(2019), the Vardar River As a Border of Semiosphere

Home , Heraclea Lyncestis, Nikola Martinoski, Stefan Milutin, Stone Bridge (Skopje), Strez, Urban semiotics

Geographia Polonica 2019, Volume 92, Issue 1, pp. 83-102 https://doi.org/10.7163/GPol.0138

INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY AND SPATIAL ORGANIZATION POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES www.igipz.pan.pl www.geographiapolonica.pl

THE VARDAR RIVER AS A BORDER OF SEMIOSPHERE – PARADOX OF SKOPJE REGENERATION

Armina Kapusta Urban Regeneration Laboratory Institute of Urban Geography and Tourism Studies Faculty of Geographical Sciences University of Łódź Kopcińskiego 31, 90-142 Łódź: Poland e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract As suggested by its etymology, regeneration usually carries positive connotations while its negative aspects tend to be belittled. However, any renewal results in major morphological, physiognomic, functional or social changes, which imply changes in the meanings encoded in space. These transformations are not always welcome and they may lead to public discussions and conflicts. Skopje 2014 is a project within which such controversial transformations have been taking place. The area surrounding the Vardar River and its banks plays a major role here. On the river banks monumental buildings were erected, bridges over the river were modernised and new ones, decorated with monuments, were built for pedestrians. Bridges can be considered a valuable component of any urban infrastructure as they link different parts of a settlement unit (in the case of Skopje – left (northern) bank and the right (southern) bank; Albanian and Macedonian), improve transport, facilitate trade and cultural exchange. In this context, referring to Lotman’s semiosphere theory, they may become borders of semiotic space, which acts as a filter that facilitates the penetration of codes and cultural texts. Yet, in multicultural Skopje meanings attached to bridges seem to lead to social inequalities as they glorify what is Macedonian and degrade the Albanian element. To validate this assumption we carried out semiotic analysis of bridges over the Vardar River which were renewed or built within the Skopje 2014 project to identify their role in shaping the semiosphere of the Macedonian capital.

Key words Skopje 2014 project • bridges over the Vardar River • semiosphere • urban semiotics • ruining and demolishing • multicultural city

Introduction beings to get in touch with each other and to carry out all sorts of exchange or as Social geography approaches rivers from natural barriers. This dualism is also famil- two angles: as elements that enable human iar to urban planners who, following Lynch 84 Armina Kapusta

