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Control of Emissions from Unregulated Nonroad Engines

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United States Air and Radiation EPA420-R-02-022 Environmental Protection September 2002 Agency Final Regulatory Support Document: Control of Emissions from Unregulated Nonroad Engines Printed on Recycled Paper EPA420-R-02-022 September 2002 Final Regulatory Support Document: Control of Emissions from Unregulated Nonroad Engines Assessment and Standards Division Office of Transportation and Air Quality U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Table of Contents Executive Summary Chapter 1: Health and Welfare Concerns 1.1 Inventory Contributions ................................................ 1-1 1.1.1 Inventory Contribution ........................................... 1-1 1.1.2 Baseline Inventory Adjustment ..................................... 1-5 1.1.2 Inventory Impacts on a Per Vehicle Basis ............................. 1-7 1.2 Ozone .............................................................. 1-8 1.2.1 General Background ............................................. 1-8 1.2.2 Health and Welfare Effects of Ozone and Its Precursors ................. 1-9 1.2.3 Ozone Nonattainment and Contribution to Ozone Nonattainment ......... 1-11 1.2.4 Public Health and Welfare Concerns from Prolonged and Repeated Exposures to Ozone......................................................... 1-14 1.2.5 Additional Health and Welfare Effects of NOx Emissions .................. 1-15 1.3 Carbon Monoxide ................................................... 1-17 1.3.1 General Background ............................................ 1-17 1.3.2 Health Effects of CO ............................................ 1-18 1.3.3 CO Nonattainment ............................................. 1-18 1.4 Particulate Matter ................................................... 1-23 1.4.1 General Background ............................................ 1-23 1.4.2 Health and Welfare Effects of PM ................................. 1-25 1.4.3 PM Nonattainment ............................................. 1-26 1.5 Visibility Degradation ................................................ 1-31 1.5.1 General Background ............................................ 1-31 1.5.2 Visibility Impairment Where People Live, Work and Recreate ........... 1-32 1.5.3 Visibility Impairment in Class I Areas .............................. 1-44 1.5.4 Recreational Vehicles and Visibility Impairment in Class I Areas ......... 1-47 1.6 Gaseous Air Toxics .................................................. 1-54 1.6.1 Benzene ...................................................... 1-54 1.6.2 1,3-Butadiene ................................................. 1-55 1.6.3 Formaldehyde ................................................. 1-56 1.6.4 Acetaldehyde .................................................. 1-57 1.6.5 Acrolein ...................................................... 1-57 1.6.6 Toluene ...................................................... 1-57 1.7 Exposure to CO and Air Toxics Associated with Nonroad Engines and Vehicles . 1-58 1.7.1 Large SI Engines ............................................... 1-58 1.7.2 Snowmobiles .................................................. 1-59 Chapter 2: Industry Characterization 2.1 CI Marine Engines and Recreational Boats ................................. 2-1 2.1.1 The Supply Side ................................................. 2-1 2.1.2 The Demand Side ................................................ 2-6 2.1.3 Industry Organization ............................................. 2-7 2.1.4 Markets ...................................................... 2-11 2.2 Large SI Engines and Industrial Equipment ................................ 2-19 2.2.1 The Supply Side ................................................ 2-19 2.2.2 The Demand Side ............................................... 2-23 2.2.3 Industry Organization ............................................ 2-26 2.2.4 Markets ...................................................... 2-28 2.3 Snowmobile Market .................................................. 2-31 2.3.1 The Supply Side ................................................ 2-31 2.3.2 The Demand Side ............................................... 2-33 2.3.3 Industry Organization ............................................ 2-35 2.3.4 Snowmobile Retailers and Rental Firms ............................. 2-37 2.3.5 Markets ...................................................... 2-37 2.4 All-Terrain Vehicles .................................................. 2-39 2.4.1 The Supply Side ................................................ 2-39 2.4.2 The Demand Side ............................................... 2-41 2.4.3 Industry Organization ............................................ 