excess.” They demanded payments from French ships, refused to cruel and seditious” behavior of Alexandria’s governors,consulate at a he particularly diffi said, had reached Fort entered appeased. the and confronted tobe had regularly demands tuating offi customs unpredictable were the there important, Most outdone. be to rivals commercial European and trouble, of out bailed be to informant, and adviser. There were Turkish offi the consulate than he was, which both of them knew. more who be capable might of running aman politics—and and business local in Egypt. 1762 offi Alexandria over the totake came Fort, Etienne consul, a new when that meant which precisely), career early his one to track toallow records 1735 since Egypt in he been had account, own By toFrance. his connection a distant return.” to no desire have they which to and only, name in afatherland “is France put it, Constantinople in ambassadors XVI’s 21 more generally to the ending of the Seven Years War. Years For Seven ofthe ending the to generally more he that was due resurgence The observed commercial 20 19 109 . See Fort’s letters from these years in AN: AE B/I/ AE AN: in years these from letters Fort’s See . . . “Mémoire envoyé par M. le Cte. De St. Priest,” Priest,” St. De leCte. M. par envoyé “Mémoire . . Roboly to ministry, March March ministry, to Roboly . cials, and especially with Alexandria’s Jewish customs agents, Roboly was able Roboly was agents, customs Jewish Alexandria’s with especially and cials, Enfants de langue et Drogmans . (we must take his word for it, because too many Robolys appear in the French the in appear Robolys many too word because for it, his (we take must , he found in Roboly a chief interpreter with nearly three decades’ service service decades’ three nearly with interpreter Roboly achief in , he found It did not hurt that Roboly had a vested interest in facilitating trade. Drago- trade. facilitating in interest vested a had Roboly that hurt not did It emissary, an as dragoman veteran onhis heavily relied consul new The at best maintained tohave Roboly seems time, of his dragomans many Like 20 He also found, as his reports reveal, a dragoman deeply enmeshed in in deeply enmeshed adragoman reveal, reports his as found, He also 18 In short, these were men for whom, as one of Louis were one men of for as whom, Louis these short, In , 24 53 – , cult time for foreign trade in the city: the “wicked, “wicked, the city: the in trade for foreign time cult 60 1766 . , AN: AE B/ AE , AN: 6 109 . 19 . cials to be wooed, French sailors 1962 Press, University Harvard MA: (Cambridge, J.Shaw ford of Misir Cezzârnâme-i Ahmed Pasha see 1785 in Porte the for commissioned beys, Egyptian the among behavior ofextortionate critique Ottoman later a slightly Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century: The Nizâm- The Century: Eighteenth the in Egypt Ottoman ). from the governor of Syria, Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha, Pasha, Ahmed Cezzâr ofSyria, governor the from cers of whose the port, fl 1764 . cially prohibited, for 21 ow of commerce. ce at the end ofce at the ancrages 1806 , for uc- , ed. and trans. Stan- trans. and , ed. , a

Jasanoff • Imperial Trauma: Part 2 399 ery has made in the country, in spite of all the precautions precautions the ofall spite in country, the in made has ery (New York: Dorset, York: Dorset, (New tion from Sulause in Leslie Greener, Greener, Leslie in Sulause from tion 24 I/107 23 I/ 22 109 . Sulause to ministry, December December ministry, to Sulause . . Fort to ministry, September September ministry, to Fort . . But see the equally tantalizing unfootnoted quota- unfootnoted tantalizing equally the Butsee . COMMON KNOWLEDGE 400 . ; January ; January 26 the wise and judicious observations of M. de Boze; he is able to judge the the judge to able is he I. Boze; .than de moresurely ofmonuments M. sorts of ofthese merit observations judicious and wise the addto to nothing Ihave advantageously. ofthem dispose to itself sents Alexandria were Muslim merchants hailing from Crete, Persia, and Greece. Persia, and Crete, from hailing merchants were Muslim Alexandria in partners his while Salonika, and men probably could help Smyrna Roboly in kins- connections: cosmopolitan his of all advantage took which concern, tional multina- averitable It was Smyrna. and toSalonika trade, of Egyptian staples coffee, and rice exporting been tohave seems business chief But Greece. his in traders Jewish with French and merchant alocal with conjunction in to Genoa, Salonika from tobacco more) been have shipping involved must there (and of his French diplomat rendered the name, “Edoüard