(1960), in the first case would call a river aimed at reflecting, also in the public space, a path, while in the second case an edge. the Macedonian tradition and legacy and Human activity may transform the func- its assumptions are implemented through, tions of watercourses and structures erected inter alia, the Skopje 2014 project announced to this end (e.g., bridges and their decorative in 2010. Regeneration is particularly vis- elements) may be used to create new mean- ible in the central part of the city, near the ings. Barthes (1986) argues that by going Vardar River. It covers areas adjacent to the beyond functional studies towards studying river, the riverbed and bridges with rich orna- the meanings encapsulated in urban forms ments that provide them with semantic value. we pave ways to semiotic analyses of cities. The analysis of meanings attributed to bridg- Since rivers are often perceived as barriers, es constructed or reconstructed under the reference to the semiosphere theory devel- Skopje 2014 project is the subject of our con- oped by Yuri Lotman (1984a) within the semi- siderations focusing on issues, such as the otics of culture seems interesting as when interpretation of river and its infrastructure considering semiotic space Lotman paid spe- as a border of the semiosphere, using regen- cial attention not only to its centre but also eration to transform the semiotics of space to the borders. By making reference to this and bridges as instruments of semiotic stig- concept, the paper attempts to transpose matisation and exclusion, identifying differ- Lotman’s idea into the grounds of geography ences between functionality and semantics and analyse rivers as semiosphere borders. of river infrastructure. In order to solve these Studies on urban space, which combine geo- research questions we discuss Lotman’s idea graphic approach (spatial) with cultural and of semiosphere, provide basic data about semiotic aspects are scarce, yet they help Skopje and the role of the Vardar River after us learn about social stratification, relation- the city was reconstructed following the ships among analysed groups, and ways 1963 earthquake and the assumptions of the of space organisation (Lagopoulos & Boklund- Skopje 2014 project. Next, we carry out Lagopoulou 2014; Kapusta 2015). semiotic analysis of bridges over the Vardar Considerations focus on the Vardar Riv- River based on literature studies and field er, the axis of Skopje, the capital city of the studies conducted by the author in Skopje Republic of North Macedonia, located in September 2016. in a narrow valley. The Vardar River divides the city into two parts, which differ with eth- Theoretical foundations: nic, religious, and language composition. The the notion of semiosphere historic, central part of the city, in the northern district by the name of Čair is inhabited Theoreticians in semiotics, researchers inter- mainly by ethnic Albanians (mostly Muslim), ested in signs, started dealing with urban while the southern Centar is dominated aspects of the subject back in the 1960s by Orthodox Macedonians. Although the Var- (e.g., Barthes 1986; Choay 1986; Fauque dar River does not act as an administrative 1986). By referencing to the Saussurean tradi- border between them, it is seen as the border tion and in accordance with the structuralist between cultures which underwent two seri- approach, they would seek systems of signs ous transformations over recent 60 years. (codes), that is urbems, the smallest meaning- The first impulse came from the 1963 earth- ful units (analogous to semes in semiotics). quake and destroyed ca. 80% of the city. However, a city is a creature that is so com- Another is the effect of the policy pursued plex that linguistic methods have proven insuf- in the period 2006-2017 by the then ruling ficient. The turn towards post-structuralism party The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary and the rise of the semiotics of culture have Organization – Democratic Party for Macedo- opened up new opportunities and expanded nian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE), which the spectrum of city-related contexts and

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 85 issues. The sub-discipline has earned itself of its surroundings), location vis-à-vis the sur- a special place in the Tartu-Moscow Semi- rounding areas (central or peripheral), as well otic School, which brought together aca- as internal organisation of the city (Toporov demics from diverse research centres of the 1980; Ivanov 1986). former Soviet Union, including graduates On top of that, Lotman was interested of the Lomonosov Moscow State University in the overall order of codes and how they (e.g., Uspensky, Toporov, Ivanov) and the staff are organised. In analogy to the notion of bio- from the University of Tartu in today’s Esto- sphere introduced in 1926 by Vernadsky, nia, the alma mater of Yuri Lotman regarded he put forward the idea of semiotic space, as the school’s founder and leader. Exchange which he termed as semiosphere (Lotman of views was stimulated through conferences 1984a). He argued that such space is both and less formal summer schools but most precondition and effect of the development of all through the first semiotic journal Sign of culture and it is necessary for languages Systems Studies. The years 1964-1992, when to exist and be operational. The process the journal was published under Lotman of meaning-making is feasible only within the editorship, are considered the active period semiosphere acting as a unified mechanism. of the school. Semiosphere, which to Lotman is an abstract One of the key notions in the Tartu-Mos- (although to explain it he gives real life exam- cow Semiotic School is culture understood ples, such as, e.g., the borders of the Roman as everything, which is not natural but trans- Empire, boundaries of an exhibition room), ferred through different codes. To Lotman is internally diverse, filled with conflicting (1967) culture is non-inherited information, structures and semiotic processes that take which should be explored and internalized. place in this system are non-synchronised. Its Artefacts as objects made by humans are centre is made of a core hosting dominant not only functional but they are also carriers semantic systems and it is counterbalanced of culture and meanings that can be decoded by peripheries. The heterogeneity of the semi- as a result of the learning process. Objects, osphere is also expressed in the opposition to which we assign meaning are referred to as internal vs external. One of typical attributes symbols and the relationship between the of semiosphere is its boundary acting as a fil- form of the sign (the signifier) and its mean- ter that enables the flow of the individual texts ing (the signified) is arbitrary (Saussure 1998). of culture and acts as a link and a dividing Culture is shaped by two types of modelling border. For that very reason it is also an area systems: primary, that is a language and sec- within which most of semiotic exchange takes ondary, such as, e.g., religion, art or science. place, where texts of culture can be adapted Aspects relating to city and space were con- and moved towards the centre or rejected. sidered against this background in two edi- By analysing Lotman’s theory we may tions of Sign Systems Studies (Trudy po zna- realise that boundary interpreted in this kovym sistemam 1984, 1986). According way is a positive component of semiosphere, to Żyłko (2011) the spectrum of city-related as it becomes a reservoir of innovation, issues can be boiled down to the following accompanied by dynamic processes of semi- five major subjects: the founding myth, name otic exchange, which facilitate the expansion of the city, multiethnicity, city and literature, of semiotic space and codes existing in it. as well as urban morphology, however, inter- Lotman stressed that the space of semio- preted differently than in urban geography. sphere is an abstract notion and he juxta- Semioticians of culture considered the seman- posed it with non-semiotic spaces, however, tic order of cities, relationships between cit- examples that he provided lead to the con- ies and their surrounding world (Lotman clusion that we may also speak of real semi- in 1984b decided that they can be isomor- otic spaces. State borders usually deline- phic or a city can be seen as an antithesis ate boundaries of specific languages, while

