Selected Anthropometric and Physical Fitness Variables Relationship With

Selected Anthropometric and Physical Fitness Variables Relationship with Performance of Sprinters, Middle and Long Distance Runners of Ethiopian Athletics Training Centers

Amensisa Kebede, Daniel Kibrom, Woldegebreal Mezgebo, Sirak Habtemariam (Ph.D) & Samson Wondirad

Abstract

Similar studies of the present for Ethiopian junior running athletes are definitely lacking or even none. Therefore, cross-sectional study design was employed to explore the anthropometric and physical fitness profile of junior athletes aged 15 to 18 in Ethiopia. Sprinters, middle distance and Long distance runners from were included from Machew, Hagerselam, Bekoji, Deberberhan and Ethiopian sport academy training centers using available sample selection technique .Pearson correlation reveals that male sprinters best time is significantly correlated with BMI and also correlated with total leg length mean On the other hand Physical fitness variable of female sprinters speed and sit and reach are correlated with best time. Male middle distance athletes‘ best time is significantly correlated with male leg and female athletes‘ middle best time with leg length. Total age middle distance athletes are also positively correlated with the middle distance athletes. Height of male long distance total height and total leg length are also significantly correlated with athletic performance of long distance runners. The Physical fitness variables revealed that male wall sit total 5 power female are also correlated with long distance runner athletic performance. Paired t test indicates a statistically significant improvement in performance time to best time. For female athletes there was a statistically significant difference at the in score of female. Sprinters have greater agility score. There was a statistically significant difference in score of female BMI for the three groups. Similarly, for male athletes there was a statistically significant difference in score of male BMI. There was a statistically significant difference in score of male Speed for the events. More over there was a statistically significant difference in score of male leg power. There was also a statistically significant difference in score of male training age. A one way analysis of variance conducted also indicates that Performance change of male athletes‘ is significantly different across .Pair wise comparison between events and sex on performance change indicates significant difference in long distance whereas no difference was found either between or across sprinters or middle distance athletes. Stepwise multiple regressions indicate that sit and reach test explained 24.1% of the variance in female middle distance performance. Secondly, endurance test (1500m) explained 50.8 % of the variance in female long distance performance. And finally, height explained 33.9% of the variance in male middle distance performance:. However, no valuable indicator of sprinters performance is seen from the regression output.

Keywords: Anthropometry, Athlete, Performance, Physical fitness, Speed and Sprint

Introduction

Talent detection refers to the discovery of potential performers who are currently not involved in the sport in question. Talent identification refers to the process of recognizing current participants with the potential to become elite players. It entails predicting performance over various periods of time by measuring physical, physiological, psychological and sociological attributes as well as technical abilities either alone or in combination (Régnier, G., Salmela, J.H. and Russell, S.J., 1993).

Talent selection involves the ongoing process of identifying athletes at various stages that demonstrates prerequisite levels of performance for inclusion in a given squad or team. Selection involves choosing the most appropriate individual or group of individuals to carry out the task within a specific context (Borms, 1996). In literature suggestions are made about the determinant factors in sports which can predict success and should be used for talent identification (Gemser, 2005). Selecting children for appropriate sport is the most demanding and the most responsible task for sport experts and kinesiology in general. Different sports are determined by authentic kinesiological structures and specific anthropological characteristics of an individual (Abernethy, 2005; Chapman, 2008). The success of an individual in a particular sport activity is predominantly determined by the compatibility of his/her anthropological characteristics (Morrow & James, 2005). Identifying potential athletes at an early age ensures that athletes receive specialized coaching and training to accelerate the talent development process. The reliable identification of future elite athletes permits clubs to focus their expenditure on more effective management of their resources. Thus, the researchers spotlighted in athletic training centres of Ethiopia focusing on selected anthropometric and physical fitness variables.

Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study was to explore some factors of talent identification, detection and development profiles of Ethiopian athletic training centres.

Methodology

Research design

The research design of this study was cross sectional study design. This design has a number of advantages, such as, collecting data at once, time saving and minimizing energy cost (Creswell, 2012).

Results and Discussion

Descriptive statistics of sprinters, middle and long distance runners

Short distance, middle distance and long distance athletes‘ BMI, height, power, leg length, agility, age, speed, wall sit, sit and reach test, endurance test, entry time, current time and performance change was computed using descriptive statistics: Line chart, histograms, Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, paired t-test, one way ANOVA, two way ANOVA and stepwise multiple regression followed by interpretation and discussion.

Table 1. Study Participants Selected across Training Centre

TRAINING CENTER Sex and Events Number F 17 SEX M 19 Sprint 11 ACADEMY EVENT Middle 15 Long 10 Total 36 F 10 SEX M 15 Sprint 10 BEKOJI EVENT Middle 11 Long 4 Total 25 F 9 SEX M 7 M 1 DEBR.BERHAN Sprint 4 EVENT Middle 6 Long 7 Total 17 F 6 SEX M 15 Sprint 8 HAGERSELAM EVENT Middle 7 Long 6 Total 21 F 16 SEX M 19 SPRINT 12 MACHEW EVENT MIDDLE 13 LONG 10 Total 35 Antropometric and physical fitness tests

Short distance result : The results of this study showed that the average age of sprinters was 17yrs old. This is at the good level set for most athletes with such age. The mean age value of both male and female athletes is 17 with a deviation of less than 1 year. Mostly the athletes were expected to join the training centres for under 17 yrs old. As the table indicates, most of the athletes are found with the required age mean deviations. In the above table both female and male sprinters mean leg length is 88cm with 12cm variation for males and less than 8cm variation for females. The BMI score for male sprinters is also 20.7 and 20 for females. A considerable difference between gender sit and reach test mean result of male 10.6 and 15.9 with similar deviation of 8 and 7.5 consequatively is shown. The score is at Excellent for

Figure 1. Sprinters Field Test Results

sit&reach

wall sit

dash board 50m

shuttle run

Standing Long jump 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Standing dash board shuttle run wall sit sit&reach Long jump 50m Mean 2 10.29 6.55 3.51 12.59 Std 0.34 0.61 0.66 2.34 7.47 female and above average for males scale while rated according to most norm standards set for the test. However less mean results are observed for female speed, agility and power tests compared to males. Huston & Wojtys (1996) concluded that neuromuscular performance was different in females, causing females to fire hamstring muscles later than the males. The body may be compensating in different areas to achieve analogous ground reaction forces to remain competitive in sport-based actions, while stressing other components of the lower body kinematic system. On the other hand, the long broad jump or power score of sprinters is excellent when it is compared to the 16 year old athletes norm standard put for the test which is also quite similar with middle distance athletes mean score.But much below the average while compared with adults norm standard.The muscular streangth endurance wall sit test mean score of female middle and short distance athletes are quite surprisingly greater than their male associates. In addition, Kale et al. (2009) stated that jump power is the best indicator of sprinting ability. Results of Middle Distance Athletes.

The mean height value of the long distance athletes is less than both male and female athletes of sprinters and middle distance runners. The power test score is also less than the average norm standards of the test. Siris (1986) indicated that the medium height of world elite sprinters is 177.9cm. However, Niels (2005) stated that there is no optimal height for sprinters, but there are an optimal range exclude sprinters who are very tall or very short in stature. However, the endurance mean test scores are quite similar with middle distance athletes result.

Results of long distance athletes

A paired – samples repeated measures T-test was conducted to evaluate the effect of the test of entrance time and their last best time. There was a statistically significant improvement in performance time 1(M=425.95, SD=520.94) to best time (M=413.13, SD=506.94), t (129) =4.05, p<.00 (two tailed). The mean decrease was 12.82 with 95% confidence interval ranging from 6.56 to 19.09. The eta squared statistics (0.34) indicated a large effect size.

Results for the Comparison of Main Effects on the Variables

One way between event groups with split of female was conducted to explore the impact of selected anthropometric and physical fitness variables on female athletes‘ best performance. The female athletes were divided into three according to their events (sprint, middle and long). There was a statistically significant difference at the p<0.05 level in score of female agility for the three groups: [F (2, 55) = 10.42, P = 0.00]. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score of sprint (mean= 10.62, std =0.34) was statistically significant from middle distance runner (mean= 11.19, std=0.38) and long distance runner (mean= 11.24, std= 1.78). However, middle distance runner (mean= 11.19, std= 0.38) not statistically significant with long distance runner (mean= 11.24, std= 1.78).The female athletes were divided into three according to their events (sprint, middle and long). There was a statistically significant difference at the p<0.05 level in score of female BMI for the three groups: F (2, 55) = 6.00, P = 0.004. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score of sprint (mean= 19.96, std = 1.57) was statistically significant from middle distance runner (mean= 18.78, std= 1.2) and long distance runner (mean= 18.27, std= 1.79). To improve sprint performance of children, control or reduce the body weight may be a useful method to achieve the goal.

Furthermore, Onyewadume et al. (2004) mentioned that sprinters have relatively high percentage of muscle mass owing to genetic factors and training effect, and the somatotype of majority successful sprinters have tended to be predominantly mesomorphic. Generally, the athletes in track events of athletics have low body fat mass in norm. High in body fat mass can influence the track events performance.

The female athletes were divided into three according to their events (sprint, middle and long). There was a statistically significant difference at the p<0.05 level in score of female Speed for the three groups: F (2, 55) = 5.16, P = 0.009. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score of sprint (mean= 7.09, std =0.43) was statistically significant from middle distance runner (mean= 7.57, std= 1.65) and long distance runner (mean= 7.78, std= 1.8). However, middle distance runner (mean= 7.57, std= 1.65) not statistically significant with long distance runner (mean= 7.78, std= 1.8). Significant differences between genders were observed after the age of 15 years. A parallel speed improvement during sprinting for both genders at growing age has been reported previously (AAHPER, 1976).

Table3. ANOVA table for Anthropometric Variables‘ Across Sex and Event

SEX Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 91.244 2 45.622 .818 .447 LEG.LENGTH Within Groups 3067.101 55 55.765 Total 3158.345 57 Between Groups .554 2 .277 .375 .689 AGE Within Groups 40.567 55 .738 Total 41.121 57 Between Groups .280 2 .140 .188 .829 F TRA.AGE Within Groups 40.824 55 .742 Total 41.103 57 Between Groups 71.395 2 35.697 1.315 .277 HEIGHT Within Groups 1493.036 55 27.146 Total 1564.431 57 Between Groups 25.919 2 12.959 6.004 .004 BMI Within Groups 118.719 55 2.159 Total 144.638 57 Between Groups 430.783 2 215.391 2.306 .107 LEG.LENGTH Within Groups 6726.204 72 93.420 Total 7156.987 74 Between Groups .877 2 .439 .880 .419 AGE Within Groups 35.870 72 .498 Total 36.747 74 Between Groups 5.624 2 2.812 3.794 .027 M TRA.AGE Within Groups 53.363 72 .741 Total 58.987 74 Between Groups 156.187 2 78.093 1.780 .176 HEIGHT Within Groups 3158.480 72 43.868 Total 3314.667 74 Between Groups 47.535 2 23.768 4.688 .012 BMI Within Groups 365.068 72 5.070 Total 412.603 74

The male athletes were divided into three according to their events (sprint, middle and long). There was a statistically significant difference at the p<0.05 level in score of male BMI for the three groups: F (2, 72) = 4.67, P = 0.00. Studies from Marshall and Bouffard (1994), Okely et al. (2004), and Southall, Okely, and Steele (2004) found body composition to be negatively related to loco motor skill proficiency (e.g., running, jumping) but did not reveal differences in motor skill level for relatively stationary object control tasks (e.g., striking, throwing, catching, kicking). Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score of sprint (mean= 20.69, std = 2.46) However, wasn‘t statistically significant from middle distance runner (mean= 18.78, std= 1.4). And also wasn‘t statistically significant long distance runner (mean= 18.27, std= 1.79)

Findings of Male Athletes Performance Change in Relation Events The male athletes were divided into three according to their events (sprint, middle and long). There was a statistically significant difference at the p<0.05 level in score of male Speed for the three groups: F (2, 72) = 14.03, P = 0.00. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score of sprint (mean= 6.17, std = 0.054) was statistically significant from middle distance runner (mean= 6.56, std= 0.52) and long distance runner (mean= 7.03, std= 0.65). The male athletes were

divided into three according to their events (sprint, middle and long). There was a statistically significant difference at the p<0.05 level in score of male power for the three groups: F (2, 72) = 11.687.67, P = 0.00. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score of long distance runner (mean= 1.87, STD = 0.26) However, wasn‘t statistically significant from middle distance runner (mean= 2.12, STD= 0.16). And also wasn‘t statistically significantly differ from sprinters (mean= 2.2, std= 0.3). Higher levels of muscular strength and power would be of advantage to a middle-distance athlete in terms of improving maximal speed and acceleration. Muscular strength and power are important components of performance in many sports and athletic events (Abernethy & Wilson, 2000). Research studies evaluating the relationship between running speed and economy have found that middle-distance runners (800 and 1500m) were the most economical at running speeds above marathon pace, when compared to athletes competing in other running events (Daniels & Daniels, 1992).

The male athletes were divided into three according to their events (sprint, middle and long). There was a statistically significant difference at the p<0.05 level in score of male training age for the three groups: F (2, 72) = 3.8, P = 0.03. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score of sprint (mean= 2.0 std = 0.8) was statistically significant from middle distance runner (mean= 2.65, std= 0.85) and not with long distance runner (mean= 2.4, std= 0.85). Sprint performance during children and adolescents period depends on growth and maturation (Villanueva et al, 2011). In junior sprinters with aged 13 to 18, they were within the period of adolescence growth. Older adolescent can perform faster in 100m than younger adolescent. Besides the training effect, junior sprinters may run faster due to the muscular and bone development in puberty period. After this period, they entered another period of aging or maturation. Metabolism, muscle mass and bone density were decreased gradually (Siris, 1986).

A one way analysis of variance conducted also indicates that Performance change of male athletes‘ is significantly different across events F (2,72)=3.73 p=0.029 Besides reaching a statistical significant , the actual difference in mean scores between events was considerable.

Chart 2: Athletes‘ performance change across sex and events

The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was 0.09. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the male middle distance athletes mean score performance change (M=4.17 SD=4.3) was significantly different from long distance athletes (M=1.25 SD=3.35 ). But Male Sprinters performance change (M=3.38 SD=3.67) didn‘t differ significantly neither from male middle distance nor male long distance runners performance change. On the other hand, no statistical difference was seen in female performance change across events.

Analysis of Two Way ANOVA

A two way ANOVA between groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore the pair wise comparison between events and sex on performance change. A significant difference is found in long distance athletes‘ performance change among sex F (2, 34) =2.99 P=.044 whereas no difference is found either between sprinters or middle distance athletes.

The Relationship between Anthropometric and Physical Fitness

Short Distance

A Pearson correlation was introduced to see the association between the selected anthropometric and physical fitness variables with the best time of the athletes. Male sprinters best time is significantly correlated with BMI (0.51) p= 0.01) and leg length (-.43) p=.05.Total best time of sprinters is also correlated with total leg length mean (-0.25) p=.05. Huston & Wojtys (1996) concluded that neuromuscular performance was different in females, causing females to fire hamstring muscles later than the males. On the other hand Physical fitness variable of female sprinters speed 0.2 p=.001; agility (-0.48) p=.05, and sit and reach (-0.36) p=.05 are correlated with best time. The highest correlation was found with male BMI and the least correlation with leg length. BMI highly correlates with body fat percentage (WHO, 2004). There is an inverse relationship between excess body weight and sprinting performance (Pinero et al., 2010; Onyewadume et al., 2004). It is quite obvious that stride length and leg length are highly related. Some investigators have found that stride length and the effect of running speed on economy are highly stable (Brisswalter & Legros, 1994; Brisswalter et al, 1996), whereas other researchers have found large degrees of variability (Morgan et al, 1991). Clearly this work is inconclusive and incomplete, and requires further investigation. Middle Distance runners Table 5

The relationship between Middle Distance runners‘ performance and their predictor‘s variable.

Variables Male Female Total N R Sig N R Sig N R Sig HEIGHT 26 .07 .38 26 -.3 .o7 52 .01 .46 BMI 26 .03 .45 26 -.04 .07 52 .03 .4 26 -.45** .01 26 -.4 .42 52 LEG.LENGTH -.32** .01

26 -.38* .03 26 -.19* .02 52 -.29* SPEED .02

TRA.AGE 26 -.24 .12 26 -.18 .17 52 -.17 .12 AGE 26 .6 .39 26 .37 .19 52 .25* .04

26 -.24 .12 26 -.17* .03 52 AGILITY .22 .06

26 -.41* .o2 26 -.42 .21 52 WALLSIT -.43** .001

26 -.12 .25 26 -.36** .01 52 -.24* SITREACH .05

POWER 26 .42 .2 26 -.2 .03 52 .15 .14 ENDURANCE 1500 26 .11 .3 26 .21 .08 52 .11 .28

*P<0.05 & **P<0.01

As the table 3 reveals male middle distance athletes best time is significantly correlated with male leg length (-0.45) p= 0.05) and female athletes middle best time with leg length (-.43) p=.05. Niels (2005) pointed out that taller athletes have relatively longer lower limbs and enable to have longer step length. Total age middle distance athletes is also negatively correlated with the middle distance athletes (- 0.25) p=.05. Age is one of the factors affecting various sports performance. Sprint performance during children and adolescents period depends on growth and maturation (Villanueva et al, 2011). On the other hand middle distance runners performance are correlated with male speed -0.38 p=.001; female speed (-0.19) p=.05, and total speed (-0.29) p=.05. Female agility (-.17) p=.05, wall sit male (-.41) p=.001, female sit and reach (-.036) p=.001 and total sit and reach -.24) p=.05 with best performance of any athlete. The need for good flexibility, and therefore the importance of flexibility measurements in distance running is considered to have low relevance (Hubley-Kozey, 1991). There may be some relationship between the flexibility of lower limb structures with stride length, power production and economy (Gleim et al, 1990; Hortobagyi et al, 1985; Shorten, 1987). The highest correlation was found with male BMI and the least correlation with leg length. The highest correlation was found with male leg length and the least correlation with female speed. Our results are consistent with and extend the findings of Ortega et al. (2011) reported better performance for female students in sit and reach test. In support, Jensen & Fisher(1979)found that the girls‘ flexibility is slightly superior when compared to the boys. However, in another study accomplished by Araújo et al. (2002) with 123 adolescents, being 58 girls, with ages between 13 and 18 years, were not found significant differences in the flexibility among the genders in the test of sit down and reach. The study accomplished by Okano et al (2001) corroborates the results presented previously. They didn‘t verify significant differences between the genders and ethnics in the test of ―seat-and reaching‖ with 103 pre-pubescent children between 8 and 11 years. It can be said that the fact that female students has presented superior values to the males values might have happened in function of viscoelastic properties of muscles have short duration.

Long Distance Table7. The relationship between long distance performance and their predictor‘s variable. The Anthropometric variables of long distance variables: height of male long distance (-0.44) p=.05 total height (-.29) p=05, total length (-.044) p=.01 are also significantly correlated with athletic performance of long distance runners. The Physical fitness variables revealed that male wall sit (-.36) p=.05 total (- 0.29) p=.05 power female (0.43) p=.001 are also correlated with long distance runner athletic performance. Strength training generally increases muscle size and therefore mass, and thus, running economy may be affected due to the increased mass, cancelling out the speed advantage. Higher levels of muscular strength and power would be of advantage to a middle distance Table 6. Long distance relationship of variables with best time

Athlete in terms of improving maximal speed and acceleration ( Enoka, 1998; Sale, 1991, 1992) . Besides, height may play an important role in athletic success (Niels, 2005).

Long Distance Variables Male Female Total N R Sig N R Sig N R sig HEIGHT 23 -.44* .02 13 -.44 .06 37 -.29* .03 BMI 23 -.24 .13 13 -.44 .45 37 -.01 .47 LEG.LENGTH 23 -.44 .18 13 .04 .7 37 -.44** .003 SPEED 23 -.24 .13 13 .43 .4 37 -.58 .37 TRA.AGE 23 -.39* .03 13 .08 .28 37 -.33* .03 AGILITY 23 -.21 .46 13 .12 .12 37 .12 .25 WALLSIT 23 -.36* .04 13 .35 .37 37 -.29* .04 SITREACH 23 -.03 .44 13 .11 .47 37 -.14 .47 POWER 23 -.01 .48 13 .43** .005 37 -.16 .17 ENDURANCE1500 23 13 -.66 .5 37 -.12 .24 -.23 .15

*P<0.05 & **P<0.01

Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis

A stepwise multiple regressions were used to compute selected anthropometric and physical fitness variables in order to predict athletes‘ performance across sex and events. Preliminary analyses were conducted to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity and homoscedasticity.

Secondly, endurance test (1500m) was entered and explained 50.8 % of the variance in female long distance performance: F(1,11) = 11.39, P< 0.05. Anaerobic capacity is defined as the maximal amount of energy (specifically adenosine triphosphate) that can be used and resynthesized by means of anaerobic processes during short-duration maximal exercise. It is extremely difficult to measure anaerobic capacity because, unlike oxygen consumption, there is no practical parameter that can be easily measured to directly determine energy production or consumption. (Astrand et al, 2003; Green & Dawson, 1993) .As stated, 40 – 66% of the energy used during middle-distance events is derived from aerobic sources (Astrand et al, 2003). The balance of the energy requirement (35 – 60%) must therefore be met by anaerobic metabolism. A study of cross-country runners determined that anaerobic work capacity, together with VO , accounted for 58% of the variability in performance (Bulbulian et 2max al, 1986). This demonstrates the significant contribution of anaerobic metabolism during high-intensity running. Finally, height was entered and explained 33.9% of the variance in male middle distance performance: F(1,24) = 12.32, P< 0.05. However, the other variables were entered into stepwise multiple regression and excluded from the analysis because they don‘t have significant variation for in explaining the best performance of an athlete. The purpose of this research project was to assess the predictive value of various physical tests with regard to competitive performance. However no valuable indicator of sprinters performance is seen from the regression output. In relation to this,

particular anthropometric measurements are pre-requisites for good athletic performance in various sports (Kukolj et al., 1999; Habibi et al., 2010). Similarly, Mirkov, Kukolj, Ugarkovic, Koprivica and Jaric (2010) pointed out that anthropometric measurement is important for early talent selection. However, Kukolj et al. (1999) stated that the measurements of anthropometry, muscular strength and power are poor predictors of the performance of initial acceleration and maximum speed phase during the sprinting. Other investigators have reported that certain tests are valuable indicators of Sprint, middle and distance athletes potential and performance (di Prampero et al, 1993; Weyand et al, 1994). Our study has indicated that these tests were not related to performance completely. However, our findings may be related to the homogeneity within our group of subjects, which narrows the range of the data in some tests. In addition, the tests performed at different altitudes for a high intensity event, such as the 800m and 1500m may have influenced the outcome of some of the assessments. Other test measurements have been shown to be of value by other investigators, part of the reason they were included in this study. Maximal oxygen consumption has often been anecdotally connected with champion performers in middle-distance events (Daniels, 1974; Snell, 1990), and has also been statistically correlated with running performance (Conley & Krahenbuhl, 1980; di Prampero et al, 1993). Similar connections have been made in terms of running economy, particularly at high running velocities (Brandon, 1995; Daniels & Daniels, 1992), although little attention has been paid to these measurements with respect to competitive conditions. However none of the proposed predictors of sprinters performance is found significant. Thus, it is useful that coaches take account of these major findings when evaluating performance in athletics.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusions

Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions have been drawn.

1. A Pearson correlation at the p<0.05 level reveals that:

 Male sprinters best time is significantly correlated with BMI. Total best time of sprinters is also correlated with total leg length mean .On the other hand Physical fitness variable of female sprinters speed; agility, and sit and reach are correlated with best time. The highest correlation was found with male BMI and the least correlation with leg length.

 Male middle distance athletes‘ best time is significantly correlated with male leg length and middle female athletes‘ best time with leg length. Moreover Total age of middle distance athletes is also negatively correlated with the middle distance athletes‘ performance.

2. The Anthropometric variables of long distance variables: Height of male long distance total height, total leg lengths are also significantly correlated with athletic performance of long distance runners.

3. The Physical fitness variables revealed that male wall sit total, power female are also correlated with long distance runners athletic performance.

4. For Paired t test there was a statistically significant improvement in performance time. at the p<0.05 level

 Female athletes differ in score of female agility across events. Sprinters have better agility score. Female BMI for the three groups differ.

 For male athletes there was a statistically significant difference: In score of BMI Speed, power, and training age for the three groups.

Thus more relation is observed between better sprint test, high BMI, greater power tests score and less age mean result and sprinters performance compared from other events.

5. A one way analysis of variance conducted also indicates that ,Male middle distance athletes‘ performance change was better than long distance athletes

6. A two way ANOVA between groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore the pair wise comparison between events and sex on performance change.

 A significant difference is found in long distance athletes‘ performance change among sex whereas no difference is found either between sprinters or middle distance athletes. Generally better performance change is seen for male middle distance athletes and female long distance athletes

7. Three types of tests were identified as viable predictors of performance in our study:

 Female middle distance athletes performance is predicted with sit and reach While male middle distance athletes performance is with height and Long distance female athletes performance is also highly predicted by 1500m running. However, the other variables were excluded from the analysis because they don‘t have significant variation for in explaining the best performance of an athlete.  Conversely no valuable indicator of sprinters performance is seen from the regression output.

8. It is concluded, from the present study, that the performance of athletes influenced by the well built physique and higher level of physical fitness standard. Recommendations  Such measures may not be sensitive enough to be used reliably on their own for talent identification and selection purposes. To provide an even more comprehensive model for defining the prerequisites for professional and international athletics future analyses could therefore embrace areas such as: Athletes‘ mental , social history and technical skills.  The sample size should also be extended in order to enlarge the representativeness of the research.  It is useful that coaches take these findings into consideration when evaluating children in athletics performance.  Further, the results of the study are of great value in designing the training programme of athletes while talent selection is based on many aspects of performance.

Acknowledgement

Our sincere thanks go to the Ethiopian youth sports academy, which gave us their indispensable generous sponsoring. Without their support and financial help, it would not have been possible for us to pursue and to the study successfully.

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Influence of Selected Predictive Variables on Race Performance of Trainees in Maychew Athletics Training Center, Ethiopia

Woldegebreal Mezgebo and Samson Wondirad

Abstract

Generalization has never been made on the secret of world class athlete‘s athletic performance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the Influence of some selected predictive Variables on Race Performance of Maychew Athletics Training Center Trainees. The research was cross-sectional explanatory in its design. Athletes were selected by using sampling techniques focused on group discussion; key informants interview, semi-structured interview and questionnaires for collecting data. Descriptive statistics and stepwise multiple regression were used for analyzing data. Based on the findings of the study; athlete‘s height, weight and training age were the most determinant factor in performance of race (p<0.5).

Keywords: Anthropometry, leg length, performance and training.

Introduction

Secrets of elite athlete‘s athletic performance are being revealed everyday yet generalization has not been made. Because, much is known, much more remains to be known. Therefore, in recent years, there has been an increase in interest in issues related to the enhancement of athletes‘ athletic running performance (Marahma, 1999). In contrary with this, a plenty of challenges are affecting athletes‘ performance: anthropometric, physiological, physical fitness, diet status, and environmental factors. To date, much of the research concerning the performance of elite young athletes has focused on physical, physiological factors and how these related to age and maturation. It is not surprising; a number of physiological, anthropometric and biomechanical factors appeared to influence the race performance of highly trained elite athletes.

Anthropometry is defined as measurement of human body (Tak, 2011). Anthropometric profile was assessed by stature, mass, skeletal breadth, segment lengths girths and skin folds are used to describe human size, proportions, shape, compositions and symmetry (katralli & Goundar,2012). Various findings have reported the relationship between anthropometric measures and running performance. Studies on the characteristics of elite Kenyan distance runners to analyze their success regarding anthropometric aspects. The measurements measures include the subject‘s height, mass, leg length, calf circumference and ankle circumference.

There was a controversial issue whether anthropometric, demographic and socio-economic variables have an association with race performance of athletes. Body mass index, body height skin fold, thickness, circumference of extremities, skeletal muscle mass and body fat have no influence on race performance on world class athletes (knechtle et al,2007).Underpinning this investigation, race performance time was not significantly influenced directly measured variables, height, leg length, body mass and average skin fold (Knechtle, 2007).

Therefore, the researcher hypothesized that anthropometric, demographic and socio-economic variables including, age, weight, height, leg length, educational background, training age, diet status, gender and marital status of athletes significantly affect the race performance athletes

Methodology Description of the study area The Study Area

Maichew, located at Latitude: 12° 47′ 15 N, Longitude: 39° 32′ 32 E, is the capital of the administrative zone of southern Tigray. It is 120 km away from the regional capital, Mekelle and is one of the historical places in Ethiopia having moderate and pleasant climate. The city stands above 2600 m.a.s.l and is surrounded on most sides with mountains. Currently, the city has a population sized about 23,484 of which males 11,057 and 12,427 are females, (CSA, 2007). This study was conducted on Maichew Athletics training Center which is found in Maychew Town. It is one of the four regional development project stations, constructed by Ethiopian Athletics Federation (EAF) to make training and vocational centers for athletes aged above 17 who graduate from the youth development projects once their ‗‗‗pprrroojjjeeccttt age‘ phases out. Recently, the center has accommodated and training 35 athletes training by 3coaches and 1 manager.

Research Design This is a cross-sectional exploratory study, which employed both quantitative and qualitative methods.

The use of both methods provides a better understanding,‘‘ Influence of Selected Anthropometric, Demographic and Socio-economic Variables on Race Performance of Maychew Athletics Training Center Trainees.‘‘ Study Population The study population included all athletes who were trained in Maichew Athletics Center (MAC), coaches, stakeholders, executive directors, senior experts and manager found at woreda and Regional levels. The entire population was selected for participation in this study rather than a sample due to the relatively small population size (all N = 35) and ease of accessibility. Method of Data Collection Table1. Summarized methods of data collection

S.No. Research Method of data Total individuals Total individuals

Methods collection proposed for participated for 1 Qualitative Focus group Two groups of 8 each Two groups, one with 6 &

Study the other 8 Key informant 12 individuals 9 individuals

interview Semi-structural 12 individuals 12 individuals

interview 2 Quantitative Questionnaire 35 individuals 33 athletes

Study

The data were collected in June, 2012. This study used both primary and secondary data. The primary data for qualitative data collection: two groups of focus group discussion, 9 individuals for key informant interview and 12 individuals for semi-structured interview. Beside this, secondary data was obtained using questionnaires from 33 athletes of MATC.

Data Analysis The data collected from athletes and their respective coaches were coded and entered in to SPSS Version- 16.0 Statistical Software for analysis. The univariate analysis and multiple regression estimation techniques were performed to address the objectives set in the study. The univariate analysis was predominantly used simply to calculate mainly descriptive statistics and thereby characterize or describe the variables in the study. To this end, frequencies and percentages for categorical variables: means and standard deviations for numerical variables have been computed. In addition, stepwise multiple regression was used to determine the predicting factors of athletes` performance. The level of statistical significance was at p<0.05. The data obtained from focus group discussion, key informant interview and semi-structured interview were used to underpin the completeness of the information. Study Variables:- In order to make use of regression analysis to address some of the objective of the study, we utilize

two variable cohorts, Dependent Variable and Independent Variables, along with their epigrammatic definitions.

(a). Dependent Variable:

The dependent or the outcome variable of the model to be used for the study was the Athlete`s Performance. It is a measurable quantity. Different literatures measure this dependent variable via a variety of definitions. In this study, we made use of athlete`s best time to measure it due to the fact that it is to be able to compare with the bulk of prior works, availability of data on such measures and of the researcher‘s preference for the chosen measures.

(b). Independent or Explanatory Variables:

It fact, it is possible to mention so many explanatory variables that are supposed to have an influence on the performance of athletes of our country in general, and that of Maichew ones in particular, this study spotlighted on the most important and common explanatory variables, especially analyzed in most prior works. Besides this, it has also considered several other independent variables which are either Ethiopian specific or significant from theoretical ground. These comprise athlete‘s demographic variables (age, gender and marital status), anthropometric variables ( height, weight and leg length), socio-economic variables(educational level and training experience) and athlete‘s training variables(relationship between training and age, training experience, training days/weeks, intensity of training, recovery and overall training assessment).

Results

(a). Socio-economic and training related information

As can be seen clearly from Table 2, the gender distribution of the athletes was quite uneven, with 48.49% female athletes and 51.51% male athletes. This could be attributed to the fact that men participate actively in athletes events than females. Having carried out age wise comparison, it was found that mean age of those athletes were found to be 17.40 with standard deviation 0.616. This implies that the majority of athletes age in the center were between16-19 (17.60 - 0.616) age and regarding to training age (experience) of athletes, it was also obtained that athletes mean training age was 30.7 month with the standard deviation 11.48 months indicating that the majority of the athletes training age was 19.22-42.18 (30.7, 11.48))) months. Similarly, referring to the average time in second at which an athlete took in one training session had obtained being 1.72 --- 0.454 seconds.

(b). Demographic and Training information

Table 2 also revealed that athletes have had mean educational level of 9.98 and the standard deviation of 1.02 indicating that the majority of the athletes` educational level was 9-11. It was also

indicated that the dominant educational level of the athletes was from grade 9 up to grade 11(9.98,,, 1.02)))... As to the assessment of the training given in the center was concerned, the majority responded that the overall training is good although most (78.79%) athletes responded that the training they took there is intensive (87.88%)and something that does not match in line with their age.

(c).Anthropometric information

Results from anthropometric variables also indicated that the average leg length of the athletes was 0.99 meters with standard deviation 00...2244 meters implying that the leg length of the majority of athletes was between 0.75 meters and 1.23 meters. Similarly, athlete mean weight and height were 53.19kg with standard deviation of 8.01kg and 1.66 with standard deviation of 0.96 respectively. And, athletes height ranges between 1.38-1.8(1.63-1.88) meter.

Determinants of Athlete’s athletic Performance Model Validation Examination of the scatter plots and normal probability plot (PP-plot) of residuals were made to detect departures from normality, outliers, non-constant variance, and the wrong functional forms. One obstacle that presents difficulty in rendering multiple regression analysis is the existence of multicollinearity among independent variables. The standard statistical method for testing data for multicollinearity, i.e., variables variance inflation factor (VIF) was, therefore, assessed to ensure whether the problem exists or not. Moreover, partial regression plots were also examined since they provide an easy way of identifying the extent of departures from linearity, non- constant variance and the existence of outliers.

Table 3. Condition of multicollinearity of explanatory variables in the model

Variable VIF Tolerance=1/VIF AtAge 2.58 0.387597 AtSex 3.01 0.332226 AtEduL 2.25 0.444444 AtMStatus 2.16 0.462963 AtTrAge 2.07 0.483092 Athght 1.90 0.526316 Atwght 1.65 0.606061 AtLL 1.60 0.625 Tra_Age 1.029 0.971817 Tra_Exp 4.20 0.238095

Mean VIF 2.494333

Table 3. above displays the condition of VIF of exogenous variables in the model. As it can be seen from the table, the VIF of each of these variables is far less than 10, which indicates that the associated regression coefficients will not be poorly estimated because of multicollinearity. Therefore, the variables included in the models were each producing independent effects. The number of variables was reduced from multiple regression calculation because of numerous reasons. As a result, Athlete`s Gender, R/nship b/n Training and Age, Age, Height , best time and Leg Length were treated for further calculation. Thus, the ratio of valid cases (33) to number of independent variables (6) was also 8 to 1, which was equal to or greater than the minimum ratio (5:1). The requirement for a minimum ratio of cases to independent variables was satisfied.

Figures 3.1

Figure 1. also shows the standardized normal probability plot (P-P plot) of the residuals of each model. The plots indicate no violation of the assumption of normality in each model as all points lie 0 (approximately) on the 45 line.

Table4. Results of Stepwise Wise Multiple Regression Analysis on Determinants of Athletes Performance

1 2 3

Indepen Std. P- Std. P- dent B Std. t P- B Err. t Valu B Err. T Valu Varia Err. Value e e Consbtlaen t 5.311 2.118 2.508 .015 6.093 2.066 2.950 .005 6.983 2.373 2.943 .005

At_hgt -0.319 1.27 -.251 .015 -.345 1.22 -.283 .007 .173 1.31 .132 .007

a -.285a - -2.361 .022 -.191 .081 - .022 -.183 -2.372 .022 RnTA 2.361 0.077 a - -1.669 .101 - - .071 -1.807 .071 At_sex .024 1.839 - a b c At_age .131a - .190 .850 .029b - -.041 .967 .039c - -.046 .967 a b At_wgt -.059a - 1.035 .305 .080b - 1.111 .071 .081 0.072 1.123 .041 a -.285a - -.171 .639 - - -.092 .771 0.091 -.042 .771 At_LL .035b c - N 33 33 33

R .831 .842 .884

2 .691 .708 .781 R

Adjusted .681 .701 .774 R2

Autocorrelation (serial dependency of the response variables) was evaluated through the Durbin- Waston test procedure (see last column of Table 4), while homoscedacity (see figure 1), was graphically assessed (standardized residuals versus fitted values). As seen all specifications, the results confirmed that the model did not suffer from those problems, known as spherical assumptions (the assumption of autocorrelation and homoscedacity). The partial regression plots of each of the continuous independent variables, Athletes Age (years), Athletes Height (meter), Athletes Weight (kilogram), Athletes Training Age (month) and Athletes Leg length (centimeter) were also drawn using SPSS v.16. Thus, each plot does not show any apparent deviation from the assumption of linearity. Step-wise Regression Analysis Stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed to select the most important factors

affecting the performance of athletes in the center. That is, the data was subjected to the stepwise regression analysis and then the best predictors of those athletes` performance were selected. The contribution of each of these selected predictors to the average performance of the athletes was also determined.

The results of the stepwise regression analysis are presented in Tables 5-6 under the aforementioned assumptions of the model. As can be seen from the results in Table 5., the p- value of the F-test to see if the overall model is significant found to be zero to three decimal places. This indicates that the model is statistically highly significant.

The estimated coefficient of RnTA , which indicates how often AVERAGE athlete`s training (0=always, 1=usually, 2=sometimes, 3=occasionally or 4=never) relays on athete`s age, was negative and statistically significant at the 5 percent level. Moreover, this coefficient of RnTA (0.170, p<0.002) revealed that the Athlete`s performance of those athletes in the center was getting higher and higher as the frequency of training became more and more. Results in Table 4 also indicated that there is positive multiple correlation (R =0.884) among the independent variables and the dependent measure. This implies that the factors are relevant towards 2 the determination of the dependent measure. Also the adjusted R value of 0.781 revealed that the three independent variables accounted for 78.1% of the total variance in the dependent measure (Athlete`s performance). The remaining 21.9% could be due to errors and factors that are not considered in this model.

Athlete‘s height and training provided to athletes found to be the most statistically significant determinant factors in affecting the performance of the athletes at 5% level of significance. Jointly, both of them brought variation to the performance of the athletes by 78.1%.Therefore, training do not match with their training.

Discussion of Findings The training center has been established for youngster athletes of Tigray and Afar Regional State, Ethiopia. Most of athlete‘s were male and single. Alongside, the training provided to them was five days per week. In spite of this, their training age too little and also their training did not match with their age. Various studies portrays, height and weight were the most important determinant factors in challenging athlete‘s athletic performance (Knechtle et al, 2007, Temfemo et al, 2008 and Singh and Yadav, 2010). In this study as well, there were anthropometric predictive variables, such as, height and weight which significantly affect the performance of the athletes.

Recent study shows, athlete‘s age and leg length and sex were found to be statistically insignificant in determining athlete‘s athletic performance (Leyk, 2006). In our finding, athlete‘s age and leg length and sex were found to be statistically insignificant in determining athlete‘s athletic performance. Since all the athletes were the same in their age.

This research investigation will be fruitful and taken into generalization, if the coming researchers incorporate more variables and population for their further investigation.

Conclusion

This study depicts anthropometric characteristics, such as, height and weight. And also training age was found to be the most determinant factor in influencing the Race Performance of Trainees in Maychew Athletics Training Center, Ethipia.

Acknowledgement

We were very grateful to the Department of Sport science (Leyekun Tadesse Hasrani.SS, Somsankar Mukherjee and Soumitra Mondal) at College of Natural and Computational Sciences (Tadesse Dejene and Haftu G/hiwot), Mekelle University, for their unreserved assistance and duly acknowledged for funding this research project.

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The Nature and Impact of Physical Injuries in Ethiopian Elite Endurance Athletes

Wondimagegn Demissie, Amensisa Kebede & Sirak Habtmariam (Ph.D)

Abstract

This study was conducted to investigate the nature & impact of physical injuries in first division elite endurance athletes, using survey study methodology. For this purpose, 90 elite Ethiopian endurance athletes from first division athletics team were purposefully selected & used as a source of information. Beside team coaches were included as a source of supplementary information. All the necessary information was collected using locally developed & pilot tested questionnaire & structured interview. The data secured through these techniques were categorized & thematically analyzed. The result of the study revealed that the major challenge associated with injury prevention & treatments of elite first division endurance athlete were: lack of a systematic surveillance of pattern of sport injuries, lack of knowledge in prevention & treatments of sport injuries, poor facilities & equipments utilized for injury treatment & inappropriate training load. To overcome these problems recommendations are forwarded such as: sport medicine professionals should formulate a systematic surveillance of patterns of sport injuries in order to understand the severity ,nature & impact of sport injuries, the concerned bodies (e.g federal sport commission, Ethiopian athletics federation & clubs ect.) should facilitate further training on sport medicine & injury prevention, National federations & clubs should purchase & imported latest facilities & equipments in relation sport injuries prevention & treatment , the Ethiopian athletics federation should updates coaches & athletes through awareness creation training associated with sport injuries.

Keywords: physical injuries, sport medicine, elite endurance athletes.

Introduction

For many athletes, sport is not safe enough without prevention, treatment, and medication of injury. There is also significant medical and economic cost associated with sports injury affecting athletes, teams and society. In many cases Athletics cannot be directly responsible for fatal injuries such as heat stroke, heart related problems just to name few among many. In line with this, one of the priority areas of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) center of attention is becoming protecting the health of the athlete. If they suffer from acute or sever injuries, sport places their bodies under unique stresses, which raise the likelihood of a chronic or catastrophic harm. At this outset, one can be safe to say that Injury surveillance is becoming a universal obligation of professional sporting bodies.

The Olympic Games is the largest sport event in the world. In Beijing, 10500 athletes competed, selected from a large group of elite athletes in 204 countries. Sports participation on the elite level, aside from winning medals, fame and other rewards, is also important from a health perspective. In one study, it was reported that 50% of the 1804 athletes seen at the multipurpose medical facility at the 1996 Olympic Games were treated for non-injury related illnesses. In another study conducted in the athlete medical clinic during the 2002 Winter Olympic Games, medical diagnoses, notably respiratory conditions, were more commonly reported than traumatic conditions . Furthermore, in two other studies, over 50% of the medical consultations in a participating team during two Olympic Games were non-injury related .Athletes who participate in summer events are intensively exposed to airborne allergens during their training and competitions, whereas winter-sport athletes are exposed to cold air .

There is no longer any doubt that regular physical activity reduces the risk of premature mortality in general, and of coronary heart disease, hypertension, cancer, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in particular. Sarna (2000) have studied the incidence of chronic disease and life expectancy of former male world-class athletes from Finland in endurance sports, power sports and team sports. The overall life expectancy was longer in the high-level athlete compared to a reference group (75.6 versus 69.9 years). The same group also showed that the rate of hospitalization later in life was lower for endurance sports and power sports compared to the reference group . The athletes‘ attitudes and confidence towards their treatments was also clarified .This resulted from a lower rate of hospital care for heart disease, respiratory disease, and cancer. However, the athletes were more likely to have been hospitalized for musculoskeletal disorders. Thus, the evidence suggests that although there is a general health benefit from sports participation, injuries represent a significant side effect. Central to the medicalization of sport has been the development of sports medicine, which is premised on the idea that highly trained athletes have special medical needs and therefore require special medical supervision. The development of sports medicine has been associated with the development of a culture, which encourages the treatment not just of injured athletes, but also of healthy athletes, with medicines and drugs. Indeed, athletes use a variety of medicines to treat injuries, cure illnesses, and obtain a competitive edge. All injury treatments have potential adverse effects that may have deleterious impact on the maximum exercise performance of elite athletes. Parallel to this standardized assessment of severity, practices and treatments of sports injuries provides important

information and directions for injury prevention. In relation to this a survey of sports injuries among a convenience sample of athletes helps an approximation to reflect severity. Moreover, In order to promote prevention of sports-related injuries, the magnitude of the problem, the incidence and severity of elite athletes‘ injuries must first be identified & described.

In several instances of reported fatalities, the respondent stated the fatality should not be attributed to athletics. Reasons for these statements are that the fatality was attributed to physical defects that were unrelated to athletics injuries. The level of treatment following an injury is usually related to the severity of the injury However; the availability of treatment on site might be the crucial factor to determine the type and level of treatment received. To this end, Ethiopia lacks a systematic surveillance of Patterns of Sports injuries, and knowledge of risk factors and specific patterns of injury treatments. In order to promote prevention of sports related injuries, the magnitude of the problem must first be identified and the treatments and severity of sports injuries should described intensively.