d’Owertlay Chevalier deMon- Chevalier d’Owertlay “Edoüard name, French diplomat rendered the made a fascinating, infl ment. achieve- no small was This himself. king tothe propositions tomake even and connoisseur) and collector a noted book deBoze Monsieur and dour’s guardian, deTournehem dePompa- Normand Mme. was (Le elite Parisian of the attention the toattract who managed had French asecond-tier consulate in functionary suggests Roboly’s considerable powers of self-promotion. early documented example of It European also antiquities-collecting Egypt. in an it presents because not one, least tantalizing but avery passage, It abrief is profi .will dragoman .this King the for them acquire to it appropriate de Tournehem notdeem does M. Since antiques. and statues ofhis subject onthe Monseigneur, me, youhonored which with response the Roboly Sieur to read I have a In it. of most the make to reported: French consul the to Versailles, intended He antiquities. on placed poraries contem- European his value social high about the knew he also and did, certainly city. Roboly the beneath tunnels ancient buried about the long had known izens den- ground—Alexandria’s ahole the in through slipped when adonkey accident, in discovered were only of ash-Shuqaffa Kom catacombs the Though , 1768 1966 , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: In of endeavor antiquities. Roboly’s was more collecting Another, unusual, ), 77 1763 : “The great stir this discov- this stir great : “The , Roboly’s interest in antiquities-collecting was enhanced when he enhanced was , Roboly’s antiquities-collecting in interest 11 The Discovery of Egypt The Discovery 8 , 110 , 1767 1751 . , AN: AE B/ AE , AN: , AN: AE B AE , AN: uential new friend: Edward Wortley Montagu (or one as Wortley Montagu Edward new friend: uential /

t from the fi the t from to calm their envy.” their to calm hemanaged that money and manouevre, oftact, use the by only it is . and . . Roboly sieur from command by them not possessing them themselves, that they wanted to no take they take notice ordinarily, have become so annoyed at The authorities, indifferent to this ofantiquity. smell kind verily of thing, statues three of these say, which howmuch could one anything beyond prove it secret, keep to taken rst occasion that pre- 23 24 Here was an obscure obscure an Here was 1751 1900 letter letter —by 22 the art of painting and drawing.” and of painting art the possesses “who Agostini, consul, of Austrian sketch it the by pencil plished accom- Fort sent month, an along following The high. feet some seven stood be.” might object about the thoughts Grandeur’s what your knowing fi without . foreigners to] . it [sell to motives self-interested by seduced buy this statue from him, but I do not think that this to offi desire the Roboly M. to expressed have people “Some proposition: diplomatic Palace of the or King in one of His Majesty’s gardens.” He went on to make some in . placed a. . of being worthy truly It seems sculpture. and edge of drawing gneur, the admiration of everybody, and especially here, Monsei- provoking . is . . piece This Catacombs. the by those Alexandria ancient who have some knowl- of ruins the in found was which marble, of white “a statue acquired has he said, Roboly,” “Sieur toVersailles. off Fort wrote plague, the against tight doors its of again. France king toapproach the ripe was time The manipulate. to easy debt and his in Fort was Consul reach. his were in Statues ones). strange of gentlemen (even asport was antiquarianism proof that collector, living ismatic with him. fi “to and delta see the around week trip athree- made Montagu spell: his under tofall opportunity ample Roboly had ( them French, enchanting and he is studying to make it perfect.” Montagu was also “a great friend of the dressing,ing, etc. drinking, . . . He knows Arabic well enough to be understood of eat- or soft, hard they be ways their of Turks all manner . . . adopting all with friends became and station, of his of aperson rank he “abandoned had the weeks, Within Greece. as far as even ventured when Western few Europeans at atime enough, unusual “for simply curiosity”—already come toEgypt Montagu had Not only Englishman. bizarre when he this encountered eyes his not believe Montagu. Wortley Mary Lady traveler celebrated Eastern of son the eccentric irresistibly the taigu”), most familiar to museumgoers today—sleek, crowned rulers, squatting scribes, scribes, squatting rulers, crowned today—sleek, tomuseumgoers familiar most Egypt pharaonic from sculpture the like nothing was Roboly’saway: statue little doubt that he was more or less insane” (Leslie Ste- ofDictionary National Biography “thirty feet” from the French French the from feet” “thirty of parts and ministry, August August ministry, in tagu had been left with what he felt to be the unfairly small small unfairly the be to felt sum of he £ what with left been had tagu 25 . Though the eldest son of a hugely rich family, Mon- family, rich ofahugely son eldest the Though . 