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 86 Armina Kapusta borders of regions identify areas of concrete in the 4th century BC, together with the cultural codes. In this context we may come adjacent southern territories of Paeonia, was back to the role of rivers in the development subordinated to Philip II of Macedon. In the of societies. Surely, rivers are boundaries, bar- 2nd century BC the area was conquered riers that help cultures develop independent- by the Romans who turned it into their mili- ly on their both banks (e.g., Pest and Buda tary camp. Roman Scupi, which following the on the Danube, Zemun and Belgrade on the Theodosius divide in 395 AD found itself with- river mouth Sava-Danube). However, the pos- in the borders of the Byzantine Empire, was sibility to overcome these barriers contributes depopulated after the earthquake in 518 AD. to enhanced trade and cultural exchange At that time, its inhabitants moved to the between the two banks and alongside the left bank of the Vardar. It is believed that river course, e.g. Vikings in the 9th century the new city of Justiniana Prima was estab- sailing up the Seine reached Paris; the Var- lished by emperor Justinian. In 6th century angians moved alongside the rivers down AD, the place was reached by Slavic tribes, to the south, from the Baltic to the Caspian which started the Slavicisation of the region Sea on the Volga trade route and through permanently suffering from wars between the Dnieper and the Dniester to the Black the Byzantine Empire and the First Bulgarian Sea on the trade route from the Varangians Empire (681–1018). The city developed under to the Greeks. River cultures can control other the rule of tsar Samuel (997–1014), however, influences by blocking river transport. These following the Battle of Skopje in 1004 AD pragmatic moves are reflected in semiotic it returned to the Byzantine Empire. The 11th processes, control their exchanges by, inter century witnessed a series of rebels against alia, placing symbols around them, which the Byzantine rule (e.g., Petar Delyan uprising may be followed using the example of the in 1040 or Georgi Voyteh uprising in 1072). Vardar in Skopje. The bridges, from a semi- Fights were fought also with the Normans otic perspective, can be considered as texts and Serbs. However, over the 12th century and at the same time, sub-texts of the city. the city was a thriving settlement and the major development in its history was its Factors conditioning spatial subordination to the Serbian ruler Stefan and social development Nemanja in 1189-1190. That was the period of Skopje until 1963 of the increasingly more powerful Second Bulgarian Empire (1185-1396) and already Skopje lies in the heart of the Balkan Penin- in 1204 Skopje came under the rule of tsar sula. Natural conditions and historical factors Kaloyan and after his death in 1207 under have helped it preserve many attributes typi- the rule of Serbian vassal Strez. In 13th centu- cal of the cities of the Balkan interior. We need ry Skopje was ruled by: despot of Epirus, tsars to discuss them to be able to understand the of Bulgaria, emperors of Nicaea, king of Ser- symbols encoded in the urban space. The bia Uroš, the Byzantines. In 1282 Skopje was history of the city has been prepared based conquered by Stefan Milutin, who made it his on: Janevski (1970); Čipan (1978); Dojčinoski capital under the rule of the Serbian Nemanjić (1999); Jovanova (2013). dynasty for 110 years. In the 14th century the The city developed in a valley of the Var- city flourished as a cultural, religious and eco- dar River surrounded by the mountains. Geo- nomic centre. The culminating point for Skop- graphic location determines the specificity je in this period came in 1346 with the coro- of Skopje, which stretches across ca. 30 km nation of Stefan Dušan, the most outstanding alongside the west-east axis and is only ruler in the Balkans in the 14th century, as the 10 km wide. The Skopje valley was inhabited Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks. already in the Neolithic. In this early phase In the Balkans the 14th century witnessed it was a settlement of the Dardanians, which the rise to power of the Ottoman Empire, which