Thus, this study was targeted to assess treatments used, severity, and incidents of injuries in highly trained elite athletes. The review of the literature is also dealt about the specific physiological and pathological changes in highly-trained athletes. Most commonly used treatments, medicines and their effects on the athletes and exercise performance was described. Generally, this study demonstrated the potential benefits and provides further justification for continued injury prevention research in addition to the improved conversion of injury prevention knowledge into practice and the study conducted a survey on previous sports injuries among a sample of first division elite athletes.

As sports participation increases, so does the incidence of both acute and over use sports-related injuries. Moreover, the incidence further rises as the sport becomes increasingly aggressive. In order to promote prevention of sports-related injuries, the magnitude of the problem must first be identified and the incidence and severity of sports injuries described exhaustively.

In Ethiopia, systematic surveillance of sports injuries hardly exists, and knowledge of the risk factors and the specific patterns of injury treatment are inadequate. With this end, Surveillance of sports injuries should be expanded in order to develop appropriate prevention programs. Injury prevention strategies seem warranted however, before any injury prevention package can be implemented, the injury profile must be established.

Movement towards sport safety in athletics through the introduction of preventative strategies requires that the unique injury profile for the sport is established in typical populations of athletes. To our knowledge, no routine surveillance of systematic injury similar to that used by the IAAF exists at the level of national federations in athletics. The difficulties in accomplishing longitudinal studies in this sport have been highlighted. The aim of this study was to estimate the incidence of musculoskeletal injuries in first division elite endurance athletes competing at different level and to examine the type, severity and risk factors of the associated injuries sustained. The resulting knowledge is to be used to formulate principles for evidence-based injury prevention and safety promotion program in athletics.

There is little research investigating injury prevention strategies in Ethiopia and it appears injury prevention research has not yet translated into coaching practices.

1. What is the availability of treatments used and factors associated with those treatments?

2. How often do elite athletes face injuries?

3. What are the severity and practical effects of injury?

4. What major factors minimize or aggravate the severity of injury in trainings?

5. What possible solutions can be forward to minimize those problems?

Objectives of the Study

General Objectives

The general purpose of the survey study was to assess the practice and impact of physical injury in first division elite endurance athletes.

Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study are-

1. To analyze the frequency, characteristics, severity, and causes, of injuries incurred during training and competition.

2. To assess the nature of treatments

3. To list major factors those aggravate/minimize the occurrence and severity of injuries.

4. To pointing out some intervention mechanisms to alleviate or minimize those problems related to sport injury.

Significance of the Study

These surveys have many benefits concerning to rule changes, improvement of equipment, improved injury care, and improved coaching techniques. Injury surveillance has provided information to medical officers, coaches and athletes for reviewing injury prevention programs, playing conditions, and other features of the sport.

The researchers of this study hopes that the findings of the study provide insight to estimate the incidence, type and severity of physical injuries in elite first division endurance athletes and to explore risk factors for sustaining injuries.

Such research also helps to make athletes safer and produce a more enjoyable sports activity. No such information is available for the elite and junior competitions in Ethiopia. It can also serve as a springboard for further research work.

Definition of Terms

Injury: An athlete was defined as injured or ill if he/she received medical attention regardless of the consequence with respect to absence from competition or training. (IOC)

Atheletics: is defined as the umbrella terms includes race walking, cross country and road running and the track & field disciplines consisting of running , jumping & throwing.

Endurance: is the ability to perform physical activity with sustainable provision of oxygen for a long period of time without any fatigue.

Elite Athelets: is shortly defined as highly –trained athletes.

Research Methodology

Design of the Study The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of injury on elite athlete‘s performance. To achieve this, both quantitative and qualitative research approaches was employed. This method was selected with the hope that it answer the basic question of the study as desired by the researcher via producing a pertinent data. Creswell and Clark (2007) asserted that mixed method research helps answer questions that cannot be answered by qualitative or quantitative approaches alone. A triangulation mixed method design is used as a major way of conducting the research. In this type of design qualitative and quantitative data are used for supporting and validating each other. Subjects of the study

Participants of the study were first division athletics team long distance athletes, respective coaches, and club physiotherapists in 2011/2012, competition season. The reason for bringing their views together is to obtain relevant information for the issue raised since they are directly or indirectly parts of the problem or part of the solution in the issue.

Population of the study

The population of this study was all long distance athletes (10,000 meters, half marathon & marathon athletes) in 2011/1012 competition season, both male & female.

Sampling

The sampling procedure employed is purposive sampling technique. The accessibility of data and the number of target groups have been taken as the main criteria to select those long distasnce events. In the sampled events, on the basis of availability, long distance athletes were selected randomly because of the assumption that they could provide relevant information due to their experience in the national team. In general, 90 of total athletes were selected as a sample from the three events included in the main study i.e. 10.000 meter athletes, half marathon athletes and marathon athletes. Club coaches and club physiotherapists were included in the interview. The following tables are shown the detailed information of the participants.

Table 2. Athletes Selected Sample

Sample of athletes selected from events N Events o Male % Female % Total % 1 10.000 meters 18 60 12 40 30 33.33 2 Half marathon 16 53 14 47 30 33.33 3 Marathon 15 50 15 50 30 33.33 Grand total 49 54.4 41 45.6 90 100

Data collection instruments To get reliable information from the research participants, types of instrument to be used have paramount importance. Thus, questionnaire and interview were identified as pertinent tools of this study. The questionnaire has two main parts, i.e. the background section which deals with basic information of the athletes. The second part, main part consisted of 13 closed ended questions & 5 open ended questions, totally of 18 items. In order to supplement the data collected through questionnaires, coaches & athletics federation officials were interviewed. All the questionnaire & interview guide were locally developed. Data collection procedure All the participants of the study were informed about the purpose of the study before the questionnaire was distributed. The questionnaire was randomly distributed to all elite first division endurance athletes with enough & clear explanation. Moreover, during the administration of questionnaire further clarifications were given wherever question raised by the respondents. Before each interview, the key interview guides were given to the interviewees for their consideration and preparation. All interview were conducted by the researchers, whereas, the questionnaires were distributed to and collected with the help of assistant data collectors. Pilot Study Before the actual data gathering, data collection instruments such as questionnaire and interview guiding questions were piloted in jimma athletics club governed by regional federation to check whether they can generate the expected information from the respondents and to see their consistency to the study. Data Analysis

Basically, this study employed descriptive & qualitative analysis. The qualitative description was employed to analyze the data gathered through the open ended items of the questionnaire and the interview to assess the practice & impact of physical injury in Ethiopian elite endurance athletes. In order to make the data more relevant, descriptive statistics like mean, percentage, bar graphs & pie chart were used.

Discussions

Standardize assessment of severity, practices & treatment of sport injuries provides important information & direction for injury prevention. In relation to this majority of the athlete respondents (60%) reported that there was no any methodology applied in order to understand the patterns of injury. as a result of these athletes are staying in the treatments for a long period of time without recovering. in relation to this one interviewee athlete confirms that: The development of sport medicine has been assisted with the development of a culture & knowledge, which encourages the treatment not just of injured athletes, but also of healthy athletes, with medicine & drugs (houlinan,1999)

In relation to this majority of respondents (70%) reported that club therapist, national team therapist & coaches applied the traditional & outdated knowledge of injury treatment. To this end, Irrgang (1994) asserted that the sport medicine professionals are concerned with the well-being of the athletes & generally assumes the responsibility for overseeing the total health care for the athletes .In the same vein, Bidddle (1999) underlined that sport medicine professionals must be capable of dealing with any type of trauma or catastrophic injury.

With regard to the availability of sport medicine facilities & equipments, 80% of the respondents belong to negative responses. Accordingly, majority of the elite athletes & coaches revealed that the practices of injury treatment are very poor in relation to the absence modern sport medicine facilities & equipments.

The recent research output shoe design & production has created a significance role on injury reduction .Every members of the sport team (coaching staffs, official, sport medicine persona-eel & athletes) must be aware of any hazardous field situation. in appropriate training method delivered by club & national team coaches were reported as major factor for the presence of frequent injury on athletes .In the same vein ,clark (2000) asserted that well prepared training ensures & fulfill a systematic series of specific ,repetitive & progressive exercise & drills. Exercise should inculcate of exercise i.e. strength, relaxation & particularly leads to the demand of the athlete.

Conclusions

The overall objective of this study was to examine the nature & impact of physical injury in first division clubs elite endurance athletes. Accordingly, the results obtained sowed that in the first division athletics team there is lack of a systematic surveillance of patterns of sport injuries which leads to athlete‘s injury complicated.

Medical staffs as well as coaches emphasized on temporary medical treatment than analyzing the patterns of injury occurrence.

The result of the finding also indicated that knowledge of coaches, sport medicine experts & athletes towards sport injuries is very low. Therefore, unless changes are made, their treatments & prevention strategy remains to be minimal.

Similarly, Facilities & equipments for the prevention & treatment of athletes injury is very outdated & ineffective .surprisingly, worldwide athletes were treated with very backward facilities & equipments.

Recommendation

Depending on the finding obtained & the conclusion drawn from the study, the following suggestions are forwarded:

 Sport medicine professionals should formulate a systematic surveillance of patterns of sport injuries in order to understand the severity, nature & impact of sport injuries.

 Medical staff as well as coaches should give emphasis for sustainable injury treatments, which leads the athletes‘ well recovered.

 The concerned bodies (e.g. federal sport commission, Ethiopian athletics federation & clubs etc.) should facilitate further training on sport medicine & injury prevention.

 National federations & clubs should purchase & imported latest facilities & equipments in relation sport injuries.

 The Ethiopian athletics federation should updates coaches & athletes through awareness creation training associated with sport injuries.

 Education should be given for athletes on sport injury treatments. Athlete‘s awareness plays a paramount role in injury prevention & treatment process.

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Detorri, N., & Norvell, D. (2006). Non-traumatic bicycle injuries. A review of the literature. Sports Medicine, 36(1), 7-18.

Hail, J. Psychology of Sport Injury. Champaign: Human Kinetics, 2003.

Irrgang, J., S.Whitney, &E.Cox.(1994) Balance and proprioceptive training for rehabilitation of the lower extremity J.of Sport Rehab.3:68-93,

Junge, A., Langevoort, G., Pipe, A., et al. (2006). Injuries in team sport tournaments during the 2004 Olympic Games. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(4), 565-576.

Lamb, D. R. (1978) Physiology of Exercise, Responses and Adaptations (2nd edition), p. 322. New York: Macmillan,

Nideffer, R. M. (1983.)The injured athlete: psychological factors in treatment. Orthop. Clin. North Am. 14:373-385,

Orchard, J. (1995). Orchard sports injury classification system (OSICS). Sports Health, 11, 39-1.

Pease, D. G. (1996.) Psychological factors of rehabilitation. In Physical Rehabilitation of the Injured Athlete (2nd edition), Andrews, J. R., and G. L. Harrelson (eds.), pp.1-12. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., Prentice, W. Arnheim‘s(2005.) Principles of Athletic Training (12th edition). Boston: McGraw Hill,

Platonov V.N. (1997). General theory of athletes‘ preparation in the Olympic sports. Kiev: ―Olympic Literature‖. (Russia).

Zatsiorsky, V. M. ( 1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL: Human Kenetics.

Zatsiorsky, V.M., King,D.L. (1998). An algorithm for determining gravity line location from posturographic recordings. Journal of Biomechanics, 31, 161-164.inetics.

Nutrition and Athletic Performance

Shemelis Mekonnen(Ph.D)

Abstract

The Athlete's Nutrition Needs- Athletes diet should be optimal in both quality and quantity of food, in order to replenish their energy reserves and avoid fatigue or inadequate nutrition. A good diet will help athletes‘ body perform at its best. It is the position of the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine that physical activity, athletic performance and recovery from exercise are enhanced by optimal nutrition. These organizations recommend appropriate selection of foods and fluids, timing of intake and supplement choices for optimal health and exercise performance. This paper couples a rigorous facts about the importance of nutrition and athletic performance with current scientific knowledge related to energy needs, assessment of body composition, strategies for weight change, nutrient and fluid needs, special nutrient needs during training and competition, the use of supplements and ergogenic aids, nutrition recommendations for young athletes and the roles and responsibilities of sports dietitians and coaches. Energy and macronutrient needs, especially carbohydrate and protein, must be met during times of high physical activity to maintain body weight, replenish glycogen stores and provide adequate protein to build and repair tissue. Fat intake should be sufficient to provide the essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins, as well as contribute energy for weight maintenance. Adequate food and fluid should be consumed before, during, and after exercise to help maintain blood glucose concentration during exercise, maximize exercise performance and improve recovery time. However, athletes who restrict energy intake, use severe weight-loss practices, eliminate one or more food groups from their diet, or consume unbalanced diets with low micronutrient density, may require supplements. Because regulations specific to nutritional ergogenic aids are poorly enforced, they should be used with caution, and only after careful product evaluation for safety, efficacy, potency and legality. A qualified sports dietitian and in particular in the European countries like United States, a Board Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics, should provide individualized nutrition direction and advice subsequent to a comprehensive nutrition assessment.

Players perception and preference of Coaching leadership styles across Playing position of football Premier league club Players in Ethiopia

Milkyas Bassa(PhD) Abstract

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship among preferred and perceived leadership, their congruence and satisfaction with leadership. The second purpose was to investigate the differences among the offensive, the defensive and the mid-field players of football premier league club players in Ethiopia, in perceived leadership, preferred leadership and satisfaction with leadership. The five leader behaviors which were measured were: training and instruction, democratic behavior, autocratic behavior social support, positive feedback, and the four aspects of leadership satisfaction, which were measured, were: individual performance satisfaction, team performance satisfaction, training and instruction satisfaction, and personal treatment satisfaction. The study finding indicated that, Player‘s satisfaction across different playing position showed no significant difference across players playing position at different position.

Key words: coaching leadership styles, players, satisfaction.

Introduction

Leadership is a critical component to enhance and sustain optimal sport performance (Chelladurai, Riemer), Gould, Hodge, Peterson, Petlichkoff, 1987; Vealey, 2005) and athlete satisfaction (Rimer, Chelladurai, 1995). A coach is typically responsible for making final decisions on the subject of several team matters, such as strategy, tactics and team personnel (Longhead, Hardy, 2006). A leader is any person who influences individuals and groups within an association, helps them in the setting up of goals, and leading them toward accomplishment of those goals, thereby enables them to be effective. Leadership has been great value in football coaching and other sports but unfortunately, there was no study conducted to examine coaching leadership style and athlete‘s satisfaction in football coaching in Ethiopia. This brought the need of studying this subject. Therefore, this study helps coaches to understand the importance of coaching leadership styles as a determinant of success for sport clubs. Also, this study may encourage them to seek greater understanding of leadership behavior that will produce the strongest influence on team performance and satisfaction.

Objectives of the Study

Research objective is the evidence of the researcher clear sense of purpose and direction. The purpose of the study was to investigate the differences among offensive, defensive and midfield

players of football premier league club players in Ethiopia in their leadership perception and preference. The researcher attempted to answer the following questions in the pursuit of data relative to athletes‟ perceptions and preference of their coaching leadership behavior and whether this behavior is viewed as effective. To find out the effects of perceptions and preference of leadership behaviors on players‟ position (offensive, defensive and midfield), satisfaction within their coaching. Players are happy or satisfied within the group a more effective individual performer and does the perception of the coach have any emerging trends that will give us further insight to a more productive player.

Contribution of the Research Work

The current study was tried to fill the gap of coaching football leadership style and Athletes satisfaction literature especially in Ethiopia. The findings of this work shed light on the enhancement of coaching football leadership style in Ethiopia which is currently undergoing unhurried changes and improvement of player‘s performance. The contributions of this thesis include: Firstly, enable coaches to be aware of the importance of leadership style and team organization as a vehicle to football Clubs‘ effectiveness in Ethiopia. Secondly, it also helps coaches in their teams to know their role in the coaching process, particularly in supplying useful systematic techniques and tactics of coaching to aid decision making and control. Thirdly, the outcome of this study will be believed to be useful as a spring board for further research in the area since there was no study conducted on the topic selected for the study as related to Ethiopia.

Methodology Selection of the Participants

By using convenient sampling (Gall et al, 1996) random sampling was used to select 7(50%) from 14 premier league clubs in Ethiopia. 182 male football players from 7 clubs were selected as sample size. All seven selected club players were incorporated in the study (N=7×26=182). The players consisted of 52 offensive players, 65 defensive players, and 65 mid-field players.

Instruments The questionnaire was comprised of three major sections such as: Leadership behavior Perceived, Preferred, Athletes satisfaction questionnaire and sample demographic characteristics. Players filled Demographic Questionnaire, Leadership scale for sport Questionnaire (LSS) and Athletes Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ).

Result of the Study A total of 182 football premier league club Players from seven (7) clubs of Ethiopia were included in the statistical analysis. The means and standard deviations of perception and preference of Leadership Behavior, and Satisfaction scores and also means and standard deviations by Players‟ positions were computed.

Perceived Leadership Style of Player’s across playing position

Kruskal-Wallis significant test was used to see playing position of player‘s Perception of Leadership Styles. The result indicated that Perceived Training and Instruction and Perceived Positive Feedback did not show any significant difference across groups. Perceived Democratic Behavior supposed as better Leadership Behavior by Offensive Players. On the other hand Perceived Autocratic Leadership Behavior and Perceived Social Support better viewed by Midfield Players.

Preferred Leadership Style of Player’s across Playing Position Kruskal-Wallis significant test was used to see preference of Leadership Styles across Players playing position. The result indicated that only Preferred Democratic Leadership Style and Preferred Positive Feedback showed significant difference across Players playing position. Defensive Players better Preferred Democratic Leadership Behavior and Midfield Players Preferred Positive Feedback Leadership Behavior.

Player’s Satisfaction across Playing at Different Position Kruskal-Wallis significant test was used to see players satisfaction across playing at different position. Players Satisfaction such as Individual Performance Satisfaction, Team Performance Satisfaction, Training & Instruction Satisfaction and Personal Treatment Satisfaction across different playing position showed no significant difference across Players playing at different position.

Perceived, Preferred and Satisfaction between Players Position Player‘s Perceived Leadership Style and preferred Leadership Style as well as their Satisfaction across groups tested using kruskal- Wallis test. Players Perceived Leadership Style showed statistical significance difference between Players position.

Discussion

Defensive players preferred more democratic leadership behavior and midfield players Preferred more Positive Feedback leadership style. Player‘s satisfaction across different playing position showed no significant difference across players playing at different position. Similar study of Riemer and Chelladurai (1995) results showed that defensive players Preferred and Perceived greater amounts of Democratic Behavior, Autocratic Behavior, and Social Support than did offensive players. Here preference for Democratic Behavior is similar with this study. Overall assessment Player‘s Perceived leadership style and preferred leadership as well as their satisfaction across groups tested as summery indicated that players Perceived leadership style showed statistical significance difference between players position. Midfield players record highest mean rank. The rest Preferred leadership styles and players satisfaction showed no statistical significance across players position. In Cakioglu, Asli(2003) study except Perceived leadership behavior preference of leadership behavior and satisfaction showed similar result. Coaches now leading the players must identify the difference in perception of existing leadership practice by players and must identify preferred leadership styles by players. This would lead to gaining required satisfaction and may enhance Ethiopia football premier league club player‘s performance and satisfaction. According to Cakioglu, Asli(2003) players in

different positions have different athletic environments and different skills so they have different demand.

Conclusion

Perceived Democratic Behavior supposed as better leadership behavior by offensive players, Perceived autocratic leadership style and Perceived Social Support better viewed by midfield players.

Significant test to see preference of leadership styles across players playing position was indicated that only preferred democratic and Preferred Positive Feedback leadership styles across player‘s position showed significant difference.

Recommendation

As this study implied coaches can use the following suggestion to coach their clubs. Offensive players can be treated by Democratic Behavior, midfield players can be treated by autocratic leadership style and Social Support. Defensive players Preferred more democratic leadership behavior and midfield players also preferred more Positive Feedback leadership style. Still it has to be taken so cautiously that there is no one best way of leadership behavior it depends on situation. The coming environment changes and world dynamics must be considered in selection of coaching leadership styles. Remaining stagnant, traditional and not following technological innovation has negative pay off. To increase Ethiopia clubs competitive advantage in the world following the tail of technology is so critical. Observing Africa leading clubs coaching leadership behaviors is so important. Coaching leadership guide line to each position players must be prepared as manual. Therefore from existing Perceived leadership obtaining positive relationship is so difficult. This means if players treated by their preferred leadership style their satisfaction will go farer than what is observed now. Therefore by enhancing the Perceived leadership to the status of what is Preferred now is fundamental to generated maximum satisfaction from players. The players‟ preference and Perceived leadership behavior must be examined to achieve all satisfaction by applying leadership approach fit for purpose.

Reference

1. Barrow, J.C. (1977). The Variables of Leadership : A Review An d Conceptual Framework. Academy Of Management Review, Vol.2, 231-251. 2. Chelladurai, P., & Riemer, H. (1997).A Classification of Facets of Athletic Satisfaction. Journal of Sport Management, 11, 133-159. 3. Chelladurai,P. (1984).Discrepancy Between Preferences And Perceptions Of Leadership Behavior And Satisfaction Of Athletes In Varying Sports. Journal Of Sport Psychology,6, 27-41. 59 4. Eys, M.A., Carron, A.V., Beauchamp, M.R., & Bray, S.R. (2006). Role Ambiguity Insport Teams. Journal Of Sport And Exercise Psychology, 25, 534-550.

An Overview on the Students' Attitude towards a Physical Fitness and Sports Skills Program: The Case of Ethiopian Higher Institutions

Wondimagegn Demissie, Amensisa Kebede & Sirak Habtmariam (Ph.D)

Abstract

To combat the decreasing levels of physical activity in many youngster , health professionals and sport science expertise calling upon the physical fitness & sport skills (Sp Sc 201) program to equip students with the skills & knowledge necessary to become physically active for a life time. In order to accomplish this goal in physical fitness & sport skills, it is imperative that student‘s attitude be considered when making curricular & program decision. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine university students attitude towards a physical fitness& sport skills program & to determine the various aspects of the program that appear to contribute to positive & negative attitudes towards university physical fitness & sport skills program in Haramaya university & Jimma university. To this end, a total of 482 students were selected to fill the questionnaires. Moreover, interview with sport science instructors & department heads of sport science were made. As per the finding of the study , students‘ attitude toward a physical fitness & sport skills program slightly decreased due to factors such as curriculum problems, uncomfortable class atmosphere, lack of facilities & equipments, large class size and poor self perception of students. To overcome these problems, the following recommendations have been forwarded. These are: Minimizing class size, Providing enough equipments & facilities, increasing the self perception of students towards physical activities & creating conducive atmosphere for the course.

Introduction

Most people have heard the age- old saying ―attitude is the key to success‖ various quotes can be retrieved that subscribe to this philosophy. In education, research suggests that students‘ attitudes towards a subject lead to academic success (pop ham 2005; Royster Harris & Schoeps 1999) The attitude of students has a direct impact towards the effectiveness of a course. Concerning attitude, Ajzen and Fishbein (1992) stated that attitude is one of the significant factor that influence not only teachers but also students behavior in the classroom. Even though teachers are believed to be the most important persons in the school with all their acts, it is obvious that students‘ attitude and manners are also vital for success. The negative or positive feeling yields good or bad out come. For most teachers or curriculum designers, distinguishing what are needed by students is a regular process of curriculum development. ` Many physical educators and curriculum designers in higher education concern about students attitude towards the common course physical fitness and sport skills classes. Since not only teachers or curriculum, designers are very much part of the process of teaching, attention should also be given for students. Students‘ attitude as a feedback given to teachers or faculty members is helpful for the treatments designed to enhance the quality of instructing the course.

However, little research is done about the higher education students‘ attitude towards physical fitness & sport skills courses in Ethiopia. On the other hand, students‘ attitude towards physical education in abroad has been under investigation since 1030‘s. Traditionally, the purpose of such inquiry has been to identify factors that contribute to positive and negative feelings towards physical fitness & sport skills. Investigators believed that having such information would improve the quality of the course by allowing teachers to consider student insights when curricular or program decisions are made. Subsequently, research in this area out side of Ethiopia has been plentiful. The preponderance of attention has focused on college (Aiden, 1932, bell & walters. 1953, brumbach, 1968, Brumbach & Cross, 1965, Bullock & Aiden, 1933, Compbell, 1968, Fighely, 1945, Keogh,1962) and high school students (Carr, 1945, earl & stennett, 1987, Lluke & Sinclire, 1991 rice 1988, Tannehill, Romar et al, 1994). The few studies conducted on high and middle school students indicate that positive attitudes toward physical fitness & sport skills appear to be strongest at the eighth grade level for both boys and girls. With each passing grade, however, attitudes towards physical fitness & sport skills become less favorable (king, 1994). Although, attitudinal decline transpires in both genders, it is more severe in girls (Teanor et al, 1998).

The identification of possible factors which contribute to students overall attitude towards physical fitness & sport skills have varied. In one of the earliest studies, Nemson (1949) while attempting to identify specific annoyances that lead students to have negative feelings toward physical education, discovered that boys with positive attitudes towards physical education were most irritated by the personal hygiene of the physical education teacher. Conversely, boys who were categorized as having poor attitude by their teacher were most annoyed with the requirements of having to take physical fitness & sport skills. More recently Tannrechil and Zakrajsek (1999) reported winning, success, performing well, being included, teamwork, participating and having fun are the factors which many high school and college students associate with positive physical fitness & sport skills experiences. One the other hand, negative experiences related of fitness exercise and injuries, Carlsum (1994) found student attitudes towards physical fitness & sport skills were influenced by culture (gender idolization of elite sport figures), society (family, mass media, sporting experience, skill level peers, previous physical fitness & sport skills experience, and perception of fitness), and school (teacher influence).

Based on this literature it is apparent that for some college and high school students physical education is a miserable experience, while for others this content area is enjoyable and worthwhile. In either case, as students progress through each grade over all attitudes towards physical activity decrease. This is especially not worthy, when considering the decline in physical activity that transpires during adolescence. In other words as adolescents age, attitude towards physical fitness & sport skills become less favourable and levels of physical activity decrease. The parallelism of these two trends, indicate the importance of providing a physical education experience, which will encourage college students to initiate and maintain a physical active life style. However, in order to provide meaningful physical fitness & sport skills experiences for university students, additional research at domestic level towards students‘ attitude of physical fitness & sport skills must be under taken.

This study investigated university students‘ attitudes toward physical fitness & sport skills common courses. Some of the students‘ attitudes can be positive or neutral. As an instructor of the common course physical fitness & sport skills in higher education, I have become increasing concerned about the large number of unenthusiastic and/or poor attitudes that have observed in many students. Concerning this, departments of sports science in Ethiopian higher institutions also have no clear reference to accommodate the best interest of students. The different times of curriculum changes require these questions to be answered. The answers are helpful even for colleges in ways of including physical fitness & sport skills as a common course. These facts are still much more significant for the department since adjusting major concerns and ways of Applying the course. Thus this study was focuses on the 2nd year students of two well known universities Jimma University & Haramaya University, were purposefully preferred. Since the two universities are located at different corners of the country with greater experience and larger number of students, it is believed that the study would assess the general picture of students‘ attitude towards physical fitness and sports skill program in the country. The purpose of this study was to assess the university students attitudes towards physical fitness & sport skills course and to determine the various aspects of the program that appear to contribute to positive and negative attitudes towards common course physical Fitness and sport skills classes with the following basic research questions. 1. What aspects of physical fitness & sport skills do the university students have experienced with positive attitudes towards physical fitness & sport skills find most and least enjoyable? What aspects of physical education do the university students have experienced with negative attitudes towards physical fitness & sport skills find most and least enjoyable? 2. What are the major factors affecting the attitudes of university students towards physical fitness & sport skills? 3. What is the general attitude of the students towards the benefits of the course? 4. What are the possible solutions in order to minimize the problem?

Significance of the Study This study is believed to be important to policy makers, university instructors, departments, students and other pressure groups. Through the investigation of students‘ attitude toward physical fitness & sport skill program, and the incidents, which influence those attitudes, it is hoped that physical fitness & sport skills programs will be better equipped to provide a meaningful physical fitness & sport skills experience to all university students. Through considering the information, making curricular, pedagogical, or other program remedial decisions can be fruitful. The information presented in this study will also serve as a springboard for further investigations that could lead to promote a safe school, warm, friendly classroom environment that ultimately contribute to the teaching learning process.

Objectives of the Study

General Objectives The general objective of this study was intending to assess students‘ attitudes towards physical Fitness and Sport skills program.

Specific Objectives  To see the root causes of students positive and negative attitudes.  To assess the current students attitude towards the significance of the course.  To provide pertinent recommendation for the professional, department of sport science and curriculum developers in considering and handling students attitude. Delimitation of the Study

The scope of the study was delimited to examine only those students who attend physical fitness and sports skills classes in 2010/11 academic year in two universities namely: Haramaya University & Jimma University. Only second year students were preferred due to two reasons. The first is that the data obtained would be more meaningful as a result of their better stay in the university, secondly, if other than second year students are part of the study, it was difficult to manage all the data even if it is the case, it will be superficial.

Limitations of the Study The study was limited by the response given by the 2nd year university students‘. Moreover, local review materials concerning the issue were hardly available which may limit the study.

Research Methodology

Design of the Study

The purpose of this study was to assess the current attitude of students towards physical fitness and sport skill course. To achieve this, both quantitative and qualitative research approaches were used. This method were selected with the hope that it would answer the basic question of the study as desired by the researcher via producing a pertinent data. Creswell and Clark (2007) asserted that mixed method research helps answer questions that cannot be answered by qualitative or quantitative approaches alone. A triangulation mixed method design was used as a major way of conducting the research. In this type of design, qualitative and quantitative data were used for supporting and validating each other. Responses from the questionnaire, interview, and document were analyzed and interpreted in a complementary manner with relation to empirical evidences of student‘s attitude towards the course.

Participants of the Study

Participants of the study were second year students who have taken the course, sport science instructors and sport science department heads. The reason for bringing their views together were to obtained relevant information for the issue raised since they are directly or indirectly parts of the problem or part of the solution in the program.

Population and Sampling Techniques The population of this study includes all second year students of jimma university & Haramaya university who take the course physical fitness & sport skills in 2010/2011 academic year.5% of students were selected to participate in this study using stratified sampling to maintain proportion sample across universities & the respective colleges. Moreover, 50% of instructors were selected by using availability sampling method. Purposive sampling was used to select universities. From 24 universities in Ethiopia, two Universities namely Jimma University & Haramaya University were selected purposefully for the study. The accessibility of data and the number of students were taken as the main criteria to select those five universities.

In the sampled universities, second year students were purposefully selected because of the assumption that they would provide relevant information due to relatively long years of stay in the university.

Table1. Sport science Teachers Total Population and Selected sample in each universities

Total no of sport science teachers in the Sample of sport science teachers selected respective universities from each universities (50%) N Universities o

Tota Male % Female % Total % Male % Female % % l

1 Jimma 10 100 --- -- 10 100 5 100 --- -- 5 100

2 Haramaye 9 100 --- -- 9 100 5 100 --- -- 5 100

TOTAL 10 100

Source: Registrars of the respective universities.

Table 1. Student’s Total Population and Selected sample in each universities in the acad. year 2010/2011

Total no of Second year students in the Sample of student’s second year selected respective universities from each universities (10%) N University o

Fe Male % Female % Total % Male % mal % Total % e

1 Jimma 4273 84 771 16 4824 100 214 85 39 15 253 100

2 Haramaye 3950 86 620 14 4570 100 198 86.5 31 13.6 229 100

TOTAL 482 100

Source: Registrars of the respective universities.

Data Collection Instruments

To get reliable information from the research participants, types of instrument to be used have paramount importance. Thus, questionnaire, interview, and document analysis were identified as pertinent tools of this study. Below, the detailed description and procedures were presented.

Questionnaire Questionnaire were used as a major instrument to collect data not only because it is a popular means of collecting all kinds of data in research, but also an appropriate instrument to obtain information about conditions, practices and problems for relatively large sample studies (Best and Khan, 1996). In order to elicit the necessary data, a questionnaire was constructed based on the reviewed related literature. The items of the questionnaire were mixed, both closed format question and open format. The questionnaire was prepared for students who have taken the course. The questionnaire prepared for students has two parts. The first part contained four questions with regard to the general background information of the female students, second part contained 16 closed ended questions stemmed on three scales, and four open ended questions. Interview This instrument is in a sense an oral questionnaire. Instead of writing the response, the interviewee gives the needed information really and face-to-face. Since the interview is often superior to other gathering devices, the researchers were backed to explain more explicitly the investigations purpose and the type of information required (Best and Khan, 1996).Wherever subject misinterpreted the question, the interviewer followed it with clarifying questions.

In addition to the data obtained through questionnaire, face-to-face structured interview were conducted with department heads & sport science instructors. The structured interview guiding questions was used in conducting the interview. It has two parts, the first part contains the background information about the interviewees, and the second part contains the interview guiding questions, for all interviewees. The interview was conducted after the necessary explanations and consensus reached among the researchers and the interviewees. Pilot Study Before the actual data gathering, data collection instruments such as questionnaire and interview guiding questions were piloted in Agriculture College of Jimma University to check whether they can generate the expected information from the respondents and to see their consistency to the study. Then, the instrument was checked. Finally, the instrument was improved based on suggestions and recommendations gathered. Data Collection Procedure

First, the researchers were move to each University with a letter of cooperation and got permission to collect data and obtain any relevant information. All the participants of the study were informed about the purpose of the study before the questionnaire was distributed. Moreover, during the administration of the questionnaire further clarifications were given wherever question raised by respondents. It was randomly distribute to selected second year students from the respective universities. The questionnaire was distributed to them in their randomly selected classes or groups with enough and clear explanations. Before each interview, the key interview guides were given to the interviewees for their consideration and preparation. The questionnaire was distributed to them in their respective universities with necessary orientations. All interviews were conducted by the researchers, where as the questionnaires were distributed to and collected from the respondents with the help of assistant data collectors. Method of Data Analysis

Different methods of data analysis pertinent to the issue were employed. Therefore, the questionnaires was first collected, organized, tabulated, and coded in SPSS version 15. Items of the questionnaire were classified in to different tables based on their issues of similarities for demonstrating the results and providing interpretation. The following statistical procedures were employed for numerical interpretation.

 Descriptive statistics like mean and percentage were used to analyze basic information and distribution of scores.  The data collected through interview, open-ended questions and documents were summarized and analyzed qualitatively.

Result

Major Factors Affecting the Positive Attitude of Students towards the Course Physical Fitness & Sport Skills

In addition to examining students‘ attitude towards physical fitness & sport skill (sp sc 201) the interest of this study was to also investigate the negative factors that affect students positive attitude towards the physical fitness& sport skills program. Thus, the interview result & open ended questions result illustrated that the major factor affecting the positive attitude of students towards physical fitness & sport skills were:

A. Curriculum issue. B. Large class size. C. Lack of facilities & equipment. D. Self perception.

A. Curriculum issue

For all students & instructors the most overwhelming major category associated with negative incidents was curriculum content.

The lack of curricular choice was frequently cited as factor relating to dislike the course sp sc 201. In relation to this one instructor witnessed ―students dislike physical fitness & sport skills mainly because they don‘t have very much choice in what they do‖. This statement summarizes quite importantly how many students associated lack curriculum choice with negative attitude towards physical fitness & sport skills program. Other frequently cited negative incidents with related to curriculum content were warm-up running & the mile run.

B. Large class size

The analysis of the interview & open ended questions indicated that attempting to teach physical fitness & sport skills course with large class size of students is a big challenge.

In conformity with this, siedenton (2007) stated that physical fitness & sport skills course is in trouble, certainly part of the reason is the difficult situation many instructors face. The difficulties involve combination of class size & heterogeneity of skills as well as coed participation.

In relation to this the optimal class size ,which is targeted by MOE is 40 students with in a class(MOE,1995).The actual situation is far from what was actually targeted including the availability of insufficient sport facilities & equipments.

C. Lack of sport facilities & equipments

The interview & open ended questions replied by instructors revealed that lack of sport facilities & equipments are challenges for the implementation of the course physical fitness & sport skills in higher education institutions. The respondents‘ added, sport facilities & equipments are indispensable & the scarcity without any doubt affect the quality of the program.

In line with this, siedonton (2007) marked that the facilities for physical fitness & sport skills program obviously affected what was taught (choice of activities) & how it will be taught (teaching method).

D. Self perception In relation to negative self perception of students associated with physical fitness & sport skill (Sp Sc 201) were lack of personal interest, low skill level & lack of competency. One of those citations from students was ―well, I will just say I am not superstar basketball player. When my teacher, says everyone is going to play basketball, I always embarrass myself because I do things wrong.

Implications

In the previous section the presentation & discussion of data suggest that the attitudes of student towards the course physical fitness & sport skills (sp sc 201) affected due to curriculum issue, large class size, lack of facilities & equipments, class atmosphere, teacher behavior and self- perception. Based on these findings several implications will be offered:

 The curriculum designers need to increase the participation of students to choice some or all of their curriculum content of physical fitness & sport skills.  The class size should be minimized as to enhance students‘ equal participation.  The finding of this study suggested that the provision of sport facilities & equipments needs to be increase.  The physical fitness & sport skills curriculum needs to provide students with the opportunity to become competent movers.  The other implication is the need to provide students with alternatives forms of daily exercises & warm-ups.  The program need to provide students with adequate time to dress in & out during practical class.

Conclusion Based on the result of the study the following conclusions were formulated:

 The findings of this study show that students attitudes towards physical fitness & sport skills slightly decreased due to factors such as curriculum content, un-conducive class atmosphere, teacher behaviour, dressing out, self- perception, large class size & lack of facilities & equipments.  Large class size & lack of facilities & equipments were the top categories associated with negative experiences.  The conclusion drawn from this study offer insights in to student‘s attitude toward physical fitness & sport skills and factors which contribute to those attitudes.

Recommendations

Depending on the findings obtained & the conclusion drawn from the study, the possible suggestions are forwards:

 The class size should be minimized as to entertain the practical nature of the course.

 Providing enough equipments & facilities is very important in order to meet the target of the course.  Instructors in the field of sport science should work hard to increase the self- perception of students towards various sport activates.

 In an attempt to combat the levels of sedentary lifestyles there are threaten many of our youngsters, health professionals & sport science expertise are calling up on physical fitness & sport skills to equip student with the skills & knowledge necessary to become physically active for a life time.

The Effect of Athletes’ Satisfaction towards the Running Performance of Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba Training Center Athletics Team

Daniel Kibrom, Amensisa Kebede and Woldegebriel Mezgebo

Abstract

Participant satisfaction is more complicated because participation takes several forms such as pursuits of pleasure; skills; excellence and health. Chelladurai et al. (1988) have noted that performance is significant source of satisfaction in any organizational context and performance (both individual and team) may be judged by different standards. The construct of satisfaction has also interested researchers and practitioners in the domain of athletics. For many coaches; satisfaction and performance are intuitively linked. Several unique features of athletics highlight the relevance of athlete satisfaction when determining the effectiveness of an athletic enterprise. Thus; athlete satisfaction must be assigned the same level of importance as job satisfaction in the organizational literature. The purpose of this study was to identify factors of athlete satisfaction in the Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba training center and to determine the relationship between athlete satisfaction and performance of the athletes. Athlete‘s satisfaction was measured using Athlete Satisfaction Questioner (ASQ) designed by Ramier and Chelladurai (1998). Individuals responded to 15 subscales of the ASQ (56 items) using 7- point Likert- type scale (1=not at all satisfied; 7= extremely satisfied). Performance of the athletes was taken from the recorded files of the training center. The descriptive statistics was analyzed using by means; frequencies and standard deviation. For the purpose of correlation; Pearson‘s was used. Individual performance (M=5.83; SD= 0.87) was the most important subscale influencing athlete satisfaction in the training center. Analysis of the mean scores also showed that academic support services and medical personnel were the lowest rated satisfied subscales for athlete satisfaction in the training center. The results also showed that; there is a meaning full relationship between athlete satisfaction and performance of the athletes.

Keywords: Satisfaction; Performance; correlation

Introduction

According to the importance of professional competitions, especially team sports in which success depends on different factors, having only elite athletes is not sufficient. (Gilbertson, 2000) indicated seven basic and important factors as critical factors in being successful of a sport team or sport organizations including: coach or leader, individuals' motivation and satisfaction , financial possibilities, goals, creativity, structure, and skill. The study of leadership in sport contexts has been conducted under the observation of the leadership styles that are most related to performance, as well as the coaches‘ actions that exert an influence on the athletes‘ psychological and emotional well-being (Horn, 2008).

The satisfaction of an athlete is a positive emotional mood that originates from complex testing structures (Weiss and fried Richs, 1986) it should be noted that the relationship between leadership, cohesion and satisfaction, has been a major subject of concern in sport psychology research. Starting with athlete satisfaction, it has been defined as a ―positive affective state resulting from a complex evaluation of the structures, processes, and outcomes associated with athletic experience‖ (Chelladurai & Riemer, 1997, p. 135). There are several reasons why this concept is important in sport, namely, the relationship with performance, cohesion and leadership, the implications in the way sport programs are structured and the fact that member satisfaction (and individual performance) could be a consequence of specific coaching behaviors (Chelladurai, 1993; Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). Besides, there are indications referring to the relationship between athletes‘ satisfaction and coaching behaviors (e.g., training and instruction, positive feedback and social support) (Horn, 1992).

More over Satisfaction of followers is one of the most important consequences of leadership. (Fredrick 2005) presented the dimensions of job satisfaction and the player‘s satisfaction as a dependent variable of his research indicates a positive emotional status which is obtained as a result of a complex evaluation of structures, procedures and results related to sport experiences. The level of satisfaction is obtained through determining the difference between what sportsmen wants and his understanding of what he has gained in psychological, physical and environmental forms. Such a satisfaction might be considered as the end of organization (team) effectiveness of a sport program. Generally Researchers sought to examine the relationship between athletes‘ satisfaction and running athletes‘ performance change.

Thus Coaches of Ethiopia should also be examined and referred to such factors, which satisfaction subscales have a relationship with performance change. With this sense this study focused on which satisfaction subscales have a relationship with performance change of the athletes in Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba athletics training center.

Delimitations of the Study

This study is delimited to Tirunesh Dibaba sport academy athletes located at Asela city 170 km east of Addis Ababa at Oromiya Region of Ethiopia. Generalization of this finding will be delimited to these participants or those who could be shown to be similar in composition extensive extrapolation beyond this will not be directly supported by this study.

Methodology Design of the Study According to the recent study about relationship between coaches‘ leadership style along with athlete‘s satisfaction in sport science, the most favorable method for achieving a research is a descriptive and analytical approach or method. This study involved the above two methods.

Study Site and Population

This study was conducted in Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba Sports Academy which is located in Asela. Population of this study was all running athletes in the training center.

Samples and Sampling Procedures of the Study

The researchers of this study prefer to use census sampling procedure. Participants of this study were 51 athletes who are currently available in the Tirunesh Dibaba Athletics training center.

Data Collection Instrument

The data-gathering instrument was the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). The 15-dimension, 56-item Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ) was based on Riemer & Chelladurai‘s classifications of the different facets of athlete satisfaction (Eys, et al., 2003). The idea of satisfaction has interested researchers in different realms of life including job satisfaction, life satisfaction, leisure satisfaction, volunteer satisfaction, and athletic satisfaction (Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). Since sport participation is voluntary, typically a satisfied athlete performs at the highest level. Therefore, many coaches link satisfaction and performance (Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). In addition, the effective athletic program is one that meets the needs of the athlete.

The instrument is intentionally preferred due to its high validity and reliability: Riemer and Chelladurai (1998) reported internal consistency estimates (Cronbach‘s alpha, 1951) ranging from 0.85 (individual performance satisfaction) to 0.95 (team performance satisfaction).

Data Analysis The data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). The descriptive analysis of the data will be analyzed using by means, frequencies, percentages and standard deviations. The analytical approach involved one way ANOVA to see the difference between satisfaction and performance across sex. Moreover, Pearson correlation was used for the purpose of testing the relationship between athlete satisfaction and athlete performance.

Data Collection Procedure

First of all, the researchers contacted to Ethiopian youth sports academy with a letter of cooperation and get permission to collect data and obtain any relevant information. All the participants of the study were informed about the purpose of the study before the questionnaire was distributed. Moreover, during the administration of the questionnaire, further clarifications were given to respondents. The questionnaires were distributed to them in their randomly selected groups with enough and clear explanations during training time.

Results and Discussion Descriptive Statistics

The descriptive analysis of the data was analyzed using means, frequencies, and standard deviations for each item were found for males & females. Table 1 shows that Personal dedication (M = 5.44, SD = 1.04), Personal treatment (M = 5.43, SD = 1.37), individual performance (M=5.31, SD=1.59) were the most important subscales influencing athlete satisfaction in training center. The mean scores also showed that training and instruction (M = 4.75, SD = 1.81) was the fourth highest mean score for athlete satisfaction. On the other hand, Academic support (M = 3.03, SD= 1.45) and Budget (M = 3.56, SD = 1.69) were the lowest rated satisfied for athlete satisfaction.