1761 This “magnifi On the fi and 2 , 000 26 1769 1762 The ambitious dragoman could only have been inspired by this char- this by inspired been have only could dragoman ambitious The per annum on the deaths of his parents parents ofhis deaths the on annum per 8 . He spent . Hespent – rst day of spring in , 75 1772 in Egypt, where he owned a house ahouse heowned where Egypt, in 25 , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: cent fragment of antiquity” was virtually undamaged and and undamaged virtually was antiquity” of fragment cent The French consul in Rashid, where Montagu settled, could could settled, where Montagu Rashid, in French The consul 1762 okel concluded that “there is in Rosetta (Chaillan to (Chaillan Rosetta in leur fascinant les yeux – 64 in the Near East, 970 ). The original 28 The drawing answers one question straight straight one question answers drawing The 1765 nd antiquities there,” and Roboly went , an eerie season, when the city bolted city when the season, eerie , an ) with his manners.” And Etienne Etienne And manners.” his ) with phy phen and Sidney Lee, eds., eds., Lee, Sidney and phen 26 28 27 B/I/ . Fort to ministry, March March ministry, to Fort . . Fort to ministry, April April ministry, to Fort . . Vaugrigneuse to ministry, October Vaugrigneuse to ministry, . , 66 970 vols. [London: Smith, Elder, Elder, Smith, [London: vols. . cer will let himself be be let himself cer will 27 22 Dictionary ofDictionary National Biogra- 22 , 1765 , 1765 , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: 1885 rst , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: 26 – , 1901 1763 ], , AN: AE AE , AN: 13 109 109 : 686 . . ). Jasanoff • Imperial Trauma: Part 2 401 istry, September 30 treatises on acids. was eventually dissolved; and the duke went on to write Egypt the day after his wedding in in wedding his after day the Egypt I/ 29 109 . Fort to ministry, September September ministry, to Fort . . Fort to ministry, September September ministry, to Fort . COMMON KNOWLEDGE 402 . Picquigny, later duc de Chaulnes, had fled for fled had deChaulnes, duc later . Picquigny, to see it (and primarily liked Europe Enlightenment metropolitan, as proud. She Egypt and represented thin-lipped, high-browed, full-bosomed, chair, onawinged enthroned dame, grande or Ptolemaic Egyptian aRoman was statue This gods. stiff-armed and of anchorage fees—the only legal supplement to a dragoman’s suspension the toprotest minister salary—and tothe directly to he wrote not accidental, surely opened doors, just as Roboly had wished. Within six months, timing that was society. European in themselves toadvance adevice as collecting use fi of how asplendid marginal example for Roboly—and promotion asplendid piece of was self- episode whole, the the On ship. a Marseilles-bound it loaded onto and was skills), Roboly’s manipulative all requiring task, a tricky it itself (which was toexport authorities the from obtained up, permission packed honor.” able this have be to to desire ardent his times several tome “and he expressed Roboly’s goal, was Fort, Cabinet,” only continued ties antiqui- King’s the “Embellishing parts.” these in found people tobe upstanding most say one is of the Idare . and piece, . this . that this getting in succeeded have could he esteemed, is as area the in well-known who as is Dragoman, this than other anybody Idoubt work. that and alot care of trouble, him costs still it. . . and statue the here toprocure deal agreat tospend had Roboly has “Sieur out: spelled consul the sure he made naturally, of which, loyal—all and generous, capable, discerning, tobe stroke, asingle in he showed himself, king, for his By “sacrifi of prestige. currency intangible the in rewards for his tosacrifi for him piece of antiquity this want to seems Grandeur your enough is “It that crude. would be expectation that men, gentle- between not since Not least explicitly, money, for sure—at transaction? interest the piece in of by did post. return What Roboly hope from to the gain vious year. Winckelmann’s in exalted as tastes, her thought excellent. lies, fami- of one ducdePicquigny, of asprig France’s distinguished most visiting the including Fort, said connoisseurs,” the “All there). monuments pharaonic tastic fan- of the drawings and descriptions