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 87 conquered Skopje on 6/19 January 1392 under speaking Greek in schools and using it in the rule of Bayezid I. The city, whose official religious functions (for his views and activ- name was changed to Üsküp, remained under ism Yordan Hadzhikonstantinov was expelled the Ottoman control for further 520 years and from Skopje in 1857), as well as the Ottoman was an important administrative centre of the rule. The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Sanjak of Üsküp ruled by, inter alia, Pasha Organization (IMRO), leading eg. by Goce Bey (1392–1414), Ishak-Beg (1414–1439), and Delčev, actively inspired the Ilinden Uprising Isa-Beg Isaković (1454–1463). The subse- in 1903. Finally, the Turks were ousted from quent inflows of Turks, Sephardi Jews, as well the city in 1912. Skopje found itself within the as Albanians, Greeks, Roma, and Vlachs into borders of Serbia, while during World War I, the territory marked with clear influences since 1915 it was part of Bulgaria to be incor- of Dardanian, Hellenic, Roman, Slavic, and porated to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Byzantine cultures transformed the social Slovenes in 1918. The Balkan wars were times structure of the city. Over the Ottoman period when Turkish population emigrated while the image of Skopje radically changed. Already Serbs were gradually moving in to the city. in the 15th century, the centre witnessed the During World War II, the city was occupied replacing of Orthodox churches with mosques, first by the Nazi army and then by Bulgarian minarets, and türbes. They were followed forces. In March 1943 more than 3 thousand by clock towers, hammams, hans, madrasas, of Jews residing in the city were deported bedestans, residential districts (mahala), and to Treblinka. Finally, Skopje was incorporated the reconstruction of the Stone Bridge. At that into Yugoslavia in 1944. After the WWII the time, the district presently called Stara Čaršija growth of the city was disrupted by natural (Old Bazaar) was the biggest commercial disasters: flood in 1962 and the earthquake centre of the city. Physical space of the city at 05:17 AM on 26 July 1963. The latter evolved not only as a result of decisions taken inflicted the biggest spatial changes in Skopje by the new authorities but also due to natu- in the 20th century. Over one thousand peo- ral disasters, such as the earthquake of 1555 ple were killed, more than 3 thousand injured, or the fire in 1594. In 1689 the city was occu- ca. 150 thousand left homeless and ca. 80% pied by Austrian army led by general Eneo of buildings were ruined (Fig. 1). Silvio Piccolomini, who, wishing to prevent the The entire world was helping the inhabit- outburst of the epidemics, ordered to set the ants of Skopje. Among different forms of assis- city on fire on 25 October 1689. At the same tance there were plans of reconstruction time an anti-Ottoman uprising broke out led drafted for the city. The Master Plan initiated by Karposh. These series of events contributed by United Nations was adopted in 1965 and to the drop in the population by ca. 90% (from implemented by Polservice, Doxiadis Associ- 60 thousand in the 17th century to 6 thou- ates and the Institute for Spatial and Urban sand in the early 18th century). Planning of Macedonia. The City Centre Plan The first half of the 19th century was was elaborated in 1967 by the team of Kenzo marked with construction efforts initiated Tange in cooperation with Croatian archi- or at least approved by Havzi Pasha and hod- tects. As the result, modernist buildings were ja Trajko Dojčin, which resulted in the revival introduced into Skopje landscape including of the city as a centre of trade. In 1873 Skopje brutalist architecture unusual in Balkan cities. was connected by a railway connection with Guidelines developed by the team of experts Thessaloniki. The railway station was built working under UN auspices with Ciborows- south of t he Vardar River, which until that ki as one of its members covered also the time had been the southern border of the city centre. It was decided that the Kale hill city. The development of railway transport should not be covered with the nearby build- initiated the construction of the right bank ings but it should be harmoniously combined of the river. Slavs opposed the Hellenisation, with the surroundings. The Old Bazaar was