Table 1. Mean of Important Subscales of Athlete Satisfaction

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

M 26 2.0592 2.74715 .53876 Performance change F 25 1.2124 4.90952 .98190 Total 51 1.6441 3.94028 .55175 M 26 5.1796 1.78715 .35049 Individual F 25 5.4404 1.38404 .27681 Performance Total 51 5.3075 1.59178 .22289 M 26 4.3858 1.36557 .26781 Team Performance F 25 4.8008 1.26585 .25317 Total 51 4.5892 1.32115 .18500 M 26 4.7385 .93256 .18289 Ability Utilization F 25 5.3280 .78926 .15785 Total 51 5.0275 .90688 .12699 M 26 5.4919 .97003 .19024 Strategy F 25 4.0696 1.52545 .30509 Total 51 4.7947 1.45021 .20307 M 26 5.5462 1.29406 .25379 Personal treatment F 25 5.3040 1.46073 .29215 Total 51 5.4275 1.36983 .19181 M 26 4.7562 1.80519 .35403 Training and F 25 3.5588 1.75776 .35155 instruction Total 51 4.1496 1.81015 .25347 M 26 3.9481 1.63124 .31991 Team task F 25 4.3192 1.64457 .32891 contribution Total 51 4.1300 1.63211 .22854 M 26 4.7958 1.23968 .24312 Team social F 25 5.4684 1.34019 .26804 contribution Total 51 5.1255 1.32131 .18502 M 26 3.7958 1.49646 .29348 Ethics F 25 4.7460 1.77457 .35491 Total 51 4.2616 1.69157 .23687

M 26 4.7500 1.17047 .22955 Team integration F 25 4.8700 1.28720 .25744 Total 51 4.8088 1.21818 .17058 M 26 5.2692 1.03905 .20377 Personal dedication F 25 5.6100 1.02337 .20467 Total 51 5.4363 1.03543 .14499 M 26 4.2065 1.58178 .31021 Budget F 25 2.8804 1.56454 .31291 Total 51 3.5565 1.69536 .23740 M 26 4.2788 1.02549 .20112 Medical personnel F 25 4.2500 1.06800 .21360 Total 51 4.2647 1.03611 .14508 M 26 3.2735 1.57726 .30933 Academic support F 25 2.7752 1.29749 .25950 Total 51 3.0292 1.45438 .20365 M 26 4.3750 1.47860 .28998 External agents F 25 4.4300 1.80641 .36128 Total 51 4.4020 1.63101 .22839 3.2. Differences of Athlete Satisfaction Subscales

As for the comparative analysis, the differences in athlete satisfaction subscales were tested according to the athlete‘s satisfaction, using one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). According to Table 2, significant differences were found on Training and Instruction p< 0.01 , ability utilization p=0.02, strategy p<0.001 and budget p=0.004.

Table 2. One way ANOVA results of Athlete Satisfaction Subscales

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Performance change Between Groups 9.139 1 9.139 .584 .449 Within Groups 767.152 49 15.656

Total 776.291 50 Individual Between Groups .867 1 .867 .338 .564 Performance Within Groups 125.821 49 2.568 Total 126.688 50 Team Performance Between Groups 2.195 1 2.195 1.264 .266 Within Groups 85.077 49 1.736 Total 87.272 50 Ability Utilization Between Groups 4.430 1 4.430 5.916 .019 Within Groups 36.692 49 .749 Total 41.122 50 Strategy Between Groups 25.783 1 25.783 15.917 .000 Within Groups 79.372 49 1.620 Total 105.155 50 Personal treatment Between Groups .747 1 .747 .393 .533 Within Groups 93.074 49 1.899

Total 93.822 50 Training and Between Groups 8.211 1 8.211 2.585 .01 instruction Within Groups 155.621 49 3.176 Total 163.832 50 Team task Between Groups 1.755 1 1.755 .654 .422 contribution Within Groups 131.434 49 2.682 Total 133.190 50 Team social Between Groups 5.766 1 5.766 3.466 .069 contribution Within Groups 81.527 49 1.664 Total 87.293 50 Ethics Between Groups 11.508 1 11.508 4.286 .044 Within Groups 131.563 49 2.685

Total 143.071 50 Team integration Between Groups .184 1 .184 .122 .729 Within Groups 74.015 49 1.511

Total 74.199 50 Personal dedication Between Groups 1.480 1 1.480 1.391 .244 Within Groups 52.125 49 1.064

Total 53.605 50 Budget Between Groups 22.414 1 22.414 9.054 .004 Within Groups 121.298 49 2.475 Total 143.712 50 Medical personnel Between Groups .011 1 .011 .010 .922 Within Groups 53.666 49 1.095 Total 53.676 50 Academic support Between Groups 3.164 1 3.164 1.511 .225 Within Groups 102.597 49 2.094 Total 105.761 50 External agents Between Groups .039 1 .039 .014 .906 Within Groups 132.971 49 2.714 Total 133.010 50

The comparative analysis between groups of athletes highlights several aspects. Starting with the differences between men and women, it was evident that female athletes had a more unfavourable pattern of assessment of their coaches, pointing out to their coach‘s lower training and instruction, Ethics and Training centers budget.

Correlation between Athlete Satisfaction subscales and performance of participants in the training center.

Table 3 shows that Pearson correlations between athlete satisfaction and performance in the training center. The overall correlations were moderate. External agents (r = 0.71, p<0.001 for female and r=0.61, p=0.001 for males) has showed significant relationship with performance in both cases female and male. Female individual

performance (r=0.6, p=0.001) showed significance relationship with performance and the results also showed that, male individual performance has significance relationship with performance. Personal dedication has also showed moderate correlation for both female and male with r=.5, p=.04 and r=.49, p=.02 respectively. Training and instruction has also showed significant and moderate correlation for males with r=.55, p=.004 but it didn‘t show significant relationship with performance for female runners.

Table 3. Summary of the relationship between athlete satisfaction subscales and performance change

Correlations Performance change

Female Male Performance change Pearson Correlation 1 1

Sig. (2-tailed)

Individual Pearson Correlation .604** .54* Performance Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .027 N 25 26 Team Performance Pearson Correlation -.058 -.148 Sig. (2-tailed) .784 .469 N 25 26 Ability Utilization Pearson Correlation .249 .009 Sig. (2-tailed) .230 .967

N 25 26 Strategy Pearson Correlation -.200 .235 Sig. (2-tailed) .338 .248

N 25 26 Personal treatment Pearson Correlation -.285 -.023 Sig. (2-tailed) .167 .912 N 25 26 Training and Pearson Correlation .367 .548** instruction Sig. (2-tailed) .071 .004 N 25 26 Team task Pearson Correlation .296 -.125 contribution Sig. (2-tailed) .151 .543 N 25 26 Team social Pearson Correlation .164 -.239 contribution Sig. (2-tailed) .432 .239 N 25 26 Ethics Pearson Correlation .211 -.019 Sig. (2-tailed) .312 .927 N 25 26 Team integration Pearson Correlation .090 .058

Sig. (2-tailed) .668 .778

N 25 26

Personal dedication Pearson Correlation .54 .49 Sig. (2-tailed) .04 .02

N 25 26 Budget Pearson Correlation .080 -.035 Sig. (2-tailed) .702 .866

N 25 26 Medical personnel Pearson Correlation .340 -.107 Sig. (2-tailed) .096 .603

N 25 26 Academic support Pearson Correlation -.262 -.013 Sig. (2-tailed) .207 .948

N 25 26 External agents Pearson Correlation .706** .614** Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 N 25 26

This study has indicated that Personal dedication was the most important factor influencing athlete satisfaction in the training center. This shows that the athlete in the training center is Satisfied with his/her own contribution:

This study has also indicated that Personal treatment was the second important factor influencing athlete satisfaction in the training center. This shows that the athlete in the training center is satisfied with those coaching behaviors that directly affect the individual, yet indirectly affect team development: Starting with athlete satisfaction, it has been defined as a ―positive affective state resulting from a complex evaluation of the structures, processes, and outcomes associated with athletic experience In relation to this‖ (Chelladurai & Riemer, 1997, p. 135) describes that there are several reasons why this concept is important in sport, the implications in the way sport programs are structured and the fact that member satisfaction (and individual performance) could be a consequence of specific coaching behaviours (Chelladurai, 1993; Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). Besides, there are indications referring to the relationship between athletes‘ satisfaction and coaching behaviours (e.g., training and instruction, positive feedback and social support) (Horn, 1992). This study has also indicated that individual performance was the third important factor influencing athlete satisfaction in the training center. This shows that the athlete in the training center is satisfied with his/her own task performance: The mean scores also showed that training and instruction was the fourth important factor influencing athlete satisfaction in the training center.This shows that the athlete in the training center is Satisfied with training and instruction provided by the coach: In general, research concerning this issue has remarked some of these behaviours in the prediction of the athletes‘ satisfaction. For instance, Horne and Carron (1985), in a study with

coaches from Canada, pointed out the dimensions of training and instruction, and social support, while Schliesman (1987) pointed out the democratic and social support behaviours as the best predictors of athletes‘ satisfaction and performance. This research also indicated that training and instruction has a significant relationship with athletes‘ performance. This study also indicated that academic support was the lowest rated satisfied in the training center. This shows that the athlete in the training center is almost unsatisfied with the academic support services provided to the athletes: Finally, this study indicated that budget was the second lowest rated satisfied in the training center. This shows that the athlete in the training center is less satisfied with the amount of money provided to the athlete by the organization:

The funding provided to the athlete. (Q.48) The amount of money spent on the athlete. (Q.19) The fairness of the training center‘s budget. (Q.40)

This study found that individual performance, personal dedication and external agents have showed significant relationship with performance in both cases for female and male in the training center. This shows that external agents factors which are most obvious of which are media and local community, has brought a positive relationship with performance. These were:

1. the media‘s support of our program 2. the support from the training center community 3. the supportiveness of the fans 4. the local community‘s support

Training and instruction has also showed significant and moderate correlation for males with r=.55, p=.004 but it didn‘t show significant relationship with performance for female runners. This shows that there were a problem in understanding the training and instructions given by their coaches and hence influenced their performance. Riemer and chelladurai (1998) noted that athlete satisfaction is influenced by a number of different individual and group variables. For example , Eys , carron , Bray and Beau champ (2003) recently found that athlete satisfaction was related to the degree to which athletes understood their role responsibilities on interactive sport teams , In addition , several studies have found that coaches and community also influence athletes satisfaction ( Chelladurai & Riemer,1998).

Conclusion and Recommendations This study has indicated that, the athletes in the training center are satisfied with:  his/her own contribution (personal dedication)  those coaching behaviors that directly affect the individual (personal treatment)  his/her own task performance (individual performance)  training and instruction provided by the coach (training and instruction) On the other hand, this study has also indicated that, the athletes in the training center are almost unsatisfied with:

 the academic support services provided to the athletes  the amount of money provided to the athlete by the organization

Based on the results obtained, there was a moderate correlation between performance and athlete satisfaction subscales in the training center.

Brian Mackenzie (2003), coaches wish to motivate the athlete work with and to provide performance. Communication from the coach to the athlete will initiate appropriate actions. This, however, requires the athlete not only to receive the information from coach but also to understand and accept it. Hence,

 The coaches of the training center should continue giving credit and good approach to their athletes in order to increase the satisfaction of the athletes.

 The organization (training center) must take corrective measures such as increasing tutor sessions to enhance academic support services.

 The organization (training center) and concerned bodies should also consider on the amount of budget spent on the training center and the amount of money given to the athletes.

Future research could be carried out using the same research instrument as in this study and including coach‘s leadership styles, therefore providing more comparable studies in the field of sport management in Ethiopia.

References

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Brian Mackenzie(2003), Coaching. Successful Coaching Issue, 5 Sept 2003.

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Chelladurai., P. (1978). A contingency model of leadership in athletics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Waterloo, Canada.

Chelladurai., P. and Saleh, S.D., (1980). Dimensions of leader behavioUr in sports: development of a leadership scale. Journal of sport psychology, 2, 34 – 45.

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Chelladurai, P., Imamura, H., Yamaguchi, Y., Oimnuma, Y., and Miyauchi, T. (1988). Sport leadership in a cross-national setting: the case of Japanese and Canadian university athletes. Journal of sport & exercise psychology, 10, 374 – 389

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Sexual satisfaction and its association with physical exercise among marriage adults participating in some selected fitness centers in addis ababa

Tewodros G/Mariam G /Tsadik (M.Sc.), Abera Assefa (M.Sc.)

Abstract

A sense of enjoyment or satisfaction with one's sexual life is a highly personal sentiment greatly related to an individual's past sexual experiences, current expectations, and future aspirations. Sexual satisfaction has been shown to be related to the characteristics and behavior of the partner, emotions, and sexual behaviors as well as to social background factors. Study has found that there is a positive correlation between exercise and sexual satisfaction. Regular physical exercises enhanced sexual encounters including frequency of intimate activities and increased percentages of pleasing orgasms. The main objective of this study was to determine the relationship between physical exercise and sexual satisfaction among marriage adults participating Fitness Centers in Addis Ababa. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted from November to February 30, 2012/13 to determine the relationship between Physical Exercise and Sexual Satisfaction among marriage adults participating Fitness Centers in Addis Ababa. Six Fitness Centers were selected randomly. From the selected Fitness Centers marriage adults were selected by systematic sampling technique. Interview administered questionnaire was used to determine the relationship between Physical Exercise and Sexual Satisfaction among adults. The study was under go after the approval of Jimma University Research and Ethical committee and receiving support of letter. Data was analyzed by using SPSS 16 version. The average score of perceived effects of regular exercise on sexual satisfaction among marriage adults was 50.56 (SD=8.234) indicating that they perceived body image, sexual desirability perception, and physical strength were the higher three components of physical sexual satisfaction impacted by exercise. The least components of physical sexual satisfaction impacted by exercise were orgasm frequency, orgasm intensity, and frequency. Marriage adults participation in regular exercise had an effect on overall satisfaction during sexual activity (p= < .001). In addition to this marriage adults‘ body mass index had a relationship with sexual satisfaction (p=.004), the gender of adults had an effect on sexual satisfaction (p<.003), and that gender had a significant effect on perceived impact of exercise on sexual satisfaction (p<.001). Since physical activity may increase sexual satisfaction, health professionals could use the results of the current study to help and motivate individuals to begin an exercise program or to exercise more.

Introduction

According to Davidson et al. (1995: 237), "a sense of enjoyment or satisfaction with one's sexual life is a highly personal sentiment greatly related to an individual's past sexual experiences, current expectations, and future aspirations". Sexual satisfaction and its predictors have not been comprehensively studied but there are some important findings from the United States. Sexual satisfaction has been shown to be related to the characteristics and behavior of the partner, emotions, and sexual behaviors as well as to social background factors.

In the review of studies conducted in the US (Sprecher and McKinney, 1993) sexual satisfaction was found to be associated to young age and middle class background. Sexual behaviors which seem to be connected to sexual satisfaction include frequent intercourse, oral-genital sex, experimental lovemaking, and orgasm. Exercise can enable adults to improve and maintain strength and agility, decreasing the risk of falling, and thereby allow older adults to continue living independently and experiencing a higher quality of life. Along with these benefits, physiological benefits of exercise include: increased stroke volume, increased blood flow and circulation, increased aerobic capacity, decreased stress and depression, decreased risk of injury, decreased fatigue, reduced chance of dying prematurely, reduced chance of developing diabetes/high blood pressure/colon cancer, helps build and maintain health bones, muscles and joints, and assists in weight control (CDC, 1999). While such health problems are highly preventable through regular physical activity, only 15% of individuals in the United States currently participate in the recommended weekly amount of physical activity (30 minutes of moderate physical activity for 5 or more days per week) while 40% participate in no leisure-time active at all (USDHHS, 2000a). Research studies that have examined the relationship between exercise and physical sexual satisfaction have all concluded that exercise increases physical sexual satisfaction levels (White, 1990). White found that the men who exercised regularly experienced enhanced sexual encounters including frequency of intimate activities, increased percentages of pleasing orgasms, and sufficient functioning during sex. A recent longitudinal study has found a positive correlation between exercise and sexual satisfaction in women experiencing menopause (Gerber, Johnson, Bunn, & O‘Brien, 2005). In addition, women who reported a decrease in frequency of exercise throughout the five year period also had a decrease in sexual satisfaction scores. Results of a study on females who began an exercise program revealed an increase in vaginal pulse amplitude and vaginal blood volume in both sexual functioning and sexually impaired women, suggesting that an increase in sympathetic nervous system arousal may produce the outcome of physiological responses in women (Meston & Gorzalka, 1996). Exercise intensifies the sympathetic nervous system thus possibly enhancing physical sexual satisfaction. In a study conducted with cardiac male individuals, researchers concluded that the benefits of exercise training were correlated to improvements in sexual activity (Belardinelli, Lacalaprice, Faccenda, Purcaro, & Perna, in press). Research involving active, older adults similarly found a correlation between physical sexual satisfaction and degree of fitness (Bortz & Wallace, 1999).

Significance of the study Currently, no studies to date have explored the multiple relationships and differences between physical exercise and sexual satisfaction Therefore, this research is try to examine the relationship between physical exercise and sexual satisfaction within marriage adults participating in some selected Fitness Centers in Addis Ababa. The findings of this study will be of paramount importance to health care provider and policy makers to design strategies to educate adults regarding the therapeutic effect of exercise on sexual satisfaction and to increasing their awareness, prevention and control program on the sexual dysfunction. The study would also help to bridging the information gap and can be a base line for other researchers who are interested to study in similar area.

Objectives General Objective The main objective of this study was to determine the relationship between physical exercise and sexual satisfaction within marriage adults participating in some selected Fitness Centers in Addis Ababa.

Specific objective 1.To examine the relationship between gender and sexual satisfaction. 2.To assess the relationship between sexual satisfaction and body mass index across the genders. 3. To determine the relationship between sexual satisfaction and physical activity levels across the genders. 4. To examine sexually active marriage adults perceived level of sexual satisfaction based on exercise status and body mass index.

Method Study design and period A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted to determine sexual satisfaction and its association with physical exercise among marriage adults participating in some selected Fitness Centers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The study was conducted from November to February 2012/13 Study population All marriage adults participating in exercise in the six selected Fitness Centers of Addis Ababa.

Inclusion criteria All marriage adults participating in exercise for two month and above were including in the study.

Exclusion criteria  Individuals participating in exercise below two month  Single  Divorced and Widowed were excluded from the study.

Sample size determination In this study, sample size was determined using single population proportion formula. Taking the overall prevalence of 50 % to obtain the maximum sample size at 95 % certainty and a maximum discrepancy of +5% between the sample and the underlying population; an additional 10 % will be added to the sample size as a contingency to increase power. Thus a minimum number of 403 marriage adult participants were required in the study. This is the formula used to determine the sample size 2  α  Z  .p1 p 2 n=   2 d Some basic assumptions of sample size determination The level of confidence, α = 0.05(95%), P = 50% = 0.5, d2 = the degree of precision = 0.05 (5%), Non response rate = 10% n = 384 By adding non response rate 5%, n = 384 + 19.2 Total sample size = 403

Sampling procedures. Out of the total fitness centers found in Addis Ababa, six fitness centers were selected by simple random sampling technique namely LF Gymnasium, YS Gymnasium, A Gymnasium, AF Gymnasium, M Gymnasium and AR Gymnasium . From the selected fitness centers marriage adults were selected systematically. The selected adults were subjected for the following data collection instruments:

Data collection procedures The data collection methods used in the study was; I. Questionnaire A structured questionnaire was used to assess sexual satisfaction and used to measure the perception effects of exercise on sexual satisfaction.

II. Weight and height measurement Balanced beam scale was used to measure the weight of each study participant and the height of participants was measured with the measuring rod attached to the balanced beam scale. Each study participant's weight and height were measured to calculate their body mass index based on 2 the procedures of WHO recommendation. Thus, underweight (BMI less than 18kg/ m ), normal weight (BMI 18.55 to 24.99kg/ ), over weight (BMI 25-29.99kg/ ), and obesity (BMI greater than 30kg/ ), were recorded and registered in the weight and height data recording form (Hanna T, Kari K & Tiina L ., 2002).

Data quality Assurance To assure the data quality, high emphasis were given in designing data collection instrument. For its simplicity, the questionnaire was per-tested followed by modification. Training of data collectors and Supervisor were undertaken. The principal investigator and supervisor were made day to day site supervision during the whole period of data collection. At the end of each day, the questionnaires were reviewed and checked for completeness. Accuracy and consistency was checked by supervisor and investigator, and corrective discussion was undertaken with all the

research team members. A reminding remark was given each morning during the day of data collection to minimize errors and take corrective actions timely.

Data processing and analysis The data used for the statistical analysis was primary data. The responses from the survey were coded and entered into SPSS 16.0 version for statistical analysis. A series of means, standard deviations, and frequency analyzes were conducted on demographic variables and individual subscale items. A Pearson moment correlation and two ways ANOVA were also used. The statistical significance level was established at p < 0.05.

Result Socio-demographic characteristics

A total of 403 married adults completed the questionnaires, of which 1 response was excluded for gross incompleteness and in consistency of responses.

Analyses were made based on the 402 completed questionnaires, thus the response rate was 99.8%. Out of the respondents, 250 (62.2%) were males and 152 (37.8%) were females. The minimum age of the participant was 19 year and maximum was 58 year, with mean age and standard deviation of 36.07 + 8.998 year. The minimum height and weight of the participates were 1.54m and 43kg and the maximum were 1.86m and 95kg ,with mean height and weight of 1.7m and 69kg respectively. Most of the participant‘s participate in cardiovascular exercise were 351 (87.3%) while 51(12.7%) participate in strength exercise and no respondents were participated in flexibility exercise. Regarding sexual behavior, results indicated that 10(2.5%) of participants‘ reported engaging in sexual activity at some point in their life but not within the past 30 days. One hundred forty one (35.1%) of participants‘ also reported engaging in sexual activity within the past 30 days. Two hundred fifty one (62.4%) of participants‘ reported engaging in sexual activity within the past 7 days. Regarding Body Mass Index of the respondents 90 (22.4%) were Obese, 243(60.4%) were Overweight, and the remaining 69 (17.2%) participants had Normal weight.

Discussion

This study has tried to assess the relationship between exercise and sexual satisfaction within marriage adults participating in some selected Fitness Centers in Addis Ababa.

Exercise and sexual Satisfaction

The hypothesis is that there is a significantly higher level of sexual satisfaction on married adults‘ those who exercise regularly than those do not exercise regularly. The results of this study did support the hypothesis that there is association between adults‘ those who exercised regularly and those who did not exercise regularly regarding sexual satisfaction F=13.561, P< 0.001 This relationship was also found in other studies. White et. al (1990) found that the men who exercised regularly experienced enhanced sexual encounters including frequency of intimate activities, increased percentages of pleasing orgasms, and sufficient functioning during sex.

In addition, women who reported a decrease in frequency of exercise throughout the five year period also had a decrease in sexual satisfaction scores (Gerber, Johnson, Bunn, & O‘Brien, 2005). This may indicate that regular exercisers may experience physiological benefits that could enhance their sexual satisfaction such as increased blood flow, joint and muscular flexibility and skeletal muscular strength. Other study suggested that through increased skeletal muscle tone, orgasmic pleasure could be increased (Mandall, 1979). Therefore, if an individual is seeking (attempting) to increase his/her sexual satisfaction, a possible solution could be to exercise regularly.

Body Mass Index and Sexual Satisfaction

The hypothesis is that there is an inverse relationship in levels of sexual satisfaction between adults‘ who have a low body mass index and high body mass index. The results of this study did not support the hypothesis that there is an inverse relationship in levels of sexual satisfaction between adults‘ who have a low body mass index and high body mass index (r=-.198, p=.004). The current study found a correlation between body mass index and sexual satisfaction. The correlation determined that as body mass index increases, sexual satisfaction decreases and as body mass index decreases, sexual satisfaction increases. Supporting this finding, other study found that individuals with a lower or average body mass index had higher levels of self-attractiveness (Haavio- Mannila & Purhonen, 2001). This may indicate that individuals with a lower or average body mass index feel more attractive and therefore have increased levels of sexual satisfaction. Gerber et. al (2005) also found a positive correlation between an individual‘s body image and sexual satisfaction. An individual‘s body image could be impacted by their body mass index. Therefore, individuals that are interested in possibly enhancing their sexual satisfaction should consider maintaining a low or average body mass index.

Gender and Sexual Satisfaction

The hypothesis that there is a significantly higher level of sexual satisfaction on adult males than adult women. The results of this study did support the hypothesis that adult males have higher levels of sexual satisfaction than adult women F=9.863, p<.003. The current study has found a relationship between gender and sexual satisfaction. Females in the current study reported higher levels of sexual satisfaction regarding ,Partner‘s ability to move and change positions during sexual activity, Partner‘s energy during sexual activity, Partner‘s physical strength during sexual activity, Partner‘s orgasm frequency, Frequency of sexual activity, Physical flexibility during sexual activity, and Partner‘s overall satisfaction during sexual activity. This may indicate that females are satisfied with their partner‘s role during sexual activity but not satisfied with their own performance during sexual activity. Performance anxiety is believed to be the most common cause of orgasm problems (Medline Plus Medical Encyclopedia, 2004). It may also be noted that orgasmic females are often unable to reach climax due to premature ejaculation by the male (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2005). Therefore, it may be concluded that males are more satisfied with their orgasm frequency because they achieve an orgasm more often than females.

Conclusion

1. Majority of the participants were most satisfied with the frequency of their partner‘s orgasm , partner‘s overall satisfaction and overall satisfaction but least satisfied with body image, frequency and partner‘s physical flexibility . 2. Large number of the marriage adults perceived body image, sexual desirability perception and physical strength as the highest three components of sexual satisfaction that are affected by exercise whereas orgasm frequency , orgasm intensity and frequency partner‘s orgasms were the least three components of sexual satisfaction affected by exercise. 3. Most of the participants those who regularly exercised had higher satisfaction regarding physical strength, energy, duration, frequency and overall satisfaction during sexual activity than those who did not exercise regularly. 4.Males had higher levels of sexual satisfaction regarding orgasm frequency, body image, and orgasm intensity than female 5. Females had higher levels of sexual satisfaction regarding partner‘s ability to move and change positions during sexual activity, partner‘s energy during sexual activity, partner‘s physical strength during sexual activity, partner‘s orgasm frequency, frequency of sexual activity, physical flexibility during sexual activity, and partner‘s overall satisfaction during sexual activity. 6. Majority of the respondents those who had low body mass index has higher level of sexual satisfaction than those who had high body mass index 7. Females had higher levels of perceived impact of exercise on sexual satisfaction regarding body image during sexual activity than males whereas Males had higher levels of perceived impact of exercise on sexual satisfaction regarding their partner‘s orgasm frequency during sexually activity than females. Hence, the following specific recommendation has been made based on the finding of the study so as to give a clue about the possible direction to follow and focus to alleviate the existing problems of adherence.

Recommendation

Based on the above finding of the study the following recommendations were made: - 1. Effective information, education and communication strategies should be designed and strengthened to raise their awareness and modify or change their life style behavior, focusing on the prompt and proper regular exercises.

2. Educational program should be developed focusing on the sexual satisfaction.

3. Health educators strengthening information, education and communication activities in continuous and organized manner to enhance the knowledge of regular exercises. 4. Arranging a regular physical exercise program for those who have high body mass index and as the same time to encourage them to practices exercise. 5. Further research should be completed by using different sampling method and approach to confirm or reject the results of this descriptive study, and to advance the study findings.

References

Belardinelli, R., Lacalaprice, F., Faccenda, E., Purcaro, A., & Perna, G. (in press). Effects of short-term moderate exercise training on sexual function in male patients with chronic stable heart failure. International Journal of Cardiology. Bortz, W., & Wallace, D. (1999). Physical fitness, aging, and sexuality. The Western Journal of Medicine, 170(3), 167-168.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (1999). The link between physical activity and morbidity and mortality. Retrieved on January 16, 2005 from http://cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/mm.htm

Davidson, J. K., Darling, C.A., and Norton, L. (1995). Religiosity and the sexuality of women: Sexual behavior and sexual satisfaction revisited. The Journal of Sex Research 32: 235-243.

Gerber, J., Johnson, J., Bunn, J., & O‘Brien, S. (2005). A longitudinal study of the effects of free testosterone and other psychosocial variables on sexual function during the natural traverse of menopause. Fertility and Sterility, 83(3), 643-648.

Haavio-Mannila, E, & Purhonen, S. (2001). Slimness and self-related sexual attractiveness: comparisons among men and women of two cultures. Journal of Sex Research, 38(2), 102- 111.

Hanna T, Kari K and Tiina L .European Health Risk Monitoring . World Public Health 2002 ; 23:73-127.

Medline Plus Medical Encyclopedia. (2004). Orgasmic dysfunction. Retrieved on July 7, 2005 from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001953.htm

Meston, C. & Gorzalka, B. (1996). Differential effects of sympathetic activation on sexual arousal in sexually dysfunctional and functional women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(4), 585-591.

Mandall, A. (1979). The second wind. Psychiatric Annals, 9, 153-160.

Sprecher, S., and McKinney, K. (1993). Sexuality, Sage, Newbury Park.

nd United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2000a). Healthy People 2010. 2 et. With understanding and improving health and objectives for improving health. 2 vols. Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office

White, J., Case, D., McWhirter, D., & Mattison, A. (1990). Enhanced sexual behavior in exercising men. Archives of sexual behavior, 19(3), 193-209.

The Psychological Aspects of Injury in Sport

Amensisa Kebede and .R.V.L.N. Ratnakar Rao

Abstract

Athletes participating in sport are exposed to a relatively high injury risk. Age, gender, injury history, body size, local anatomy and biomechanics, aerobic fitness, muscle strength, and psychosocial factors as well as general mental ability are factors in the predisposition to injury. The main focus of the evaluations and prevention programs is also on the treatment of physical injuries and treatments of psychiatric/psychological issues have been addressed at a minimum. However Psychological issues of injury for sport are an essential aspect of successful sports performance at all times. It includes psychological variables as predictors of injury occurrence, athlete‘s psychological response to injury, psychological aspects of the rehabilitation process, and also psychological readiness to return to competition. With regard to the psychological response to injury, a few factors such as emotions and behavior of the injured athletes have b e e n identified. Studies on the psychological aspects of the rehabilitation process have indicated that injured athletes need a number of approaches that can be implemented such as communication skills and motivation techniques. Nevertheless, injured athletes need to consider some psychological readiness factors to return to competition like anxiety, fear and loss of confidence.

Key words: Sport, injury, psychological, predictors, response, rehabilitation

Introduction As sports participation increases, so does the incidence of both acute and over use sports- related injuries. All these injuries do not need only medical treatments but also psychological factors. In order to fully understand the injury occurrence/recovery process, both psychological and physiological factors must be considered (Dunn & Syrotuik, 2003). Many studies have shown the impact and influence of psychological characteristics of athletes in determining risk of injuries and rehabilitation.

Those risk factors are usually classified in to extrinsic and intrinsic variables. Age, gender, injury history, body size, local anatomy and biomechanics, aerobic fitness, muscle strength, physiological and psychosocial factors as well as general mental ability are factors in the Predisposition to injury. One of the most important aspects in sports injury rehabilitation is the psychological aspect (Mohdnor, 2001).which 65

include psychological variables as predictors of injury occurrence, athlete‘s psychological response to injury, psychological aspects of the rehabilitation process, and also psychological readiness to return to competition. Among the factors already studied are the stress responses, personality, and history of stressors, coping resources, trait anxiety, self-esteem, and mental toughness (Brewer 2009). Just as relatively small changes in behavior in sport can significantly impact performance, so do small changes in behavior significantly impact rehabilitation.

Generally Studies on the rehabilitation process have indicated that injured athletes need a number of approaches that can be implemented such as communication skills and motivation techniques. In relation to this, injured athletes need to consider some psychological readiness factors to return to competition like anxiety, fear and loss of confidence which subsequently may affect their performance when they return to competition (Mohdnor, 2001).pain has been studied in relation to injury and is often associated with potential or actual tissue damage (Tenenbaum , 2006). Thus it is also important to understand how athletes typically react to injury as well as the psychological factors that might influence this response. Accordingly, research in the sport psychology field is needed to examine the impact and association between the expectation of pain and anxiety in the athletic environment.

Objectives

The aim of this study is to examine the existing practices of preparing athletes in light of pain and anxiety after injury so as to understand and analyze some of the possible psychological influencing factors for high athletic performance and success during rehabilitation of injury.

Literature Review

Pain in Sport

In the daily course of the coaches, it is must to deal with athletes‘ pain in order to treat and manage their sports-related injuries. Disregarding an athletes‘ pain in the injury- management process can retard rehabilitation. Pain is often described as an inevitable part of certain athletic endeavors (Cooper, 1981). For many events, pain is expected, and even encouraged, as it is associated with improvement and productivity (Guyot, 1991). Pain has been defined as

An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience arising from actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage…[Pain includes not only the perception of an uncomfortable stimulus but also the response to that perception (Thomas, 1997, p. 1387)

Psychological Factors and Sport Injuries

Research that has examined the influences of psychological factors on injury risk has stated that athletes who experience high levels of stress are exposed to a greater risk of attaining a sport injury (Ivarsson and Johnson, 2010; Rogers and Landers, 2005). Athletes can be expected to experience a variety of emotional responses and stress upon being injured.

For many athletes, exercise and physical activity serves as a primary coping mechanism and outlet for dealing with psychological issues. In these athletes, an injury may result in even greater emotional upheaval. Emotional responses to injury include sadness, feelings of isolation, irritation, lack of motivation, frustration, anger, alterations in appetite, sleep disturbance, and feeling disengaged. Problematic emotional reactions occur when symptoms do not resolve or worsen over time, or the severity of the symptoms seems excessive relative to other injured athletes.

Depression especially is a significant warning sign. It magnifies other emotional responses and impacts recovery from injury. A number of variables, however, have been examined occurrence in sport. Early work as potential predictors of injury accounts the types of athletes thought to be prone to injury and suggested that intrapersonal conflict, anxiety, depression, guilt and low self-confidence were important contributors to injury occurrence (Sanderson,1977). Subsequent research has taken a variety of other factors into account, and the manner in which they interact has been summarized by Andersen and William (1988b).

The Stress Responses

A few studies have tested parts of the Williams and Andersen model in elite soccer populations. For example both Johnson and Ivarsson (2011) and Ivarsson et al. (2012) found that both personality (e.g. anxiety) and stress (e.g., negative life event stress and hassle) variables predicted sport injuries. This response consists of a cognitive component and a psychological/attention component, both exerting reciprocal influences on each other. Evaluations of the demands inherent in the sports situation, the resources available to meet these demands and the consequences of successful versus unsuccessful coping produce physiological tension and attention deficit. At the same time, the physiological and attention changes influence the nature of the ongoing evaluation. If the perceived threat is sufficiently strong or recurrent, this response may increase the risk of injury by disrupting co-ordination and flexibility (Tenenbawn, klund 2007).

Personality

Very few reliable relationships have been demonstrated between personality and sports injury. However, certain variables are worthy of consideration: for example, several investigations have reported connections between injury occurrence and scores on Factor I (tender-minded vs. tough minded) and Factor A (reserved vs. outgoing) of Cattell‘s 16 PF (Personality Factor) Questionnaire. Players scoring near the tender- minded and reserved ends of these scales may be more prone to injury than their more tough-minded and outgoing peers.

Similarly, low scores on measures of general self-esteem have been implicated as a precursor to injury. Hardy & Crace (1991) have also reported interesting findings concerning the interaction of personality and the type of injury likely to be experienced. Their data suggest that acute injuries are frequent among competitors with extraverted tendencies and a low sense of responsibility. And Overuse injuries are frequent among competitors with high level of dedication and responsibility (Rodin & Salovey, 1989; Grove, 1993).

History of Stressors

The most frequent finding has been a positive association between measures of stress from major life events and incidence of injury. This relationship appears to be strongest in contact sport. There has also been speculation that ‗daily hassles‘ experienced by the athlete may be positively related to chance of injury (DeLongis, A., S. Folkman & R. S. Lazarus. 1988).

Coping Resources

The final general class of mediators in the stress-injury relationship is the nature of the athlete‘s coping resources. These consist of a variety of behaviors and interpersonal networks which aid the individual in dealing with life‘s positive and negative events (Andersen and Williams, 1988). Research indicates that social support systems are particularly important coping resources, both in terms of general health and sport injury. These systems consist of coaches/team-mates, partners/spouse, friends/relatives and supervisors/co-workers that provide emotional support to the individual.

The quality of the social support system will be determined by the extent to which the athlete believes these people care about him/her, trusts and confides in them and can access them in times of need. Studies indicate that high levels of social support are associated with low incidences of injury, and that low levels of social support are associated with high incidence of injury (Tenenbawn, et al. 2007) .

Psychological Response to Injury

Athletes can be expected to experience a variety of emotional responses and stress upon being injured. There is no predictable sequence of emotional reactions to athletic injury. For many athletes, exercise and physical activity serves as a primary coping mechanism and outlet for dealing with psychological issues. In these athletes, an injury may result in even greater emotional upheaval. Emotional responses to injury include sadness, feelings of isolation, irritation, lack of motivation, frustration, anger, alterations in appetite, sleep disturbance, and feeling disengaged. Problematic emotional reactions occur when symptoms do not resolve or worsen over time. Depression magnifies other emotional responses and impacts recovery from injury. It is essential to

Promote monitoring of emotional reactions by the athletic care network

Facilitate provision of psychological support services as needed

Educate athletes and coaches regarding emotional reactions to injury and recovery

Promote utilization of a supportive social network in injury recovery

Athletes are thought to proceed through a sequential series of stages (e.g., denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance) after becoming injured. Unfortunately, research did not support such a characterization of athletes‘ responses to sport injury. Some athletes do exhibit components of a grief reaction after sustaining an injury and athletes generally do display more favorable psychological responses with the passage of time following injury, but predictable, stage-like sequence of responses consistent across athletes simply has not stood up to scientific scrutiny (Brewer 2009) .

Cognitive Responses

The way in which athletes cognitively appraise or interpret their injuries contribute substantially to their psychological adjustment to the challenges posed by the injuries. Injuries perceived as threatening to one‘s sense of self- and well-being are likely to produce more adverse psychological consequences than injuries construed as neutral, benign, or, in rare cases, beneficial occurrences. For example, athletes who perceive their injuries as resulting in the loss of a self-defining activity are more likely to experience devastating emotional reactions (e.g., depression) than athletes who interpret their injuries as means of escaping the pressures of unwanted sport involvement (and consequently experience thinly disguised feelings of liberation and relief (Brewer 2009) Among the common cognitive responses to sport injury are (a) decreased self-esteem; (b) attribution activity; and (c) use of coping strategies. Following injury, athletes tend to experience a drop in evaluations of their self-worth. They readily make attributions regarding the cause(s) of their injuries, some involving

factors internal to themselves (e.g., somatic weakness, overtraining) and some pertaining to factors external to themselves (e.g., field conditions)

Emotional Responses

Among the more common emotions experienced by athletes with injuries are anger, confusion, depression, fear, and frustration. In general, negative emotions tend to increase immediately following injury and decrease over the first month post-injury, presumably as athletes adjust to their conditions and recover health and function. Emotional disturbance may persist, when the athletes have severe injuries or encounter obstacles in the recovery progress. This initial numbness is followed by a period of heightened emotionally in which feelings of isolation/loneliness, anger/resentment, depression and anxiety may be experienced (Rotella & Heyman, 1993). The athlete may become irritable and/or self-critical at this time, and there may be a loss of interest in usual activities. The athlete may also question the value of treatment and fail to comply with recommended rehabilitation procedures.

Behavioral Responses

The ways in which athletes respond behaviorally to injury are closely tied to their cognitive and emotional reactions. For example, when athletes cope cognitively with their injury situation by focusing their attention on the tasks of their rehabilitation program, their behavior may be characterized by information-seeking and vigorous pursuit of rehabilitation. Similarly, in rare cases where the levels of emotional disturbance in response to injury are extreme, suicidal behavior may result.

Although some athletes may seek out social support from others for assistance in dealing with their injuries, others may choose to withdraw socially and cope with their situation on their own. This emotion/ behavior syndrome can be viewed as a three- element, repeating cycle comprised of distress, denial and a determination to cope (Heil, 1993). Distress and denial tend to peak in the early stages of rehabilitation and then give way to determined coping in the later stages. However, in the later stages of recovery, transient periods of distress/denial can be expected to occur in response to specific difficulties like pain or lack of progress. Particularly in the case of a serious injury, the athlete is likely to respond initially with shock, denial and an overly- optimistic belief that the injury is less serious than it appears (Grove, 1993). From a cognitive standpoint, adherence rates tend to be higher when athletes ascribe their recovery to factors within their control, view themselves as able to cope with their injuries, set rehabilitation goals, maintain positive self-talk, and use mental imagery. Athletes experiencing emotional disturbance tend to adhere less well to their injury rehabilitation programs than those without such difficulties. The experience of previous injuries, the trauma associated with them and the success of prior rehabilitation efforts 70

will undoubtedly influence the nature of post-injury stress. There is evidence that general life stress delays recovery from minor illness and injury among athletes and it is reasonable to assume that daily ‗hassle‘ occurring during rehabilitation may produce similar effects (Gordon et al., 1991; Ford & Gordon, 1993). Sanderson (1977) notes that players are likely to react negatively if they feel that their injury occurred as a result of a teammate‘s illegal or unacceptable behavior. Similarly, the severity of the injury in terms of pain, persistence and disruption of normal activities as well as the timing of the injury within the season and the athlete‘s career has also been noted as an important determinant of the response to injury. Anxiety has been used in a global way to describe how performers respond to the demands within stressful situations (Tenenbawn,et.al.2007).

Trait and State Anxiety: Trait anxiety is a relatively enduring disposition that causes people at high end of continuum to view a wide range of non dangerous circumstances as threatening. Stat anxiety is the negative emotion of apprehensiveness and tension experienced threatening situations.

Cognitive Anxiety: Cognitive anxiety responses are the thoughts athletes experience in stressful situations such as worries, negative expectations, and apprehensions about performance (i.e., athletes‘ mental response to stressors). It is characterized by worrying thoughts and negative expectations about performance, self-evaluation and the evaluations of others. Somatic anxiety relates to perceptions of our bodily state, such as awareness of a pounding heart or dry mouth.

Anxiety Measurement: The most used method of measuring anxiety in sport is the self- report questionnaire. It has been used to measure both trait and state anxiety. The most used measure of trait anxiety is the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS). The most widely used measure of state anxiety is the CSAI-2.

Anxiety Direction: Some researchers have claimed that anxiety has direction as well as intensity, leading to the somewhat strange notion of positive as well as negative anxiety. It is possible that the term directional anxiety is a misnomer and that the directional scale measures outcome expectations.

Pain-Related Anxiety

Pain can be a source of anxiety (McCraken, Zayfert, & Gross, 1994). Most often studied in medical research, pain-related anxiety is apparent in numerous facets of life (McCraken et al., 1994, Bishop, Holm, Borowiak& Wilson, 2001; McNeil et al., 2001). The term, pain-related anxiety, refers to the summation of ―the cognitive, overt behavioral and physiological responses customarily labelled as anxiety, shown in response to pain or pain-related events‖ (McCraken & Gross, 1997). Pain-related 71

anxiety results from a combination of cognitive, physiological and motivational processes (Asmundson, Vlaeyen & Crombez, 2004)

Psychological Aspects of the Rehabilitation Process

Pain is essentially a psychophysical phenomenon, and a loss of functioning can be defined in terms of behaviors in which athletes are unable to engage. Psychological factors have been shown to affect the outcome of sport injury rehabilitation. When athletes sustain injuries, the immediate focus is generally on physical dimensions of the injuries, such as the location, magnitude, and ramifications of the damage to body tissues. Nevertheless, from the occurrence of sport injuries onward, psychological factors are an integral part of the rehabilitation process. For example, the pain and loss of physical functioning commonly experienced by athletes upon sustaining an injury have strong psychological components. According to the model, psychological factors affect and are affected by biological factors (e.g., tissue repair, circulation), social factors (e.g., social network, life stress), intermediate bio-psychological outcomes (e.g., range of motion, strength, pain), and rehabilitation outcomes (e.g., functional performance, readiness to return to sport). Of particular note, the outcomes on which the success of rehabilitation is largely judged are predominantly psychological or behavioral. Once athletes have adapted to their injury and learned to accept their incapacity, step towards rehabilitation must be determined. A concomitant mental and physical effort can be facilitated by the educational psychological strategies, namely communication skills and motivation techniques (Wiese and Weiss 1987). Biofeedback training can also help athletes getting into a state of homeostasis (Strack and Gevirtz, 2011) which is a state of emotional and physiological coherence similar to the ―adaptive stress response‖ that decreases the risk of sustaining injury (Williams and Andersen, 1998).

Communication Skills

Professionals can facilitate rehabilitation by providing detailed information about all aspects of the athlete‘s injury (Weiss & Troxell, 1986). A detailed description of the nature of the injury and the prescribed rehabilitation programme and a programme rationale should be provided, together with realistic expectations concerning pain, physical and psychological setbacks, lack of mobility, and inconvenience. An emphasis on positive attitude and persistence during rehabilitation must be communicated.

Motivation Techniques

We can distinguish intrinsic and extrinsic motives by looking at the process of motivation. The motives and needs of players are guided by two basic factors, the hope of success and fear of failure with experience generally showing that the former 72

plays the major role in motivating players. Every player has a dream some players pursue their dreams and expect to achieve them through renewed hard work and dedication. Obstacles are seen as a challenge and each setback as a call for more effort to improve and overcome these problems. This type of player is intrinsically self-motivated as their desire to succeed comes from within themselves. Generally, highly motivated players only need decent objectives, environment and ability to concentrate as well as good technical, tactical and physical coaching for success. For injured players, convincing and motivating to believe they can succeed and secondly only hard work will lead to success help for fast rehabilitation.