broughtdetailed back and to Upper Egypt 15 , 1765 In September September In an it and worked. expressed excellent, Versailles was drawing Agostini’s , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: 15 , 15 1765 1758 , 1765 109 ; Roboly to min- to ; Roboly . The marriage . The marriage 1765 . , AN: AE B/ AE , AN: did , Roboly’s wish was at last fulfilled. The statue was statue The fulfilled. at was last , Roboly’s wish 29 see it until it see until She conformed beautifully to prevailing European European toprevailing beautifully She conformed 109 Self-Fashioning,” Imperial and Conquests, Objects, of Empire: “Collectors 31 History of Ancient Art ofAncient History . For parallel cases in contemporary India, see my see India, contemporary in cases For parallel . – 35 1798 . ce it,” Fort. No, said Roboly looked , when the French savants traveled traveled French, when savants the Past and Present and Past , published just the pre- the just , published 30 , no. cing” his statue statue his cing” 184 31 gures could (August (August The statue 2004 ): that he never paid the the paid never he that a not is French, but Armenian, dragoman this that tounderstand Vizier Grand the gave Constantinople in he has enemies now that is up till able been Ihave tolearn that “All news: the toconvey pen ing terrifi and bewildered Fort, dragoman. the against charges out the spelled for Roboly and bail asubstantial He demanded consul. for the calling French compound, the into barged admiral, vice Ottoman Capitan, Ali offi the Roboly’s capture, after one o’clockAt morning the in along. all “Frenchness” toprovehis concerned so been from Egypt to France. metropolitan, tothe cosmopolitan the awayfrom paved Collecting to France. loyalty his toassert and elite onaEuropean mark his tomake wherewithal the by defi almost him made dragoman as position For his talent. while Roboly’s greatest fi ruins) the among searching in time people who their (the spend Bedouins of the any “when Briton, toavisiting According alike. authorities port and scavengers Alexandria’s with contacts close his of Egypt—on knowledge local intimate on his compensation. demand and the Holy Land Holy the and 34 33 AN: AE B/I/ 32 Constantinople he reached if amiracle It aslave. be would than worse him treated Egyptians who saw the dragoman down in the harbor reported thatOttoman law. the Turks from shielded French subjects empire—that Ottoman the in privileges European outlining agreements “capitulations”—the of the violation agross and insisted, one,” was there ever he if lie abominable “an all was setof allegations stunning toChristendom.” he sent them rule, Ottoman under countries other and Salonika, toSmyrna, them of sending pretext the under and of products, kinds all Alexandria. in based merchant ceremony,” and noise daughter of aNeapolitan deSommo, Roboly wed Maria March, In rank. of for his somebody privilege arare get married, to permission special received and requested it. He also tomake emboldened him Roboly’s could have only and statue recent the coup most unusual, cer with was nd any [antiquities], they generally offer them fi them offer generally they [antiquities], nd any . Fort to ministry, March March ministry, to Fort . . Roboly to ministry, March March ministry, to Roboly . . James . James Haynes, And his arrest by the Turks, the by onJuly arrest his And hinged France toward gesture Roboly’s that patriotic irony noIt small was nition a man of the margins, a permanent go-between, it also gave him him gave it also go-between, apermanent margins, of the aman nition 109 . (London, 36 Travels in Several Parts of of Parts Travels Several in Turkey, Egypt, But the more Fort pleaded for Roboly, the more they abused him. more But Fort the pleaded for him. Roboly, abused more they the 1774 Karach 10 32 , A direct address to the top brass by a low-ranking offi alow-ranking by topbrass tothe address Adirect 5 1766 ), , 40 1766 [tax] . . . [and] that . he that loaded . [and] French with [tax] boats . , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: 33 ; March ; March 24 , 109 1766 20 raya . , , 1767 [subject] of the Grand Seigneur; Seigneur; Grand of the [subject] 36 than more pay to unwilling was Fort Roboly, but Ali Capitan wanted wanted Capitan Ali 35 rst to him.” . Fort to ministry, July July ministry, to Fort . . Fort to ministry, July July ministry, to Fort . , would whyhe show had just ed, took up aquiver- cer who seized him, him, cer who seized 34 Perhaps this was was this Perhaps 1500 1766 patacoons (pieces of eight) for 23 , “without , “without 23 , 1767 , 35 1767 This , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: - 109 700 . 109 .