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 88 Armina Kapusta , 1970: 221 , 1970: Skopje after the earthquake Skopje in 1963 Skopje Resurgent Skopje Figure 1. Source:

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 89 not supposed to be an open-air museum but stock and the economy. Over centuries Skop- an integral part of a modern city performing je developed into a multicultural city, which a variety of functions. The Vardar River was can be seen in its complex social and physi- also expected to link the northern and south- cal structures. Changes in urban space are ern parts of Skopje. Due to the fact that areas currently taking place within the framework adjacent to the valley of the river are exposed of multidimensional Skopje 2014 project, to damage and threatened with earthquakes, which is not officially referred to as a regen- it was decided to reduce the density of build- eration project but exhibits many qualities ings at river banks (Skopje Resurgent 1970). typical of the process. Reconstruction changed also the social structure as a result of resettlements and rapid Bridges on the Vardar River inflow of people. According to data from the in Skopje 2014 Project census in 1961 the city had 197,000 residents; ten years later the population grew Back in 2010 the then ruling party VMRO- to 312 thousand. In 1994, three years after the -DPMNE initiated the Skopje 2014 project proclamation of independence of the Repub- intended to transform the urban space lic of Macedonia, Skopje had 448 thousand of Skopje to give it a more monumental residents and 506 thousand in 2002. Its cen- character and promote values and contents tral districts: southern Centar and northern important for the Macedonians. Until 2017 Čair are the smallest (7.52 km2 and 3.52 km2, in total 137 structures were built includ- respectively) but densely populated. Accord- ing baroque and neoclassical buildings, car ing to the census of 2002, out of 65 thousand parks, monuments, squares, a Ferris wheel, inhabitants of Čair 57% were Albanians, 24% bridges, a triumphal arch, fountains, etc. Macedonians, 7% Turks, while 45 thousand Most of them symbolize a nationalist ideol- residents of Centar included 85% of Macedo- ogy and were used to construct a positive nians, 4.5% of Serbs, 3% of Albanians and image of Skopje (Graan 2013). These interven- representatives of other nationalities. These tions are not officially referred to as regen- districts with their different origin and hous- eration which can be explained by the fact ing stock (Fig. 2) are dominated by represent- that they were undertaken in non-degraded atives of different nationalities but diversity areas but in locations not fully developed. and multiethnicity is their common feature That is especially true for areas alongside the and the two factors permeate and comple- banks of the Vardar River, which remained ment each other. Administrative borders non-developed as a result of decisions taken between them delineated north of the Vardar when the city was reconstructed after the remain invisible to the people and the river 1963 earthquake. Empty spaces allowed con- acts as a natural border. structing new building structures saving the The history of Skopje and the whole region demolition effort. Besides, the project is not is extremely complex. We have brought it to designed to help revive the city’s economy your attention to highlight the most important as newly erected buildings are, inter alia, persons and events that influenced the city’s administration buildings and museums rather development. Furthermore, over the centuries than office buildings or factories. However, Skopje was being destroyed by natural disas- in the light of the definition proposed by Kacz- ters as well as due to political transformations; marek (2001), we may identify some features both entailed numerous reconstructions. Each of the project that allow classifying it as change in power in the city exerted significant a regeneration intervention, such as planned impact upon the community of Skopje and activities that adjust the space to changing provoked migration flows. Subsequent rulers needs; in this concrete case we mean the would change the policy vis-à-vis the local wish of local authorities to improve the city people and radically transform urban housing physiognomy and simultaneously promote