Motivating the Team/Player

There is no perfect method for motivating players as this changes from individual to individual and can depend on the current situation, like team's position in the league. Various ways used to motivate and sustain motivation: Goal setting is useful as it allows players to have something to aim at through a predefined plan to compare their progress at different steps over a period of time (Brewer 2009).

Goal Setting Goal-Setting Guidelines

1. Help develop management skills that are transferable between rehabilitation situations.

2. Help athletes establish rehabilitation schedules.

3. Provide opportunities for self-evaluation and recording.

4. Involve athletes in decision making.

Process of goal setting should include goals to follow the prescribed treatment. Protocol (e.g. attendance at treatment sessions, perseverance with homework exercises) and goals for incorporating psychological strategies (e.g. relaxation, imagery, self-talk) within the rehabilitation program. The first step is to set realistic, specific and measurable goals, which should be written down by athletes and re-evaluated frequently. Daily, weekly and monthly goals need to be monitored and updated periodically as progress is recorded. Feedback to the athlete must be provided based upon objectively determined standards of achievement. The observable improvements should promote motivation as well as healing.

Relaxation

Many athletes seem to use Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) which allows players to learn the difference between relaxation and tension. The player should lie

comfortably, close eyes, breath easily, tense then relax all muscles and maintain a passive attitude. Deep muscle relaxation is another procedure often used. A player forces his attention onto his left leg for example and imagines it getting heavier and heavier and eventually letting it sink into the floor! Generally, relaxation should result in decreased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate and decreased body metabolism. A relaxed condition facilitates healing by moderating the sympathetic nervous system functions, which are usually activated by stressful situations and conditions. Relaxation therefore helps to conserve vital energy required to promote healing and fight discomfort and disease. Through regular use of relaxation skills, athletes can facilitate and perhaps accelerate their recovery from injury. Three techniques that could be employed are: progressive muscular relaxation (PMR); autogenic training; and biofeedback. PMR teaches injured athletes to recognize the build-up and release of tension in different muscle groups and is particularly applicable for dealing with pain experiences or sensations, and for preparing for treatment. Autogenic training works through self-suggestion and focuses on both physical relaxations, using sensations of warmth and heaviness, and mental relaxation in the form of visualization. In sports studies, the ability of subjects to control blood flow, alter skin temperature and procedure hot or cold sensations in different parts of the body has been attributed to autogenic training. Biofeedback can be incorporated into rehabilitation programmes to help individuals train and control their body reactions (Tenenbawn,et.al 2007)

Imagery

It has been defined as "using all the senses to re-create or create an experience in the mind"(Tenenbawn,etal 2007). Successful athletes use imagery and visualization. Jack Nicklaus, one of the greatest golfers of all time, described in detail how he used imagery. This quotation provides an eloquent description of how he used imagery prior to every shot:

I never hit a shot, not even in practice, without having a very sharp, in-focus picture of it in my head. It's like a color movie. First, I "see" the ball where I want it to finish. . . . Then the scene quickly changes and I "see" the ball going there. . . . Then there is sort of a fade- out, and the next scene shows me making the kind of swing that will turn the images into reality. (Nicklaus, 1974, p. 79)

The ‗imagination‘ can also be used to facilitate the rehabilitation process, particularly when used in conjunction with relaxation exercises. Emotive imagery helps athletes feel more positive about themselves and what they can achieve. By using imaginary scenes that the athlete recalls with pride and enthusiasm, for example feelings of pride in having recovered from previous injuries or setbacks, this technique boost confidence

levels. The goal is not to deceive the athlete but rather to evoke positive, composed and calm feelings associated with memorable past experience (Brewer 2009).

Positive Self-Talk

In implementing cognitive restructuring techniques, mental skills consultants would first assist athletes in understanding the nature of their reactions to the stressor (e.g. Pain associated with treatment). Athletes would then be shown how automatic and irrational thought processes could negatively affect responses to injury and rehabilitation. Next, athletes would be assisted in breaking down their responses into components and taught how and when to use both cognitive and behavioral coping strategies to deal with each component. Injured athletes can benefit enormously from learning a cognitive restructuring program because they tend to dwell on negative and irrational thoughts and belief about themselves and their chances of recovery, particularly during long and painful periods of treatment (Rotella & Heyman, 1993).

Social Support

Social support networks can influence stress levels in athlete and involve a unique set of contributions from coaches, teammate‘s family and friends. While coaches and teammates provide technical support for athletes, they are generally not expected to provide as much emotional support as family and friends. Hardy and Crace (1991) have proposed eight distinguishable types of social support that injured athletes use during rehabilitation.

• Listening support -- behaviors that indicate people are listening without giving advice or being judgmental.

• Emotional comfort -behaviors that comfort individuals and indicate people care to them.

• Emotional challenge --behaviors that challenge the individual to evaluate their attitudes, values and feelings.

• Task appreciation -- behaviors that acknowledge individual efforts and express appreciation for the work that they do.

• Task challenge -- behavior that prompts, encourages and challenges the individual to do more and achieve more.

• Reality confirmation -- behaviors by people with similar experiences, priorities, value and views that reassure the individual during times of stress or confusion and confirm perceptions and perspectives of the situation.

• Material assistance -- behaviors that provide the individual with financial assistance, products or gifts.

• Personal assistance -- behaviors that indicate a giving of time, skills, knowledge and/or expertise to help the individual accomplish tasks.

Self-Efficacy

A central factor in understanding the relationship between anxiety and the expectation of pain is an individual‘s self-efficacy for pain tolerance. Bandura (1997) defined self- efficacy as ―beliefs in one‘s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments‖ (p. 3). Self-efficacy affects an athlete‘s engagement choices, effort level, and perseverance and associated with increased likelihood to set Challenging goals (Bandura & Jourden, 1991). Specifically, given an adequate skill and sufficient motivation, performance will be determined by the extent to which a person believes in his or her competency to execute a particular task. High self- efficacy has been associated with the activation of coping strategies, persistent coping with pain, and a reduction in arousal eliciting anticipations (Bandura, O‘Leary, Taylor, Gauthier, & Gossard, 1987). In a study conducted on college students, Baker and Kirsh (1991) found that individuals with higher self- efficacy for coping with pain were better able to tolerate pain during a cold pressor test.

This study indicated that individuals who believed they were able to control the amount of pain had lower pain ratings than those in the control group. Research has also indicated that heightened self-efficacy to regulate pain intensity is associated with a higher threshold and tolerance for pain (Stevens, Ohlwein, & Catanzaro, 2000). Studies have also displayed a relationship between competitive anxiety and self- efficacy. One such study, conducted by Allen and Greenlees (2005), indicated that athletes who possessed a strong belief in their own personal capabilities to perform, and demonstrated high levels of self efficacy, displayed lower levels of both cognitive and somatic state anxiety prior to competition.

Psychological Readiness to Return to Competition

In order to avoid a repeat of the injury and further loss of confidence in their performance, it is essential that injured athletes be fully consulted about their complete recovery and readiness to return to competition (Heil 1993). Physical recovery from injury can be determined objectively from the physical signs and symptoms of healing. However, psychological recovery is a highly subjective phenomenon and ultimately rest with the perceived confidence of injured athletes in meeting the physical demands of full competition. Although little empirical evidence supports the contention that ‗confidence‘ is significant to the athlete when deciding to 76

return to competition (e.g. Gordon & Lindgren, 1990; Rotella & Heyman, 1993). Evidence suggests that athletes should only be allowed to return to competition when they themselves consider that they are both physically and mentally ready to do so.

The Psychological Aspects of Injury in Sport

To achieve effective communication, professionals must become responsive listeners with athletes, who may require assistance in dealing with the emotional challenges posed by rehabilitation. While severely troubled or depressed athletes should be referred to licensed psychologists, preferably with sports science training. Body rehearsal is a second technique that facilitates healing, by using positive images. First, the athlete is given details of what has happened internally as a result of the injury, so that he/she can develop a clear picture of the internal damage caused by the injury. Next the intent of the rehabilitation program is explained, which enables the athlete to imagine precisely what is happening internally during the healing process. Mastery rehearsal, in which physicians and physiotherapists explain in specific detail what must occur internally to effect healing, can also be used in concert with body rehearsal. Coping rehearsal, on the other hand, teaches athletes to anticipated problems in through the preparation of plans to deal with periods of anxiety worry and pain. Such preparation might also induce unnecessary anxiety on the part of some athletes who may find anxiety level over whelming; however, this technique is generally regarded as a realistic and valuable tool to learn and use. Finally, time projection is an imagery technique, which effectively distances injured athletes from their current frustrations, inconveniences or pain. If athletes are taught to picture themselves 2 or 6 weeks in the future, they can attain some instant relief from their present experience. By planning ahead through time projection on a day-by-day/week-by-week basis, using a range of positive steps, athletes will learn to deal with current crises more effectively (Gordon & Lindgren, 1990; Rotella & Heyman, 1993).

Conclusion

Injured athletes treated with a comprehensive rehabilitation program that includes addressing issues that experience less stress. In relation to this studies have suggested the use of psychological strategies such as goal setting, positive self-statements, cognitive restructuring, and imagery/visualization is associated with faster recovery. These strategies may be helpful by reducing stress and increasing coping mechanisms and social support. However, rehabilitation may be affected by problematic emotional reactions, the most common of which are loss of identity, fear and anxiety, and a loss of confidence. The common attitude that ‗if the body is ready the mind is also‘ must continue to be challenged, as an athlete‘s anxiety and fear and lack

of confidence must be addressed and alleviated before he/she returns to competition and can make more informed decisions on complete.

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The Fundamentals of Curriculum Development, Implementation, and Evaluation within the Context of Ethiopian Sports Academy Programs

TeferaTadesse (PhD

Abstract Over the years, curriculum has become a widely appealing construct within the global discourse of quality assessment and continual improvement. However, a cursory look into the literature in this field reveals a lack of clarity and consensus regarding its meaning and other technical issues related to its development and review, particularly within sports academy setting. This paper provides an overview of current knowledge in this area through broadly exploring a range of dimensions underpinning the concept of curriculum, including its definitions, elements, processes, and the resultant pedagogical implications. Also, this paper proposes a model to facilitate the development and review of curriculum in the Ethiopian sports academy programs and to provide designers, teachers and administrators with a practical approach for designing and implementing curriculum. This proposed model has institution-driven and data-informed approach that helps to clarify those fundamental factors that impact pedagogical practices within the sports academy setting. This model seeks to support the Ethiopian sports academies in systematically developing and reviewing curriculum and using that assessment data to trigger further improvement of the program. Moreover, a systemic view of sports academy is suggested to create broader insights about key ingredients of quality and identify issues that impinge on curriculum decision-making. The paper concludes by summarizing the results of the analysis, identifying some curriculum issues and offering the practical implications.

Keywords: critical analysis, curriculum development; curriculum review; Ethiopia; sports academy

Introduction Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, & Philippaerts, 2008). The driving force triggering this Over the last two decades or so, there has interest is the need to excel during important been a growing interest across many sporting events like the Olympics or World countries around the globe in effectively Championships (Balderson, 2012; identifying and developing sports talent Giulianotti & Brownell, 2012). among the youth(Martindale, Collins, & Daubney, 2005). For example, the In order to develop strong desire and experience in Australia, Canada, Germany, positive attachment to pursue sport or the United Kingdom (UK), South Africa, activity at any level, mental skills that and the United States of America (USA) enable a student to acquire and consolidate provide the premium of international sports skills are essential(Abbott & Collins, experiences (Hugo, 2004; Jenkins, 2012; 2002). The development of such skills is 80

facilitated through appropriate sports skills integrated multi-dimensional sport talent instruction, coaching and authentic development, and this has distorted how to assessment (John & Michael, 2007). guide practice and research within sport Additionally, the youngsters must be (Phillips, et al., 2010). motivated to put in the many hours of deliberate practice required to excel in any Statement of the Problem field and to be able to keep progressing Sports academies are commonly when times are hard (Helsen, Starkes, & considered as schools that provide sport Hodges, 1998; Hodges & Williams, 2012). specific options for students to develop This later quality is commonly known as performance. These academies are most persistence. Many studies have shown that it commonly appearing in the form of official is only psychological factors that can curriculum or co-curriculum (Out-of-school distinguish performance levels (Ericsson, hours)(Nasey & Massey, 2004; Sluder, 1998), and staying in power at an elite level Buchanan, & Sinelnikov, 2009).In terms of (Helsen, et al., 1998; Martindale, et al., purpose, sports academies play key roles for 2005). general skills development (Gould & Sports Academy is a unique Carson, 2008; Jones & Lavallee, 2009), educational platform afforded by the sport specific excellence (Hodges & facilities and resources of the sports, fitness Williams, 2012; Huijgen, et al., 2009), and and leisure centers(Nasey & Massey, 2004). elite development (Phillips, et al., 2010). In this academy, students are offered a range Students may choose to attend these sports of courses catering for the different interests academies either in the formal school or the and ability levels. The key to any sports non formal companion because of several academy is the identification and reasons. According to Nasey and Massey development of talented youngsters into (2004) and Philips et al (2010), some of the senior champions(Vaeyens, et al., 2008). As major reasons include: seeking post- today‘s talented youth athletes are secondary scholarships, skill development, tomorrows super stars in sports(Huijgen, coaching (professional, paid), motivation, Elferink-Gemser, Post, & Visscher, 2009), and gaining education and develop the development and review of curriculum athletically. in sports academy needs careful Sports academies have been found considerations both from the sport skills and very successful in terms of developing the academic perspectives(Phillips, Davids, required mental skills and sporting talent, Renshaw, & Portus, 2010).Also, exemplars and in producing world class athletes. For of current worldwide practice highlighted example, school-based physical activity and the need for a broader education and skills fitness promotion programs were found acquisition in sports (Hodges & Williams, effective intervention strategies for the 2012; Williams & Drust, 2012). development of sports talent among the Regardless of this, there is a scarcity students in different levels of schooling of research evidence on how to guide the (Racette, Cade, & Beckmann, 2010; Sluder, optimization of talent development and to et al., 2009). Also, from 2001-2004, current highlight broader education. Also, it appears or former sport school athletes won 82% of that little attention has been paid to the German Olympic medals(Balderson, 2012). The same author further noted that 81

10% of Canadian Olympic team in the year the inaugural ceremony attended in May 2006 had or were attending a sport school. 05/2013. The multitude of potential benefits of establishing sports academies in Ethiopia Sport academies are also common has been very well explained by Ephraim as place in Africa. The African sports he notes: academies are distinctive in that they are centrally focused on the developmental … establishing an Ethiopian Sports potential of sports. This means development Academy is the way forward to of athleticism and maximizing the potential building the new generation, contributions of sports in development(Du creating additional wealth, keeping Randt, 2008). In relation to this, there are our glory and inspire all nations to published works from South Africa, Nigeria, be sportsmen and women. The by- Ghana, and Kenya that provide an overview product of that will create healthier, of the existing empirical evidence (Darby, fitter, productive and competitive Akindes, & Kirwin, 2007; Paul, citizens. Here I am not only 2012).However, Pertaining to football advocating for the usual long academies, there are published works distance running but I am rather testifying the distractive roles of these forms advocating for creating sportsmen of academies in Africa by facilitating a form and women in every aspect of sport of neo-colonial exploitation and as much as possible.(Epheraim, impoverishment of the developing world 2012) (p. 2). (Darby, et al., 2007; Paul, 2012). Currently, there are five sports In the case of Ethiopia, the need for academies that are spread across the the sports academies and becoming different regions, including the National competitive in international sports Youth Sports Academy in the capital Addis competitions is one of the central issues in Ababa, Bokoji sports academy in Oromiya the Ethiopia sports policy. Also, many region, Debrebrhan sports academy and Ethiopian children strive to attain excellence Hagere Selam sports academy in Amhara in sports believing that sports provide region, and Maichewsports academy in possible avenues to develop advanced skills, Tigray region. In these academies a large knowledge and understanding of a particular number of youths (under 17) have been sport. Moreover, talent identification and enrolled to attend their education in different development has gained greater recognition sporting events. While these academies have by the Ethiopian sports professionals and the been equipped with staffs that are able to political leaders in recent years. However, conduct teaching and coaching activities, there remains a lack of consensus in relation these academies did not have as such well- to how talent should be identified and organized and reviewed curricula for the developed and there is no uniformly different programs. accepted theoretical framework to guide current practice. Despite increased recognition of the importance of sport talent, its preparation The Ethiopian experience in and development, and a resulting increase in launching sports academies is a recent the number of sports academy programs phenomenon that has come to existence after being implemented worldwide, the matter 82

that is arguably at the heart of sports curriculum theory (Appl, 1982), educational academy, the curriculum, has received little administration (Giroux, 1983), and action attention in the literature on this field. In this research (Kemmis, 1982) literature, the respect, it could be argued that our approach was deemed appropriate. This understanding of a sports academy approach, according to Lakomski curriculum and its nexus with effective (1988),helps to narrow-down the distance educational practice and desired outcomes between positivist paradigm and interpretive lacks a clear conceptual base. A further issue paradigm. Also, Foster (1980) notes, critical associated with the need for a clear theory approach as neither purely empirical conceptual framework is that the literature nor purely interpretivist. available in this area has arguably suffered from a lack of definitional clarity on what is The version of critical theory included in a sports academy curriculum. approach that was presented here in this Also, it appears that little attention has been article is based on secondary information paid to integrated multi-dimensional sport found in documents (policies, official talent development(Phillips, et al., 2010), frameworks & guidelines, &research and this has distorted how to guide practice reports) and professional insights of the and research within sport academies. author working as a curriculum expert, teacher, researcher, staff developer, and The purpose of this study was to education quality expert in higher education. contribute to a better understanding of Thus, the key ingredients include a critical curriculum development and review in review of the literature and the practical sports academy setting. In addition to this, it experiences on this fields following an offers an overview of important themes, informal, critical, self-study(Mertens, 2010). frameworks, and models of curriculum Through the application of this critical development through exploring the literature theory approach, the current study presents that has relevance to effectively develop ―a higher-order synthesis which allocates the mental skills and sports skills among empirical-analytic and the historical- students of sports academy. This paper also hermeneutic sciences to their own, mutually discusses recommendations for the exclusive, object domains, complete with curricular elements in a sports academy their respective methodologies‖ (Lakomski, curriculum. Moreover, it describes the 1988)( p. 54). essential variables related to sports academy curriculum and the associated factors and Curriculum: Its Nature, Theory and conditions. Research

Conceptual framework of the study Definition of a curriculum This study used a critical theory The term curriculum is originated (emancipatory) approach to research on from the Latin word meaning ―a race to be curriculum based on Melrose‘s run in a specified distance,‖(which in turn recommendations (Melrose, 1998). The derives from the verb "currere" meaning to validity of this approach and its usefulness run/to proceed)(Marsh & Willis, 2007). to educational research has been well When this term is applied in education, it examined(Mertens, 2010). For example, equates to courses to be covered, like in a given its broad acceptance and utilization in race, there are beginning points, purposes 83

and specifications of ways or paths(Kridel, Barab, 2003).Under this influence, the 2010). A good curriculum therefore evolving nature of curriculum both by policy presumesa good educational planning both and practice is emphasized instead of the by level and technical work(Ariav, 1986; prescriptive nature of the Kuiper, 2003). curriculum(Anderson, 2010).

Curriculum has several definitions, In the context of sports academy, which makes understanding the concept a bit curriculum can be narrowly defined as the ambiguous. The dimensionalities of the plan of action for the different programs at definitions basically range between narrower the different levels and student needs. Also, and broader conceptualizations, as well as, curriculum can be broadly defined as the between traditional and modern conceptions. sum total of all the experiences a learner In its narrower sense, a curriculum is a plan undergoes under the guidance of the for action(Lattuca & Stark, 2009). In its institution or sports academy center. broadest sense, a curriculum may refer to all the learning experiences of a student Types and Levels of Curriculum (Tanner & Tanner, 1995). This is particularly true of learning at the university In terms of type, curriculum can be level, where the diversity of a curriculum categorized into core curriculum, co- might be an attractive point to a potential curriculum, and hidden curriculum. In terms student(Marsh, 2004).While the narrower of level, there are about four levels of definition falls short of capturing all the curriculum including supra-national necessary components of a curriculum, the curriculum, macro curriculum, meso broader definition wipes out the existing curriculum, and nano curriculum (van den strata among several learning experiences Akker, 2003). There are numerous types of thus there may be nothing that cannot be curriculum, however, only three types are considered as a curriculum. From a different presented here in this manuscript for the point of analysis, a curriculum can be purpose of simplicity and page limits. defined either from the traditional or The specific and formal knowledge contemporary perspective. and skills that the learners acquire from a sports academy course or program constitute Traditionally, a curriculum is a ―core curriculum”. Core implies that each defined as a collection of courses to be aspect of the course or the program is basic offered for students. In this sense, a or fundamental, thus every participant curriculum is defined as the sum of courses student must learn(Marsh, 2004). However, a student has to attend toward the there are many other things the course completion of a particular program. Thus, participants should acquire either formally expertise preparation and prescription of or informally. These include things such as courses is mandatory. Seen from a participation in clubs and voluntary groups contemporary perspective a curriculum is through membership. In terms of beyond the sum of the courses as it curriculum, this is termed as co- encompasses a more holistic, integrated, and curriculum(Kridel, 2010). These kinds of systematic understanding of curriculum in participations are interest-driven and group its totality and developmental process specific, but they are organized. Thus, such (Squire, MaKinster, Barnett, Luehmann, & 84

participations are different for different practices include long-term aims and groups. methods; wide ranging coherent messages Also those are not planned for and and support; emphasis on appropriate yet are important skills, values or even development rather than early selection; knowledge in the life of the students individualized and ongoing development; attending programs in the sports academy. and finally, integrated, holistic, and There are numerous examples of unplanned systematic development(Martindale, et al., curriculum. These can include; academic 2005). rules and regulations, communication skills, organizational skills as in organizing study The Main Elements of a Curriculum rooms, lab works, or documents, moral and If a curriculum in sports academy is social manners etc. All this stuff is called the understood to be an educational vehicle to hidden curriculum and the process of promote a student's development in sports acquiring and practicing it is ―informal and education, then the issue arises as to the learning‖. Research shows that the hidden links between knowledge and student being curriculum is what students considered and becoming. Curriculum includes the meaningful and relevant to their sports following main components. academy experiences(Hansen, Larson, & Aims and objectives. Dworkin, 2003; Nasey & Massey, 2004). Research on sports coaches learning reveals  What are the national standards for that ―… coaches learn from a wide range of the athletes of the different sports sources, but formalised (i.e., formal and non and how are the sports academies or formal) learning episodes were found to be centers are integrating them into the relatively low impact endeavours when education program? compared to informal, self-directed modes  Why should students be taught the of learning‖ (Nelson, Cushion, & Potrac, general areas or specialty skills? 2006) (p.247).  Why should students acquire new By way of dealing with the skills in a particular type of sport? curriculum, it is not only issues of formal learning that are considered but also other Answers to these and other forms of possible learning opportunities that are questions represent the purposes of available for the students during their stay in curriculum. the sports academy. The sports academy must therefore be organized with a well Content/subject matter. enriched learning environment to provide What should students as program students the opportunity to experience participants be taught so to answer the formal, non formal, and informal ―why‖ of (1) above; e.g. what skills, learning(Ahmed & Coombs, 1974). The knowledge, values do we share with interpretation is that effective development someone to make him/her a good student or of sporting talent needs a broader, integrated an effective competent athlete? sports and education development including essential educational processes and practices Methods (Abbott & Collins, 2002). The five key How will the skills, knowledge, and generic features of such processes and values be developed within the sports

academy programs? What methodological through the process. It follows a bottom up strategies (in teaching, coaching, training, approach to curriculum development. In and leaning) can be put in place to achieve general, this approach represents a home the objective(s) stated above? grown nature of curriculum development and provides room for flexibility. Evaluation How is that possible to establish a There are several models of culture of evidence that the ―why‖ curriculum development in the literature (objectives) the ―what‖ (content) and the under the two broader approaches. Each ―how‖ (methodology) were well covered? model has its own strengths and weaknesses Evaluation helps the in-charge of the sports as the model components and assumptions academy program/activities to improve on may vary to one another. A review of the the other elements of the curriculum i.e. different curriculum models is beyond the objectives, content and methods. scope of this paper; however, brief descriptions of three models that belong to Approaches to curriculum development the technical-scientific family are presented to provide few examples about curriculum There are two broader approaches to models. These models include: Tyler‘s curriculum development. These are the model, Taba‘s model, and Hunkins model. technical scientific approach and the nontechnical-non rational approach(Marsh The Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic & Willis, 2007). The technical scientific Principles approach applies scientific methods and principles to the task of curriculum This model is the oldest of all other development. Advocates of this approach models. Tyler developed this model in 1949, assume that reality is definable and the goals publishing his book entitled with Basic of education are knowable. Also, they Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, in believe that a linear, objective process will which he outlined four key points: 1) yield a useful documents and high quality purposes of the school, 2) educational plans. experiences related to the purposes, 3) organization of these experiences, and 4) The other approach is nontechnical- evaluation of the purposes(Tyler, 1949). It is non rational approach to curriculum from this rationale that the Tyler‘s model development. Unlike to the technical evolved. This model provides a brief scientific approach, the nontechnical-non overview of some of Tyler's main ideas rational approach follows a naturalistic about curriculum planning. This model is a approach to curriculum development. parent model from which other similar Naturalistic approach emphasizes on the models have been evolved. The Tyler model dynamic and complex relationships that utilizes the more traditional deductive exist among the variables influencing the approach—starting with the general design successful attainment of desired outcomes. It and working toward the specifics an discourages a prescriptive approach to inductive approach is central to the curriculum development. Also, it gives the development of curriculum(Simpson, contextual nature of curriculum development as it evolves and shapes up 86

1999).The Tyler model consists of four teaching-learning units for their students. In steps. essence, this implies that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum 1. Define purpose of school and identify development(Clandinin & Connelly, 1992) instructional objectives so that the process starts with specifics and builds to a general design(Skilbeck, 2005). 2. Relate educational experiences to This approach is different from the more school purposes traditional deductive approach—starting 3. Organize educational experiences with the general design and working toward the specifics (Simpson, 1999). The Taba 4. Evaluate purposes for program Model has seven stages of implementation. effectiveness (Ornstein &Hunkins, Those stages as outlined by Ornstein 2009). &Hunkins (2009) are: The Hilda Taba Model: Grass-roots 1) Diagnosis of needs; Rationale 2) Formulation of objectives; In her book entitled with 3) Selection of content; Curriculum development: Theory and 4) Organization of content; Practice, Taba (1962) argued that there was 5) Selections of learning experiences; a definite order to creating a curriculum that 6) Organization of learning activities; follows several steps. The model Taba and (1962) proposed differed from Tyler‘s 7) Evaluation and means of evaluation. model in that she described teachers as the main participants who should get involved The Francis Hunkins: Decision-Making in the process of curriculum development. Model While Taba (1962) believed that those who teach the curriculum, the teachers, should Hunkins developed the Hunkins participate in curriculum development, Model of curriculum development in the Tayler has a different position that designers 1990s. Like the Taba model, the Hunkins should participate in the process of Model of curriculum development has seven curriculum development. stages of implementation. Those stages are:

Taba advocated, in her book, what 1) Curriculum conceptualization and has been called the grass-roots legitimization, approach(Taba, 1962), a model whose steps or stages characterize school-based 2) Curriculum Diagnosis, curriculum development(Skilbeck, 2005). 3) Content selection, Although Tyler did not advocate, educators 4) Experience selection, during the early days of curriculum making 5) Implementation, thought that the central authorities really had the knowledge thereby creating top down 6) Evaluation; and curricula(Tanner & Tanner, 1995). 7) Maintenance. Taba believed that teachers should This model is different from the other begin the process by creating specific models, particularly in its recommended first 87

stage of curricular decision-making. This needs into causes, and generating goals, approach addresses the concerns of objectives, and expected learner outcomes. conceptualists, of putting stress on Objectives are derived from analysis of the understanding the nature and power of situation. Thus, they have to reflect curriculum. This paper proposes Hunkin‘s (1997) model as the best framework for the  The needs of the society development and review of a sport academy  The needs of the teacher, instructor, curriculum in Ethiopia. This model entails or program seven interrelated components that  The needs of the learner/ users collectively provide the building blocks of curriculum development and review. This is because curricula are According to this model, the process of prepared so that people may learn, and what curriculum development starts with is learnt is utilized by the people in society. conceptualization and legitimization and it There are specific considerations we need to ends with monitoring and maintenance of make when making objectives. These the curriculum (Ornstein &Hunkins, 2009). include: Educational philosophy (and other philosophies/vision)of a country. The The Seven Steps of Hunkins Model objectives in a particular sports academy 1. Curriculum conceptualization and program should be closely related to: legitimization The first stage requires that a) The national education policy on participants engage in deliberation regarding sports development, the normative the nature of curriculum and also its teaching methods proposed to teach educational and social-political value. For and the suggested strategies to this to occur, the curriculum development assess learning. team needs to pay attention to several key b) The different levels and types of ingredients. For example, it is necessary to educational programs. build the curriculum ideals on the society‘s c) Different themes to be covered in values, beliefs, knowledge bases, the sports academy program as institutions, and artifacts. Also, it is general and specific themes. necessary to complete front end analysis, d) The needs and aspirations of the ask philosophical questions, debate on community and the sports purpose of schooling, and debate on the academies centers e.g. development, curriculum designs. These actions health, skills production and collectively help the development of a harmonious learning and coaching. master curriculum plan. Thus, at the end of this stage, the curriculum development team The new trend now is to state the will produce a master curriculum plan. learning outcomes, and the competences learners are supposed to exhibit by the end 2. Curriculum Diagnosis of the program. This means, specifying the objectives and programmatic goals. There are three ingredients of the Objectives are the specific statements of diagnosis process: identifying reasons for purpose to suggest immediate results. They human performance deficiencies, translating are more specific than goals and the

specificity increases as one proceeds from Criteria for selecting content program objectives to a module, and from a Selection of contents is always based on the unit to lesson objectives. They are following criteria: statements of purpose justifying the need to Philosophical: The knowledge we select provide education at that particular level in must be of established value to participants order to help educational planners develop and the society they are going to serve after purposeful instructional and coaching learning. programs. They are also used as points of Psychological: This means that what is reference to improve the practice of selected should meet the needs and interests education by getting clarity about of the learners. The psychology of adult educational ends. learners should be learned and applied. 3. Content Selection Sociological/cultural: What society has Curriculum content refers to the achieved, its institutions, aspirations, flesh of the curriculum that answers the traditions, beliefs etc should guide selection question of what is to be learned. It includes of content. This is because some of these the body of facts, ideas, concepts and skills will themselves form the content of courses. that are presented, discussed and involved in the course. The content selected should 4. Experiences and material reflect the pre-determined curriculum selection objectives and the necessary learning At this stage, the curriculum experiences needed by the learner. development team should determine the Guidelines for selection methods, strategies, activities, incentives, Prioritizing: select what is basically needed materials, nature of educational in specific circumstances. It should therefore environment.It is important to sort out not be overcrowded. relevant learning experiences. For example, Balance: Ensure that the content is properly knowledge experiences- (What will they balanced in terms of time and resources learn?). Skills experiences (What do we available want them to be able to do?). Completeness: It should properly cater for Attitudes/values-(What do we want them to all the three domains psychomotor (hand-on feel). skills), cognitive (head-knowledge), and At the end of this stage, the affective (heart-attitudes/values). curriculum team produces curricular Sequence: it should be properly sequenced documents. These documents guide how the i.e. simple to complex, known to unknown sport academy program will be conducted and spiralled as it advances from level to by the department and how each course is level. conducted by a particular academic staff. A Need for selection department curriculum guide might include Due to the ever changing nature of society, several components, including the both local and international, there is a strong department name, its objectives and need to select from the abundance of programs, the rationale, summary of needs generated knowledge and skills in the assessment, program components, and literature on the fields. There is a need to detailed breakdown of courses etc. remain current by replacing content that may According to Jimma University curriculum be outdated. development framework, more than ten

components are included(Jimma University, include; training, monitoring, evaluation, 2011). instrument design, data collection, analysis At the curse level, separate course and report writing. After collecting curriculum guides can be assembled for each empirical evidence on the lived experience course. Materials for course curriculum of those involved in the implementation guides might include course codes and process, the extracted valuable comments requisites, course description and objectives and recommendation would help for the pertaining to the course content, teaching improvement of the program before the and learning methods, assessment strategies, actual implementation. and reference materials. Also, included are samples of unit plans, lesson plans, learning Issues raised in examining the activities, resources, materials, and common implementation might include the following. assessment tasks and scoring rubrics. Course A) How the teachers administrators, curriculum guides not only help new academic members (instructors and coaches) teachers navigate courses to get familiar and the community of learners did receive it. with but also help all teachers share best B) The extent to which the curriculum meets practices (Lacursia, 2010). the needs of the different stakeholders. C) Areas where the curriculum meets the 5. Implementation anticipated needs of the stakeholders. D) This stage is about piloting (mini- Areas where the curriculum requires trialing) the curriculum for the first time and modification. E) Whether the curriculum can modifying where necessary. The refined be easily interpreted and used within the program is then disseminated to the given conditions and resources. F) appropriate institutions for a full scale Alignment: How well the programs focus on implementation and delivered to all the curriculum aims, objectives, the national target learners at a particular level. This is goals and educational policy of the country sometimes called full scale trying out which at large. precedes institutionalization (Fullan, 2012). Monitoring and evaluation activities are 6. Evaluation conducted to provide further refinement This includes determining if the (Wolf, 2007). The activities under piloting curriculum is taught as written and are continued here. recommended. At this stage of the curriculum development process, furnish Piloting is primarily about a data so decisions can be made to continue, controlled mini or small scale modify or discontinue program. After implementation of the designed program and collecting the necessary data, we need to materials. It is about putting the curriculum establish the extent to which the objectives in action. This helps to establish its viability of the program are being achieved. Also, it and feasibility, strengths and weaknesses. is important to give expert advice on the These will be reflected in the comments and implementation process. reports received from the trial evaluation. These comments will guide in making 7. Maintenance adjustments e.g. subtraction and addition of This includes monitoring the content. In summary, piloting helps to refine curriculum and maintaining it through the program in question. Piloting activities refining the parts based up on evidence. 90

Among the most important maintenance heads, teachers, current and previous functions is serving as a channel for students, sports education experts, coaches information about classroom and skill and sports trainers, parents, and community instruction and coaching practices. It is representatives. In fact, research shows that believed that getting this information to the a curriculum development and review teachers is vital for any modern curriculum. process that is characterized by open and Another very important maintenance task is participatory process provides all to ensure compliance with changing rules stakeholders with the opportunity to share and regulations that govern education within curriculum ideas(Fullan, 2012).According to the sports academy curriculum. Such rules Carl (2009), teachers who are empowered and regulations address the courses offered (i.e., actively involved in decision making) in the academy, monitoring student are more likely to be motivated and to achievement, class size requirements, or embrace change(Lacursia, 2010). Also, even the required teaching and learning research reveals the needs and benefits of resources. Still another maintenance students participation in the development function is keeping the academy supplied and review of curriculum in the context of with adopted texts and appropriate New Zealand sports academy (Nasey & instructional materials. Massey, 2004).

Department Curriculum and Course 1. A Systemic View at the Sports Curriculum Guides Academy Curriculum The process of curriculum The context through which the sport development results in a curriculum product occurs matters more than anything else. This that can be compiled at the department level is because ―the developmental potential of for use by all teachers, administrators, sport does not depend on what is done, but registrar officers, and academic program on how it is done‖(Csikszentmihalyi, officers. The development of a complied 1990)(p. 10). That means sport can be a curriculum document needs a particular beneficial experience when it occurs in the framework prepared by the curriculum appropriate context, offered by qualified and development team members. Also, a well experienced staff, resourced curriculum development guide will be appropriately and practiced in a safe and prepared for each course. enjoyable environment. Although numerous hours of training are needed at the elite Stakeholder of Curriculum Development level, attainment of an expert level of skill is and Review in Sports Academies not accomplished by hours of deliberate Who should get involved in the practice alone(Brylinsky, 2010). In recent curriculum development and review process years, sport performance research has is a common question usually appears at the encompassed a move toward very start of any curriculum development multidimensional models of performance and review. There are different stakeholders and learning in sport, with significant of curriculum development and review in implications for understanding processes of sports academy. In any curriculum expertise and talent development(Phillips, et development and review experience, it is al., 2010). quite common to include, for example, educational administrates like department 91

A systemic view is proposed for the adapted from the work of Kuh and his curriculum development and review in the colleagues(Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, & Hayek, Ethiopian sports academy context. A 2006). This framework, as modified and systemic view provides a pictorial adapted within the sport academy context, representation of the variables included in consists of 6 essential components the process of shaping the curriculum at the (variables). Figure 1 illustrates the entire program level and how they interact. The elements of the model and the relationship proposed framework is a research informed between the different components. and evidence-based conceptual framework

Figure 1.A systematic view at the sports academies curriculum Source: modified from Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, & Hayek (2006) As shown in Figure 1, the entire 1. Pre-academy experience developmental pathway of a student, from entry to exist is surrounded by the inner • Enrolment choices layers of internal forces such as the student • Academic preparation behaviour and institutional conditions and • Aptitude and college readiness the outer cover of several external forces. • Family and peer support The entire framework for understanding • Motivation to learn variables that matters most for the students • Demographics: Race, gender, success in sports academy curriculum SES include 6 broader components that extend from the student pre-academy experience up to the final post academy outcomes.

2. Student behaviour and entry 5. External forces triggering changes characteristics and innovations within the sports academy • Study habit • Peer involvement • Demographics • Student-faculty interaction • Accountability • Time on task • Federal and state policies • Motivation • State policy • Other • Globalization • Economic forces 3. Student engagement in sports and education – What the student does 6. Post academy outcomes while he/she is in the sport academy? This may be explained in any of the Every semester or course progress is following sub-theme. measured by a regular learning assessment tasks and other engagement measures like • Active and collaborative attendance and transfer rates. At the time of learning completing their education, students receive • Student-staff interaction grades and are graduated. Based on his/her • Academic and sporting achievement level, a student not only gains challenge academic learning but also obtain various • Enriching educational and sporting abilities. The student is then ready sports experiences for the post academy outcomes such as:- • Interpersonal relationships in sports and education  Employment  Graduate and professional 4. Institutional conditions (The sports schools academy context)  Lifelong learning

• First year experience The Nature of the Proposed Framework • Academic support This proposed model is a multi- • Campus environment dimensional model as each component of • Peer support the model entails a wider spectrum. Also, • Teaching and learning the model is overarching as it encompasses approaches those relevant variables that current research • Other has given supporting evidence and theoretical base. Thus, the focus in These sub-themes are also compounded with addressing the curriculum, within this financial aids available for the students and model, is impartial and inclusive of wider some remedial works campus as a sort of spectrum of issues related to the individual support mechanisms to remediate students‘ (student), the classroom, the academy, and academic and personal problems. the larger context at the system and global levels. It is inevitable that these variables would interact in so many ways in the

student‘s academic trajectory. Moreover, the The proposed curriculum model is dynamic so that the interactive development model provides leadership effects of the different influencing factors opportunities, involvement by all can be studied as a whole, rather than, stakeholders, and shared decision making studying them in isolated bits. Also, the among those working in the sector. Most model provides contextual flavour for the important, this model can enhance the idea development and review of sports academy that the determination of a curriculum curriculum through providing opportunities requires a number of steps and strategies and for the curriculum to evolve from within the collective decision-making by those prevailing realities of the sports academy affected. By keeping this process simple and context(Lattuca & Stark, 2009). more inclusive, everyone involved may be It is clear that the Ethiopian sports able to see light at the end of the curriculum academies are in their very early stages of development process and feels more development as centers of sports and ownership in the journey toward a education (learning). Hence critical curriculum that is updated, agreed upon, and considerations for the variables that can responsive to change. impact success in sports and education are very much needed. It is true that expert A conceptual framework that coaches are not only highly capable of acknowledges the integrated influences of designing deliberate practice and play, but pre-academy experiences, internal forces, they do so in an environment of emotional and external pressures, and further considers warmth while communicating expectations the dynamic and multidimensional nature of for high standards. student engagement in sports and education provides a holistic view of the entire 2. Implications and Conclusions spectrum of variables affecting students A sports academy curriculum is a success in sports academy curriculum. This technical guide that shapes up the entire broad literature review highlights the sport education program beginning from importance of student engagement in sports entry to graduation. Such a sports academy and education as causative drivers of success curriculum is grounded in the curriculum and supports the need to systematically theory and sport education model. Under develop and review the sports academy this influence, essential mental skills and curriculum. Also, it describes the contextual sport skills are synergized not only at times nature of curriculum development and when talent identification is made but also review and the different forces that put the during the talent development process. It greatest influence on the success and failure appears that appropriate sport contexts can of a sport academy curriculum. play a valuable role in education and Collectively, this review helps to provide adolescent development. Further, the need to scientific basis for the development and embrace the participation of different review of a sports academy curriculum stakeholders of sports academy in through exploring key concepts, models, and educational research, curriculum processes of curriculum development and development and review should be review. In so doing, this review begins to emphasized. establish a foundation for future research and practice on sports academy curriculum

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LM3BEWBoF- Paul, D. (2012). Gains Versus Drains: UVYBkC4QjCuXjF4- Football Academies and the Export 5JeYYk4sIQGx66uoZ4pAIU_JxI of Highly Skilled Football Labor. The Brown Journal of World Marsh, C. J. (2004). Key concepts for Affairs, 18(2), 265. understanding curriculum. New York: RoutledgeFalmer. Phillips, E., Davids, K., Renshaw, I., & Portus, M. (2010). Expert Marsh, C. J., & Willis, G. (2007). Performance in Sport and the Curriculum: alternative Dynamics of Talent Development. approaches, ongoing issues. Upper Sports Medicine, 40(4), 271-283. Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Merrill doi: 10.2165/11319430-000000000- Prentice Hall. 00000

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How and What Makes Soccer is Science?

Literature Review

Molla Deyou (PhD)

Introduction of this science has made us to take the initiative in proposing this seminar. Science is a systematic and logical approach The academic potentials of any program are to discover how things are working in the not successful if does not realize and find universe. It is derived from the Latin word solutions with the existing problems that the ―scientia‖, which translates to knowledge. country faces. A systematic process of Unlike the arts, science aims for measurable investigation and study to carry – out with results through testing and analysis. Science the goal of advanced knowledge, research, is based on the fact, not opinions or and scientific basis theory of the Ethiopian preferences. The process of science is Governmental Sport Festival should be well designed to challenge ideas through understood the contribution that it brought research. It is not meant to prove theories, on producing physically educated but rule out alternative explanations until a youngsters in the country. The remedial likely conclusion is reached. solutions on the Scientific Approach of The earliest evidence of science can be Soccer – Related Affairs in Ethiopia should found in prehistoric times, from the discover also be well examined from the scientific of fire, invention of the wheel and approaches of its training, coaching, and development of writing. An early tablet selecting point of view as those of contains numerals about the solar system. developed country. Science becomes decidedly more scientific The Department research base is based on over time. born of inquiry for these downtrodden sport However, the 21sr century sees the first results and haphazard out – look of the draft of the human genome completed, profession in the country. leading to a greater understanding of DNA We strongly believe that sport talent and and advancing the study of genetics and its achievable results in any country will further role in human biology and as a predictor of develop only though the application of diseases and other disorders. scientific system of training, learning, and The extensive and rigorous use of scientific coaching from the view of sport science and principle of the 21st century of modern sport medicine. With the concepts of concepts in sport science disciplines and the cognitive (intellectual) skills that involve the existing downtrodden out – look on the field thought processes of the profession.

Therefore, we would like to communicate the under developed country trainers/ and create a good atmosphere with the coaches refuse to read scientific text books or articles with difficult terminology. Here intellectual of the profession, press we try to inform you in clear words individuals, concerned authorities, and concerning the scientific basis of soccer sponsored organizations providing us their training and in particular action to be taken from physiological point of view. Soccer is every possibilities and helps on updating and not an easy game to play and requires implementing the potentials that they can exhaustive practice, a whole bunch of culturing of scientific discussion. training and hard work.