. Jasanoff • Imperial Trauma: Part 2 403 11 38 37 , July ministry, to Fort . . Fort to Vergennes, August August Vergennes, to Fort . COMMON KNOWLEDGE 404 1767 , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: Frenchman is safe in this country.”Frenchman is safe this in “No next! for him coming be might fear. They with Fort hysterical was alive. slip of paper would be lucky togetout. of lucky slip paper would be fl and chains with loaded down no immediately He better. was was Butship. land Constantinople in arrived He again. on December land reach to storms, autumn of swell the on tossed Syria, from days thirty-three arduous an ship It the took torment. of his scrawled on of a quarter-sheet paper, to tell slanted nearly and illegible, survives bound fi Frenchman. anative-born been Roboly had is, that doubt—if, say anybody does subject, onthe documents overtwenty Not absent. in ously once, French. he was But conspicu- that one is piece of evidence Roboly,free insisting to attempts their in capitulations tothe again and again referred Constantinople French the struck a fl consul with of Algiers dey when the before, years three incident for an retaliation in pretext, France choose to make it so. (In should belli, casus capitulations—a of the violation inexcusable absolute and an was arrest his French, then really he was hand, other onthe If, tan’s permission. sul- the without entered had French and service years for forty taxes his dodged the Turks alleged, then the rest of as their Armenian, was charges Roboly if really case: of the crux were the was This Frenchness? justifi what about Roboly’s And were unproven. accusations the that he merely said confi deny. never Even Fort could nobody business tricky in ears his to up was Roboly ship. of the bowels sordid the in down twenty-fi to up sometimes chains,” fl man trade was in ruins; merchants, customs offi subject. Yet to these Roboly free efforts were French to no Alexandria, avail. In of aFrench arrest the forbade that capitulations written of the article the him showed actually and of Egypt pasha went tothe Cairo in France’s dragoman chief ally to the grand vizier about outrageous this abuse of diplomatic conventions. paralyzed, unable to communicate. ung into prison with the slaves, the sultan’s dreaded sultan’s dreaded the slaves, the with prison into ung where Roboly waswhere born Roboly dently said that Roboly did not smuggle rice out of the Ottoman empire; empire; not Roboly did Ottoman smuggle out of rice that the said dently 109 ed in fear for their lives. And on the onthe And lives. for their fear ed in Roboly must have known things could only get worse when the ship set sail, setsail, ship when getworse the only could things known have Roboly must But Fort. that “Calumny,” insisted him? against allegations of the What person- protested Constantinople, in FrenchVergennes, ambassador the 25 . rst for Syria, then on to the imperial capital. A tiny scrap of his writing, writing, of his scrap Atiny capital. imperial ontothe then for Syria, rst , 1767 7 , , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: 14 22 , , fi 31 ve months and two days from the start of his captivity on the onthe captivity of his start the from days two and ve months , and September September , and 109 . This single fact could have proved the point beyond beyond point provedthe have could fact single . This . ve hundredweight of them, lashed to the slaves slaves tothe lashed ofve hundredweight them, y whisk.) Fort and his superiors in Cairo and and Cairo in superiors Fort his and y whisk.) 1830 39 Fort to ministry, January January ministry, to Fort 37 And without a dragoman, he was of course of he course was adragoman, without And . Roboly to Fort, September September Fort, to Roboly . 38 39 France would invade Algeria on a lesser Astonishingly, Roboly had survived the the Roboly survived had Astonishingly, cials, and the consulate’s Jewish drago- Reala , Roboly continued to “groan in to“groan in , Roboly continued bagnio 26 , 1768 2 , from which even a even which , from , ed; he had indeed he indeed had ed; 1767 , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: 110 . 