2-42 2.4.4 Markets ...................................................... 2-46 2.5 Off-Highway Motorcycles ............................................. 2-48 2.5.1 The Supply Side ................................................ 2-49 2.5.2 The Demand Side ............................................... 2-56 2.5.3 Industry Organization ............................................ 2-57 2.5.4 Markets ...................................................... 2-60 Chapter 3: Technology 3.1 Introduction to Spark-Ignition Engine Technology ........................... 3-1 3.1.1 Four-Stroke Engines ............................................. 3-1 3.1.2 Two-Stroke Engines ............................................. 3-2 3.1.3 - Engine Calibration .............................................. 3-3 3.2 - Exhaust Emissions and Control Technologies .............................. 3-6 3.2.1 - Current Two-Stroke Engines ...................................... 3-6 3.2.2 - Clean Two-Stroke Technologies .................................. 3-10 3.2.3 - Current Four-Stroke Engines ..................................... 3-15 3.2.4 - Clean Four-Stroke Technologies .................................. 3-16 3.2.5 - Advanced Emission Controls .................................... 3-19 3.3 - Evaporative Emissions ............................................... 3-22 3.3.1 Sources of Evaporative Emissions .................................. 3-22 3.3.2 Evaporative Emission Controls .................................... 3-24 3.4 CI Recreational Marine Engines ........................................ 3-28 3.4.1 Background on Emissions Formation from Diesel Engines .............. 3-28 3.4.2 Marinization Process ............................................ 3-30 3.4.3 General Description of Technology for Recreational Marine Diesel Engines .............................................................. 3-31 Chapter 4: Feasibility of Standards 4.1 CI Recreational Marine ................................................ 4-1 4.1.1 Baseline Technology for CI Recreational Marine Engines ................ 4-1 4.1.2 Anticipated Technology for CI Recreational Marine Engines .............. 4-4 4.1.3 Emission Measurement Procedures for CI Recreational Marine Engines ..... 4-5 4.1.4 Impacts on Noise, Energy, and Safety ............................... 4-14 4.2 Large Industrial SI Engines ............................................ 4-16 4.2.1 2004 Standards ................................................. 4-16 4.2.2 2007 Standards ................................................. 4-16 4.2.3 Impacts on Noise, Energy, and Safety ............................... 4-37 4.3 Snowmobile Engines ................................................. 4-39 4.3.1 Baseline Technology and Emissions ................................ 4-39 4.3.2 Potentially Available Snowmobile Technologies ...................... 4-39 4.3.3 Test and Measurement Issues ..................................... 4-44 4.3.4 Impacts on Noise, Energy, and Safety ............................... 4-48 4.3.5 Conclusions ................................................... 4-48 4.4 All-Terrain Vehicles/Engines ........................................... 4-53 4.4.1 Baseline Technology and Emissions ................................ 4-53 4.4.2 Potentially Available ATV Technologies ............................ 4-56 4.4.3 Test Cycle/Procedure ............................................ 4-64 4.4.4 Small Displacement Engines ...................................... 4-66 4.4.5 Impacts on Noise, Energy, and Safety ............................... 4-67 4.4.6 Conclusion .................................................... 4-67 4.5 Off-Highway Motorcycles ............................................. 4-68 4.5.1 Baseline Technology and Emissions ................................ 4-68 4.5.2 Potentially Available Off-Highway Motorcycle Technologies ............ 4-70 4.5.3 Test Procedure ................................................. 4-75 4.5.4 Impacts on Noise, Energy, and Safety ............................... 4-76 4.5.5 Conclusion .................................................... 4-76 4.6 Permeation Control from Recreational Vehicles ............................ 4-78 4.6.1 Baseline Technology and Emissions ................................ 4-78 4.6.2 Permeation Reduction Technologies ................................ 4-81 4.6.3 Test Procedures ................................................ 4-97 4.6.4 Conclusion .................................................... 4-99 4.6.5 Impacts on Noise, Energy, and Safety ............................... 4-99 Appendix to Chapter 4: Emission Index For Recreational Vehicle Hangtags........ 4-101 Chapter 5: Costs of Control 5.1 Methodology......................................................... 5-1 5.2 Cost of Emission Controls by Engine/Vehicle Type .........................
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