Objective As with the other sports, soccer is not a science, but science may help improve 1. To familiarize, introduce, and suggest performances. Efforts to improve soccer on how effects modern concept of performances often focus on technical and tactics at the expense of physical fitness. soccer coaching on upgrading our Soccer performance depends upon a myriad country soccer players to be top and of factors such as technical/biomechanical, effective compotators as of the world tactical/mental, and physiological areas

classes. One of the reasons that soccer is so popular worldwide is that players may not need to 2. To elaborate on how aspects of have an extraordinary capacity within any of research are bringing about a change these performance areas, but possess a on the development of soccer game reasonable level within all areas. However, and produce elite coaches‘ for the there are trends towards more systematic country. training and selection influencing the Method anthropometric profiles of the players who compete at highest level as with other 1. The researcher has selected the most activities. promising studies, relevant research results, and out comes in producing It takes a good deal of soccer specific top and effective players of soccer combination of strength, speed, and game endurance to stick up with your training 2. We elaborate modern science of regimen and to remain determined when soccer game and its scientific view of things get tough. This in turn helps the coaching and playing the tournament. players of the club to achieve high Discussion performance efficiency, optimal health, and being elite competent worldwide. In contrast Is Soccer a science or not? to the overall opinion there is only 2% of all actions ball – contact! Soccer needs a systematic process of investigation and study to carry – out with So, What are the most Quality to Develop the goal of advancing knowledge, research, in soccer players? and scientific basis theory of the game. In

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There are about 10 scientific approved 2. To help establish answers to studies to your soccer game of coaching unexplained occurrence, such as and playing of the game. playing at home is an advantage (and at times a disadvantage) or 1. An introductions to the knowledge social facilitation, of sport sciences 3. Try‘s strengthen producing elite 2. Develop ability of the players coaches, and 3. Built confidence of the players 4. To carry – out research and collect 4. Teaching different types of skill information to try and arrive at a 5. Mental toughness‘ of the players conclusion that can then be used to 6. Performance profiling of the players reduce or eliminate the impact of 7. Performance profiling – process such factors on performance. walk through It is therefore advisable for those coaches 8. Self – control of the players who wish to improve their ability, to become 9. Team cohesion familiar with the terms, concepts and 10. Team effectiveness of the players procedures used within the sports science environment, and most of all possess the 1. An Introduction to Knowledge of open – mindedness and willingness to adapt Sport Science their approach to include tests, results of Many coaches are still either unaware or research and changes of attitude. A better confused about the role of sport science can educated coach will lead to better play within the sport of soccer. Essentially, educated players. sport science is a multi – disciplinary field 2. Develop Ability of the Players which applies the sub – disciplines of general science (physiology, biomechanics, A skill is learnt, goal – directed movement psychology, sociology, etc) to sporting that follows a process of technical pre – situations, to aid athletes and performers planned actions. While abilities are the improve their ability during training and underline factors that must be present in competition. A sport scientist is an order for the skill to be completed. For individual who has studied a course (a example, imagine the skill of a goalkeeper practical and/ or theortical based) covering coming through a group of players to collect each discipline so that they gain a basic a high cross requires strength and hand – eye understanding of each or focused on one coordination (both of which are abilities). specific area in greater detail. It is widely believed that abilities create the The role a sport scientist has increased in foundations from which learning and recent years and there is no reason to believe performance skills are built upon, and can that this trend will diminish. So, what are the greatly affect the individual‘s ability to actions he can take on? perform and perfect those skills. Abilities 1. Design training techniques to avoid can be categorized into the following three injury, performing better under disciplines: pressure, improve team cohesion, 1. Innate (or genetically) – Abilities and improve a player‘s anaerobic are determined from birth as they and aerobic capacity, are inherited from parents.

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2. Stable and Enduring - The basis of 7. Gross Body Coordination: the the ability remains unchanged but organization and movements of can be affected by experience and several body parts while the body is developed through maturation. in motion. 3. Support Skills – The majority of 8. Gross Body Equilibrium: the skills require number of supporting capacity to maintain balance by only abilities in order or that skill to be using the internal senses. learnt effectively. 9. Trunk Strength: the strength of the Although much research has been conducted muscle within the core section of the into different types of abilities but as yet it body (abdominals, trunk, etc). has largely been inconclusive, with many There are a number of other Gross Motor psychologists using different methods in the Abilities on the top of those outlined above identification process. and they include; Static Balance, Dynamic Edwin Fleishman (1972) identified two Balance, Hand – Eye Coordination and Foot different types of abilities: Gross Motor –Eye Coordination. abilities and Perceptual Motor abilities. Perceptual Motor Abilities: are abilities that involve assessing and interpreting Gross Motor abilities – are abilities that information, decision making and then relate to physical fitness and tend to involve putting those decisions into action. The movement. majority of perceptual motor abilities are Fleishman identified nine abilities that could movements. be place within this group. Fleishman believed that there were eleven 1. Dynamic Strength: the exertion of identifiable abilities that fell into this muscular force repeatedly over a classification. period of time, for example, press 1. Limber coordination: being able to ups. organize and execute the movement 2. Static Strength: the maximum of several limbs simultaneously. exertion of strength that can occur 2. Control Precision: maintain the towards an external object. precision of the action. 3. Explosive Strength: a short burst of 3. Response Orientation: deciding the muscular effort, where the energy is position the action should be used effectively, for example, executed in a short time. standing broad jump. 4. Reaction Time: being able to react 4. Stamina: the capability of the quickly to stimuli. cardiovascular system to sustain 5. Speed of Movement: being able to maximum effort over a long period, execute gross rapid. for example, running box to box for 6. Rate of Control: the ability to adjust 90 minutes. the speed and direction of the action 5. Extent Flexibility: the flexibility of accurately. the trunk and back muscles. 7. Manual Dexterity: the capacity to 6. Dynamic Flexibility: the capacity to make accurate arm and hand perform a number of rapid flexing movements involving objects at movements in a sequence. high speed.

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8. Finger Dexterity: being able of attributes or characteristics will be enough working with small objects using for them to ensure success. finger, If players is confident they can compete 9. Arm Hand Steadiness: the capability without the constant fear, nagging, or second to keep the hand/arm steady guessing that is associated with those who throughout the action to ensure it is worry they may make a mistake. correctly executed. 10. Wrist Finger Speed: being able to Ways to encourage confidence building. execute actions with rapid wrist and 1. Keep tasks targets and goals finger speed. achievable 11. Aiming: the capacity to accurately 2. No negative, remain positive and aim to a small object. encouraging A skill relies on several underpinning 3. No belittling – of each other or abilities to be executed correctly; however, themselves possessing those abilities does not guarantee 4. Project a confidence persona success. The individual must still learn how 5. Do not build up the opposition too to correctly apply and co – ordinate the much abilities, often through practice, to ensure 6. Accept responsibility may not the skill is perfected. seem like the most obvious, but once players stop blaming each Built Confidence of the Players other it can lead to greater confidence in themselves In a soccer based game concept confidence 7. Remove the fear of failure and the is the ability to be certain all the necessary need to impress skills and attributes are possessed to 8. Constructive and relevant criticism successfully undertake what is going to 9. Do not encourage players to occur during the upcoming task. That task compare themselves to each other can be a match, an activity, a single situation or conduct this comparison for them or reason. it will only make them focus on the Self –Confidence: refers to the player‘s elements that they are weak at. ability to belief in their own skill act and Confidence building activities attributes to complete the task ahead of time.  Give every player a piece of paper This should not be confused with arrogance, and tell them to write their name on as the latter refers to an individual‘s the top, they then pass it to the unfaltering and often overbearing and player next to them. Each player unwarranted sense of superiority and must write something positive about importance. Having a strong belief in the player whose sheet it is before oneself is crucial to the player‘s success, passing it onto the next player. Once regardless what level the play at. every player has completed it the If players‘ don‘t posses self – confidence sheet is returned back to the person then they will always be operating in what it belongs to they fell is an ―under pressure‖ situation.  Performance profiling – As they are not certain that their skills, highlighting their strength 4. Teaching Different Types of Skill

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them and then perform their Every individual has their own skills that decision (pass, dribble, shoot, etc). they use and employ on a day –to – day Skills within the Perceptual Motor basis in their daily routines. These skills can Skills can then be further categorized be classified into number of different into groups that relate to the: categories and some tasks performed may  Muscular involvement employed need skills from more than one group to be during the movement executed effectively. However, not all of  Environmental conditions affecting these skills will be relevant to their role as a the movement coach or a player; in fact there are four  Clarity of a beginning and an end groups that should create the focus for for the movement further analysis:  Level of control the individual can  Cognitive Skills – often referred to employ over the timing of the as mental or intellectual skills as movement they involve the thought process. A  Complexity of the movement good example would be that the role  Links between the individual of the coach, where they must components of the movement correctly choose the appropriate Muscular involvement employed during tactics to employ to be successful. the movement  Perceptual Skills – these types of The focus in this category would be the skills involve the individual‘s to precision required for the movement to be detect and interpret information. successfully executed. Movement can be Two individuals may receive the either: same piece of information but their  Gross Skills. The movement interpretation may be different. For involves large muscle movement example, a refereeing decision where there is little attention paid to during a match or a coaches fine precision. For example, assessment of their team‘s running, jumping, or diving. performance.  Fine Skills. Require more  Motor Skills – these skills involve complicated movements employing movements being performed. Such smaller muscle groups to be excited. as running, jumping or striking a For example, making notes in your soccer ball. pocket about the game.  Perceptual skills – or otherwise to as Psychomotor Skills - as they involve components of all 3 of the other skills. The individual is Environmental conditions affecting the required to think, detect, and movement interpret, and perform a When focusing on the environment, every movement to complete a skill. Once factor that would impede or affect the a player has the ball he must think movement is considered, including the what to do with it, analysis and opposition, team mates, the weather or the assess what is happening around playing surface. Movements can then be placed into two groups:

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 Open Skills: Predominately occur times before it becomes a significant in an unpredictable environment. movement. Open skills tend to be mostly perceptual and greatly involve Level of control the individual can employ decision making. For example over the movement receiving and then giving a pass. The focus here is whether or not the  Closed Skills: these movements are performer complete control over the affected by the environment. They movement is begun and what rate it is can be performed the same every performed at: time and as a result they re habitual.  Internal Paced: Also known as self The performing individual will Paced, where the performer has know exactly what they have o do in complete control over when it order to achieve their desired begins and at what speed they will outcome without requiring a complete it at. They are also decision making process. Very few predominately closed skills such as movements in soccer are closed, so long jump or tennis serve. examples from other sports would  External paced: The environment be a basket ball free throw or tennis dictates when and how quickly the serve. movement is conducted. Usually open skills and the result or reacting Clarity of a beginning and an end for the to an opponent‘s or team mate‘s movement movement. For example, saving a It is slightly harder to distinguish where a shot at goal. movement starts and ends than to decide if the environment affects it. However it is Complexity of the movement possible, and there are three are different The complexity of a movement can be ways a movement can be described: determined by considering the following  Discrete Skill: These types of factors: movements have both a clear  Perceptual load plus level of beginning and a clear end. If the decision making movement is to be replaced then  Time to execute the perceptual and whole process must start again. For decision making tasks example, a throw in or a goal kick.  Amount of interconnecting  Serial Skills: A sequence of components to execute and their discrete skills that combine in a set speed of execution and timing order to create the movement. For  Use of feedback example, heading the ball (made up Once a movement has undergone analysis of run, jump, head and land). using the above criteria they can be  Continues Skills: Are movements classified as: that do not have a definite beginning  Simple Skills: These movements and end. The end of one phase leads involve very low amounts of the immediately into the next, and it above aspects. Small amount of usually has to be repeated numerous information to process, few decisions and interconnecting

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components, insignificant speed and the real situation the movement is to be timing issue. Although these times performed in. of movements are classified as simple they still may be very hard to 5. Mental Toughness’ of the Players perfect and perform, such as Personal success for an individual springing. on a soccer pitch can be greatly  Complex Skills: these movements determined by 4 pillars: involve very high perceptual load  Physical preparations, including many decisions to make.  Technical and tactical execution, The movement will also contain a  Emotional control, and high number of interconnecting  Mental strength. They do not all components and the movements have to be perfect, as a reduction in over success will greatly be one coupled with an increase in determined by the speed and timing another can result in the same of these components. desired outcome. A good example would be receiving ―Mental Strength refers to the ability to the ball in a crowded penalty area pursue a course of action when it seems like with the intention to score. the odds are stacked against you‖. A few examples that could be used are Links between the individual components being: of the movement  3 – 0 down at half time Movement can also be classified on hoe the  1 down with 2 minutes to go individual components that create its  The complete undergo execution interlock. On paper those situation may seem highly  Low Organizational Skills. almost impossible, but for those who still Movements that are based upon believe they can achieve and are willing to individual components that can be do everything in their power to make it easily separated and focused upon happen can reach their goal. by themselves, then placed back From the example laid out above, Liverpool together again for the overall come back from 3 – 0 at half time to claim movement. the UEFA Champions League in 2005,  High Organizational Skills. These Manchester United were 1 – 0 with 1 minute movements are based upon of normal time to play in the 1999 UEFA components that are closely linked Champions League final and won 2 – 1 and cannot be separated easily (within the allotted time) and the any of the without disturbing the overall domestic cup competitions (especially the movement. English F.A cup) can continually thrown up Essentially a skill is a learnt, good – directed great stories of underdog success – such as movement that follows a process of Mill wall reaching the F.A cup final in 2004. technical pre – planned actions. These were only a few examples, there are Knowing exactly what type of hundreds that could be called upon to classifications skill falls into can a coach highlight the requirement for a will – to – plan exactly ow to conduct their exercises win, a desired – to succeed. and sessions to ensure a fair replication of

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However it must be accepted that mental Methods of results colleting – the most toughness is not just about thinking basic way of collecting the information is to something, it is about having the strength to have someone record it whiles the match I make it a reality. Too any players can ―talk being played. They will have the list on a the talk‖ but the truly great are able to back piece of paper in front of them and they can up this ―talk‖ with performances that match. then keep tally core for each one. Another option is video recording. Notational analysis – This is no means a That is a great benefit as it removes both the new craze as the concept has been around subjective opinions of the player and the for approximately half a century and some coach, and allows a purely objective view. people may recognize it as match analysis, Notational analysis can be used as that is what is often referred to within a  To highlight exactly what soccer match environment. It is basically the percentage of total crosses delivered gathering and analyzing of information that are ineffective. has been gained from observing  To uncover tactical tendencies, performance in a competitive situation. A strength and weakness that may list of measurable performance markers have been overlooked, in both your are established by the coaching staff; players own side and the opposition. can have some input if they are the focus, to  To aid in the planning process, if a record all notable events. For example, a weakness or tendency is highlighted basic analysis could be shots on/off target in your own performance. and passes given away, while a more A final benefit is that it can be used as a detailed one may include effective reassessment tool, by using the same back/front post crosses and area of field performance markers as before it will be possession is regained. Usually carried out possible to compare the two performances for both the coaches own side and and establish if any notable change or opposition as well. improvement has occurred. It sounds like a very helpful aid. How performance markers decided? The staff will draw up a list of key elements of a 6. Performance Profiling of the match, for example, when and how their Players team loses or regains possession. They will Performance profiling is a form of then break this element down to smaller, assessment that can be employed to discover more easily measurable factors. For a player‘s perceived weakness. The process example, if you want o look at how your can be employed to evaluate and monitor team loses possession then this can include any aspects that contribute to a player‘s rd which 3 of the field, due to poor crosses etc performance, including physical, or even break it down further to see which psychological, technical, and sociology individual player continually losing factors. The process has its three main possession. These performance markers can purposes; be team or player focused, and can be as  It aids in identifying an appropriate detailed or simple as desired. training program

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 It helps to maximum the participant‘s motivation and The first step is to devise attributes related to adherence to the program the area of the coach would like to assess.  It can help monitor any changes that This list can be created through a brain occur over a given period of time storming session between coach and player Performance profiles are documents that are or simply provided to the player by the created to highlight what a player perceives coach. Although, if it is obtained through a as their weakness. The player(s) should be brain storming session the coach can begin introduced to the idea through a discussion to visualize the way their players minds and an explanation of the reasoning and work and also the player feels more thought behind. They should also be made involved in the process. The list created can aware that this is for their own benefit and obtain any number of attributes or factors no one else expected the allocated personnel but each should be specific to the evaluated will see the form. area. (it is suggested that the list contains no (these personnel should e outlined before the more than 20 – 22 attributes). This list is assessment is completed). The player must then transferred into a table or circular then be completely honest with themselves d (figure) format, so that the player can the coach when completing the form. complete the assessment.

Once the player has the chart they must then  The ideal standard the attribute assign each attributes a desired level. This should be at level can relate to:

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 The standard the current ―best For example, if the player has been in poor players‘) is at (either at the club or form then comparing themselves to their in the league) best could be the desired result, or another  The standard of the current ―best approach could be that the player is required player‖ at the club for each to compare themselves against the divisions attributes or teams of top player. The level is then  The standard they have previously marked out on each of the attributes. been at For example, below the performance profile The level that the player uses as a was completed by a player on the fringes of benchmark is dependent on the coaches‘ playing for a first team. They were then objectives for the assessment and the desired required to compare themselves to the first course of action. choice center forward. Therefore figure 2 shows the player‘s perceived ability of the first choice centre forward.

Once the player has completed the chart for their benchmark target, they must then fill in each attribute with a rating for their own ability (at the present time). In the example provided the center forward was then asked to complete the chart, comparing how good they were compared to the first choice forward. The outcome is shown in figure 3 below.

8. Performance Profiling – A Guided Walk Through 109

Procedure 1. Determine area of evaluation and what it is being compared against 2. Develop list of attributes to asses 3. Fill in on chart 4. Complete personal ratings 5. Complete personal rating 6. Devise plan to improve upon highlighted weakness. 1 --- Player is a centre midfielder, who wishes to compare their physical attributes with the player currently ahead of them in selection for the regional squad. 2 --- Strength, Speed, Jumping, Acceleration, Power, Balance, Stamina, Agility.

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6 I can be seen that the player completing the profile feels that they have certain attributes that are better than that of their competition for the place. It is also clearing evident which areas they wish to improve upon. (They are still red). Your vote:

9. Self – Control of the Players Inexperienced versus experienced Self control is simply the player‘s ability to Youngsters nowadays believe in their remain in control of their actions and reputation and ―street creed‖ so will not emotions in varying circumstances. This is easily allow a look, comment or action to go essential to players at any standard because unanswered. However if they allow it to get over the course of the match a player can to them, if they allow themselves to react undergo psychological rollercoaster ride s then their opponent has won, the lapse in they can experience all elements of the concentration, the petulant retaliation or the Delight to Disappointment, Anger to misplaced motivation can all lead to the Excitement, Relaxed to Fear and Guilt to opposition gaining an advantage - which in Pride continuums. Therefore, it is essential turn can dictate the outcome of a match. that players are able to maintain a balanced The more experienced and mature player persona so that they do not allow their should be able to view the bigger picture, emotions to dictate their actions, as the allowing them to realize that the importance moment their concentration is gone they are of the overall is much greater than that of a then no longer contributing to their team in personal vendetta, thus making it easier for their most productive way. them to let such trivial things slide without reacting. How Emotions Affect Performance Players need to understand the importance of self control and how it can impose itself It is widely experienced and accepted that an on their performance. Those players that are individual‘s motions greatly determine their unable to express discipline, patience, and energy levels. Once someone is excited their self control will continually be the once that adrenalin provides them energy to perform under achievable, underperform and will activates quicker and/or more sustained than never reach their full potential. The missing the relaxed individual, but once the emotion self control could result in actions that are as transforms the individual can experience an simple as being too eager to shut the ball adrenalin dump which leaves them feeling down in the wrong area of the pitch, which depleted of all energy. This is why it is in turn allows the opposition to exploit the crucial that player‘s are able to maintain a space that they have left behind – instantly level had throughout the entire game. placing the opposition at an advantage. So Motion can also greatly dictate a player‘s be sure to ensure players remain focused at ability to complete simple and complex all times, as the moment one player allows it skills. If the player is in the right, focused to slide, the whole team will suffer. mindset then they may be able to complete movements that they may otherwise find highly unlikely or semi impossible. Sadly 10. Team Cohesion the same is also true in reverse. To be successful a team must be cohesive, they may not interact or socialize away from

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the club but once they are all there they must Therefore, in order to promote cohesion, you be unified. as the coach attempt to: ―Cohesion is the ability for a group of 1. Establish a sense of togetherness, individuals to join together and create a through team identity combined unit, until it is what sets apart 2. Promote unity of purpose teams of individuals and successful teams‖ 3. Collective team work Different Types of Cohesion 4. Establish individual and collective 1. Task Cohesion – is based around accountability the concept that groups of coaches 5. Team culture, no groups or cliques and players will bind together in 6. Develop a family atmosphere, all order to achieve a common goal. help each other 2. Social Cohesion – is based around 7. Trust and belief in each other the concept that individuals are not 8. Honesty, identifying problems just united through their common early and collectively solve goal but also interact on a social 9. Well defined roles to ensure basis as well. complete understanding Factors affecting Cohesion 10. Communication – open, clear,  Stability – cohesion develops the honest, pro – active, regular, longer is together with the same collective and individual, members understood and active listening  Similarity – Cohesion develops 11. Team Effectiveness when the more similar the group members are in terms of age, sex, A team is ―a group of individuals (two of skills, and attitude. more) that share both a common identity and  Size – Cohesion develops more fate, who must interact and communicate to quickly in small groups achieve their own, interlocking, personal  Support – Cohesion teams tend to goals and their collective goal‖ have managers and coaches who Carron & Hausenblaus (Group dynamics in nd provide support to team members sport 1980 (2 ed. J, pg162) highlighted that and encourage them to supports one in order for a group of individuals to become another an effective team certain factors should be  Satisfaction – Cohesion is present. associated with the extent to which These factors were: team members are pleased with each  Role clarity – (a clear other‘s performance, behavior and understanding of what their role is conformity to the norms of the team and the components of that roles as Carron (Social Psychology of Sport, 1980) well as everyone else‘s) defined a cohesion group as having the  Role acceptance (individuals following characteristics: accepting their roles and the  A collective identity responsibility that the roles will be  A sense of shares purpose completed)  Structured patterns of  Role performance ( how well the communication. individual completes their role)

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To put these suggestions into a soccer sweat, which rids the body of oriented environment the collection of impurities. individuals (on the pitch) will only make an 4. Determines stamina, strength, effective team if each person understands height, weight, agility and their roles (position in the team), accepts movement. Other than this, nothing. their role (full back is a full back not a wide midfielder) and complete their roles to the Conclusion required level of performance (strikes score when opportunity arises). 1. Coaching should be based on the art of If one element of that triangle breaks down inspiring, energizing, and learning then the overall team performance is facilitating the performance efficiency of negatively affected i.e., if a player is unsure whom you train and coach them. of their role or unhappy with their role, then 2. Try to upgrade and discover new their performance may be negatively knowledge of coaching of your own rather affected, as seen many times before when than copying of those western types. some players are played out of position. So it is up to coach/manager to ensure that Recommendation each player has a clear understanding, of their role, accepts their role/position in the We recommend the following scientific team (these are even important of the player ideas for our country coaches and players in is being asked to play out of position) and order to be top and competent professional then performs in their role to the best of as those of the world wide professional their ability. coaches and players.

Results 1. The attitude of the trainer or coach towards his athletes (players) should The major finding of our study shows soccer be firm, but not rough and is not a science but, playing Soccer Game humiliating. and its Coaching approach is Scientific, 2. A trainer should forecast the future because, which will bring new knowledge 1. It deals with many different physics and discoveries. of science, like Newton‘s laws, 3. A trainer, who never wants to acceleration, displacement, kinetic improve him, and others, does not energy, and potential energy. know how to achieve results. 2. There is the physics involved in 4. A principled and effective coach is kicking the ball, saving a goal, and one who questions, listens, observes generally running around the field and creates systems and processes to of play. There is also the chemistry translate trainees design into regular of a player‘s diet and the genetic actions for success. biology of a player. 3. The ball and speed as you run and kick the ball at the same time. In

soccer, you run which causes you

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References 12. Keen, G. (1995). The prevention of Overtraining: a time to Re – 1. Bompa, T.O. (1999). Periodization: Examine Training Philosophy. Theory and Methodology of 13. Lyle, J. (1996). A Conceptual Training. Champaign, IL:Human. Appreciation of the Sports Coaching 2. Beo book – Belegrade. (2008). Process. Scottish Center. Modern Soccern.com/coaching.htm/ 14. Lyle, J. (1999). The Coaching – coaching. PP: 1 -16. Process: an overview. In N. Cross J. 3. Bill, Cole. (2009). The Mental Lyle (Eds). The Coaching Coach. Peak Performance Play Butterworth Heinemann, 3 – 24. book. Silicon valley, California. 15. Maglischo, E. W. (1993). 4. Budget, r, (2000). The Unexplained Swimming even Faster. Mountain Underperformance Syndrome View: Mayfield Pubs. (UPS). Faster- Higher - Strong. 16. Marion, A. (2000). Sports Programs, 5. Cook, G. (1990). A Scientific Athletic Monitoring and approach to Rugby Excellence. Qualification of Training. Research Coaching Focus. 15, 10. Quarterly Exercise Sport, 61(2), 196 6. Costill, D. L., Maglischo, E.W. and – 200. Richardson, A.B. (1992). 17. Rushall, B.S. (1985a). Several Swimming. Oxford: Blackwell Principles of Modern Coaching. Science. Sports Coach. 8(3), 40 - 44. 7. Cross, N. (1995). Coaching 18. Rushall, B.S.(1985b).Seven effectiveness in Hockey: A Scottish Principles of Modern Coaching. Perspective. The Scottish Journal. Sports Coach. 8(4), 21 – 23. 8. Cross, N. (1995). Individualization 19. Rushall, B.S, & Pyke, F.S. (1990). of Training Programmers. In N. Training for Sports and fitness. Cross and J. Lyle (Eds.) The Melbourne, Australia: Physiological Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, and Performance Presented at 174 – 191. annual Meeting of the Canadian 9. Cross, N. & Wright, I. (2002). association of Sport Sciences. Coaching Performance Swimmers: Halifax. The Inividualization of Training 20. Sands, r. & Alexander, K. (1987). Information Service. Sports Science, Theory into Practice 10. Hazeldine, R. & McNab, T. (1998). and Coaching: A Practical The RFU Guide to Fitness of Management Conference, Rugby. London. A & C Balck. Melbourne. 11. Neville, C. Graham. E. Stewarts, M. 21. Wilmore, J.H., & Costill, D.L. (2009). Coachinfor.com. The (1994). Physiology of Sport and University of Edinburg, Scotland, Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human. UK. Art5icle&id: 340.

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Iron Supplementation and Exercise Intensities on Hematological Status of Jimma University Soccer Players

Biruk Amare

Abstract In humans, iron plays a central role in oxygen transport and in the synthesis of hemoglobin, myoglobin, and some important enzymes fundamental to energy production. Several lines of evidence derived from studies of male athletes clearly indicate that intense physical activity shifts the iron balance towards iron deficiency. Those studies have found evidence that intense physical activity leads to: low serum ferritin levels, increased intestinal 59Fe absorption, increased 59Fe elimination rates and depleted iron stores in the liver and bone marrow. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of iron supplementation and exercise intensities on the hemoglobin status. Twenty members of Jimma University male soccer players took part in this study: high intensity group (HIG, n = 10) took an oral iron supplement of 100mg/day with high intensity exercise for 12 weeks, and also moderate intensity group (MIG, n = 10) took an oral iron supplement of 100mg/day with moderate intensity exercise for 12 weeks. In both groups, the parameters were measured by collecting 5ml of blood sample before, during and after giving the iron supplements. Iron supplementation and exercise intensities resulted statistically highly significant mean increase of RBC by 0.98 ml/cm3and HB by 3.35 g/dl inthe high intensity group and also 0.75 ml/cm3of RBC and 2.05 g/dl of HB in moderate intensity group (p<0.05). This study showed that iron supplementation and exercise intensities were increased hemoglobin status of soccer players in the high intensity group than the moderate intensity group. Iron supplementation and high intensity exercise is recommendable to the athletes with suboptimal iron status under the supervision of a healthcare professional to increase their hemoglobin status.

Key words: Exercise, Hemoglobin, Intensities, Iron, Players, Soccer, Supplementation

Introduction

Soccer is a ―hybrid sport characterized by intermittent exercise bouts of short, intense activity alternated by longer periods of low-level moderate intensity exercise‖ (Polman, et al., 2004). Soccer players are generally considered to display above average performance when tested using a number of physical characteristics and are therefore able to adapt to the ever-changing physical demands of the sport (Edwards, et al., 2003). These performances in physiological assessments are equal to elite performance in sports that have one predominant physiological characteristic.

Most studies in the literature describing a high prevalence of iron deficiency in athletes were conducted in women (Nielsen and Nachtigall, 1998). This is unfortunate because menstruating young women are known to be at risk of iron deficiency, independent of intensive exercise training (Nielsen and Nachtigall, 1998). As menstrual iron loss can vary substantially, detailed

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iron balance studies are difficult to perform properly in women (Nielsen and Nachtigall, 1998). Nevertheless, several lines of evidence derived from studies of male athletes clearly indicate that intense physical activity shifts the iron balance towards iron deficiency. These studies have found evidence that intense physical activity leads to: low serum ferritin levels (Newhouse, Clement, 1988; Haymes, Lamanca,1989; Smith, 1995; Burke, Read, 1993 and Fogelholm,1995), increased intestinal 59Fe absorption (Nachtigallet al. 1996), increased 59Fe elimination rates (Nachtigall et al. 1996 and Ehn et al.,,1980) and depleted iron stores in liver and bone marrow (Nachtigallet al. 1996 and Magnussonet al.1984).

Several etiological factors may explain storage iron depletion in athletes; these include: (Newhouse, Clement, 1988; Haymes, Lamanca,1989; Smith, 1995; Balaban,1992 and Weightet al. 1992) gastrointestinal blood loss, increased loss of iron in sweat increased iron loss in urine intestinal iron malabsorption iron malnutrition. As Nielsen and Nachtigall in 1998, understand, the main reason for iron deficiency in male athletes is not a decreased iron intake due to malabsorption or malnutrition. In a quantitative study in runners using 59Fe-labelling of orally administered iron, the most relevant effect on iron homeostasis was a substantial gastrointestinal blood loss of 6 to 11 ml/day (3 to 5mg iron/day) which occurred during training or in competition (Nachtigallet al. 1996). The possible causes of gastrointestinal blood loss in runners are discussed in the review by Newhouse and Clement (Newhouse, Clement, 1988). Iron loss in the sweat or urine may also be increased by exercise; however, the contribution of this to the total iron loss is probably negligible (Nachtigall et al. 1996). The mechanism behind decreased serum ferritin levels in other sports, although it should be pointed out that intensive running is part of the training regimen for many other sports disciplines such as triathlon, team sports and seasonal sports such as skiing (Pattini and Schena, 1990).

Good performance in soccer consists of many factors, including excellence in games skills, cognitive abilities to make correct decisions within the game, moderate to high aerobic and anaerobic power (Reilly et al., 2000). Several studies have examined the effect of iron supplementation on iron stores and on parameters characterizing changes in aerobic capacity or physical fitness (Rowland et al., 1988; Magazaniket al., 1991; LaManca, Haymes, 1993; Risser et al., 1988; Powell, Tucker, 1991; Fogelholm et al., 1992; Klingshirn et al., 1992; Dressendorfer et al., 1991; Newhouse et al., 1989; Karamizrak et al., 1996 and Matter et al., 1987). As far as individuals with iron deficiency anemia are concerned, there is no question as to the benefit of iron-containing medications, because even mild anemia decreases the capacity for performance of physical exercise substantially (Risser et al., 1988 and Powell, Tucker, 1991).

The benefit of iron supplementation in non- anemic athletes are still unclear. In general, a small but significant increase in serum ferritin levels is observed following iron supplementation in most studies enrolling non-anemic athletes. Using the approximation that a 1 g/L increase in serum ferritin is equivalent to 8mg of stored iron, iron supplementation added a mean of between 88 to 240mg of iron to body stores (Nachtigall et al. 1996; Pattini and Schena, 1990; Rowland et al., 1988; Magazaniket al., 1991; LaManca, Haymes, 1993; Risser et al., 1988; Powell, Tucker, 1991; Fogelholm et al., 1992; Klingshirn et al., 1992; Dressendorfer et al., 1991; Newhouse et al., 1989; Karamizrak et al., 1996 and Matter et al., 1987). Some investigators also identified objective signs of improved fitness such as increased VO2max(Magazaniket al., 1991and

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LaManca, Haymes, 1993), longer endurance time to exhaustion (Rowland et al., 1988 and LaManca, Haymes, 1993), and decreased blood lactate levels (LaManca, Haymes, 1993) and subjective parameters, for example increased training motivation (Nachtigall et al. 1996 and Lindsey et al., 1996). However, it is possible that some of the athletes were slightly anemic at study entry and that the positive effects noted in these studies (Rowland et al., 1988 and LaManca, Haymes, 1993) were simply caused by the normalization of hemoglobin concentrations.

Minerals are essential for a wide variety of metabolic and physiologic processes in the human body. The physiological roles of minerals are important to athletes that involved in muscle contraction, normal heart rhythm, nerve impulse conduction, oxygen transport, oxidative phosphorylation, enzyme activation, immune functions, antioxidant activity, bone health, and acid-base balance of the blood (Speich, et al., 2001). Because many of these processes are accelerated during exercise, an adequate amount of minerals is necessary for optimal functioning. Athletes should obtain an adequate amount of all minerals in their diet, for a mineral deficiency may impair optimal health, and health impairment may adversely affect sport performance (Speich, et al., 2001).

Thus, we hypothesized that; iron supplementation with high intensity exercise could have a positive effect on increasing hemoglobin concentration and iron supplementation with moderate intensity exercise could have less positive effects on increasing hemoglobin concentration. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of iron supplementation and exercise intensities on the hemoglobin status.

Methodology

Study Design and Area

The researcher was used longitudinal experimental research design because participants are tested than one test and trained for 12 weeks. The study was conducted in Jimma zone, Jimma University, main campus in Jimma town, located 350 km in south-west of Addis Ababa.

Subjects

20 male intermediate players were purposively selected who took part in national higher governmental institutions sport festival was taken for this study. Then after, the selected subjects were evaluated the baseline iron and randomly and equally categorized into high and moderate intensity groups before iron supplement and endurance trainings.

Participants were free of risk factors associated with cardiovascular, pulmonary or metabolic disease, deemed safe to begin physical activity, and were not engaged in other regular training program. Other exclusion criteria included medication usage and smoking. The experimental procedures and potential risks were explained prior to the study, and all participants signed written, informed consent.

Supplementation & Exercise Protocol

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Both groups were supplied 100mg of iron with folic acid in tablet form three days per week for 12 weeks of the study period. After they supplied Iron with folic acid, both high and moderate intensity groups were performed endurance exercise. The endurance training programs were long aerobic run, speed vo2 intervals, tempo runs and strength efforts. The exercises were supervised and the intensities were verified by checking the participants‘ maximum heart rate during training.

The high intensity training group was performed high intensity (70% - 85% HR max) endurance training on Monday, Wednesday and Friday and the moderate intensity training group was also performed moderate intensity (50%-70% HR max) endurance training on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday. They were perform 6:00 Am to 7:00 Am throughout the study because to minimize the risk of inconvenient time of the players.

Blood Test

Registered laboratory technicians drew a sample of 2 mL fasting venous blood from each subject just before beginning the oral iron supplementation, the second and the third blood test was performed after the 6 and 12 weeks respectively of taking the supplement. The blood samples were collected under fasting conditions between 7:30 and 9:00 am. The values of the first test were used as the baseline for the parameters. In the EDTA samples, the following variables were analyzed by HemoCue AB, Box 1204 SE-262 23 Angelholm, Sweeden: Hemoglobin and Red Blood Cell. The tests were strictly measured and recorded by the researcher and certified laboratory technician of the Jimma University specialized hospital. Hematological parameters were classified as abnormal based on standard reference values. Hemoglobin and Red Blood Cell values were considered abnormal in females below 12.3 g/dL and 4.0 ml/cm3 and in male athletes below 14 g/dL and 4.4 ml/cm3(Brown, 1993).

Methods of Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were produced for each of the parameters. The results were presented as mean ± SD. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures followed by multiple comparison tests was performed, to find out the significant difference in selected hematological status and the effect size was calculated. The significance level was set at P< 0.05 for each of the statistical tests performed. The SPSS 20 software was used for the statistical analysis.

Ethical Issues

The study was designed in such way that ethical issues were properly addressed. Privacy of the participants and confidentiality were strictly observed and maintained throughout the study.

Results and Discussion

Characteristics of the Subjects

The characteristics of the subjects are shown in Table 1. The mean age and height of participants was 22.1 and 1.78m in the high intensity group (HIG) and 23 and 1.74m in moderate intensity group (MIG) respectively. The mean value of the participants' weight in HIG was 60.40 119

kg and in MIG was 62.90 kg. Table 1 also showed that the mean BMI value in HIG was 18.7 kg/m2 and in MIG were 20.4 kg/m2 at the end of the study period. Both groups were not shown statistically significant mean deference within the group in body weight and BMI.

Table: 1. Characteristics of the study subjects

HIG MIG

Variables (Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD)

Age (years) 22.1 ± 0.73 23 ±1.24

Height (m) 1.78 ±0.04 1.74 ± 0.06

Weight (Kg) 60.4 ± 6.39 62.9 ± 7.78

BMI (Kg/m2) 18.71 ± 1.33 20.45 ± 1.32

Mean ± SD. Age, height, weight and BMI= body mass index.

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Effects of iron supplementation and exercise intensities on haematological variables

Hematological tests of the subject mean value is shown in table 2. The mean value of RBC in HIG was 4.28 ml/cm3 and 5.26 ml/cm3 before and after iron supplementation respectively, and also in MIG was 4.18 ml/cm3 and 4.93 ml/cm3 before and after iron supplementation respectively. The mean value of HB in HIG was 14.38 g/dl and 17.73 g/dl before and after iron supplementation respectively, and also in MIG were 14.27 g/dl and 16.32 g/dl before and after iron supplementation respectively (Table: 2).

Table: 2.Mean difference value of iron supplementation and exercise intensities of hematological variables

HIG MIG

Mea Mea

Mean± SD n t Mean± SD n t

Size Size

Tests Effect Effect

def. Effect def.

Variables Lower Upper Lower Upper RBC PT 4.28±0.132 4.18±0.135 (ml/cm3 0.98 7.4 16.9 0.75 3.8 Po 0.85 1.11 0.55 0.94 8.69 ) 5.26±0.132 * 2 4 4.93±0.255 * 4 T HB 14.38±0.20 14.27±0.25 PT (g/dl) 9 3.35 11. 36.3 8 2.05 5.4 11.2 3.14 3.55 1.63 2.46 Po 17.73±0.37 * 43 3 16.32±0.49 * 2 9 T 7 8 P < 0.05 *

ANOVA followed by multiple comparison (Post Hoc) tests was performed. In the same columns in each parameter with mean different * superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05), RBC (ml/cm3) = red blood cell and HB (g/dl) = hemoglobin.

Discussion

Effects of iron supplementation and exercise intensities on haematological variables

A significant increment (P<0.05) in RBC level was noted in during and post-test when compared to pre-test data of the soccer players, both in HIG and MIG resulted mean deference by 0.98 ml/cm3 (22.99%) and 0.75 ml/cm3 (17.94%) respectively after iron supplementation and exercises. And also a significant increment (P<0.05) in HB level was noted in during and post-test when compared to pre-test data of the soccer players, both in HIG and MIG resulted mean deference by 3.35 g/dl (23.29%) and 2.05 g/dl (14.36%) respectively after iron supplementation and exercises (Table: 2). The soccer players showed a significant increment of RBC and HB in both groups, but HIG showed that a better mean deference than MIG. The study had found evidence that intense physical activity leads to increased intestinal 59Fe absorption (Nachtigall et al. 1996). Recently, high intensity interval training (HIT) has been used to improve endurance performance (Lindsey et al. 1996 and Stepto et al. 1999), but only a few studies have evaluated the effects of HIT and power training on iron status. Significant increases

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in red blood cell count and Hb associated with plasma hemoconcentration have been reported following acute bouts of interval exercise (Bon Gray et al. 2000 and Gimenezet al.1988).

Conclusion and Recommendation

Conclusions

Based on the major findings of the study the following points are stated as a conclusion.

 The high intensity group develops better RBC and Hb level than the moderate intensity endurance group of Jimma University soccer players.  Iron supplementation to soccer players with high intensity endurance exercise is necessary to RCB and Hb concentration increment.  Iron is essential for endurance exercise for the formation of haemoglobin and oxygen carrying capacity.  Iron supplementation with high intensity endurance exercise at the altitude of 1780m may replace high altitude training for increasing haemoglobin.

Recommendations

By considering the major findings and conclusions of the study, it is important to state the following points as a recommendation.

1. It is highly expected from sport nutritionists, sport professionals and related fields to guide and educate on the importance and value of iron supplementation with high intensity endurance exercise on haematological status. 2. To be more beneficial in all dimensions iron supplementation and high intensity exercise is recommendable to the athletes with suboptimal iron status under the supervision of a healthcare professional to increase their haemoglobin status additional to their meal. 3. Further research has to be done on the role of iron for the improvement of soccer player‘s haematological status.

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Acknowledgments: This study would not have been possible without funding support of MOE. The author also thanks the participants and laboratory technicians of the Jimma University specialized hospital.

Conflict of interest: The authors declare that; have no conflict of interest.

References

Balaban EP. 1992. Sports anemia. Clin Sports Med. 11(2):313-25. Bon Gray BA, Telford RD, Weidemann WJ. 2000. The effect of intense interval exercise on iron status parameters in trained men. Med Sci Sport Exerc. 25: 778 – 782. Brown, B., 1993. Hematology: Principles and Procedures. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 55: 74–78. Burke LM, Read RSD. 1993. Dietary supplements in sport. Sports Med. 15: 43-65. Dressendorfer RH, Keen CL, Wade CE, et al. 1991. Development of runner‘s anemia during a 20-day road race: effect of iron supplements. Int J Sports Med. 12: 332-6. Edwards A.M., A.M. Macfadyen, and N. Clark, 2003.Test performance indicators from a single soccer specific fitness test differentiate. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness; 43(1):14-20. Ehn L, Carlmark B, Höglund S. 1980. Iron status in athletes involved in intense physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 12 (1): 61-4. Fogelholm M. 1995. Indicators of vitamin and mineral status in athletes blood: a review. Int J Sport Nutr. 5: 267-84. Fogelholm M, Jaakkola L, Lampisjaervi T. 1992. Effects of iron supplementation in female athletes with low serum ferritin concentration. Int J Sports Med. 13: 158-62. Gimenez M, Uffholtz H, Paysant P, Belleville F, Nabet P. 1988. Serum iron and transferrin during an exhaustive session of interval training. Eur J Appl Physiol. 57: 154 – 158. Haymes EM, Lamanca JL. 1989. Iron loss in runners during exercise: implications and recommendations. Sports Med. 7: 277-85. Karamizrak S.O., C. Islegen, and S.R. Varol, et al. 1996. Evaluation of iron metabolism indices and their relation with physical work capacity in athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine; 30:15-19. Klingshirn LA, Pate RR, Bourque SP, et al. 1992. Effect of iron supplementation on endurance capacity in iron-depleted female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 24: 819- 24. LaManca JJ, Haymes EM. 1993. Effects of iron repletion on VO2max, endurance, and blood lactate in women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 25: 1386-92. Lindsey FH, Hawley JA, Myburgh KH, Schomer HH, Noakes TD, Dennis SC. 1996. Improved athletic performance in highly trained cyclists after interval training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 28: 1427 – 1434. Magazanik A., Y. Weinstein, and J. Abarbanel, et al., 1991. Effect of an iron supplement on body iron status and aerobic capacity of young training women. European Journal of Applied Physiology; 62: 317-23. Magnusson B, Hallberg L, Rossander L, et al. 1984. Iron metabolism and sports anemia. Acta Med Scand. 216: 157-64. Matter M, Stittfall T, Graves J, et al. 1987. The effect of iron and folate therapy on maximal exercise performance in female marathon runners with iron & folate deficiency. Clin Sci.72:415-22.

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Nachtigall D, Nielsen P, Fischer R, et al. 1996. Iron deficiency in distance runners: a reinvestigation using 59Fe-labelling and non-invasive liver iron quantification. Int J Sports Med. 17: 473-9. Newhouse, I.J., D.B. Clement, J.E. Taunton, D.C. McKenzie, 1989. The effects of pre- latent/latent iron deficiency on physical work capacity.Medical Science of Sports. 21: 263– 268. Newhouse IJ, Clement DB. 1988. Iron status in athletes: an update. Sports Med. 5: 337-52. Nielsen P. and D. Nachtigall, 1998. Iron supplementation in athletes current recommendations., Universitäts-Krankenhaus Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany. Leading article of Sports Med 1998 Oct; 26 (4): 207-216. Pattini A., and F. Schena, 1990. Effects of training and iron supplementation on iron status of cross-country skiers. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness; 30(4):347-53. Polman R., D. Walsh, J. Bloomfield, and M. Nesti, 2004. Effective conditioning of female soccer players. Journal of Sport Sciences. Vol: 22 No 2. p: 191-203. Powell PD, Tucker A., 1991. Iron supplementation and running performance in female cross- country runners. Int J Sports Med. 12: 462-7. Reilly T, Bangsbo J, Franks A., 2000. Anthropometric & physiological predispositions for elite soccer. Jou of Sports Scencei.18:669-83. Risser WL, Lee EJ, Poindexter HBW, et al. 1988. Iron deficiency in female athletes: its prevalence and impact on performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc; 20: 116-21. Rowland TW, Deisroth MB, Green GM, et al. 1988. The effect of iron therapy on the exercise capacity of non-anemic iron-deficient adolescent runners. Am J Dis Child. 142: 165-9. Smith J.A., 1995. Exercise, training and red blood cell turnover. Journal of Sports Medicine; 19 (1): 9-31. Speich M., A. Pineau, and F. Ballereau, 2001. Minerals, trace elements and related biological variables in athletes and during physical activity. Clinical Chemistry Acta. Research Letter, 28, 311 –314. Stepto NK, Hawley JA, Dennis SC, Hopkins WG. 1999. Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trail performance. Med Sci Sport Exerc. 31: 736 – 741. Weight LM, Klein M, Noakes TD, et al. 1992. Sports anemia: a real or apparent phenomenon in endurance-trained athletes? Int J Sports Med. 13: 344-7.