109 ; the victim of this principle.” of this victim the recently was Constantinople, in born Roboly, Alexandria, of in France Dragoman . Sr.. . states. its in born tochildren French citizenship torecognize wanted never Porte has “The said: Priest Saint Levant, the in born dragomans of choosing practice of the Speaking particular. in service dragoman for the and consulates from Constantinople in French ambassador Priest, comte de Saint the by written areport about Roboly in tocome It out. appeared whole for the truth years ten it nearly took And Alexandria. in down tosettle for things years at two took least the Ottomans deposed the leading beys in an attempt to reassert authority.) It in fortune of who most his lost Magallon, Charles called Egypt ate in French expatri- long-term aprominent, by Napoleon’s drafted be would invasion for blueprint (The onEgypt. designs French imperial helped formalize ence that invasion in French the until Egypt in upheavals political biggest one of the also was spect, retro- in of what, consequence indirect for ageneration—an relations Egyptian kind of release. a been it employers, have must for his and for him torture, of sustained a year nearly After sultan. of the acaptive slaves, the worry,” and with ing Roboly died, April On much. too was prison slave but the voyage, 40 plight, makes me look at the Grace that the King has been made has which ity Your so interest my an in unfortunate take Grandeur kind as ofhuman- sentiment The days. Majesty’s ofHis happiness and gation obligation to for pray the prolon- duties to the God my most essential . among . . number will [I] and memory my from erased be never will she said, goodness,” Roboly. Widow Veuve “La King’s pen: “The Roboly”—the to the unaccustomed another, clearly in signed and one hand in It written is Versailles. for widow, his Roboly’s Maria. story ends one with last unconventional letter to greater. were debts or his of faith”; bad now insolvent, part most for the and Levant, the and Egypt around dispersed of Turks, Greeks, and hands Moors, the were “in assets of fall the in estate tohis turned to a one. identity, national claim imperial by an claimed laying while defi competing French, Roboly called neither of these which French truth, likely The The Ottoman. him called all. Ottomans the at and France visited having never perhaps age, . “Mémoire envoyé par M. le Cte. De St. Priest,” Priest,” St. De Cte. le M. par envoyé “Mémoire . 1769 Roboly’s arrest and captivity were part of the greatest crisis in French- in were ofRoboly’s greatest crisis the part and captivity arrest Though Roboly “had the reputation for being rich,” when Consul Fort rich,” when Consul for being reputation the Roboly “had Though to 1798 41 1784 Ambassador Vergennes arranged a pension of fi apension Vergennes arranged Ambassador nitions could accommodate, was that Etienne Roboly was both: both: Roboly was Etienne that was accommodate, could nitions . And it was just this kind of explicit, traumatic, personal experi- personal traumatic, of explicit, kind this it just was . And , which recommended wide-ranging reforms for Levantine forLevantine reforms wide-ranging recommended , which 40

Born in ConstantinopleBorn 1768 , he found Roboly’s affairs in shambles. His His shambles. in Roboly’s, he found affairs 6 – 7 . 41 . Fort to ministry, August August Fort to ministry, . 15 —perhaps of mixed parent- , 1768 , “broken by suffer- by , “broken ve hundred livres ve livres hundred 1786 21 , , when 1768 , AN: AE B/I/ AE , AN: 110 . Jasanoff • Imperial Trauma: Part 2 405 AE B/I/ the Nile, 1849–50 Nile, the 43 42 status. To give one example, however, according to an an to To however, according one example, status. give defi ofshaky because 44 . Florence . Florence Nightingale, . Maria Roboly to ministry, November November ministry, to Roboly Maria .

It. is hard to quantify these communities in part COMMON KNOWLEDGE 406 110 . the world.”) the end of tothe we Ithought were coming cemetery: dismal agreat through Pillar, catacombs” in “went tothe for instance, Nightingale, (Florence of town. south ridge a weedy Pompey’s on perched as Pillar, known column, but asingle city ancient of the standing remains Little vestiges. ancient of absence visible the lamented have tra, Cleopa- and of Alexander tales in steeped toAlexandria, Western visitors century, Ifi literature, and volumes archival of crumbly pages the from Alexandria of imagining ayear more than After validated French? as some sense in he not was also wife, (Italian-born) for his pension of astate award the and affairs his in of France interest belated the with death, But in subject. law, Ottoman French.” an Ottoman under He died, for “turning arrested been Turk,” he had “turning from Frenchmen back he helped had pull waythat the much In toFrance. allegiance own of his acknowledgment seeking he died had all, of After France. king tothe wife’sRoboly approved loyalty would have of his heart. my Ihold in which recognition true the express feebly very only Ican whom to Grandeur, ofYour feelings generous the Ioweto which agood as me, offer to of years the city’s population was, as it remains, composed almost entirely of peo- of entirely almost composed Egyptian. be to ple considered remains, it as was, population city’s the