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 90 Armina Kapusta

Figure 2. Buildings in Centar (A) and Čair (B) districts (2016) values and content important for Macedoni- Most of the effort undertaken within the ans. Newly erected buildings transform city Skopje 2014 project focuses on the Centar morphology and physiognomy. As demon- district, the most elegant part of the city with strated by the studies conducted by the the Vardar River as its axis. The project covers author and discussed below, the project not only the banks of the river (e.g., the build- has also transformed social relations. Cul- ings of the Museum of Archaeology, Agency tural dimension of the process is obvious and for Electronic Communications, etc.) but also we will examine one of its aspects: the change its bed (ships turned into restaurants, willows, of semiotics of space. Shaping a new semiotic which are monuments symbolising faith, space of a city consists, inter alia, in com- hope, and love, etc.), and bridges. It provided memorating people, who, in the eyes of the for the renovation of the existing bridges and decision makers, contributed to the develop- the construction of new bridges for pedes- ment of Macedonian civilisation and culture, trians. Bridges are richly ornamented and which is why the history of the city is outlined they are used not just to facilitate traffic but at length in the previous section. to create new symbols in space. The latter

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 91 will be explained by examining monuments decorated with the sculptures (Tab. 1), while financed under the project and placed on the the Stone Bridge has been left unchanged. bridges and along the banks of the Vardar Considering that, according to the http:// River, which act as an extension of bridges skopje2014.prizma.birn.eu.com/ Web portal in this function. All the bridges are located [20 October 2018], until January 2018 the in the Centar district with the Stone Bridge Skopje 2014 project delivered 137 undertak- in between, which is included in our consid- ings, which consumed ca. EUR 684 m, works erations due to its location (Fig. 3). connected with the bridges can be regarded In total the analysis covers six bridges, two as not very spectacular (they represent less of them are newly constructed pedestrian than 2% of the amount spent on the project). bridges (the ’Eye’ Bridge and the Art Bridge), However, central location of bridges, their three have been renovated (the ’Freedom’ functions and ornaments make them very vis- Bridge, Goce Delčev Bridge and Mother Tere- ible to residents and tourists. By linking the sa Bridge), the Goce Delčev Bridge was also right and left bank of the Vardar River they

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Figure 3. Bridges on the Vardar River in Centar district Source: own compilation based on http:// skopje.gov.mk, 2017.

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 92 Armina Kapusta

Table 1. Bridges on the Vardar River constructed or renovated under the Skopje 2014 project (from west to east)

Works performed Cost No. Bridge Built in Type of transport under the Skopje 2014 project EUR MKD

1 Goce Delčev 1973 road, pedestrian reconstruc- 557,967 34,314,999 Bridge tion of railings in 2011 two sculptures 1,311,907 80,682,250 of lions placed in front of the bridge on the right bank two sculptures 1,273,150 78,298,750 of lions placed in front of the bridge on the left bank 2 The ’Eye’ Bridge 2013 pedestrian construction 2,750,107 169,131,603 sculptures 648,740 39,879,500 3 The Art Bridge 2013 pedestrian construction 2,342,194 144,044,960 sculptures 583,521 35,886,518 4 The ’Freedom’ 1936 road, pedestrian new Baroque 2,163,377 133,047,696 bridge railings, lights, partial restoration 5 Mother Teresa 1963 road, pedestrian restoration 697,710 42,909,169 Bridge of the bridge, new railings and lights Total 12,328,673 758,195,445 Source: own compilation based on field research (2016) and http://skopje2014.prizma.birn.eu.com (accessed December 2017). perform an important transportation func- Delčev (1872-1903), the leader of the libera- tion connecting the southern and northern tion movement and a member of the IMRO, districts of the city: Centar and Čair. Numer- currently an important figure in the history ous monuments on the bridges give them of Macedonia and Bulgaria. Since the recon- symbolic meaning and highlight cultural struction started in 2011 the bridge has values important to project originators. This changed rather substantially. New railings is the case of bridges with monuments and have changed its colour to gold strongly con- of those where railings were changed. trasting with concrete elements, while verti- The construction of the Goce Delčev Bridge cal and horizontal lines of bridge fence panels (Fig. 4), was completed in 1973. It was a sim- have been replaced with more ornamental ple architectural structure practically with ones. Vertical elements have been placed no decorative details designed to stream- on the bridge: three types of richly decorated line traffic and not distract the attention street lamps. At the entrances to the bridge from the nearby establishments (e.g., the there are four lions on ornamented pedestals Kale hill). The bridge was named after Goce without inscriptions. Lions on the left bank