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The Effect of Creatine Supplements on Sprinting Performance of Male Beginner Athletes

Daniel Kebrit, Nigussie Bussa and Sangeeta Rani

Abstract

Nutritional aids are getting the preferences of many athletes. It is part of actions that are taken by athletes around the world to enhance their performance. Many studies conducted on creatine supplements used elite athletes as a subject. Its effect on the performance of male beginner athletes was untouched. In the present study, the effects of creatine supplements on sprinting performance of male beginner athletes were studied. Twenty male beginner athletes (EG, N=10) and (CG, N= 10) participated in resistance training for three months (3 days per week for 45 minutes). In a double blind placebo controlled study, the EG consumed 5 grams of creatine monohydrate every training session, while the CG used water. After 12 weeks of training and supplementation, the EG improved better in sprinting. In body weight, the CG increased by 2% and the EG increased by 6%. 3% and 6% enhancement in BMI were shown for the CG and EG, respectively. In girth measurements the EG improved better in muscle size. Upper arm circumferences were increased by 3% and 9% by CG and EG, respectively. In chest circumference, CG and EG showed 4% and 12% improvement, respectively. 2% and 6% improvements were observed in thigh circumference for CG and EG, respectively. The performance of the EG was boosted in 100m and 200m sprinting. The CG decreased the sprinting time by 3% while the EG reduced it by 10%. In 200m sprinting, the CG and EG showed 5% and 12% enhancement of sprinting speed, respectively. These results indicated that long-term creatine supplementation combined with resistance training promoted muscle mass and enhanced sprinting performance of male beginner athletes.

Keywords: Creatine supplements, Resistance Training, Sprinting Performance.

Introduction

Now a day, different actions are taken by athletes around the world to enhance their performance. Those activities are collectively called Ergogenic Aids. It includes nutritional, pharmacological, physiological, psychological and mechanical aids. Among these, nutritional aids become the preference of many athletes due to their long term effect. In an age when success in sports is often associated with increased future earnings and when many athletes have a "win at all costs" attitude, the use of dietary supplements has increased markedly [10].

Dietary supplements are intended to supplement the diet. They Contains one or more dietary ingredients including vitamins, minerals, herbs etc. They are intended to be taken by mouth, in forms such as tablet, capsule, powder, softgel, gelcap, or liquid [2].

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Creatine is a naturally occurring amino acid derived from the amino acids glycine, arginine, and methionine [14]. It was discovered by Chevreul in 1832. The first reported use of creatine by elite athletes occurred during the 1992 Barcelona Olympics. The evidence was reported in British track and field athletes [13].

The daily requirement of creatine for sedentary individuals is approximately 2 to 3g; half is obtained from the diet, primarily from meat and fish, while the remainder is synthesized [14]. To be successful, sprinters should get adequate creatine every day. Studies show that it should not be less than 3 grams per day. Most creatine is stored in skeletal muscle, primarily as phosphocreatine; the rest is found in the heart, brain, and testis [7]. Body produces not more than half of daily creatine need. The rest should be provided with the diet.

Beginning from the last quarter of the 20th century, there are many research results published on creatine supplementation, protocols of administration and forms of creatine ([11] and [6]). Despite this, the mechanisms by which creatine acts in the human body to improve physical and cognitive performance are still not clear [4].

These days, many scholars are conducting researches on the relationship of creatine supplements and sprinting performance. However, as stated by Cooper et al. (2012) they do not clearly show the relationship between creatine supplements and sprinting performance. Especially, its effect on beginner athletes was untouched.

Most studies assured that creatine supplement is useful to boost the sprinting performance of elite athletes. However, there is a deficiency of studies conducted on the relationship of creatine supplements and sprinting performance of beginner athletes. This study comes up with concrete evidence on the effect of creatine supplements on the sprinting performance of male beginner athletes.

Objective The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of creatine supplements on the sprinting performance of male beginner athletes.

Materials and Methods Study Area and Period This research was conducted at Haramaya University main campus. All the tests and physical activity trainings were delivered in the University‘s gymnasium and stadium. Resistance training was given inside the gymnasium and sprint training practiced in the stadium. This study was conducted for 12 weeks from October 10, 2012 to January 10, 2013.

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Subjects and Sampling Techniques Male beginner athletes (100m, 200m and 400m runners) who compete to represent Haramaya th University in 6 Ethiopian Higher Education Institutions sport festival were the subjects and their age ranged from 18 to 25. Purposive sampling was used to select subjects. Thirty volunteer student athletes filled the medical history questionnaire. The questionnaire was prepared with the aim of identifying whether they were free from cancer, heart disease, stroke and kidney problems. Additionally, injury statuses were used as one selection criteria. Five of the thirty volunteers, rejected due to factors mentioned above and the other five withdrawn with draw. The study was conducted with twenty subjects. Instrumentation The following materials were used through the process of the study. Weight machine, stopwatch, whistle, Girth measurement(flexible metal tape measure), and sport equipment‘s such as Dumbbells, Treadmill, barbells, Weight benches, stationary bikes, Studio 6, etc. was used through the process of the study.

Experimental Design Complete randomized design with double blind and placebo controlled was used for this study. The study was conducted for 12 weeks of resistance training associated with creatine supplementation. The effects of creatine supplementation on sprinting performance of male beginner athletes were studied. The subjects were divided in to experimental and control groups. These groups were matched in terms of age level. The average age of the experimental group was 20.1 + 0.9 and the control group was 19.8 + 1.1.

Supplementation Protocol The control and experimental groups had been engaged in conditioning exercises for the first two weeks of this study. Then, to create physiological adaptation, the experimental group had begun taking low dose (2 grams) of creatine monohydrate supplement every training day. The control group kept exercise only. After being supplemented with 2 grams of CM, the dose of the supplement for the experimental group was increased to 5 grams per training day. Water was used as placebo for the control group. The supplementation was given 45 minutes before exercise. 200ml of water was used to dilute the 5 gram of creatine supplement. Equal amount of water was given to the control group.

Exercise Training Protocol The selected subjects were divided in to two groups. Both groups were engaged in conditioning exercise for the first 2 weeks. After two weeks of conditioning, the groups had begun performing resistance training (both weight bearing and weight free exercises). The duration of exercise was 45 minutes with the frequency of 3 days per week. They were advised, not to participate in any other physical exercise up to the end of this study.

Experimental Measurements Body weight, body mass index and muscle mass (girth measurements which are upper arm circumference, chest circumference and thigh circumference) were measured. To check the improvement on the subjects, measurements were made three times at pre treatment (PT), during treatment (DT) and post treatment (PoT) for all of the tests. Calibrated digital balance beam scale was

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used to measure body weight and the unit was in kilogram. Then, BMI was calculated by using the 2 following formula. BMI= Mass (kg)/Height (m) . Girth measurements were applied to estimate the muscle mass in selected areas. The middle part of upper arm (biceps and triceps); muscles of the thigh with hamstring and Chest circumference (sideway over the two nipples) were the measured areas. Flexible metal tape was used to measure the circumferences.

Field Tests 100m Dash and 200m sprinting The common sprinting event, 100m dash and 200m sprinting tests were used at PT, DT and PoT. The overall sprinting performance of subjects was assessed through these tests. Both tests were taken in the early morning and repeated three times. The length of the time was recorded in seconds.

Method of Data Analysis The data were analyzed by SPSS statistical software package Version 16. Paired sample t-test were used to identify significant differences between the scores of the two groups for body weight, body mass index, upper arm circumference, chest circumference, thigh circumference, 100m dash and 200m sprinting. Statistical significance for all data was set at p ≤ 0.05.

Results and Discussion In this study, field experiments as well as field tests had been taken three times (Pre, during and post). Under this 7 variables (body weight, BMI, upper arm circumference, chest circumference, thigh circumference, 100m dash and 200m sprinting) were measured. The results of those variables are discussed as follows.

2 Table 1: Bodyweight (kg) and body mass index (kg/m ) mean values CG EG PT DT PoT PT DT PoT BH (m) 1.68 + 0.42 1.68 + 0.42 1.68 + 0.42 1.66 + 0.67 1.66 + 0.67 1.66 + 0.67 BW (kg) 59.1 + 2.27 59.6 + 1.98 60.3 + 1.95 56.7 + 2.03 58.4 + 1.68 60.1 + 1.74 2 20.7 + 0.57 21.0 + 0.44 21.3 + 0.43 20.4 + 0.74 21.1 + 0.67 21.7 + 0.66 BMI kg/m )

Values are mean + SE, CG= control group, EG= experimental group, PT= pre training test which is taken before training and supplementation, DT= during training test which was measured at th th the 6 week of training and supplementation, PoT= post training test measured at the 12 week of training and supplementation, BH= body height, BW= body weight and BMI= body mass index.

The above table showed the body weight and BMI change both in experimental and control groups. The mean difference revealed that there was an improvement in body weight in both groups. This was due to the resistance training they were engaged in. 5.99% improvement of body weight was recorded in the EG and the CG increased by 2.03%. A greater change in the EG implied that, creatine monohydrate supplement enhances weight gain.

A research conducted on creatine supplementation by Eijende and his colleagues showed no effect on

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body weight. According to them, their subjects could not show an increase in body weight following six months of supplementation [5]. However, the mean difference in this study clearly showed that creatine supplementation increases body weight of male beginner athletes.

The mean value of body mass index (BMI) was increasing from one test to another among the groups. And more significant change distinguished in the EG. The EG exhibited 6.37% increase in BMI and 2.89% improvement was recorded in the CG. The main reason for the increase of BMI, especially in the EG was the increase of body weight. Hence, Supplementation of creatine monohydrate increased BMI. This result is consistent with the findings of Amani and his friends. The result of their investigation showed that creatine monohydrate significantly increased the Body Mass Index [1].

Table 2: Upper arm circumference (cm), chest circumference (cm) and thigh circumference (cm) mean values

CG EG PT DT PoT PT DT PoT UAC (cm) 27.1 + 1.16 27.7 + 1.15 27.9 + 1.14 26.8 + 0.76 28.2 + 0.81 29.2 + 0.84 CC (cm) 30.2 + 0.84 31.0 + 0.79 31.3 + 0.77 31.9 + 0.66 33.8 + 0.81 35.6 + 0.93 TC (cm) 50.1 + 1.07 50.5 + 1.09 51.1 + 1.14 49.4 + 1.25 51.0 + 1.38 53.1 + 1.46 Values are mean + SE, CG= control group, EG= experimental group, PT= pre training test which is taken before training and supplementation, DT= during training test which was th measured at the 6 week of training and supplementation, PoT= post training test measured at th the 12 week of training and supplementation, UAE= upper arm circumference, CC= chest circumference and TC= thigh circumference.

In all the above girth measurement results, the mean difference indicated that there was an improvement both in experimental and control group. This was due to the resistance training both groups were engaged in. 2.95%, 3.64% and 1.99% improvement on UAC, CC and TC respectively was recorded for the CG and the EG increased by 8.95%, 11.59% and 7.48% as per the previous order. The greater improvement in the EG implies that creatine monohydrate supplement had positive effect in improving the muscle mass of male beginner athletes.

A study conducted Bogdanis and his colleagues, 5 years before come up with similar results. The outcome was as follows: Including a 12 week resistance training program, the group that consumed creatine supplement demonstrated a remarkable increase in cross-sectional area of all types of muscle fibers. In contrast with the smaller increase in the CG [3]. This result is also matched with the findings of Michael and his friends. They pointed out that creatine Supplements significantly increased skeletal muscle [8]. Table 3: 100m dash (s) and 200m sprinting (s) mean values for male beginner athletes of both control group (CG) and experimental group (EG); at different occasions of training program.

CG EG PT DT PoT PT DT PoT

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100m (s) 13.98+0.19 13.85+0.19 13.57+ 0.19 13.88+0.18 13.16+0.18 12.53 + 0.16

200m (s) 30.19+0.51 29.58+0.53 28.80 + 0.50 30.54+0.53 28.36+0.45 26.81 + 0.25

Values are mean + SE, CG= control group, EG= experimental group, PT= pre training test which is taken before training and supplementation, DT= during training test which was th measured at the 6 week of training and supplementation, PoT= post training test measured at th the 12 week of training and supplementation.

The negative mean value difference in both groups showed that; they decreased the time to finish 100m and 200m sprinting. The CG decreased the sprinting time by 2.93% and 4.60% for 100m and 200m sprints respectively. The EG reduced the sprinting time by 9.73% and 12.21% for 100m and 200m sprints respectively. This result was coming due to the improvement of muscle mass (body weight) and sprinting speed as it is shown from Table 1 to Table 3. The resistance exercises and the sprint training brought this change in both groups. However, a more significant improvement in the EG was due to supplement they used. In general, creatine monohydrate supplementation enhances sprinting performance in 100m and 200m running.

The data (Table 3) showed a better improvement in the group who consumed creatine monohydrate supplement (EG). This group demonstrates a greater change in sprinting speed. Depend on this result; it is possible to conclude that creatine supplementation enhances sprinting performance in male beginner athletes.

In a study which was conducted for 5 days by Snow and his friends. The sprint-exercises performance of athletes could not be improved [12]. The other study which was conducted by Michael et al.(1999) one year later: peak power and work output during five bouts of maximal 10sec cycle sprints were unchanged by Creatine Supplementation, either acutely or for up to 4 week after supplementation, in comparison to the placebo group. They concluded that Creatine Supplementation did not increase maximal intermittent sprinting performance. However, this result assured that creatine supplement is important to boost the sprinting performance of male beginner athletes.

Table 4: The mean difference value and significance level of each test results in both CG and EG.

Dependent Variable Para (I) Para (J) MD (J-I) Sig.

EG CG EG CG Body Weight(Kg) PoT PT 3.42 1.17 0.000 0.092 DT 1.74 0.48 0.011 0.383 2 PoT PT 1.26 0.56 0.000 0.038 BMI (Kg/m ) DT 0.68 0.26 0.004 0.247

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Upper arm Circum. (cm) PoT PT 2.35 0.80 0.000 0.002 DT 1.44 0.57 0.000 0.002 Chest Circum. (cm) PoT PT 3.74 1.11 0.000 0.001 DT 1.91 0.80 0.000 0.001 Thigh Circum. (cm) PoT PT 3.70 1.10 0.000 0.000 DT 1.60 0.55 0.000 0.007 100m (s) PoT PT -0.41 0.000 0.001 -1.35 DT -0.71 -0.13 0.002 0.021 200m (s) PoT PT -1.39 0.000 -3.73 0.012 DT -2.18 -0.61 0.000 0.025

MD= mean difference, CG= control group, EG= experimental group, PT= pre training test which is th taken before training and supplementation, DT= during training test which was measured at the 6 th week of training and supplementation, PoT= post training test measured at the 12 week of training and supplementation.

Table 4 showed the overall result of each test. It includes the mean difference from one test to another and the significance of post tests in reference to the pre tests. 100m and 200m sprinting time was decreased in both groups. More significant improvement was recorded in the experimental group. In all the other parameters, both groups exhibited a remarkable change. This was due to the resistance training both groups engaged in. However, a more significant change in the EG was an evident for the positive effect of creatine monohydrate supplement on body weight, muscular mass and sprinting performance.

Generally, the 100m and 200m sprinting test result of this study revealed that creatine monohydrate supplement is useful to boost the sprinting performance of male beginner athletes. The results of this study are comparable with the findings of [1], [3], [5], [8], [9] and [15].

Conclusions

Based on the major findings of the study, the following points are stated as a conclusion.

 Creatine monohydrate supplement has a significant effect on the improvement and enhancement of sprinting performance. As indicated by Haramaya University participants, male beginner athletes who used creatine supplements could enhance their sprinting performance.

 The increase in sprinting performance was due to the increment of available serum and muscle creatine. In addition, the improvement of sprinting components (muscle mass, muscle strength and muscle endurance) played a great role in the overall change of sprinting performance.

 The body weight had been changed significantly. This gain in bodyweight was due to the

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increment of muscle mass, which is important for sprinting performance. This change in bodyweight raised the BMI.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following points are recommended to investigate more on the relationship of creatine supplements and sprinting performance.

 Athletics coaches and other concerned bodies should give due attention to athletes nutrition. It is nice if they know and emphasize on the energy systems their athletes use as well as their daily calorie needs. If they get their energy level insufficient even after good nutrition, they shall make them use dietary supplements. For sprinters, creatine supplements would be more beneficial. It increases the readily available energy in their exercise with creatine phosphate system. Hence, sprinters shall get creatine supplement if their performance needs to be raised.

To get the finest benefit from creatine supplements: firstly, it shall be used with resistance training. It makes the body ready to use the supplement. Secondly, it is better to take it for longer period of time with proper exercise.

Related to creatine supplements, the future research shall focus on: the actual dose to be taken to enhance performance; its effect on female athletes; the possible benefits of the supplement in other sports like football, volley ball, basketball, etc. and the possible side effects of the Cr supplement.

Acknowledgment

We are thankful to the Ethiopian Ministry of Education and Haramaya University for their financial support.

References

1. Amani, A.R., M.N. Somchit, M.B Konting and T.H. Baharuldin, 2012. The Effect of Creatine Monohydrate Supplement on the Body Composition, Among Young Adults. Int. Sc. Inves. J. 10: 108

2. Branch, J. D., 2003. Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: a meta-analysis. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab..1: 198-226.

3. Bogdanis, G.C., P. Aggeliki and M. Maridaki, 2007. Muscle metabolism and fatigue during sprint exercise: effect of creatine supplementation. Serb J Sports Sci. 1(2): 37-57

4. Cooper, R., N. Fernando, A. Judith and J. Alfonso, 2012. Creatine supplementation with specific view to exercise/sports performance: an update. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 9: 33

5. Eijnde, B.O., M.V. Leemputte, M. Goris, V. Labarque, Y. Taes, P. Verbessem, L. Vanhees, M. Ramaekers, B.V. Eynde, R.V. Schuylenbergh, R. Dom, E.A. Richter and P. Hespel, 2003.

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Effects of creatine supplementation and exercise training on fitness in men 55− 75 year old. J appl physiol. 95: 818-828

6. Hickner A. L., E. Hultman, I. Macdonald, A. Sewell and P. Greenhaff, 2010. Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans. Am. J. Physiol. 271: 821-826.

7. Kreider, R. B., M. Kathleen, D.S. Makani, W.D. Julie, K. Hootan, S. Thomas, A.K.Jane and S. Morris, 1998. Creatine Fails to Augment the Benefits from Resistance Training in Patients with HIV Infection: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 4: 2

8. Michael, J.M., M. Judith, E.S. Steve and J.S.Rodney, 1999. Creatine supplementation increases muscle total creatine but not maximal intermittent exercise performance. J Appl Physiol. 87 2244- 2255

9. Rahmani, F., R. Nader and G. Yaser, 2008. The Comparative Effects of Oral Creatine Supplementation and High Protein on Muscular Strength and Body Composition. 02(04): 223-230

10. Rawson, E.S., M.P. Priscilla and G.C. Clarkson, 2004. Scientifically debatable: Is creatine worth its weight? Gat Sp Sc. Ins. 16: 4

11. Sakkas, G.K., M. Kathleen, D. Makani, W.D. Julie, K. Hootan, S. Thomas, A.K. Jane and S. Morris, 2009. Creatine Fails to Augment the Benefits from Resistance Training in Patients with HIV Infection, 2008. PLoS ONE Journal. 4(2): 4605.

12. Snow, R. J., M. J. McKenna, S.E. Selig, J. Kemp, C. G. Stathis and S. Zhao, 1998. Effect of creatine supplementation on sprint exercise performance and muscle metabolism. J. Appl Physiol. 84:1667-1673

13. Tokish, J. M., M. S. Kocher and R. J. Hawkins, 2008. Ergogenic Aids: A review of basic science, performance, side effects and status in sports; American Journal of Sport Medicine 32(6): 1548.

14. Williams, M.H., N.T. Kreider and C.P. Jahn, 1999. The Ergogenic effect of creatine supplements. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 4: 455-460.

15. Zuniga J.M., T.J. Housh, C.L. Camic, C.R. Hendrix, M. Mielke, G.O. Johnson, D.J. Housh and R.J. Schmidt, 2012. The effects of creatine monohydrate loading on anaerobic performance and one- repetition maximum strength. J. Strength Cond. Res. 26: 1651-1656

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Active Methods of Teaching /Coaching Soccer Specialists

Getachew Abebe (PhD), Sport Academy Director, Bahir dar University

(In particular reference to Bahir Dar University sport academy regular & in-service post graduate students)

Introduction

Active methods of learning/teaching are an increasingly used component of student‘s assessment at Bahir Dar university spot academy. It is agreed active method of learning/ teaching are the most important teaching and assessing tool in the teaching learning process. It is introduced into the teaching learning process with the purpose of exploring practical skills making the learning process more dynamic. This is active, more relevant, more learner-centered and thereby avoiding the traditional seeing of learners as passive consumers.

It is not possible for the teacher to give all the information‘s, skills and knowledge in a short period especially with the lecture method of teaching. So, learning in a small group is an ideal way of teaching. This will help students to help each other, exchange ideas, argue on behalf of different points and collaborate to produce a collective summery of their work. this is originated in the modern education.

However this fact of active method of teaching/learning is less understood by most students as most of them from high competitive high schools. The back ground of the students mislead them to an in the correct fulfilling prophecy. Therefore there is a need to study by which teachers could device and work out plan of action and frame work for their future cooperation in planning, developing, handling, implementing and assessing.

Significant of the study The result of the study will try to give practical ideas/ tips/ and recommendations on how to:

 Prepare students to use game methods of coaching/teaching  Form effective small groups sweet able for game methods of teaching/learning.  Design meaningful, achievable group actives and assessments  Assess group work effectively in every day teaching/ learning.

Organizational Analysis and Interpretation of the Data

Data organization

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11 Regular postgraduate students, 14 in-service post graduate students and 3 postgraduate teachers (PhD) were chosen randomly from the total number of regular and in-service program. Three different groups of questionnaires were designed. Questionnaire -1- at the beginning to get participants personal information and crier, Questionnaire -2- was main part of the study which prepared for the focus group discussion and others two were planned to be administered Questionnaire -3- was used after the group work presentation and the end of the total work to know their reflection and evaluation. Of the total samples taken 25 students and 3 teachers filled and returned the questioners and participated in the group work.

A/ Active methods of Coaching

Coaching experience of participants/subjects/

Yes No

Regular students 7 4

In-service students 13 1

Post graduate Teachers 3 0

Table -1-

82.1% Participants are having the experience of coaching and 17.85% while 17.85 % are without experience of coaching

B/ Ability of participants planning using active method of coaching

I used a Plan for coaching I can design a training plan

Yes No Yes No

Regular MSc students 1 10 7 4

In-service MSc students 10 4 12 2

Post graduate Teachers 3 0 3 0

Table -2-

In regards planning to coaching and teaching the following answers was given out of 22 who were able to plan 11 students and 3 teachers were using their plan for their coaching activities. But 6 students don‘t know how to plan and 3 students even if 22 students know how to plan 6 of them are not implementing their plan for their coaching program.

Reflection and evaluation answers

A/ group objective practice in the group work

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Remarks: Answers given by the participant‘s for the given ideas/questions

Question No Agree disagree No answer

1 19 4 3

2 22 5 -

3 23 3 2

4 23 4 -

5 23 3 2

Table -3-

B/ significant advantages that the participants group gets from the group work

Agree disagree No answer

1 24 - 1

2 24 2 -

3 5 18 2

4 24 - 1

5 17 7 2

6 14 - 4

7 26 - 1

8 23 2 1

Table -4-

C/ evaluating the importance of the group work and feedbacks

Agree disagree

Useful 24 3 interesting 25 3

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Un-useful - -

Table -5-

The following points are given as reasons for their agreement or disagreement:

1. The Game /group work method teaching/learning give us a chance to understand and approve that evaluations which are the driving force for individual for successes so that we tried to evaluate our selves and know where we are.

2. The group discussion gave a clue for us to go ahead so, such kind of coaching/teaching should be considered for coaching youth and league team‘s level.

3. If there was more time it is possible to dig more about active teaching/learning.

4. The group work gave us a chance to interact with our colleges about our profession which is very important to update ourselves and chare an experience.

5. It create a condition to generate and exchange ideas what we had among us good and important ideas were raised for the given discussion points.

6. Learning through discussion gives students pleasure and knowledge.

Analysis and interpretation of the organized data

As the frequency distribution table -2- we see that 63.63% have a knowledge of active teaching/ learning and 36.36% not in other hands when we see the planning ability of students and teachers we observe that 50% of them where using the planning for their coaching and 50% don‘t and 78.5% are thinking that they are able to plan an Olympic and year training plan effectively and 21.2% don‘t.

The group work reflection table -4- in lights us the 96.2% of participants agree with the work which gave them a chance to develop their creative thinking ability for design a training programs and 14.28% of them doesn‘t have answer for putting an objective. Regarding questions 4 (85.7%) and 7(92.85) participants agree with the group work that helps them to see personal actions, comparing and it gave me a chance of relationships develop with others. Questions 2 (85.7%),5(60.7%) and 8 (82.1%) again agree with which the work gave them a knowledge of systematic problem solving, helps them to see their fault in their work, helps them to get knowledge on management and provides them with an insight into thinking on effectiveness of management. But, 25% students disagree on question 5 on getting idea and knowledge on management. 64.28% students disagree on question 3.

According to the evaluating of the importunacy of the group work table -5- we can observe the benefits that the participants earn from (91%) agreed with usefulness and interesting of the activities which was given on the group work for the research purpose as a sample of active learning/teaching. But 37.5% disagree with the idea.

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Total evaluation of the subjects which takes part in the group work for my research evaluated the whole work given and administers: The system of group formation, the tasks, the controlling mechanism of the work activity and time usage was good. So, that work was evaluated 100% useful and important.

Recommendations

If active methods is needed to make a difference for coaching/teaching process the following recommendations needs to be implemented:

1. Cooperative teaching/learning is needs to start from teachers themselves to increases teachers competence, decision-making, skill, productivity, positive relationship and higher respect professionally as well as personality

2. it‘s important to have understanding of the advantage and disadvantages of group- based learning

3. The lesson on the program should be designed accurately and well organized to the active learning.

4. Appropriate and continues follow ups and corrections should be implemented during the active learning/teaching

5. Feedbacks are very much important so, every time teachers and students should look at.

References

1. University of technology Sydney (UTS) institute for interactive media and learning (IML) (2003). Enhancing experiences of group work (online).Available from http//www.iml.uts.edu.au/ learn teach. 2. Cardiff University (2001). Learning and teaching support: group work. /Online/. Available from http://www.of.ac.uk/ls/guidance/group.html. 3. Flinders University (2002) teaching for learning: group work. /online/ 4. Available from http://www.flinders.edu.au/teach/teach/ group work html. Accessed 20 march 2004. 5. Неверкович С.Д. активные методы обучения в ИФК. теория и практика ФК. 2004. 6. Неверкович С.Д. Игровые методы подготовки кадров 2010. 7. Львов. Активны методы обучения при подготовке специалистов по физической культуре и спорту. Метод рекомендации для студентов и проф- преподаватель состава ФПК. 2001.

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Relationship between Vertical Jumping Performance and Anthropometric Characteristics in Collegiate of Mekelle University, Ethiopia.

Samson wondirad

Abstract

The relationship between the anthropometric measures and power performance is always a controversial topic. This study was designed to examine the relationship between the selected anthropometric measures of the body segments and power performance of the university students in Mekelle University. Two hundred five male (Mean ± SD) age: 20.63±1.5yrs; leg length 0.96 ± 0.034meter; height 1.71meter ± 0.068meter; weight 56.27± 6.09Kg: 0.34 ± 0.071meter) and sixty four female age 19.97 ± 1.1.14yrs; leg length 0.92 ± 0.041meter; height 1.6 ± 0.075meter; weight 50.59 ± 6.69Kg: power 0.27± 0.081meter. Vertical jump test was conducted and three anthropometric measurements, including the height, weight and leg length were taken. Pearson correlation analysis shown that there was significant correlation between power performance and the selected anthropometric variables (p < .001).The results revealed that anthropometric characteristics, age and jumping performance have low relation in genders. Both boys‘ and girls‘ reported low relationship of age, leg length in power. And also, slight association was found in weight. However, the height of boys‘ has slight higher than girl‘s relationship with vertical jumping performance.

Key words: Anthropometric; Collegiate students; Vertical jump and Performance

Introduction

Power is a skill related physical fitness which has highest degree of attribution to ball games players, sprinters, weight lifters, throwers, jumpers and boxers (Almeida and Soares, 2003). In the past decade or so, a great deal of attention has been directed towards the measurement of human being body weight (Johnson & Nelson, 1986). Previously, the anthropometric and performance characteristics have been described within a number of athletic populations (Gross et al, 1988).

The increase in power performance was the result of proper mechanics and restoration optimum levels of muscular contraction, motion and nerve firing activity. Physical educators and coaches have strongly realized that the performance of boys and girls is greatly influenced by factors such as age, height, and weight and body structure. It is known that persons of the same age vary considerably in body size and shape. The individuals of the same height differ greatly in body weight, and the same persons of the same weight have different proportions of muscle, fat and bone (Johnson & Nelson, 1986). Some individuals seem to be having longer legs with a very small trunk and shoulders, arms, and chest and almost puny legs (Johnson & Nelson, 1986).

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The results of previous studies reported that in all four groups of junior and senior high school boys and girls , the factor of age, height and weight had practically no value, singly or combination as a classification device for AAHPERD Youth fitness test (Gross and Casciani, 1962)

Unfortunately, the relationship between anthropometric characteristics and athletic power performance of boys and girls has not been done yet in Ethiopia Sport Science Circuit. Therefore, the investigators were motivated to know if there was relationship between collegiate boys and girls in their selected anthropometric measures and power performance.

Methodology Survey data collection

On the first two weeks, the volunteers were selected based on their normal fitness without any injuries for the last three months and duly certified by physiotherapist and physician and then explained the testing procedure and took the voluntary concern form signature and allotted a day to participate in the test. On the third week of each day, we had selected fifty four subjects on average for 5 days in an indoor gymnasium hall to avoid catastrophic variables. The tests were performed in the evening (4:00-6:00pm).Prior to the test, the collegiate students were fully informed of protocol and procedure of investigation and had signed a written consent (Temfemo, Hugues & Chardon, 2008).

Selection of Subjects The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between the anthropometric characteristics (leg length, body mass, height) and age with the vertical jumping performance in collegiate students. The selected collegiate students who participated in physical education and sport program from department of Mekelle University were the sample for this study.

Strengthening the above mentioned descriptions, the range of age of participants was 18-25yrs, with no history of medical and physical associate problem and injuries for the past three months. Both male and female students and physically fit were taken as a sample for this study as recommended by the National Strength & conditioning Association (Baechle, 1994). The subjects were selected using judgmental sampling technique.

Instruction to subjects Before conducting any of the performance tests, participants were required to undergo warm up protocol for 5minute of jogging and a standardized stretching protocol (Scanlan & Dascombe, 2011) followed by 10minute test. Beside this, subjects were instructed to avoid vigorous exercises for at least 48hr prior to attending tests. They were advised to consume their normal pre- training diet. All the selected anthropometric characteristics and vertical jump were measured from each subject chosen from Department of Sport Science, Mekelle University.

Testing procedure Anthropometric measures Initially anthropometric measurements, including weight, height and leg length were taken on. Data

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collected from each participant included age in years, height and leg length in meter and weight in kilogram.

Body weight 2012 digital manual body glass weighing scale; Capacity: 150kg; Graduation: 0.1kg; and N.W:1.9KG was used to measure participants‘ body mass. As the body weight fluctuates during different time of the day, all readings were taken in the evening (5:30-6:00). The subjects dressed light clothing and barefoot, got on to the each side of the scale with weight distributed evenly between the feet. The measurement was taken three times and the average was taken with the participants standing ahead. The body weight was measured to the nearest of1Kg.

Leg length measure The Leg length was measured with standard measuring tape from greater trochanter of femur to medial of ankle, the subject were lying on sun floor in relaxed straight position. Fiberglass Measuring Tape (E0301) Spec. (m/ft×mm): 10/33 15/50 20/66 30/100 50/165 was used for measurement.

Height measure Stadiometer apparatus is low cost and quick test for measuring height. As equipment, steel ruler and tape measure placed against a wall. Procedure, subject standing height was the measured to the maximum distance from the floor to the highest point on the head, when the subject was facing directly ahead. Shoes should be off, feet together, and arms by the sides. Heels, buttocks and upper back should also be in contact with the wall when the Measurement was made. Reliability of stadiometer height measurement can vary throughout the day. So to ensure reliability height should be measured at the same time of day. Height measurement was taken in the morning (6:30-7:30).

Vertical jump test About 10minute warming up was given prior to taking power performance test. Athletic power that was practical in terms of time, equipment, and cost vertical jump (Sargent chalk jump) was utilized to measure the power of the legs in jumping vertically upward. This was common test both male and female; reliability r= 0.93; validity r=0.78).The best trial of three trials vertical jump was recorded to the nearest to the centimeter (Johnson & Nelson, 1986) as the subject score.

Data Analysis The Statistical analysis was performed with the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS 20.0). Mean and standard deviations were calculated for each variable. Further, selected anthropometric variables (body mass, height, age, leg length) were correlated with power. Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) was used to establish relationship between power performances and the independent variable. For all statistical tests; an alpha level of p<0.001 level of significance was set.

Results The number of both male and female students as well as their Mean and Standard deviation for age, leg length, height, weight and power is shown in chart-1.

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chart-1. Anthropometric and Vertical jump performance of both boys and girls

180

160

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et 140

n i

h e

ig 120

po We

n o

a 100

il y

k th

n n

i i n

e e e

l 80

Ag eg eg l

t, h 60

ig e H 40

Age Leg length Height Weight Power Boys Mean 20.63 96 171 56.27 37 Boys SD 1.53 3.4 6.8 6.09 7.1 Girls Mean 19.97 92 160 50.59 27 Girls SD 1.14 4.2 7.5 6.69 8.1

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Table2. Pearson correlation matrix of variables for boys (N= 205)

Variables Age Leg length Height Weight Power

Age 1 Leg length .187 1

Height .181** .531** 1

Weight .278** .359** .454** 1

Power .156 .117 .270** .222** 1 **significant p<0.01 and *p<0.05 The association of boys‘ age, leg length, height, and weight with power has been stated rightly on table2. The investigator could said that there was significant low relationship between height and power r=o.27, p<0.01; weight and power, r= 0.22, p<0.01. Furthermore, age & leg length were also found having low positive relationship with vertical jump performance.

Table3. Pearson Correlation matrix of variables for girls (N=64)

Variables Age Leg length Height Weight Power Age 1 Leg length .345** 1 Height .315* .594* 1 Weight .294* .235 .389** 1 Power .071 .193 .132 .024 1 **significant p<0.01 & *significant p<0.05

The girls‘ age, leg length and height have shown positive low relationship with vertical jump, whereas, while weight has fair relationship with vertical jump performance.

Discussions

This cross sectional study reported there was gender difference in anthropometric characteristics, furthermore, boys were heavier, taller and performed vertical jump better in compared to girls. Previous studies revealed also, there is gender difference in leg length, height and body weight, age, and vertical jump performance (Temfemo et al, 2008). Young adulthood typically covers the period from 20-35yrs of age, when both biological function and

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physical performance reach their peak (Shephard, 1998). This difference manifests from 14years old (Johnson and Nelson, 1986). Strengthening the above difference, boys‘ heights have slight relationship with vertical jump performance, but, girls‘ heights have low relationship with vertical jumping performance. Recent research issued little correlation was found between vertical jump height and height of participants (Gulick, 2001). In line with the aforementioned relationship, both boys and girls leg length with vertical jump performance has low association with their leg length. Previous, studies showed leg length correlated with vertical jump (Gulick, 2001). Moreover, other studies reported power has low to moderate relationship with leg length (Considine and Sullivan, 1973). In our case, weight of both girls and boys showed there was slight relationship with power. Beside this, both age of girls and boys have low relationship with vertical jump height. Similarly, power has a relationship with dynamic leg length strength and body weight (Costill, 1968). And also, significant difference was observed between vertical jump performance and weight (Fattahi, 2012).

Perhaps, this low relationship between anthropometric values and power performance among young boys and girls might be due malnutrition, genetic variation, poverty and lack physically demanding sport and success is based on aspects speed, power, agility and endurance (WHO, 2010 and Cortez, 2011).

Conclusions

The result of this study showed difference in anthropometric characteristics, age and jumping performance between genders. Both boys‘ and girls‘ shown low relationship of age, leg length with power. The slight relationship association was found with weight. However, the height of boys‘ has slightly correlated with power while the girls have shown low relationship with vertical jumping performance.

Recommendation

Tasks such as vertical jumps, hops, and/or bounding movements are often used to increase explosiveness and strength of lower extremities (Gulick, 2001). Studies have shown that strength development through weight training can improve power performance (Capen, 1950; Chui, 1950).

Nutrition plays a significant role in maximizing performance and students need to be well- informed significance of nutrition (Cortez, 2011). Since these students are going through a period of intense growth and development associated with rigorous training, it becomes, therefore, necessary for them to receive individualized nutritional orientation to improve their performance and quality of life (Almeida and Soares, 2003). It is indisputable scientific sport nutrition enhances students jumping performance and anthropometric characteristics of collegiate students.

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Acknowledgement

We are very grateful to the Department of Sport science at College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Mekelle University, for their unreserved assistance and cooperation for the completion of this research project.

References 1. Almeida, A and Soares, A.(2003).Nutritional and anthropometric profile of Adolescent volleyball athletes. Rev Bras Med Esporte vol.9 no.4 Niterói July/Aug. 2003.1pp 2. Baechle, T.R. (1994). Essentials of strength training & conditioning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 3. Capen, E. (1950). The effect of systematic weight training on power, strength and endurance. Research quarterly 21:83-93, May 1950. 4. Chui, E. (1950). The effect of systematic weight training on athletic power. Research quarterly 21:188-194, October, 1950. 5. Considine, W. and Sullivan, J. (1973). Relationship of selected tests of leg strength and leg power on college men. Research quarterly 44:404-406. 6. Cortez, D. (2011).Anthropometric measures and nutrition intake, habits and perceptions of Division I women‘s volleyball players. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 2011, 8(Suppl 1):P8 doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-8-S1-P8. 7. Costill et al. (1968).Relationships among selected power tests of explosive leg strength and power. Research quarterly 39: 785-787.Fattahi et al.(2012). Relationship between anthropometric parameters with vertical jump in male elite volleyball players due to game‘s position. 8. Gross, E. and Cascaini. (1962). Value of age, height and weight as a classification device for secondary school students in the seven AAHPER youth Fitness tests. Research quarterly 33: 51-58, March 1962. 9. Gullick et al. ( ). Parameters that influence vertical jump height. Lebanon Valley College. 10. Hindin, J. (2000). Women‘s power and anthropometric status in Zimbabwe. Social sciences& medicine 51(2000)1517-1528. 11. Johnson, B and Nelson, J. (1986).practical measurements for evaluation in physical education. 4th ed. USA. Macmillan publishing Company. 12. Scanlan, A & Dascombe J. (2011). The anthropometric and performance characteristics of high-performance junior life savers. Serb J sports 5(2):61-66. 13. Scott et al. (2004). Physical performance characteristics that predict functional performance in division I college football players. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 2004, 18(1), 115-120. 14. Shepherd, R. (1998). Aging and exercise. Encyclopaedia of sport medicine and sciences. 15. Temfemo, A. Hugues, J. & Chardon. (2008).Relationship between vertical jumping performance and anthropometric characteristics during growth in boys and girls. Euro J Pediatr (2009) 168: 457-464.

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A Search for Ideal Altitude Training In Ethiopian Context

Zeru Bekele

Lecturer (Coaching Athletics), Addis Ababa University Department of Sport Science

Abstract

Background: - Since its popularization in the late 1960s, altitude training has become a commonly accepted mode of training among endurance athletes. Altitude training currently takes number of forms including: Live high - train high; live high – train low; live low – train high; and live high – train high/low. Purpose: - The major objective of this article review is to assess the current trends in altitude training among the different altitude training approaches (LH – TH, LH – TL, LL – TL, LH – TH/TL, LL - TH) that suit the Ethiopia topography and point out alternative research based altitude training models for coaches as well as indicate research directions for indigenous researchers in the area. Method:- In order to come to evidence based conclusions research articles focusing on the classical live high – train high and the natural/terrestrial live high – train low altitude training models were reviewed. Results: - It is tried to reason out that if athletes could live at moderate altitude (2100 - 2500m) and train at low altitude (below 1300m) they could acquire the physiological advantages of altitude acclimatization for maximizing oxygen transport. A recent meta-analysis of 51 LH - TL studies reported that the potential performance gain in elite athletes is approximately 4%. It is assumed that such performance improvements were, seemingly, brought about by the maintenance of near sea level training velocities in the high – low compared to the high – high runners. Conclusions:-Based on the existing training sites it is very simple to conclude that the current hypoxic training model in the country has been dominated by the live high – train high altitude training model. However, in order to benefit from hypoxic training research results recommended the cheapest live high - train low natural altitude training model. In Ethiopia there are some places where this training model can simply be implemented.

Background

The 1968 Olympic Games were held in Mexico City, Mexico at 2300m above sea level. This encouraged coaches, athletes and sport scientists to use ‗‗altitude‘‘ in preparation for the specific environmental conditions encountered, namely, athletic competition at altitude. Since its popularization in the late 1960s, altitude training has become a commonly accepted mode of training in sporting arenas (19). Within the last few years, impressive altitude training models and facilities have been built around the globe to enhance elite performance in both endurance and strength/power sports.

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Live high - train high type of altitude training, which is also known as the classical altitude training method, was adopted by western athletes following the dominance of Eastern African runners at the 1968 Olympic Games (5, 51). The original method of altitude/hypoxic training was one in which athletes lived and trained at moderate/high altitude (1500-4000 m), for the purpose of increasing erythrocyte volume and ultimately enhancing sea level maximal oxygen uptake

(VO2max) and endurance performance. Live high - train high (LH - TH) altitude training is still used today by sea level athletes who complete altitude training camps at specific times during the training year, and of course by altitude residents, such as the Kenyan and Ethiopian runners. The major objectives of most of the studies about the effects of hypoxic training/altitude training on endurance performance focused on identifying the optimal altitudes and the length of days and hours (per day) to enhance the athletes‘ running performance (1 - 5, 9, 18 -19, 35, 43, 50). In this article review attempts are made to assess and present the major findings and recommendations forwarded by researchers regarding the current trends in altitude training from optimal altitudes, length of altitude exposure, and the minimum hours of hypoxic exposure perspectives. Since the time when altitude training was introduced in sporting arenas athletes and coaches have been attracted and engaged in different altitude training approaches. Although most athletes and coaches specially in athletics spent the majority of their training time in one of the altitude training models (LH – TH, LH – TL, LL – TL, LL – TH), they know a lot less about the optimal altitude and the length of time to stay at that optimal altitude. In order to benefit from altitude training athletes and coaches should properly understand the optimal altitude and length of days and hours per day that athletes should stay to improve running performance.

Objective of this Journal Review The major objective of this article review is to assess the current trends in altitude training among the different altitude training approaches (LH – TH, LH – TL, LL – TL, LH – TH/TL, LL - TH) that suit the Ethiopia topography and point out alternative research based altitude training models for coaches as well as indicate research directions for indigenous researchers in the area.

Methodology In order to come to evidence based conclusions research articles focusing on the classical live high – train high and the natural/terrestrial live high – train low altitude training models were reviewed.

Focuses of the Past Studies

Since its popularization in the late 1960s, altitude training has become a commonly accepted mode of training among endurance athletes. Following its introduction many researchers have been engaged to study the effects of hypoxic /altitude training on different sporting performance. Among the many studies, the majority of the studies were on endurance sports like running, cycling, and swimming performance (2, 8, 20, 26, and 27). Although these studies mainly focused on the effect of altitude training on endurance performance, altitude exposure i.e, natural Vs simulated, the dose - response relation to optimal altitude, minimum number of days to stay at altitude, length of hours per day for hypoxic exposure, effect on performance after the return from hypoxic training, training methods etc were the predominant (1, 2, 3, 19).

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Altitude settings/Research Designs of the Past Studies

Altitude training currently takes number of forms including: Live high - train high; live high – train low; and live low – train high, live high – train high/low (4, 5, 11). It is based on these altitude training models that the majority of the researches were designed to study the effects of altitude on endurance performance. The original method of altitude/hypoxic training was the one in which athletes lived and trained at moderate/high altitude (1500-4000 m), for the purpose of increasing erythrocyte volume and ultimately enhancing sea level maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) and endurance performance. Live high - train high (LH - TH) altitude training is still used by sea level athletes who complete altitude training camps at specific times during the training year, and of course by altitude residents, such as the Kenyan and Ethiopian runners (11, 44, 46).

Of all the different altitude training models significant number of studies were conducted on studying the effects of altitude training on endurance performance using natural/terrestrial and simulated altitude (via nitrogen dilution or oxygen filtration, and normobaric normoxia via supplemental oxygen) as well as between the classical LH – TH and LH – TL altitude models (1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 11).