years of acouple within and followed; groups minority other and of Greeks, Jews, duses exo- toleave. Massive “non-Egyptians” and nationals foreign forcing) some cases (or in encouraging and companies foreign-owned nationalizing legislation passed communities. religious and ethnic with up to of diversity, high-water mark its reach population Alexandria’s seen had centuries concerning national and imperial identities. The setof nineteenth reasons for adifferent wrong-footed later, himself Roboly found would have and early twentieth ahalf and acentury born he Had been itself. of Alexandria history postcolonial the foreshadowed eerily experience his since Alexandria, place in took empire (New York: Grove, nitions of “foreign” or “European” or“European” of“foreign” nitions It seems more than coincidence that Roboly’s collision with identity and Letters from Egypt: A Journey on on AJourney Egypt: from Letters 30 43 But today the city invites refl invites city But the today percent of its inhabitants hailing from non-Arab or non-Muslim or non-Muslim non-Arab from hailing percent inhabitants of its 1849 1987 , “which, after those of Rome, are rather a farce; toPompey’s afarce; rather of Rome,are those after , “which, ), 21 25 42 , . 1768 nally visited the city in May, in city the visited nally , AN: , AN: 1878 45

Etienne Roboly had painfully experienced the the experienced painfully Roboly had Etienne York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, Giroux, and Straus, York: Farrar, Aciman, André see mation, cosmopolitan Alexandria and its demographic transfor- 45 220 approximately was time atthat population total The city. tally, there were almost 44 . For a somewhat fi For asomewhat . , In 000 . See Reimer, Reimer, . See 1956 ections on a different setof absences. onadifferent ections , President Gamel Abdel Nasser Nasser Abdel , President Gamel Colonial Bridgehead Colonial ctionalized,fi 43 2001 , 000 Out of Egypt: AMemoir Egypt: of Out . Since the eighteenth eighteenth the . Since “Europeans” living in the the in living “Europeans” 1994 rsthand account of ). , 160 , 110 . (New dear,” ripostes her Egyptian friend, “it had to be claimed by its people.” its by claimed “it tobe had friend, herdear,” Egyptian ripostes novel Mahfouz’s Naguib in Greek Alexandrian an changed,” says seemed now. “It’s abit was how all That Alexandria Bengali. without Lane Brick or streets; onthe English only out and faded signs bodega the with Harlem Spanish Imagine spices. and of curry smell the without Lexington and ninth Twenty- window; the in ducks roasted without shop fronts Chinatown eateries; Lebanese the Roadwithout London’s Edgware communities: ethnic out their London or New York Imagine with- there. anight more tospend than foreigner only Now the it Iwas felt if as Alexandria. of central parts certain in bic-speakers defi been shunted out of Alexandria by a nationalist and fundamentally fundamentally and anationalist by out shunted ofbeen Alexandria he would have non-“Egyptian,” and non-Arab, anon-Muslim, as era, postcolonial minority groups (or imperial an regime that included other within like as Ottoman him Armenians, defi imperial inclusionary, of an dangers potential 46 the amid call makeshift tothis answer in for minutes, ten out. And jumped drivers overand pulled minibuses him; tojoin street the Men crossed prayers. conduct “ atentative and acough, clearing, athroat times: of changed reminder another Durrell’s Lawrence mywaythrough plowing diligently sea, the facing Zaghloul, Saad Midan onthe at Iwas acafé afternoon, One night. by at Mecca Kaaba of the aposter coveredwith was machines, ing roast- bigbrass its of with lot. Awhole Sophianapolou’s store, wall coffee lywood Hol- abandoned asetonan seemed like elite, cosmopolitan ofhaunt Alexandria’s once the Pastroudis, dominos. playing and men’s hookahs worlds, for smoking much very are where cafés acountry in anovelty cafés, Western-style I sat in birds, or surmounted landing, takeoff by frozen in it a swan, was unclear which. fi case aglass and wires, cloth-wound side and onthe crank a with register, of acash atelephone size lobby was the the In arelic. of being sense distinct the toorder. off gave hand-blown My been had hotel each also if as sizes, of irregular bulbs naked bright, were by lit They railings. dented brass with stairs marble grills, elevator dust-caked and plasterwork rococo with foyers population. homogeneous “native” alargely by inhabited remains, cityscape cosmopolitan 1978 Mahmoud (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, allahu akbar allahu . Naguib Mahfouz, . Naguib Mahfouz, nition of identity—one that completely transformed the city itself. azans ), 8 Only two generations ago, you would have been hard-pressed tofi hard-pressed been you ago, have would generations two Only I walked past art deco apartment blocks and peered into grand, decrepit grand, into peered and blocks apartment deco art past I walked . from area mosques, men prayed on plastic mats, twenty feet away from from away feet twenty mats, plastic on prayed men mosques, area from .” Somebody had set himself up with a loudspeaker in the square to square the in aloudspeaker up with .” sethimself had Somebody Miramar dhimmis , trans. Fatma Moussa Moussa Fatma , trans. ), among the taxable ranks of its subjects. But in the the But in subjects. of its ranks taxable the ), among Alexandria Quartet nition of identity that claimed lled with tatty stuffed stuffed tatty with lled , when Iheard Miramar exclusionary nd nd Ara- 46 . “My The

Jasanoff • Imperial Trauma: Part 2 407 2005 and Conquest in the 1750–1850 East, book my in Egypt, and India 47

. This argument is This developed reference with further, to . COMMON KNOWLEDGE 408 ). cultures to coexist, and at times even intermingle. of arange for people from security of common umbrella an provide may empire tolook at how us invites of Alexandria history the hierarchies, or ethnic racial to according cultures segregating control, and aforce of as division only empire at looking than Rather somewhatcounterintuitive. independent nations—seem many than of difference more accommodating been sometimes have empires second lesson—that the makes which things, evil as taught empires tosee been Yet not is nice. also we have nationalism that knows Everybody populations. ity history will confi from all this is obvious: nation-states, as the But scene. one lesson briefest present-day Alexandrian of the part remain glance mixing, even at twentieth-century juxtaposition, of cultural some forms show that hands, changing objects antique or the Hotel Cecil, the by prayers the And Suez Canal. the nationalized Nasser why tounderstand empire, later and formal toWestern informal thrall in history, modern Egypt’s to survey needs one only as people—just its by put it, Mahfouz as reclaimed, needed tobe city whythe tosee onEgypt, perspective Orientalist sides. now totake had setting, at acosmopolitan home in objects, these them, who once had owned families Roboly, the Etienne West. or like tothe Like sent and “back” bought for export or homes, Egyptian into absorbed and up bought being now past, cosmopolitan after behind, Alexandria who left families of the debris the was: stuff this me what all it did strike gradually Only so corrodedand trinkets it was impossible to tell what metal they were made of. cases, cigarette frames, photos in family browned trophies, cups, metal assorted in states between posing, pouting, lounging, and contemplating. captured There ethnicity, women and of were indeterminate skies, and hills orange lurid horsemen against Arab Western landscapes, of autumnal paintings wereThere oil chandeliers. crystal garish chests, little bulbous and armchairs rosewood heavy fi shop was Shop after brassware). antique mirrors, inlaid tables, (octagonal items Eastern Middle distinctively had acouple of Only stores of town. district Attarin the in market antique the around past. Alexandria of tales non-Arab non-Muslim, chauvinistically rather his in scenes staged had Durrell Hotel Cecil—where the ways in which, for many postcolonial nation-states, imperial legacies have cursed cursed have legacies imperial nation-states, postcolonial many for which, in ways Nor it is tooverlook prejudice. the fairly, people without all treat empires that Of course, one only needs to read Durrell, with his ethnocentric, neo- ethnocentric, his with Durrell, toread needs one only course, Of when Iwandered came of what sense vanished had vivid most But the Edge Lives, of Culture, Empire: (New York: Knopf, rm, haverm, often proved themselves to be hostile toward minor- lled, instead, with European-style furnishings, furnishings, European-style with instead, lled, 1956 . These were the true relics of the city’s city’s of the relics true were the . These 47 This is not This to say, of course, ary defiary how inclusion- and whether is question larger se.The per cosmopolitanism nious toharmo- secret the topossess claim can nor empires neither nations shows that the process of identity-formation from the outset. If anything, Roboly’s story in tolerant, even congenial, forms. congenial, even tolerant, in fi can or nation-states empires whether nitions of belonging can be made to outweigh exclusionary ones—and ones—and exclusionary tooutweigh made be can of belonging nitions nd ways of embracing human difference difference human of embracing nd ways

Jasanoff • Imperial Trauma: Part 2 409