When the quality of researches in the area of hypoxic training/altitude training is assessed they are blamed by lack of up to the standard research design. Most of the study designs have never been applied the scientific gold-standard design of a double-blind and placebo-controlled (8, 19).

Study Subjects

As far as the number of subjects involved in the studies concerned most of the studies employed Caucasian (non-black) non – elite athletes who particularly live at low altitudes (1 - 4, 19, 20, 21, 26). In most of these studies the sample size was small in number (2, 8, 25, 26, 2). In comparison to studies which involve non-elite athletes only few studies recruited elite athletes to study the effect of different altitude models on endurance performance (2, 8, 11, 13, 19, 27).

Study Areas

Since the beginning of studying the effect of altitude training on athletic performance almost all of them were conducted in the western countries where the majority of the cities are found at low altitudes (1 - 4, 6, 8, 19, 20 - 21, 26 - 27). Although in most altitude related studies the Ethiopian and Kenyan athletes were repeatedly mentioned in using the classical altitude training (LH – TH), the past research data has never showed any research result that has been conducted in African altitudes, particularly Ethiopia and Kenya (23 - 24, 29, 39, 45). From the past studies it is recognized that studies using the LH – TH and LH – TL models in natural/terrestrial altitudes were very few and lack replication. This is mainly because of the problem to get such an ideal altitude settings in most parts of the study areas (35). In our world there are very few places where to get altitude settings to live and train with short distance difference.

Performance Tests

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Since the introduction of hypoxic training many researchers have been engaged in studying the effects of different altitudes trainings on endurance performance. Most of the studies (1-4, 8, 19, 20-21, 29, 35) indicated significant improvements on erythrocyte volume, hemoglobin concentration, and treadmill VO2max following altitude training. Although the physiological changes following altitude training were assessed using hematological tests, sea level performance improvements were mostly evaluated using 3000m and 5000m time trail (1 - 3, 8, 11, 19). One of the common limitations about the past research results in hypoxic training was that particularly the time trail tests to assess the performance improvement benefits of altitude training didn‘t go beyond 5000m.

Live High - Train High

Over the past five decades, endurance athletes have attempted to improve sea-level performance by means of altitude training. In the early 1990s, Levine and Stray-Gundersen (1) introduced the ―live high–train low‖ (LH - TL) strategy, where athletes reside and spend the majority of the day at moderate altitude while training closer to sea level. This paradigm aims for athletes to benefit from physiological adaptation to hypoxia, while avoiding the detrimental impact of hypoxia on high-intensity endurance training.

Significant number of studies drew almost similar conclusions regarding the physiological benefits of altitude training (LH – TH). The results indicates that traditional altitude training increases erythropoietin activity even in world class endurance athletes leading to elevated total hemoglobin and red cell mass. These studies also revealed almost comparable results regarding the optimal altitude where athletes can benefit from classical altitude training (LH – TH) (1, 2, 5, 8 - 14, 19 - 20, 22, 25 - 26, 28,). However, similar studies regarding live high - train high showed living and training high has a detraining effect, owing to a reduction in training intensity (1, 9, 18, 35).

Live High - Train Low

Since the past few decades significant numbers of researches have been conducted comparing the effects of the three most common training models (LH – TH, LH – TL and LL – TH) in relation to the effects of altitude on endurance performance. Based on the extensive research results both live high – train high and live high - train low trainings significantly improved the runner‘s red cell mass, hemoglobin concentration and VO2 max, whereas there was no change in any of these variables for the live low – train low group. However, only the LH – TL group were able to transfer the above physiological adaptations into an improved maximum running speed or endurance running performance (1 - 2, 5, 8 - 14, 19 - 20, 22, 25, 28, 46, 47). A recent meta - analysis of 51 LH - TL studies reported that the potential performance gains in elite athletes is ~4% (51). It is assumed that such performance improvements were, seemingly, brought about by the maintenance of near sea level training velocities in the high – low compared to the high – high runners. Altitude Training and Running Economy

There is a strong association between running economy and distance running performance, with running economy being a better predictor of performance than maximal oxygen uptake (VO2

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max) in elite runners who have a similar VO2 max. Taking distance running as an example, the physiological parameters important for distance running performance have been reported to be

VO2 max, fractional utilization, running economy and lactate tolerance (33). Interventions to improve running economy are constantly sought after by athletes, coaches and sport scientists. The two most accepted interventions that have received recent widespread attention are strength training and altitude training (33, 52, 53). Strength training allows the muscles to utilize more elastic energy and reduce the amount of energy wasted in braking forces. Altitude acclimatization results in both central and peripheral adaptations that improve oxygen delivery and utilization, mechanisms that potentially could improve an athlete‘s running economy (29, 31, and 32). A study which was conducted focusing on the effect of live high – train low to improve running economy and thereby performance showed positive result. 20 days of sleeping at simulated altitude (2000–3100m) and training near sea level (600m) improved (3.3%, p = 0.005) running economy in elite distance runners (VO2 max 73 ml/kg/min) in the absence of any changes in cardiorespiratory measures or red cell mass (30). Based on extensive research findings, for most athletes experts recommend the optimal altitude and length of hypoxic exposure. To effectively acclimatize and benefit from the LH – TL altitude training approach athletes are recommended to live at a natural/terrestrial altitude between 2000–2500m, for a minimum of 3 - 4 weeks and to include a daily hypoxic exposure of 12 to 22 hours (1, 3, 4, 8, 9, 28).

Discussion

Continuous and repeated research results indicated that both the live high – train high and live high – train low athletes can benefit from altitude training. Since six decades ago famous Ethiopian long distance runners have been spending their time living and training at altitude. In fact, many researchers who have been working with endurance athletes as a coach or athletic trainer postulated the key factor for the success of Ethiopian athlete is living and training at altitude although not yet approved by research in Ethiopian context. Unfortunately almost all famous middle and long distance runners of the country are highlanders – who live and train at moderate altitudes. The existing research results recommended athletes to live in between 2100 – 2500m natural/terrestrial altitude to benefit from hypoxic training. Even though the live high – train high altitude training has its own advantage, it is found very difficult to implement high intensity interval training at high altitude. Taking this drawback in to consideration most research results prefer the live high – train low approach over the traditional high – high approach to benefit both from altitude and training methods. It is tried to reason out that if athletes could live at moderate altitude (2100 - 2500m) and train at low altitude (below 1300m) they could acquire the physiological advantages of altitude acclimatization for maximizing oxygen transport, without the detraining associated with hypoxic exercise. In Ethiopia it is not this much a concern to get such geographical location that can accommodate the recommended altitudes. Of the entire places in the country it is simple to get appropriate altitude settings in and around the great Ethiopian Rift Valley (an altitude that range from 1000m to 2500m) within a few minute drive from one altitude to the other. If altitude training camps are built in these areas, it is very ideal to benefit from the live high – train low

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model of altitude training since athletes can perform light to moderate basic endurance training at altitude and high intensive interval training at low altitude.

Conclusion

As far as the benefits of hypoxic training in enhancing endurance performance is concerned significant number of research results supported the positive effect of both live high - train high and live high - train low altitude training models to improve red blood cell volume, erythrocyte volume, hemoglobin concentration, and VO2 max, and sea level performance. However, in order to better benefit from training intensity to enhance running performance significant number of research results also recommended elite athletes to prefer the live high – train low model of altitude training. Although this is the current recommendation, almost all elite as well as high level endurance athletes of Ethiopia being used the live high - train high method of altitude/hypoxic training. One major conclusion drawn from both the anecdotal and scientific evidence regarding LH - TH altitude training is that endurance athletes did not seem to be able to train at an equivalent of near-equivalent training intensity (e.g., running velocity) as compared with sea level training. In Ethiopian context the most common training areas are found around moderate/high altitudes. As far as the altitude where these famous athletes live and train is concerned moderate/high. Almost all known training venues (training camps) of the country where these famous or other athletes live and train are found in between 2000 – 2500m asl. Based on the existing training sites it is very simple to conclude that athletes spend their time living and training at high altitude or the existing hypoxic training model in the country has been dominated by the live high – train high altitude training model. However, in order to benefit from hypoxic training research results recommended the cheapest live high - train low natural altitude training model. In Ethiopia there are some places where this training model can simply be implemented. It is noted that the biggest and longest rift valley crosses the country from North – East to South. Throughout the course of the rift valley it is simple to find such a place to accommodate the live high - train low altitude training model. One of the appropriate place, for example, is Assela and around Asella. Asella is located between 2200 - 2500m asl and within a few minute drive from this city one can reach to an altitude < 1300m asl.

Recommendations

Till today no study revealed the key factor for the success of Ethiopian middle and long distance performance. Dimly, living and training at high altitude highly dominated the guess than other factors like genetical predisposition and socio-economic factors. Many researches have proved that the natural/terrestrial live high – train low altitude training strategy is relatively preferred over the classical live high - train high model. So, it seems sound to partially shift and check the training methods from the traditional altitude training to the live high – train low model. In addition to shifting from the traditional altitude training it is highly recommended to establish model training camps considering the live high – train low approach in some selected parts of the country. Moreover, it is believed that a well-designed comparative study should be conducted at natural altitudes between the live high – train high and live high – train low models.

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The Mental Skills Training of Women Premier League Soccer Players

Wosenu Moges Abstract The purpose of this study is to identify the kind of mental skills training needed most by the women premier league soccer players. Ten football players (aged 19 to 25) from 4 premier league clubs agreed to participate in this study. On average, they have 1 year of playing experience in the league. All of them have signed the informed consent letter to be tape-recorded. The interview transcripts were then hierarchically content analyzed to identify the themes. The findings revealed four themes emerged which are imagery, goal setting, self-talk, and relaxation. These four themes were the most needed psychological skill training by the respondents. Recommendations for future studies were also suggested.

Keywords: Psychological skill training, Self-talk, Goal setting, Relaxation, Imagery, Soccer players

Introduction

The psychological factors involved in athletic performance have long been of interest to athletes, coaches, sport psychologists and sports scientists. Empirical studies have largely focused on individual psychological factors and their influence on performance which includes confidence, motivation, attention, visualization, and psychosomatic skills (Gucciardi, Gordon, &Dimmock, 2009). Similarly, some studies indicated that the use of mental skills such as goal setting, imagery, relaxation, and self-talk are important areas in the field of sport psychology (Vealey, 2007; Williams & Harris, 2001). They also asserted that goal setting as attaining a specific standard of proficiency on a task, usually within a specified time limit can increase performance during competition. Moreover, imagery as using all the senses to re-create or create an experience in the mind helps athletes to perform better and increase self-confidence (Rattanakoses, et al., 2009). Furthermore, relaxation acts as a technique to rid the muscles of disorder tension interfering with performance and help the rest of the body and mind. It also promotes confidence in the athletes‘ ability to lessen or decrease the effect of undesirable thoughts and feelings. In addition, self-talk has been defined as occurring verbalizationsor statements about something as well as increase performance and skills in sport (Howland, 2006; Vealey, 2007). In consequence, mental training can improve performance of athletes in order to achieve championship in competition.

Practitioners sometimes have difficulties building effective mental training programs for individual athletes and teams. In spite of that, they also believe that mental training such as goal setting, imagery, relaxation, and self-talk had helped them before, during and after competition

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and practice to improve performance, energy management, stress management, attention, self- confidence and motivation (Burton & Raedeke, 2008).

Problem Statement

Less-proficient athletes may be helped to learn, refine, and practice mental skills and strategies aimed at gaining personal control of weak states and improving psychophysical conditions that make performance easy. For this purpose, sport psychology consultants have developed and applied a remarkable number of mental training programs across a range of individual and team sports (Bertollo, et al., 2009). Likewise, football player‘s team is one of the sports that deal with psychological factor and mental training.

The soccer games are basically attractive to millions of people worldwide. Watching or playing had provided deep enjoyment for those attending or participating in play (Reilly, Clarys, &Stibbe, 1993). Women Football players have a close relationship with psychological characteristics. Soccer, like other sports requires not only a high level of physical performance but also mental training and mental skills (Junge, et al., 2000). In addition, Barth and Zempel (2004) argued that factors of goal setting, imagery, relaxation, and self-talk have influence onfootball players‘ performance.

Therefore, in order to overcome those problems, the purpose of this study is to help the coach identify the types of mental skills needed by athletes. In particular, this study will focus on women premier league players in Ethiopia/the case of Addis Ababa and searching for the main psychological skill trainings assist coaches to set up the psychological training in the future.

Purpose of study

Although, researchers have found that mental skills have better impact on athlete‘s performance, not many studies in Ethiopia focus in this area of research. Therefore, in order to explore the mental skills among Ethiopian women premier league athletes the purpose of this study is to investigate the type of mental skills that athletes needed most to overcome their mental skills problems before, during, and after every game.

Methodology

Participants

Eight premier league athletes from three Addis Ababa clubs have agreed to participate in the study. The players ranged from 17 to 26 years of age. On average, they had 7 years of football playing experience. Since this is a qualitative method to study, only those who are willing to participate and have signed an inform consent letter to be tape-recorded will be examined.

Procedure

The athletes were met at their training complexes and interviews were conducted in programmed field. The general scope of the study was explained to the athletes before starting the interview. Athletes were informed that their participation was voluntary and they were assured of the complete confidentiality and anonymity of their notes. All participants provided written consent

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and were then involved in organized and face-to-face individual interviews lasting 40–60 minutes. All interviews were tape recorded.

Data Analysis

Analysis of the qualitative data in this study followed the procedure used by (Robazza & Bortoli 1998) and then employed by (Bertollo, et al., 2009). The preparation and analysis of interview data were progressed as follows: All eight tape-recorded interviews were transcribed exactly resulting in 60 single-spaced pages of interview data regarding the focus of the study.

Two investigators (the two authors) read and re-read all the transcripts until they were completely familiar with each participant. They also listened to each taped interview so they could interpret the meanings associated with tone of voice, pauses. The investigators also read the transcripts collected during practice in relation to behavior and explanation and confronted them with the taped transcripts where football performance routine was described.

Independently, the two authors identified raw data themes characterizing each footballer‘s responses, and developed idiographic profiles or summary abstracts of each footballer. After extensive discussion, consensus was obtained on a joint profile for each footballer, as well as on a list of subsection raw data themes characterizing each athlete's responses.

(4) Idiographic profiles of each participant and all raw data themes were thoroughly discussed until consensus was reached. Therefore, agreement, or triangular consensus, was obtained on all idiographic profiles and all raw data themes.

(5) These sectional raw data themes characterizing each athlete's responses were compiled for all footballers.

This resulted in a listing of raw data themes within each subsection that characterized all footballers.

(6) An inductive analysis was conducted to identify common themes of greater common lists of the subsection themes. Second-level themes were tagged 'higher-order themes' while the highest level themes were made as 'general dimensions'.

(7) As additional confirmation of the inductive analysis, the raw data themes, higher order themes and general dimensions were tested by conducting a deductive analysis whereby the investigators went back to the original transcripts and verified that all themes and dimensions were represented.

Results

Data analysis resulted in four kind of psychological mental training tools emerged from the interviews. They are imagery; goal setting, self-talk, and relaxation in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 provided a schematic of the hierarchical representation of the results of the analytic procedure. One hundred sixteen (116) raw data themes were identified by the participants as mental factors and strategies deemed important for football players. In the following sections, actual quotes are included to provide a coherent level of description and to prolong the interpretations drawn from

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the data. Furthermore, actual quotes enable the reader to judge the researchers‘ interpretations and to obtain out possible alternative interpretations.

Imagery

The 42 raw themes identified as imagery factors emerged into three higher-order themes that included competition period, individual factor, and psychological skill (Table 1). During the interview, participants talked about the importance of imagery in the competition period. For example, one participant said: ‗Before competition and training to cut the edge of my performance and to improve my skills, usually I do that with watching soccer movies‘. Using imagery after competition or training was useful. For instance, one participant said: ‗‗After the competition I will review those mental pictures that I wanted to achieve‖.

Similarly, another participant said, ―Using imagery after practice or competition can be practical to monitoring skills that performed‖.

Related to competition period participants believed that employing imagery during the practice or competition also is affective for reviewing the skills that are performed. In the individual factor domain, one player gave an example: ―I will imagine about the game before the competition to improve my performance‖. In addition to description of individual factor, they considered imagery can be useful for controlling and managing of participant during competition and practice. For example one participant said: ―Imaging before and during the competition can help me to control myself and manage my skills‖. Participants also noted the psychological skill that can be important when the imagery used. For example one participant said: ―I will imagine from one day before the game to build my self- confidence‖. On the other hand, participants believed: ―When we used the imagery automatically our motivation increased.‖

Goal setting

The 31 raw themes identified as goal setting factors emerged into three higher-order themes that included competition period, championship, and psychological skill (Table 2). During the interview, participant considered the importance of goal setting in the championship and before the competition and practice. They believe attention to goal leads them to improve championship feeling. For example one participant said: ―I will use goal setting to see the direction of my goal and the way to achieve the goal‖ Participants also described how they developed psychological skill when they used the goal setting. For example, one participant emphasized the increase of motivation when he used the goal setting, ―When I think the goal my motivation systematically increases‖.

Another participant explained the effect of goal setting on self-confidence. For example: ―I believe that have closely relationship between goal settings and increase the self-confidence‖. Also they asserted that when they used the goal setting, the attention increased and all focus were on their goal that should be achieved.

Participants considered competition period for goal setting. They tried to use the goal setting before the competition or practice. Some of them also assumed using the goal setting during the

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competition helped them to hold the motivation and another psychological skill for achieving the goal

Self-talk

The 27 raw themes identified as self-talk factors emerged into three higher-order themes that included competition period, individual factor, and psychological skill (Table 3). Participants also talked about self-talk before competition. Also, several of them believed in using self-talk during competition. In the individual factor area, for example, one participant said: ―When I talk with myself, I can do the best performance.‖

As such, some of the participants explained the effect of self-talk on the distraction. For instance one participant described: ―I will use psychology such as self-talk to avoid or to decrease the distraction.‖ Psychological skill is also influenced by self-talk. Participants described the effect of self-talk on the motivation and self-confidence. For instance, one participant said: ―Positive self- talk will increase self-confidence and motivation but negative self-talk decrease self-confidence and motivation.

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Relaxation

The 15 raw themes identified as relaxation factors appeared into three higher-order themes that included competition period, individual factor, and stress management (Table 4). Participants also talked about relaxation before competition. Also, on one hand, several of them trusted to use relaxation during competition. ―I will make a relaxation to my mind and also to my physical. It will increase my confidence‖.

On the other hand, some of the participants indicated the effect of relaxation on the stress. For instance one participant said: ―With the relaxation I can manage the stress during the competition and after the competition also I use it‖ Finally, one participant talked about the performance. For instance, one participant said: ―My performance increased when I use relaxation‖.

In conclusion, participants clearly explained the mental training tools that they used. Players gave details about the benefits of mental training before, during, and after competition in those quotations. They also identified the important mental training tools and when they are most usable.

Discussion

The purpose of the present study was to gather qualitative information on the most important mental skills factors that contribute to improving their performances. It helps coaches and athletes to better understand the important kind of psychological skill for college students‘ soccer players. It also shows them when to use the mental trainings. Therefore, only representative interview quotes were selected for the purpose of the study. Related higher-order themes were combined into four general dimensions: (A) imagery, (B) goal setting, (C) self–talk, (D) and relaxation. The interview transcripts were then hierarchically content analyzed to identify the themes. The findings revealed that imagery, goal setting, self-talk, and relaxation themes the most needed psychological mental skills by football players. Additionally, this study focused on the psychological mental training tools to indicate which one is more important and usable for athletes.

Results showed that most athletes during this interview strongly agreed with imagery (figure 1) and they discussed on this and believed imagery could be useful before and during competition. Thus, the results are in line with other studies which have emphasized the imagery could improve their performance (Omar-Fauzee, et al., 2009; Papadelis, et al., 2007). The results of this study also emphasized some athletes believed that imagery can increase self-confidence and motivation. Guillot et al., (2009), found that imagery after practice or competition can be useful for recalling and monitoring the past skill. Based on the result of imagery, some athletes explained the effectiveness of imagery after competition or practice. Participants jumped into this conclusion that imagery after competition could help athletes to analyze the past performance.

Moreover, results showed that athletes had involved in the goal setting. On the other hand, they believed using goal setting before competition could affect on increasing motivation, attention, self-confidence, and focusing on championship (Figure 2). The above-mentioned report is supported by (Bueno, et al., 2008). On the other hand, (Burton &Raedeke, 2008; Vealey, 2007)

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argued that goal setting not only increase playing skill, techniques, performance, but also increase focus and concentration that can be necessary for winning the competition.

Also, participants described other mental skills to be used in the mental training domain which is self-talk. The results of figure 3 showed that players emphasize self-talk in order to achieve a higher level of training. They also mentioned that using self-talk during the competition can be useful. The results of this study reported thatself-talk impact performance, motivation, and self- confidence. On the other side of the picture, some researchers

(Edwards, et al., 2008; Johnson, et al., 2004) found the same result and supported the results of this study by applying questionnaire. But, this study was investigated via interview and questionnaire.

Finally participants talked about relaxation among football players (figure 4). Relaxation helps athletes manage their physical energy levels for performing well. In this interview, a few football players believed the benefits of relaxation is after training and competition. This finding is completely supported by researchers (Vealey, 2007; Williams, 2001). The results of this study also emphasis the effects of relaxation on decreasing stress and increasing energy. These results are consistent with previous studies (Burton & Raedeke, 2008; Newmark &Bogacki, 2005). Participants also confirm that relaxation helps athlete to achieve the best performance. As a suggestion, it is ideal when coaches prepare the multiple kinds of mental training for their athletes to give the best performance and achieve the championship. Ample attention should be paid to the psychological mental training tools such as imagery, goal setting, self-talk, and relaxation should be paid attention to.

Conclusion

The results of interviews showed an insightful knowledge on psychological factor and mental training approaches that are associated with effective football performance. The psychological factors involved in athletic performance have long been of interest to athletes, coaches, and sport psychologists. Mental skills such as goal setting, imagery, relaxation, and self-talk are important areas in the field of sport psychology. The soccer players, like players of other sports involve in mental training, believed that choosing more efficient kind of mental training will be an important factor to make football players successful (Junge, et al., 2000; Thelwell, Greenlees,

& Weston, 2006). Overall findings indicated all mental trainings such as goal setting, imagery, relaxation, and self-talk are important during competition and have positive effects on competition result. This study was an attempt to identify the use of mental training for football players. This study showed that the imagery and goal setting are deemed important and useful for football players before, during, and after competition and practice. Thus, the results of this study of imagery are consonant with the finding of study of imagery of athletes focusing on theathletes‘ performance conducted by (Gammage, et al., 2000; Omar-Fauzee, et al., 2009). Also, the finding of thestudy of goal setting is consonant with the results of study about goal setting focusing on athletes‘ performance conducted by (Bueno, et al., 2008; Locke, et al., 1981). But, with a close look, these results of study showed the importance of imagery for football players and addressed more at that kind of mental training in their athletic life. However, the results suggested that

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imagery training might improve the motivation, energy management, attention, stress management, and self-confidence (Burton &Raedeke, 2008).

In conclusion, sport psychology consultants should examine the performers‘ mental skill training and sources of concern very carefully. They are very important because they are often the result of long periods of training, repeated competitive experiences of success and failure. They also are important as educational influences of significant persons, such as coaches, teachers, and parents. In an attempt to prepare systematic programs to develop mental skill, sport psychologists should pay attention to the individual differences as well as the specific physical, technical, and psychological necessities of a sport. A basic knowledge of the characteristics of a certain sport and a deep understanding of the athletes‘ thoughts and behaviors pre, during, and after competition are necessary to help performers achieve their personal in the best way.

References

Bertollo, M., Saltarelli, B. &Robazza, C. (2009). Mental preparation strategies of elite modern pentathletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(2), 244-254. Bueno, J., Weinberg, R. S., Fernandez-Castro, J. &Capdevila, L. (2008). Emotional and motivational mechanisms mediating the influence of goal setting on endurance athletes' performance. Psychology of Sport an Exercise, 9(6), 786-799. Burton, D., &Raedeke, T. (2008). Sport psychology for coaches. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Caruso, A. (2005). Sports Psychology Basics. Cardinal Publishers Group. Edwards, C., Tod, D. &McGuigan, M. (2008). Self-talk influences vertical jump performance and kinematics in male rugby union players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 9(1), 1-7. Gammage, K., Hall, C. & Rodgers, W. (2000). More about exercise imagery. Sport Psychologist, 14(4), 348-359. Gammage, K., Hardy, J. & Hall, C. (2001). A description of self-talk in exercise. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2(4), 233-247. Gucciardi, D. F., Gordon, S. &Dimmock, J. A. (2009). Development and preliminary validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(1), 201-209. Guillot, A., Nadrowska, E. & Collet, C. (2009). Using Motor Imagery to Learn Tactical Movements in Basketball. Journal of Sport Behavior, 32(2), 189. Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(1), 81-97. Howland, J. M. (2006). Mental Skills Training for Coaches to Help Athletes Focus Their Attention, Manage Arousal, and Improve Performance in Sport. Journal of Education, 187(1), 49-66. Jones, L. &Stuth, G. (1997). The uses of mental imagery in athletics: An overview. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 6(2), 101-115. Junge, A., Dvorak, J., Rosch, D., Graf-Baumann, T., Chomiak, J. & Peterson, L.(2000). Psychological and sport-specific characteristics of football players. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 28(suppl_5). Kulmatycki, L. A. &Bukowska, K. (2007). Differences in experiencing relaxation by sport coaches in relation to sport type and gender. Human Movement, 8(2), 98-103. Locke, E. A., Shaw, K.N., Saari, L.M. & Gary, L.P., (1981). Goal Setting and Task Performance: 1969-1980. American Psychological Association, 90(1), 125-152.

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Neiss, R. (1988). Reconceptualizing relaxation treatments: Psychobiological states in sports. Clinical Psychology Review, 8(2), 139-159. Newmark, T. S. &Bogacki, D. F. (2005). The Use of Relaxation, Hypnosis, and Imagery in Sport Psychiatry. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 24(4), 973-977. Omar-Fauzee, M. S., See, L. H., Geok, S. K. &Latiff, R. A. (2008). The relationship between the task and ego orientations and coping strategies among universities athletes. The ICHPER.SD Journal of Research, 3, 107-111 Papadelis, C., Kourtidou-Papadeli, C., Bamidis, P. &Albani, M. (2007). Effects of imagery training on cognitive performance and use of physiological measures as an assessment tool of mental effort. Brain and Cognition, 64(1), 74-85. Robazza, C. &Bortoli, L. (1998). Mental preparation strategies of Olympic archers during competition: An exploratory investigation. High Ability Studies, 9(2), 219-235. 25 Thelwell, R., Greenlees, I. & Weston, N. (2006). Using Psychological Skills Training to Develop Soccer Performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18(3), 254-270. Vealey, S. R. & Greenleaf, C. A. (2001). Seeing is believing: Understanding and using imagery in sport. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance. California: Mayfield.

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Effect of Hamstring and lower back muscles Flexibility on Vertical jump performances of Mekelle University students; Pilot Study

Aemero Asmamaw, Samson Wondirad and Amensisa kebede

Abstract

The influence of different types of stretching sport activity on vertical jumping performance is clearly an unresolved issue that has not yet been satisfactorily investigated. The purpose of this study was to examine the Effect of Flexibility of Hamstring and lower back muscles on Vertical jump performances of Mekelle University students. 206 boys‘ and 80 girls‘ participants were asked to perform flexibility and vertical jump. Low back and hamstring flexibility was assessed using the sit and reach test and vertical jump height was assessed using a Sergent jump. Results indicated a significant relationship was found between sit and reach scores and vertical jumping height (P<0.05 and are = -. 204). Vertical jump height scores for girls (cm) were (Mean  SD) 32.48 ±7. 151cm and for boys 39.03 ±8. 361cm. Sit and reach test score for girls (cm) 14.713±5.9058 and for boys 8.341±7.4849 cm. Based on the results of this study, boys perform better than girls in vertical jump and vice versa in flexibility test. Therefore, flexibility of hamstring and lower back has little influence on vertical jump performance.

Key words: Flexibility, Hamstring muscle, Static stretching, Vertical jump performance.

Introduction

Sports performance is the result of the interplay of various mental and physical factors. One of the main factors to improve and maximize athletic performance is the development of physical abilities. The capabilities of fitness are strength, speed, endurance and flexibility [4]. Flexibility has been defined in many ways. It is using the term joint mobility indicates the degree of bending the normal range or scope of a joint or series of joints [4]. Adequate flexibility is an important characteristic of physical and health related fitness [10]. Flexibility and stretching comprise what can essentially be recognized as the cornerstone of injury prevention, muscle recovery, and increased mobility for exercise enthusiasts [10]. Stretching is an important therapeutic and exercise training modality for increasing joint range of motion [12]. Stretching is often prescribed for athletes in the belief that a stretched muscle helps reduce muscular injuries [3]. In the world of sports, and sports training institute, sports research field the vertical jump is one of the most important skill, to be known as. It is proposed that vertical jump depends on many factors, like muscle mass, flexibility, isometric muscle strength, age, height, weight. During vertical jump action in different sports activity the flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles is one of the big concerns.

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A number of studies have been investigated on power and athletic performance and also relationship of strength and speed with power [11]. There has been extensive research on the effects of various stretching programs that have documented the clinical effectiveness of these techniques in modifying flexibility [12]. Although different warm-up and flexibility routines are often prescribed before physical activity, little research has been conducted to determine what effects these routines have on athletic performance in activities [3].

Numerous studies have shown that stretching routines can induce strength and force deficits, although the amount of stretching needed to cause these deficits remains unclear [15]. The study done recently Stated that hamstring flexibility and jump height did not change significantly even after, assigned a 6 week stretching program [6]. Whereas, Vertical jump height decreased after static and PNF stretching and there was a smaller decrease after ballistic stretching [5]. But, whereas the controversial statement found as conclusion greater muscle stiffness and less power in the muscle are associated with the greater Running economy [14]. The researcher wants to analysis this controversy the question arises whether there is any relationship between flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles with respect to vertical jump. Thus my null hypothesis is there will be an effect of flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscle over vertical jump performance.

Materials and Methods Data collection

To analysis this thesis it took 4 weeks to study, At first word to word advertisement done in Mekelle University among Dept of sports sciences shown good response and 300 voluntaries (boys and girls) are responding. For first two week the procedure was explained individually in the local language (Tigrinia/Amaharic) by the help of local staff and as well in English. The volunteers were requested to sign on concent form and given an assurance to be taken care if they were injured during the procedure.

The voluntaries‘ were first analyzed as inclusion criteria were between 18-25 years, and he or she was ruled out of any kind of orthopedic/neurological related problems or any injuries within past 4 months, or any kind of congenital deformities, with a help of Physiotherapist and followed by physicians. Finally an end of 2nd week of study we have collected 286 students (206 boys and 80 girls) and fixed a day for the test, and approximately 54 volunteers were appointed per day and 5 consecutive days were taken for testing at Mekelle University Gymnasium (indoor). With an instruction to wear half sleeve loose T-shirts and shorts. The subjects were selected using non- randomized convenience sampling technique.

Instructions On the 3rd week of study, we again instructed the students about their dress wearing and asked them to do standardized warm-up exercises, for 5 minutes prior to the 15 min before the test, and advised them, not to involve and vigorous activity or exercises for past 48 hrs and take normal diet and fluid.

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Testing methods. The subject was asked to warm up for 5min and rest for next 10 min before the test starts and the subject were explaining the procedure and activity in their local language, before the test starts. The subjects were advised to be relaxed and asked to perform sit and reach test and followed by vertical jump. To avoid the error in procedure, the test performance has been repeated three times. The data were collected by final year students of the sports sciences department. Hamstring and lower back flexibility measure

Figure_1. Sit and reach test

This test involves sitting on the floor with legs stretched out straight ahead. Shoes should be removed. The soles of the feet are placed flat against the box. Both knees should be locked and pressed flat to the floor - the tester may assist by holding them down. With the palms facing downwards, and the hands on top of each other or side by side, the subject reaches forward along the measuring line as far as possible. Ensure that the hands remain at the same level, not one reaching further forward than the other. After some practice reaches, the subject reaches out and holds that position for at one-two seconds while the distance is recorded. Make sure there are no jerky movements.

Vertical jump test

Figure_2. Sergeant jump

Stand with one arm fully extended upward. Do this with the arm you would use to grab an object at the height of your lap. Press your outstretched arm and the corresponding side of your body against a wall. Mark the height of your reach with chalk. Step away from the wall. Stand only as far away from the wall as is necessary not to come into contact with it during your vertical leap. Put chalk or a safe colored substance on your fingertips that will not stain the wall. Jump as high as you can and touch the highest point of the wall as possible. Record the difference between you reach marker and the marker from the height of your lap. Vertical jump test three times; the best of three vertical jump heights to nearest to half of centimeter was recorded.

Data Analysis

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The Statistical analysis was performed with the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS 20.0). Mean and standard deviations were calculated for each variable. Further, their bar chart has been drawn. Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) was used to establish the relationship between powerful performances and the independent variable. For all statistical tests; an alpha level of p< 0.001 level of significance was set. Forward multiple regressions were calculated.

Results

The number of both male and female student‘s vertical jump performance and hamstring and low back flexibility as well as their Mean, Standard deviation and bar chart have been shown in the table chart-1 and 2.

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Chart-1.Vertical Jump Performances Boys Vs Girls 50

(c.m.) 20

VerticalJump 10

0 female male S. D. 7.151 8.361 Mean 32.48 39.03

Chart-2. Sit and Reach Test Performance Boys Vs Girls

(c.m.) 10

5 sit andsit reach test

0 Female Male S. D. 5.9058 7.4849 Mean 14.713 8.341

Table_1. Pearson Correlation matrix for both boys and girls (N=286) Variables Vertical jump height Sit and reach test -0.204** **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table_2. Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of Square the Estimate 1 -.204a .041 .038 8.388

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a. Predictors: (Constant), flexibility

Table _3. ANOVA summary of the effects of hamstring and low back flexibility on vertical jump performance Model Sum of Df Mean Square F Sig. Squares Regression 864.134 1 864.134 12.281 . 001b 1 Residual 19982.901 284 70.362 Total 20847.035 285 a. Dependent Variable: vertical jump b. Predictors: (Constant), flexibility

Table_4. Forward Linear regression analysis of hamstring and low back flexibility on vertical jump performance

Variables B Std. Error t Sig. (Constant 39.507 .825 47.877 .000

Flexibility -.204 .065 -3.504 .001 a. Dependent Variable: vertical jump

The result of 80 females shows that 14.713±5.9058 cm flexibility during sit and reach test, with ranged from 2 cm to 28 cm, and showing the performance of vertical jump of 32.48 ±7. 151cm, with ranged from 18 cm to 50 cm.

Whereas 206 boys showing 8.341±7.4849 cm flexibility during sit and reach test, with ranged from -23.5 cm to 24 cm, and showing the performance of vertical jump of 39.03 ±8. 361cm, with ranged from 16 cm to 64 cm.

The Pearson correlation of 286 subjects showing negative correlation between flexibility and vertical jump, on further analysis, boys are showing weak positive relation between flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles and vertical jump performances, but women are showing the negative relation between two variables (jump and flexibility), there was a significant relationship between vertical jump performance and flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles, r= - 0.204, p<0.001

The linear regression show that hamstrings and lower back muscles was a significant predictor of vertical jump height, r= -0.204, r2 = 0.041, adjusted r2 = 0.038, F (1,284) = 12.281, p<0.001. Subject to that our interpretation is 4.1% variation of vertical jump height is explained by the flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles.

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Discussions

The purpose of this study was to investigate the Effect of Flexibility of Hamstring and lower back muscles on Vertical jump performances of Mekelle University students.

This study suggests that flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles is more flexible with girls compared to boys. We have found similar results in previous studies stated that females had better lower back and hamstrings flexibility than males [1]. There was a difference between boys and girls for both measures in flexibility of the hamstring muscle [8]. The cause of women flexibility dominance is due to hormonal, body structure, lifestyle, shortness of muscle length, physical activity participation and working area [7]. Moreover, boys and girls have significant differences in their development, body alignment, how they use their bodies, and muscle recruitment patterns as they undergo changes in puberty [19].

But, contradicting to lower limb power, boys show better vertical jump performances to compare to girls. Furthermore, previous studies show that Vertical jump power performances of boys are statistically better than those of girls [2]. The male athletes demonstrated increased vertical jump height with maturation female athletes did not [13]. Boys and girls were due boy‘s skeletal structure being more dense and muscle power is more due to their more physiological cross- section of muscles, number of motor unit recruitment in the muscles [18].

But as per the relation between flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles and vertical jump power this study found negative relation in girls and boys. In previous study also shows similar results are observed an acute dynamic warm up can enhance children‘s fitness performance in activities that require a high power output whilst maintaining joint range of motion. However, participation in an acute static warm up is detrimental to the performance of activities where high power output is needed [9].

Static stretches did not improve dynamic hamstring flexibility; however, dynamic stretching helps to improve both dynamic and static flexibility. This has implications for the specificity of stretching in sport [6]. The previous study also found that Performing PNF [3]. And Static stretches [15]. Before a vertical jump test would be less detrimental to performance. Vertical jumping height was significantly higher during the dynamic stretching condition with compared to static stretching and no stretching. Whereas there is no difference between no stretches and static stretching. Athletes in sports requiring lower-extremity power, by using dynamic stretching techniques in warm-up to enhance flexibility while improving performance [17].

Conclusions

 The purpose of this study was to investigate the Effect of Flexibility of Hamstring and lower back muscles on Vertical jump performances of Mekelle University students.

 Based on the results of this study, we conclude:-

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1. flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles of girls are more flexible with compared to boys.

2. But, contradicting to lower limb power, boys show better vertical jump performances compare to girls.

3. Besides, as per the relation between flexibility of hamstring and lower back muscles and vertical jump power this study found negative relation in girls and boys.

4. Thus, this study suggests that there is no utility of static stretching exercises prior to the explosive type of sports and games.

5. Further research is needed to describe this process. Particularly, it is important to determine different factors that influence the vertical jump and so as to help individuals improve their leg power.

References

1. Adegoke et al. (2012). Normative values of lower back and hamstring flexibility for Nigerians using the modified sit-and-reach test. Journal of Musculoskeletal Research. Volume 15, Issue 03, September 2012. 2. Antonakopoulou, S. Mavvidis, A. and Pilianidis, T.(2009).BIOLOGY OF EXERCISE. VOLUME 5.2, 2009. D.O.I: http:doi.org/10.4127/jbe.2009.0026. 3. Brian et al. (2001). Effect of Warm-Up and Flexibility Treatments on Vertical Jump Performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2001, 15 (3), 332–336 4. Bakirtzoglou, P., Ioannou, P. & Bakirtzoglou, F. (2010). EVALUATION OF HAMSTRING... SportLogia 6 (2010) 2: 28-32. 5. Bradley, P., Olsen, P and Portas, D. (2007). The Effect Of Static, Ballistic, And Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Stretching On Vertical Jump Performance Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2007, 21 (1), 223–226 _ 2007 National Strength & Conditioning Association. 6. Craig et al. (2007). The Effects of Hamstring Stretching on Vertical Jump in Healthy Young Adults. Faculty: Barbara Smith. 7. Cornbleet, L. and Woolsey, B.(2006). Assessment of Hamstring Muscle Length in School- aged Children Using the Sit-and-Reach Test and the Inclinometer Measure of Hip Joint Angle. Washington University School of Medicine. 8. Cornbleet, L. and Woolsey, B. (1996). Assessment of Hamstring Muscle Length in School- aged Children Using the Sit-and-Reach Test and the Inclinometer Measure of Hip Joint Angle. PHYS THER. 1996; 76:850-855. 9. Duncan, J and Woodfield, A (2010). Human Performance Laboratory, Department of PE and Sports Studies. Newman College of Higher Education, Birmingham, England, B32 3NT.Journal of Exercise Physiology online. (JEP online). Volume 9 Number 3 December 2006. 10. Fabunmi et al. (2008). Flexibility: Relationship between Straight Leg-Raise and Backsaver Sit and Reach Tests. Fourth International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance (ICHPER-SD) Africa Regional Congress, 14-17 October, 2008. 11. Johnson, B. And Nelson, J. (1986). Practical measurement and evaluation in physical th education. 4 Ed. United State of America: MacMillan publishing company. 7-9PP

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12. Knudson D. (2010). Acute effects of warm up protocol on flexibility and vertical jump in children. The Biomechanics of Stretching California State University, Chico, Department of Kinesiology, First and Normal St., Chico, CA 95929-0330, USA Email: [email protected]. 13. Quatman et al. (2005). Maturation Leads to Gender Differences in Landing Force and Vertical Jump Performance A Longitudinal Study. AJSM Preview, published on December 28, 2005 as doi: 10.1177/0363546505281916 14. Richter et al. (2010). Effects of age, gender and activity level of counter movement jump performance and variability in children and adolescents. Germany. 15. Robbins, J. and Scheuermann, B. ( 2008). Varying amounts of acute static stretching and its effect on vertical jump performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2008 May; 22 (3): 781-6. Do: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31816a59a9 16. Silveira, G. and Sayers, M.(2010). Effect of dynamic versus static stretching in the warm-up on hamstring flexibility. ISSN: 1543-9518. 17. Taylor, E. (2009). The Effects of Static and Dynamic Stretching on Reaction Time and Performance in a Counter Movement Jump. Oregon State University. Unpublished. Msc thesis. 18. Temfemo et al. (2009). Relationship between vertical jumping performance and anthropometric characteristics during growth in boys and girls. European Journal of Pediatrics. April 2009, Volume 168, Issue 4, pp 457-464. 19. Thompson, S. (2009). Variance Between Boys and Girls in Relation to ACL Injuries. Sport and Spine Therapy of Marin.

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Challenges and Prospective Development of Basketball in Oromia Regional State

Gemechu Beker

Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia

Abstract The intent of this study is to assess the challenges and prospective development of Basketball in Oromia Regional State. The research made Jimma, Adama and Asella as the sites of this study. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches particularly a descriptive survey were employed as they were found to be appropriate for answering the basic research questions. Instrument of data collection included questionnaire, interview and document analysis. Pertaining to the sample population for the study, Basketball Players Coaches, and Sport Administrators (N=69) were involved. The result indicates that there are huge gap as regards to the development of basketball. According to the finding of the study, there are lack of trained man power sound policies and strategies. The result also revealed a shortage of budget, facilities, equipments and other necessary materials at the sample zones of Oromia Regional State. Problems of communication and continuous material, logistic and moral support from Region Sport Commission and National Federation were identified be side. Furthermore the study revealed the training system is not up to date and scientific and they don‘t use training aid material in order to support, the training that delivered by coaches .finally of absence of basketball clubs, and shortage of basketball competitions at various sex and age categories. To this end Oromia Region Sport commission and other concerned sport authorities have to make all necessary provision urgently to develop and expand basketball sport, in order to produce talented and outstanding athletes both at regional and national level. Key word; Basketball, Challenge and Prospect

Introduction

Now a day‘s sport has become a popular activity among the youngsters and adults in Ethiopia. Above all interest Basketball has been grown in the country over the years. Basketball is a game which played by two teams with five players each (FIBA 2010). Unlike baseball, football, soccer, ice hockey and all the other major team sports, basketball cannot claim a history of evolutionary development that began back in ancient or medieval times. Basketball was literally created overnight, the result of an assignment posed by a physical education teacher in December 1891 at a Young Men‘s Christen Association (YMCA) training cover in spring field, Massachusetts. A Canadian student, James Naismith (1961-1939), rose to challenge of constructing an active indoor winter game that would prove attractive to young men. He typed up a rudimentary set of rules, has a janitor nail up peach baskets along the railing at each end of the spring field gym, and invited his colleagues to toss soccer ball into one of the two baskets. Basketball also went visible international in 1930s. At the hands of YMCA Enthusiasts, the game had been introduced all over the world shortly after its creation. By 1930, fifty nations had adopted the sport. Despite the

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economic hard ships, representatives from Asia and Africa as well as Europe convened in 1932 to form the International Federation of Amateur Basketball (FIBA). Chinese and Japanese students who had learned the game from YMCA missionaries before World War I introduced basketball at the University of Berlin in the mid-1930s. Nazi propagandists over looked the game‘s YMCA origins and gave it their stamp of approval on the grounds that basketball required not only speed and stamina but also an aggressive spirit that allegedly characterized the true Germany.

In Oromia Regional State also Basketball is one of the popular sports that played at various age, sex and categories level. This popular sport has a lot of social, economical and psychological significance in producing physically and mentally developed generation.

Basketball can contribute to the development of personal and social values that are very important in the educational process of the child and youngsters. This includes commitment, perseverance, and personal responsibilities within the group, team work, respecting the rules, respecting others, and learning to compete (Maurizo, 2001).

This, rapidly increasing popularity of basketball has created a high demand for further expansion and development. An Oromia Regional state is known as main sources of many outstanding athletes and strong competitive region in sport like athletics football volleyball and basketball in Ethiopia. However in recent year unlike other sports such as athletics football and volleyball basketballs weaken from time to time. Different scholars mention various factors that can hinder the development of sports According to Sahile (2001), availability of sport facilities and equipments, sport talent identification and developments has a tremendous effect on the development and popularity of a given sport.

Basketball could be developed and expand further when government administrators, scholars official, community and other stakeholders work jointly. However, in the absence of research finding, in the area of Basketball development Ethiopia and Oromia regional state in particular. Efforts were made to explore challenges and prospective development of Basketball in Oromia region. In this, endeavor attempts are also made to briefly consider the theoretical and practical conception to examine the challenges of Basketball in Oromia.

This study would therefore, attempts to suggest some attainable alternatives of to develop basketball in the region. It is expected that, this study would provide valuable support in improving the development of Basketball in Oromia Regional State.

In this ever-changing world, sport and sport-related activities have wide impact on society and community at various age and sex. Among different sports basketball play important role in creating social interaction between diverse societies, recreations, health and well being respecting rule and opponents leisure and high participation and success in international competition and tournaments.

In regional state of oromia basketball sport plays a central part in life of the society for long years .However , in recent year some gap exist in basketball sport popularity and the result of the regions in national sport competition there is no scientific finding and information concerning basketball sport in the regions . Therefore, this study will benefits regional governments who

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can create or revise sport polices based upon the results .National and regional sports federations, sports clubs, sport associations, government and non government sports organization, will also benefits from the finding of the study Basketball has multi dimensional hindrances that could affect its rapid developments and popularity.

Due to these above reasons, the researcher believed that the proposed study which addresses the challenges and problems of basketball development in Oromia Regional State is timely and relevant.

Methods and Materials

Research Design

The researcher employed both qualitative and quantitative approaches particularly to a descriptive survey as his method of study because it provided the research with detailed description of the existing conditions and about the problem under investigation.

Participants

As regards the research participants, the researcher has chosen players, coaches and sports administrators‘ from three Oromia Regional states zones( Jimma ,Adama and Asella )

Population and Sampling Strategy

The research population included a range of respondents, namely Basketball coaches sport administrator, and Basketball players. Total population numbers of players are seventy five (75)and 60 respondents were selected from all the sample of the study sites with random sampling techniques with reference to their participation in all oromian all games competition. That is 60 players (twenty from each zone) 6 coaches (two from each zone) 3 sport administrator (one higher official from each) one from Oromia Region Sport Commission was included.

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Instruments of data collection

There is a deep conviction that there is merit in using more than one instrument as they supplement each other to generate credible data. Accordingly, the researcher employed questionnaires, interview and document analysis as tools of requisite information procurement. Questionnaires‘ with closed-ended and open-ended items were developed for basketball players. To supplement information procured through questionnaires, the researcher adopted a semi- structured interview for coaches .Print materials like magazines and brochures were collected to supplement to main data in document analysis.

Methods of Data Analysis

As far as data analysis is concerned, both qualitative and quantitative approaches were employed. Qualitative method was used to provide detailed description of the data to help the researcher explore and discover inherent facts, while quantitative approach was meant for quantifying date generated in terms of frequencies and percentages using tables.

Results

From the sampled players 35(75%) of player respondents respond that both region sport commission and national basketball federation do not provide appropriate support for the player and coach. (13)25% of the respondents said that to some extent they received some support from sport commission.

The data obtained from coaches also strengthen the player‘s response; since almost all of basketball coaches said that sport commission do not provide appropriate support such material, finial educational sport, concerning the course that important for coaches to upgrade their knowledge of the sport.

From the sampled players 58% of the player respondents responded that the support and motivation given to them by their coach is good 29% of the respondents very good, 13% of the respondents excellent and 2% of the player respondents said poor respectively.

From the sampled players explicitly elucidates that the absolute majority 52 (100%) of the respondents respond that there is no good communication and interaction between concerned sport administrators and members of the team. The response obtained from an interview conducted with coach interviewees are in agreement with this fact. According to this coaches said that the administrator‘s interaction is limited only during competition at zone or region.

Discussion

The current contribution of youth training centers (project) for growth and development of basketball in the region is very low. Since, these projects centers are limited to few areas and their productivity in producing outstanding athletes at regional and national level

In addition to this number of basketball competitions is only limited to all Oromian games hence there is no other competition at various, sex, and age categories level. This also affects the acquisitions of basketball talents at different residence and schools areas.

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Furthermore the training system is not up to date and scientific and they don‘t use training aid material in order to support, the training that delivered by coaches. Therefore this can hinder the growth and performance athletes‘ development in regions. Finally, almost all of basketball coaches have no any access of attending coaching course that enables them to improve and upgrade their knowledge of coaching basketball. In, general the development and growth of basketball in Oromia regional state is very weak and its future popularity and development.

Conclusion and Recommendation

Conclusions

Based on the finding of this study, the following conclusion can be drawn

 The current contribution of youth training centers (project) for growth and development of basketball in the region is very low. Since, these projects are not in good conditions.  The number of basketball competitions is only limited to all Oromian games hence there is no other competition at various, sex, and age categories level.  The training system is not up to date and scientific and they don‘t use training aid material in order to support, the training that delivered by coaches.  Almost all of basketball coaches have no any access of attending coaching course that enables them to improve and upgrade their knowledge of coaching basketball. In, general the development and growth of basketball in Oromia regional state is very weak and its future popularity and development very doubtful.

Recommendations

Based on the finding and conclusion of this study the following recommendations are given:

In order to develop and expand basketball throughout the region the numbers of qualified coaches are very crucial. Therefore, Region and National Sport commission should work jointly in training, and producing outstanding coaches at various categories levels.

Hence school is the best source for number of talented and outstanding athletes, it‘s important to built and fulfill infrastructures such as playing courts, gym, and other necessary facilities and equipments. It is very important for sport commission in working with Regional Education Bureau and Ministry of Education in strength the sport competition and other activities throughout the schools of the regions.

It‘s better to strengthen the contribution of youth training centers (projects) for growth and development of basketball in the region by providing all necessary equipment, facilities and logistic support. In additional to this, the concerned body should open new youth training centers at different parts of the regions.

Region sport commission and national federation should hold various basketball competitions at various sex, age and categories level, this enables to produce number of outstanding athletes

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Acknowledgement

First of all, thanks to Almighty God who enables everything to go on its own circumstance . Then I am highly grateful Dr. Tesfay Asgedom for his unfailing supervision and support without which paper could have not been completed. I always appreciate him not only for his commitment but also for his insightful and critical comments for further improvements.

My deepest gratitude goes to Ato Walilign Sanbato Technical Director of, Oromia Basketball Federation for his constant source of material and encouragement from the beginning to the end.

I would also like to thanks, Addis Ababa University for the funding of this paper work.

Finally, Jimma , Adama and Asella, Basketball coaches, players and Sport Administrators for their cooperation and participation to provide the necessary information required for the study.

References

FIBA Assist Magazine Vol. 02, 2008

Hammel, B. (2001). Indiana Basketball. Indiana University Press, Bloomington

Jose, M. and Mourizo,K. (2000). Basketball for Young Players. Madrid Journal of Oromian Sports in Focus Vol. 4, 2008

Menke. F (1988). Encyclopedia of Sports, Menke, New York.

Naismith, J. (1941).Basketball Origins and Developments. Association Press, New York

Sahile, M. and Bizuneh, A.(2001). Physical Education Students Text Grade 11th (3rd edition) ,Mega Publishing Enterprise Addis Ababa

Seaton, D. (1998). Physical Education Hand Book. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Salvatore, V.(2007).Basketball in Africa. Pyramid Publication Inc. New York

Woodman. K (2009) Administration and Organization of Physical Education. (3rd Edition) Fulahom Road, London

Zoman, J. (1996). Introduction to Research methodology, Four Corners Press, Chapel Hill.

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Problems and Prospects of Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba Sports Training Center

Abiyot Tesfaye

Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba Sport Training Center, Arsi, Ethiopia

Abstract

The cornerstone of the government‘s strategy is the establishment of sport training centers/Academies in the national level and the recruitment, training and deployment of number of front line coaches who coach athletes at Training Centers. However, the status of the training centers and the constraints that hamper them in implementing their mandatory roles are not systematically assessed through empirical studies to take proper action. The purpose of the study was to assess the present status of ATDSTC, to identify opportunities and constraints of the training center and to know the opinion of athletes towards the services provided by the training center. For this study 60 athletes, 15 coaches and 3 officials were included as source of information for the study. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The method of data collection employed includes self-administered questionnaire, focus group discussions and document analysis. The data were analyzed by using simple descriptive statistics such as percentage, frequency, mean score and rank order. Qualitative data were analyzed through interpretation and conceptual generalization. Moreover SWOT analysis was done to summarize the results of the research objectives. The findings revealed that the organizational and operational status of the Training Camp was good. The training center has ample opportunities and potential for the advancement of its success. However, Lack of: Training areas or field, Materials, Transport service, Athlete-coach ratio, Budget, Event specific menu, Incentives for coaches and Pocket money for athletes were the major constraints identified by the respondents. Though the strength and opportunities outweigh the weakness and threat, the training center should take proper actions on the Institutional, Economic, and General constraints identified in the study those seriously hinder the implementation of the training process.

Key words: Athletics, Training center, Athletics training, Organizational structure and Operational status.

Introduction

Historically athletics in Ethiopia has relied on a club system to support and develop athletes from secondary school ages upwards and is characterized by traditional coaching whose access to scientific and modern training and basic education is very limited. Athletics, like most activities involving groups of people, requires an organizational structure to function smoothly. To meet this need Athletics Training centers exist on national, sub-national or regional levels. Many of these training centers have special aspects, most share a number of similarities. The study of athletics Training center – their similarities, their structure and their relationships – can provide understanding of how they operate and ideas as to how they can make a contribution. Training Centers aims to provide better facilities and training environment for the athlete‘s, by

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providing the best coaching staff, facilities and resources in psychology, physical therapy, nutrition, performance analysis, skill acquisition, strength and conditioning and athlete career education support, however all athletics training camps in Ethiopia will not offer all the mentioned facilities. Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba National Athletics training center is found in Oromia regional state Arsi zone Asela town and established by the former Ministry of youth and sport now a day‘s Federal sport commission on October 2010 recruiting 280 athletes from all regions according to their talent to provide scientific and modern training in order produces elite representatives to provide support to Ethiopia Athletic status. This is a huge boost to Ethiopian sport. The FDRE Sports Commission has been actively involved in developing the project and the future of the Athletics clubs, in conjunction with all regional states. In my study I will try to investigate the problems and prospects of athletics training in the mentioned training center.

Objectives of the Study:

1. To assess the present status of Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba National Athletics Training Center. 2. To identify opportunities and constraints in effective functioning of ATDNATC. 3. To know athletes opinion towards the services provided by TC.

Methods Description of the Study Area

The study was conducted in oromia regional state, Arsi zone, Asela town in Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba National Athletics Training center. ATDNATC is one of governmental high performance athletics training center in the country and is located about 175 KMs south east of the capital Addis Ababa. A training center have a total population of 338 of this 238 are athletes, 20 are coaches and 80 are supportive staff workers. There are 5 departments [i.e. Long distance, Middle distance, Short distance, Throwing and Jumping] in the training center and in all of the departments the scientific training has been carried out. Among the 20 events, 18 of them are functional and the rest are not yet fully operational.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

For this research, Purposive and simple random sampling procedure was employed to select the sample. First ATDNATC was selected purposively from athletics training camps because; it is one of governmental National High performance athletics training camp or center in the country. At the second stage all the five departments are fully functional except two events in this training camp. Consequently, in collaboration with coaches of the respective training center lists of second and third year athletes were prepared. Finally, based on the number of athletes in each departments 30 second year and 30 third year athletes altogether 60 respondents were selected by using probability proportional to size (PPS) random sampling method. To avoid gender bias equal percentage of male and female respondents were selected purposively from each department.

All coaches working in the selected training camp were planned to be included in the study, but due to their absence only 75% (N= 15) were included as a source of information, 3 officials were

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also included in the study. Besides, the respondents of athletes and coaches, formal focus group discussions were carried out with (8) 1st year athletes, (8) successful athletes during their stay. Formal and informal group discussions have been also carried out with athletes, coaches, and officials in the study area.

Data Sources, Type and Methods of Data Collection

Both primary and secondary data were collected for the study. Primary data were collected using self administered questionnaire for officials, coaches and athletes backed up by personal observation, document analysis, focus group discussion and informal discussion. The relevant primary data were gathered from coaches and athletes who are working and train respectively in the training center on variables which have an association with the problems and prospects of athletics training camps. The self administered questionnaire used for officials, coaches and athletes were closed and open ended questions. Focus group discussion was also carried out with athletes. Secondary data were also collected from different documents. To identify opportunities and constraints of the training camp, officials, coaches, team leaders and athletes‘ suggestions were considered which were obtained during SWOT analysis, through discussions and by filling open ended questionnaires. The personal observation and the focus group discussion carried out with athletes and key informants were also considered in listing down the opportunities and constraints of the training center. Respondents‘ opinion towards the services of TC in delivering effective athletic training was determined using a Likert type scale. To measure each item Likert scale was constructed with five response categories, that is, strongly disagreed (1), disagreed (2), undecided (3), agreed (4), and strongly agreed (5). Each response category of positive items was assigned with scores, 5,4,3,2, and 1, respectively. These scores were reversed for negative items. The respondents were asked to react to each of the statement of scale in terms of their own agreement or disagreement with the statement. Their reactions were marked by ticking on five point scale against the respective statement. The recorded responses were counted and converted into mean scores for each opinion statement and ranked accordingly.

Method of Data Analysis Descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage, frequency and rank were used. Qualitative data were analyzed through interpretation and conceptual generalization. The results of data analysis were categorized, summarized, discussed and presented accordingly. Moreover, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis were used to summarize the results of the research objectives.

Results and Discussion

Present Operational Status of the Training Center

Based on the GTP sport development and on the FDRE Sport Commission five year elite athlete development program, the roles of ATDNATC has been shown clearly on the goal of the training center. Operationally, the center was from the outset an integral part of the national athletics training program. Its annual program of work and the training manual for athletes were revised

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each year by discussion between coaching staffs within the frame work of the priorities of the national competitions the training center will have been participated.

Contribution of ATDNATC to National Team for the Last FIVE years The success of ATDSTC in the athletics is known locally. The success achieved thanks to the strong club structure and high standard at the domestic level. This leading TC is situated in Arsi zone Asela town. It is regarded currently as the nursery of athletics in the country. The TC has produced numerous international athletes within the short period of time. It has very strong structure which helps in producing quality athletes. As other clubs this TC doesn‘t have the best of facilities like synthetic athletic track (now under construction), however this training camp has huge achievements and contribute a lots for Ethiopia athletics as indicated in the following tables.

Table 4. Athletes Selected for the National Team (2002-2006 E.C) from ATDNATC

No Year Male Female Total

1 2002 E.C 2 - 2

2 2003 E.C 11 6 17

3 2004 E.C 15 8 23

4 2005 E.C 7 8 15

5 2006 E.C 10 8 18

Total Sum 45 30 75

Source: ATDNATC 5 years performance Evaluation Report and EAF.

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Table 5. Athletes Representing Ethiopia from ATDSTC on different continental and international competitions and their Success (2002-2006 E.C)

No Type of competition Year Host City Male Female Total Achievements Gold Silver Bronze Diploma 1 African Athletics 2002 E.C KENYA-Nairobi 2 - 2 - - - 1 Championship

2 African youth Athletics 2003 E.C BOTSWANA- 6 5 11 - - 2 4 Championship Gaborone 3 World Cross Country 2003 E.C SPAIN-Puntaumbria1 - 1 - - - -

4 Pan African 2003 E.C NIGERIA-Canavara1 - 1 - - - 2

5 Khartoum Pan African 2003 E.C SUDAN-Khartoum 1 - 1 - - - 1

6 World Youth Athletics 2003 E.C FRANCE-Lille 2 3 5 - - - 2 Championship

7 All African Game 2004 E.C MOZAMBIQUE- 2 - 2 - - - 1 Maputo

8 African Cross Country 2004 E.C SOUTH AFRICA- 1 - 1 - 1(Team)- Cape town 9 East African youth Athletics2004 E.C UGANDA- 2 - 2 1 - 1 - Championship Kampala 10 East African Juniors‘ Athletics2004 E.C SUDAN- 1 1 2 - 1 - 1 Championship Khartoum 11 African Athletics 2004 E.C BENIN-Porto novo 2 2 4 - - - 2 Championship 12 World Juniors Athletics 2004 E.C SPAIN-Barcelona 1 1 2 - 1 - - Championship 13 African Youths Athletics 2005 E.C NIGERIA- Warri 3 3 6 2 2 1 3 Championship

14 African juniors‘ Athletics 2005 E.C Mauritius- 4 1 5 Championship

15 World Youth Athletics 2005 E. Ukraine- Donetsk 1 2 3 1 - 1 Championship C

TOTAL 30 18 48 4 5 5 17

Source: From Document Analysis, EAF Sources and ATDNATC performance Evaluation Reports

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Opportunities for Advancement of the Training Center

The major important opportunities which were identified, listed, and ranked by the officials are presented in table as follows: Table 6. Rank order of opportunities given by officials and team leader (N =3)

No Opportunities Mean Rank Score

1. Provision of modern and scientific training 13.66 1 2. The presence of strong organizational structure 12.00 2 3. The availability of well educated coaches 11.67 3 4. Building its own standard training area or field 11.33 4 5. Government Political commitment 10.66 5 6. Better food service 10.00 6 7. Being the first HPTC in the country 10.00 6 8. The presence of high monitoring and Evaluation system 9.66 8 9. The presence of proper rest place or dormitory 9.00 9 10. The presence of education access for athletes 4.66 10 11. Interest of athletes to join the camp 3.00 13 12. The presence of talented athletes 2.67 14

Source: Own survey result, 2012

An observation of table 6 reveals that the presence of provision of modern and scientific training was perceived as an opportunity with high mean score by officials and team leaders (13.66). It was followed by the opportunity of the presence of strong organizational structure (12.00). Both the opportunities, that is, the availability of educated coaches in the training camp building its own standard training area were accorded third and fourth ranks with a mean score of (11.67) and (11.33) respectively by the respondents.

The researcher has also confirmed these opportunities as they are real because, he has seen the under construction new training camp and coaches educational background during his study. The political commitment of the government as opportunity was ranked fifth with mean score of (10.66). Being the first HPTC in the country and better food service provision both equally ranked sixth with a mean score of(10.00).The presence of high Monitoring and Evaluation system was ranked eighth with a mean score of (9.67). The presence of proper rest place or dormitory and education access for athletes were ranked as were ranked as a ninth and tenth opportunities with a mean score of (9.00) and (4.66) respectively by the respondents. Being the center of talented nations and nationalities was ranked as an eleventh opportunity with a mean score of (4.33) by the respondents. High Interest of athletes to train in the camp and The presence of clear guidelines, coaching manual and athlete recruitment criteria were ranked as twolevth and thirteenth opportunities with a mean score of (3.66) and (3.00) by the respondents. And finally the presence of talented athletes and good market for athletes to be employed were ranked fourteenth with equal mean score of (2.67). 179

Major Constraints or Problems of the Training Center

A. Institutional Constraints Perceived by Officials

Table 7. Institutional constraints perceived by officials (N =3)

No Constraints Mean Score Rank

1. Lack of training area and field 6.67 1 2. Lack of transport service 6.00 2 3. Lack of sufficient pocket money 5.33 3 4. Lack of training materials 3.33 4 5. Lack of budget 2.67 5 6. Lack of incentives 2.33 6 7. Lack of commitment 1.33 7

Source: Own survey result, 2012

According to the observation of table 7 among the institutional constraints, Lack of training area and field was perceived as a constraint with a mean score of (6.67) by respondents and accorded the first rank. The second constraint perceived by the respondent was Lack of transport service with a mean score of (6.00). Here the researcher has confirmed this situation in the study area. The third constraint perceived by the respondent was insufficient pocket money for athletes with a mean score of (5.33). Lack of training materials or facilities, Lack of budget, Lack of incentives for coaches and athletes, and lack of commitment were perceived as fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh constraints with a mean score of (3.33), (2.67), (2.33), and (1.33) respectively by respondents. Concerning transport service 10(66.7%) of coaches working in Training Center respond as transport service is a serious problem to conduct the training effectively. Concerning incentive provision 8(53.3%) of coaches rated the incentive provision as poor and 7(46.7%) of them rated as good. Regarding the promotion avenue 15(100%) of them rated as poor. Concerning the salary payment of their organization 12(80%) of the coaches rated as good and 3(20%) of them rated as poor. By supporting this finding Vijagaragavan and Singh (1997) also noted that lack of rewards and incentives, poor facilities, poor promotional avenues and the low esteem given to workers are the major causes of poor motivation and morale.

A. Problems Perceived by Coaches during the Coaching Process Table 8. Major constraints perceived by coaches at TC during the coaching Process (N = 15)

No Constraint f %

1. Training area or field 10 66.7 2. Training materials and facilities 8 53.3 3. Transport service 5 33.3 4. Athlete-coach ratio 5 33.3 5. Lack of Event specific Menu 5 33.3 6. Lack of Budget 5 33.3

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7. Absence of athlete Managers 4 27 8. Quality of food provided 4 27 9. Large number of athletes 3 20 10 Athletes Discipline 3 20 11 Insufficient pocket money for athletes 3 20 12 Health service 3 20 13 Insufficient gymnasium service 3 20 14 Lack of experience sharing program 3 20

Source: Own survey result, 2012

An observation of data on Table 8 reveals that among the problems perceived by the coaches during the coaching process were lack of training area or field (66.7%), lack training materials and facilities (53.3%), lack of Transportation (33.3%), Athlete-coach ratio(33.3%),Lack of event specific Menu (33.3%),Lack of Budget(33.3%), Absence of athlete Managers/Representative (26.7%), quality of food provided (26.7%), large number of athletes (20%), athletes discipline (20%), insufficient pocket money (20%) poor health service (20%), insufficient gymnasium service (20%), lack of experience sharing program were the major ones. Even if they were cited by small number of respondents the remaining problems also could not be neglected and undermined, if our target is to solve the problems of the training center.

Results of SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis conducted during data collection and discussions with officials, coaches, and athletes reveal that ATDNATC operate under several internal (strong and weak points) and external conditions (opportunities and threats). The description of SWOT and its analysis carried out at the TC was presented briefly as follows. A. Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats of the TC as expressed by Coaches. Strengths  Its success with a short period of time.  Provision of scientific training with a relatively better athlete-coach ratio.  Presence of good organizational structure and follow up.  Ability to conduct effective training program, without the fulfillment of the necessary facilities and training materials.  High interest and commitment among coaches.  Working with plan.  Having training manuals.  Training provision for coaching staff.  Monitoring and evaluation system.  Ability to record athlete‘s profile.  Selection of athletes from potential areas with recruitment criteria  Sufficient meal for athletes  Existence of strong athlete-coach relationship

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Weaknesses  Absence of Incentives, Motivation and Promotion Avenue for workers in the last five years.  Lack of proper and adequate training materials.  Absence of athlete representatives or agents.  The delay of responding for the questions rose from athletes and others.  Absence of own internal funds.  Failure to use budget effectively.  Weak controlling and follow up mechanism of athletes.  Absence of medical team in the center.  Lack of transparency.  Absence of experience sharing program with other similar institutions.  Lack of close follow up by responsible officials. Opportunities  Provision of scientific training  Government Political commitment  Interest of athletes to join the camp  Being the first HPTC in the country  The presence of proper rest place or dormitory  The presence of talented athletes  Building its own standard training area or field  The presence of education access for athletes  The presence of good market for athletes to be employed  Being the camp of talented nations and nationalities  The presence of strong organizational structure  The presence of clear guidelines, coaching manual and athlete recruitment criteria.  The availability of well educated coaches  The presence of high monitoring and Evaluation system

Threats  Lack of competition budget  The less payment of pocket money to athletes in relation to the current payment of other clubs.  Lose of coaches due to poor incentive and motivation provision  Due to delay of construction, there is a fear that problem of training area or field might be continuing.  Unless the training center is fulfilled by the necessary facilities and budget, the training program may cease and this may cause failure to achieve the planned goals.  Poor quality and timely unavailability of training shoe (Eg. Spike)  Difficulty to convince athletes (especially Long and Middle distance) to join the training center because of absence of athlete managers.  No or Poor promotion avenue for coaches in relation to the current living standard.  Lack of chance for further education may be a question of survival whether to continue or discontinue their duties in the future.

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B. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats as Expressed by Officials. Strengths  Commitment from government side and coach.  The presence of morale and interest in the side of coaches to train athletes.  Fulfillment of the required professionals with different profession  Relative fulfillment of different equipments, training materials and other necessary facilities for the coaching process. Weaknesses  Presence athlete disciplinary problem  Loose controlling of athlete (especially coach attention)  Absence of athlete representatives or agents. Opportunities  The presence of synthetic track at Asela town.  Good market for athletes to be employed at different clubs after completion of training in the center.  Construction of standardized training camp for permanent use. Threats  Fail to get athletes from different regions  Drop out of athletes in need of better salary  Availability of training shoe in quality and quantity

Summary of SWOT Analysis of the TC as identified by Officials and Coaches. Assuming that the above stated factors under each of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats have the same weight of one unit; the SWOT summary of the training center which were identified by the officials and coaches was presented as follows.

Table 9. Summary of SWOT analysis of the TC by Officials and Coaches

[ Weighted score No personnel S W O T

1. Coaches 14 13 14 9 2. Officials and team leaders 4 3 3 3

S= Strength, W= weakness, O= opportunities, T= Threat Source: Own survey result, 2012

On the basis of the above data, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats identified by coaches outweigh the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats identified by team leaders and officials. The above table reveals that as we go from the top hierarchy to the grass root level the problems are too much. As the coaches are the front line who implements the training process they do not hesitate in expressing the problems they face. But, as we go up there was a tendency to hide problems which can be seen on the ground reality.

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Based on the SWOT analysis undertaken it is found that the TC have fulfilled most of the necessary facilities and training materials in comparison to other clubs, however devotion is expected from the training center or concerned bodies to fulfill the international standards . All departments have internet access. There is also a plan to connect this TC with other similar training camps over the world. The study area is full of opportunities, because, there is favorable environmental condition from high to low altitude within few kilometer distances. There is also high trend of athletic training tradition in the study area. Comparatively; the study area has access to information and infrastructural facilities than other athletics clubs or training camps. Some of the activities which were carried out in the compound of the training center are also encouraging.

Opinion of Athletes towards the Services Provided by the Training Center The third objective of the study was to know athletes opinion towards the services provided by the training center. An opinion is a person‘s idea and thoughts towards something. One of the element or component that is required for the coaching process is the availability of trainees/athletes who attend the training program and who are going to be benefited from the services of the TC. Therefore, the study was conducted to know if there is positive or negative attitude among athletes towards the services provided of the training center. Twenty five (25) statements were used to analyze respondents‘ perception towards the services provided by TC. Content validity of the attitude scale questionnaire was examined by a panel of experts comprising two Athletics coaching post graduate students (AAU) and two athletics coaches before data collection. In order to get an overview about the opinion of respondents towards the services provided by the training center athlete‘s attitudes were grouped into three categories that are (a) POSITIVE, (b) UNDECIDED and (c) NEGATIVE.

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Attitude No Items Positive Undecided Negative No % No % No % 1 The Camp provides better facilities like sport wear and 58 96.7 - - 2 3.3 equipments, controlled training, Gymnasium, Internet, Study rooms [Library], and Recreation for the athlete‘s. 2 Camp housing includes all utility and meals are prepared 56 93.3 4 6.7 - - ahead of time. 3 Trained staff (resident assistants/proctors, are present in 50 83.3 - - 10 16.7 each residential area/block to help with upon request. 4 Each block entrance is locked and accessible only to camp 50 83.3 4 6.7 6 10 athletes. 5 There is regular supervision by the responsible officials of 40 66.7 4 6.7 16 26.7 the camp. 6 The salary (pocket money) is attractive. 1 1.7 4 6.7 55 91.7 7 Athletes have access to education. 50 83.3 6 10 4 6.7 8 The situation in the camp is conducive to have proper rest 52 86.7 6 10 2 3.3 after training. 9 The camp provides proper balance of training. 48 80 2 3.3 10 16.7 10 Athletes help each other during and after training. 32 53.3 16 26.7 12 20 11 Athletes are encouraged to work on their weaknesses. 24 40 18 30 18 30 12 The coach gives most of his attention to all athletes 2 3.3 4 6.7 54 90 13 Each athlete feels as if they are important athletes for the 44 73.3 8 13.3 8 13.3 camp. 14 There is close Social support from coaches to hold athletes 40 66.7 8 13.3 12 20 accountable and keep them on the right track. 15 All athletes ‗get noticed‘ by the camp. 20 33.3 8 13.3 32 53.3 16 There is monitoring on the overall health of the athletes. 30 50 6 10 24 40 17 The dorms are a great place to meet new people in camp. 54 90 4 6.7 2 3.3 18 There is an assessment Protocol to evaluate progress and 42 70 10 16.7 8 13.3 measure goals. 19 The officials and coaches believe that all of you are crucial 32 53.3 18 30 10 16.7 to the success of the camp. 20 An assortment of meal plans /menu/has been designed for 38 63.3 10 16.7 12 20 athletes. 21 Coaches in ATDNATC do want to learn from their athletes. 18 30 22 36.7 20 33.3 22 I have improved my performance after joining ATDNATC. 34 56.7 4 6.7 24 40 23 I know for what purpose ATDNATC was established. 34 56.7 8 13.3 18 30 24 The coaches in Camp are highly motivated to serve you. 42 70 8 13.3 10 16.7 25 The coaches are highly experienced in matters of coaching. 34 56.7 8 13.3 18 30 Average 36.96 61.5 7.6 12.7 15.5 25.8

Table 11. Opinion of the athletes towards the service provided by the TC

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Table 11 visualizes the opinion of athlete‘s respondents towards the service provided by the camp. It is apparent from the data in the above table that the respondents have strong disagreement on items number 6, 12 and 15 with 91.7%, 90% and 53.3% negative attitudes respectively. Again the respondents were unable to decide on items number 11, 16 and 21. On the rest items they have positive attitude. But when we see the average score or over all attitudes of the athletes towards the service provided by the camp about 61.5% of them are under the category of positive attitude, 25.8% of them are under the category negative attitude and the rest 12.7% of them are unable to decide.

Conclusion and Recommendations Conclusions

On the basis of the data gathering instruments and the statistical method employed, the following results were obtained.

1. Concerning the organizational status of the Training Camp, the training Center was established in 2002 E.C., the mean distance of the camp from the training areas is 2 km, five departments are fully operational. The camp has residence for athletes and coaches but it lack quality in construction. There are 20 coaches, 80 supportive workers and 238 athletes during the study. The Training Center has access to all weather roads. Transport service is the serious problem. There is no problem of water supply. All coaches have their own training manuals which were prepared in Amharic language by FDRE Sport Commission. The permanent training camp is under construction. The camp has training need assessment before the training begins. The athlete signed a contract of four years in line with the Olympic period. The coaching staffs have exposure to on job training provision. The salary payment is good but the incentive and Promotion Avenue is weak. 2. Regarding availability of infrastructural facilities and other requirements Training area or field, Training materials and facilities, Transport facilities, Quality of food provided, Insufficient pocket money for athletes, Health service, insufficient gymnasium service, lack of experience sharing program, poor implementation of rules and regulations, and Capacity building (Example: Higher education) are the major problems that challenges the coaching process. 3. Regarding its operational status the center has produced numerous athletes within the short period of time. It has very strong structure which helps in producing quality athletes. As other clubs this TC doesn‘t have the best of facilities; however the training center has huge achievements and contributes a lot for Ethiopia athletics. Within FIVE years the TC provide about 75 athletes for the national team and of this 48 athletes represent Ethiopia on continental and international competitions, the training center achieve a remarkable results on local competitions too. 4. According to the officials and coaches identification and the SWOT analysis the camp has a lot of opportunities for its advancement. 5. Regarding attitudes of the athletes towards the service provided by the camp about 61.5% of them have positive attitude, 25.8% of them have negative attitude and the rest 12.7% of them were unable to decide. This figure shows that much work is expected to do depending on the response given for each items.

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Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following issues are forwarded as recommendations that assist to improve the effectiveness of the training center.

 One of the major constraints that has been identified and perceived was lack of proper training area which has to be given due attention among all constraints, because it is impossible to talk about athletics without proper training area or field. So the concerned bodies should be actively follow up for timely completion of the under construction training area and convince Asela town youth and sport office for temporarily use of their field by all disciplines.  Because the mean distance of the camp from the training area is 2km and the athletes are learning in different schools having transport service is a must otherwise it is difficult for the athletes to attend class going on foot and again athletics training requires to train in different environments so there might be going far from the camp for this and others facts transporting service is unquestionable. Therefore the must buy or ask for additional cars convincing the responsible bodies with a short period of time.  One of the major constraints that has been identified and perceived was lack of sufficient pocket money for athletes. Now a days the number of athletics clubs increasing from time to time thus it will be difficult to get promising and potential athletes with little pocket money because clubs are paying better salary, to compete with these clubs and join athletes to the camp improvement on pocket money is a must in addition to convincing them showing their future prospect.  To overcome the problem lack of training material and facilities by assessing and prioritize the problems and needs of each department the materials should be bought before the training begins and asking governmental and nongovernmental organization for support must be continue to fulfill the shortages.  The other constraint identified was lack of incentives for coaches and athletes. Because effectiveness of athletics training is almost entirely dependent upon the quality, ability, competence and commitment of coaches and athletes, they have to be provided by the necessary incentives (like salary payment, prize, education, transportation, promotion etc.) to keep their morale according the result they brought.  One of the constraints expressed by coaches was lack of event specific menu. Therefore since each events demand different diets as much as the budget is determined the camp should try all the best to provide event specific diet both in quality and quantity to achieve its target in all disciplines.  Lack of budget for the operation of the training center is the other constraint. Hence, to solve the financial constraint, the camp should convince the responsible government officials so as to allocate enough budgets considering the training center is newly established and athletics by its nature demands budget, beside the camp must create income generating sporting activities like road race and others by finding sponsors.  The Major problems identified from Athletes Opinion towards the Services Provided by the Training Center was Only top athletes are get noticed by the camp, coach gives attention to talented athletes only and the coaches do not want to learn from their athletes were. So that knowing this the camp and coaches should treat all athletes equally and work on athlete‘s psychology.

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 One of the issues raised by athletes during the focus group discussion was lack of athlete Managers or representatives. Hence, as much as possible the training center should find for athlete managers or find means by which athletes compete going abroad, otherwise it is difficult to stay them in the camp for four years.  Lack of commitment, lack of experience sharing program, poor implementation of rules and regulations, delays and absenteeism of athletes from the training area, lack of health services and large number of athletes were some other problems identified. Therefore the training center should take immediate measure to overcome these problems  To conclude, the researcher believes that since the strength and opportunities outweigh the weakness and threat and if the camp is working on the problems identified for sure the training center can be a real ―Center of Excellence‖ with a short period of time.

References  Kellmann, M. (2002) Enhancing Recovery. Preventing Underperformance in Athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.  Kreider, R., A. C. Fry, and M. O‘Toole, (1998). Overtraining in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.  Lakshmi Swami (2009). The Benefits of living in camp.  Marshall, James, ( 2004) 'Advanced strategies for bringing your performance to a peak at just the right time' Peak Performance, , 1-5  Miller, Steven G. (2004). Ancient Greek Athletics. Pg. 61. Yale University. .  Murphy, Michael C. (1914). Athletic Training ... Edited by Edward R. Bushnell. Bickers & Son: London; New York printed,  Peter JL Thompson (2009). Introduction to coaching. Printer: Warners Midlands plc, The Maltings, Manor Lane, Bourne, Lincolnshire PE10 9PH, UK  Sam Ellyn (2011). The Advantages of Athletic Training  S. A. Mussabini, Charles Ranson (1913). The Complete Athletic Trainer. In collaboration with. Methuen & Co. London,  Shepherd, John, (2004) 'Sport-specific requirements for skill acquisition and competition readiness' Peak Performance,  Smith, DJ, (2003) 'A Framework for Understanding the Training Process Leading to Elite Performance' Sports Medicine, 33(15), , 1103-1126(24)  Sora Jahannoa (2008). The Benefits of living in camp.  Sullivan, P. A. (1993). Communication skills training for interactive sports. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 79-91.  Torre, J. (1999). Joe Torre‘s ground rules for winners: 12 keys to managing team players, tough bosses, setbacks, and success. New York, NY: Hyperion.  Webster, Frederick Annesley Michael (1919). Success in Athletics, and how to obtain it. By F. A. M. Webster, T. J. Pryce Jenkins, & R. Vivian Mostyn. Sidgwick & Jackson: London.  Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language (1967), Unabridged. Springfield, MA: G&C Merriam Company. p. 2206. Web Sources  http://www.abbaymedia.com/Ethiopian_Sports.htm

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Educational Perspective, Out – Comes, and Social Benefits of The Ethiopian Public Universities Sport Festival in Breeding Physically Educated Youngsters

Molla Deyou (Ph.D) Haramaya University, Ethiopia. Introduction: The principle of talented individuals for selected type of sports further developed in the Universities where, a scientific coaching and principles of nurturing is exactly applied as a system providing opportunities to draw out the hidden talent of the youngsters‘. Universities sport festival is a way of action, rules, and reasons, in the effort of achievement to learn and apply phenomena such as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, and interpersonal relations among participants. Methods: 45(25 male & 20 female) of Haramaya University students who have taken part at least two times in the tournaments were randomly selected as respondents of the designed thirteen items questionnaires. Descriptive methods of data analysis were employed. Proportion = Actual Frequency = ni, where = ni = frequency of each category Total 45 Percentages (%) = ni X 100 were employed. 45 Results: More than 90% of the respondents have witnessed overcoming fear, tensions, anxiety, inferiority complex, and improved health status. 90% witnessed developed ability of thinking and interpreting the knowledge they were taught with confidence. 80% witnessed the affiliation they observed of loving others and towards other human beings irrespective of religion, ethnicity, and colure. Discussion: Universities tournaments provides entertainment, physical development, social interaction, and even business, (Cigliano, 2006). This moulds virtues shaping the social character of the participants (Rudd and Stoll, 2004). The Ethiopian governmental sport festival is designed improving knowledge, health, and wellness of the students, and professional development creating physically educated youngsters for the country. References:

1. Akandere, M., and Tekin, A. (2002). The Effect of Physical Exercises on Anxiety: The Sport Journal Volume 5, Number 2. 2. Cigliano, L.M., (2006). A Perceptual Study of the Impact of Athletics Programs in Selected Community Colleges in the State of Tennessee. 3. Depew, R., (1999). Kenyon Athletes Define ―Role Model‖ in their own words. Vol.(2) Retrieved June, 2006. 4. Rudd, and Stoll S., (2004). What Type Character. Does Athlete Possess? The Sport Journal Volume 7, Number, 2. 6. Strieber, J., (1999). The Behavior of the NCAA: A Question of Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics. Retrieved September, 23, 2005.

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Ethiopian Youth Sport Academy First National Research Conference in Sport Science (July 4-5, 2014) Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Time schedule Day Time Activities Presenters Facilitator Venue 8:30-9:00 Registration All Ethiopian AM Youth 9:00-9:05 Well come Address and Dr. Sirak Sport Introduction to the conference Habtemariam, Academy program Director General, EYSA 9:05-9:15 Opening speech H.E. Abdissa Yadeta, Commissioner, Federal Sport

Comission

lead papers/ Presentation on background papers

9:15-9:35 Key Note Address on research Dr .Birhanu Day 1; Day

04/07/14 Belay, v president, Research, community Based Education & postgraduate studies, Jimma University 9፡ 35- The Contribution of Sport Teshome Kebede Dr. Sirak H. 9፡ 55 Training Centre Towards The & Development Of Ethiopian Dr.Birhanu B. Athletics: The Case of Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba Training Center

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Day Time Activities Presenters Facilitator Venue 9፡ 55- Selected Anthropometric and Amensisa Dr. Sirak H. 10፡ 15 Physical Fitness variables Impact Kebede & towards Athletes performance of Dr.Birhanu B. Ethiopian Athletics Training centers 10፡ 15 - Tea break Ethiopian 10፡ 45 Youth 10:45- Influence of selected predictive Woldegebriel Dr. Sirak H. Sport 11:05 variables on race performance of Mezgebo & Academy trainees in Maychew Athletics Dr.Birhanu B. Training Center 11:05- Discussion Dr. Sirak H. Dr. Sirak H. 12:00 Dr.Birhanu B. & Dr.Birhanu B. 12፡ 00- Lunch break 1፡ 30 Day 1 Parallel Session I Sport Science Ethiopian 04/07/14 and Youth Management Sport 1፡ 30- Surveys of nutritional trends of Tesfaye Birhane Amensisa Academy 1፡ 50 pm selected Ethiopian premier league Kebede clubs & Tefera Tadesse 1፡ 50- Players perception and preference Dr. Milkyas Amensisa 2፡ 10 of Coaching leadership styles Bassa Kebede across Playing position of football & Premier league club Players In Tefera Tadesse Ethiopia 2፡ 10- The Nature and Impact of physical Wondimagegn Amensisa & 2፡ 30 injuries in Ethiopian Elite Demissie Tefera Endurance Athletes 2፡ 30- Tea break 3፡ 00 3፡ 00- Causes and Management of Sport Getahun Tadesse Amensisa 3፡ 20 injuries Impact on Athletes Kebede performance at Athlete Tirunesh

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Day Time Activities Presenters Facilitator Venue Dibaba Training Center & Tefera Tadesse 3፡ 20- Nutrition and Athletic Dr. Shemelis Amensisa Ethiopian 3፡ 40 Performance Mekonen Kebede Youth & Sport Tefera Tadesse Academy 3፡ 40- The relationship between physical Tedros Amensisa Kebede 4፡ 00 exercise and sexual satisfaction ; G/mariam the case of among married adults & Tefera Tadesse participating in some selected fitness centers in Addis Ababa 4፡ 00- Discussion Amensisa & Tefera 5፡ 00 Day 1 Parallel Session 2 Coaching and 04/07/14 Sport Performance 1፡ 30- How and what makes soccer Dr. Molla Deyou Dr. Getachew 1፡ 50 pm science Abebe & Ethiopian Aemero Youth Asmamaw Sport 1፡ 50- A search for ideal Altitude Zeru Bekele Dr. Getachew Academy 2፡ 10 Training in Ethiopia Context Abebe & Aemero A. 2፡ 10- The Effect of work creative Daniel Kibret Dr. Getachew 2፡ 30 supplement on spring performance Abebe & of male beginner Athletes Aemero Asmamaw 2፡ 30- Tea break 3፡ 00 3፡ 00- The mental skills Training of Wossenu Moges Dr. Getachew 3፡ 20 women premier league soccer & Players. Aemero 3፡ 20- Iron Supplementation & exercise Biruk Amare Dr.Getachew 3፡ 40 intensities on hemoglobin Status Abebe & of Jimma University Soccer Aemero Players Asmamaw

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Day Time Activities Presenters Facilitator Venue 3:40-4:00 Problems and Prospects of Athlete Abyot Tesfaye Dr. Getachew Tirunesh Dibaba Sport Training Abebe & Center Aemero Asmamaw 4፡ 00- Discussion Dr. Getachew A. 5፡ 00 & Aemero A. Day 2 Parallel Session I 05/07/14 9፡ 00- The fundamentals of curriculum Tefera tadese Woldegebriel 9፡ 20 development, implementation and Mezgebo evaluation within the context of & Ethiopian sports academy Dr. Milkyas programs Bassa 9፡ 20- The psychological aspects of Amensisa Woldegebriel 9፡ 40 injury in Sport Kebede M. & Dr. Milkyas B. 9:40- Food and Macronutrient intake of Zeru bekele Woldegebriel 10፡ 00 elite Ethiopian distance runners M. & Dr. Milkyas B. 10፡ 00- Tea break 10፡ 30 10:30- Assessment on Factors of Daniel Kibrom Woldegebrel M 10፡ 50 Athlete‘s Satisfaction and its . Relationship with Performance: & the Case of Athlete Tirunesh Dr. Milkyas . Dibaba Training Center 10-50- An overview study on the students Wodimagegn Woldegebriel M 11፡ 10 Attitude towards A physical Demissie . fitness and Sport Skills program; & The Case of Ethiopian Higher Dr. Milkyas B. Institutions 11፡ 10- Discussion 12፡ 00 12:00-1:30 Lunch break

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Day Time Activities Presenters Facilitator Venue 1፡ 30- General discussion 5፡ 00 Day 2 Parallel session 2 05/07/14 9:00-9:20 Effect of Hamstring & Lower back Aemero Tesfaye Birhane Am muscles flexibility on vertical Asmamaw & Jump performances of Mekelle Teshome University Students Kebede 9፡ 20- Relationship between vertical Samson Tesfaye Birhane 9፡ 40 Jumping performance and Wondrad & Anthropometric Characteristics in Teshome collegiate of Mekelle University Kebede 9:40-10:00 Active Methods of Dr. Getachew Tesfaye Birhane Teaching/Coaching Soccer Abebe & Specialists Teshome Kebede 10:00- Tea break 10:30 10፡ 30- Educational perspective out comes Dr, Molla Deyou Tesfaye B . 10፡ 50 and social benefits of the & Ethiopian public universities sport Teshome K . festival in breeding physically educated youngsters 10:50 – Challenges and Prospective Gemechu Beker Tesfaye Birhane 11:10 Development of Basketball in & Oromia Regional State Teshome K . 11:10- Discussion Tesfaye B. 11:40 Teshome K. 11:40-1:00 General Discussion pm 1:00-2:00 Lunch break E.Y.S.A

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