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 93

Figure 4. Bridges renovated under the Skopje 2014 project: Mother Teresa Bridge (A), Freedom Bridge (B) and Goce Delčev Bridge (C)

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 94 Armina Kapusta are geometric forms and ornaments on ped- alternately with ancient shields remains estals make references to the ancient times. unclear. There are also 8 characteristic hang- Lions on the southern bank of the Vardar ing lights with winged silhouettes. River are more realistic and carvings on the Bridges renovated after 2010 are more pedestals depict events from the two last functional but their symbols are incoherent, decades of the 19th century. The authors chaotic and not fully understandable; they claim that lions are a Macedonian symbol refer mostly to ancient Macedonia and to the and they intended to present them as guard- folklore of the Vardar Macedonia. Further two ians (http://skopje2014.prizma.birn.eu.com/ bridges were erected anew and they are used mk/dva-lava-na-mostot-goce-delchev-desno by pedestrians only (Fig. 5). They differ with – accessed on 20 October 2018). The Goce sculptures that decorate them in a semanti- Delčev Bridge has not changed its function cally coherent way. On the Art Bridge, we can but it lost its identity. Its ornaments have find sculptures commemorating representa- sparked a lot of controversy surrounding tives of the world of culture. The idea behind their cost and the fact that by being a chaotic placing sculptures on the bridge is briefly out- hybrid they do not provide a coherent narra- lined on open book monuments on both sides tive and the absence of inscriptions leaves its of the bridge: in Macedonian on the left-hand symbolic aspect unclear. page and in English on the right-hand page: The Mother Teresa Bridge, previously the “Built in 2012. The Bridge of Art celebrates Revolution Bridge, was named after the Cath- the recent Macedonian artistic history. This olic Church saint born to an ethnic Albanian resplendent bridge is decorated with thirty- family in Skopje. The bridge was renovated five statues of some of the most significant and under the Skopje 2014 project, including the distinguished educators, artists, writers, com- exchange of railings into gold colour ones with posers and actors from Macedonia, individu- fence panels filled with openwork shields. als who have had a deep influence on Mac- When we were carrying out the field research edonian art, leaving a treasury of works and there were simple street lamps and torch-like cultural wealth that forms an invaluable part outdoor lights as integral parts of the new of the Macedonian cultural heritage”. fencing removed in December 2016. The inscription explains whose sculptures New railings are also the most charac- these are, however, information is not very teristic elements of the ’Freedom’ bridge precise. Back in 2016 when field studies were (previously Moša Pijade Bridge) constructed conducted the 83 meters long bridge host- in 1936. These railings, similarly to lions on the ed 27 pedestals with 28 statues. There are Goce Delčev Bridge, have drawn harsh criti- 13 monuments along each side of the bridge cism from the public due to high costs. The and the statues are facing the central part inscription placed on the bridge in Macedoni- thereof. In the central part where the bridge an and English reads: “The Macedonian peo- becomes wider there are Miladinov brothers ple fought for centuries for the ideal called facing the south. Monuments can be found freedom. In that struggle, thousands of peo- also on the left bank of Vardar; eastwards ple lost their lives or were wounded, impris- from the bridge there are 3 and westwards oned, tortured, exiled and humiliated, but 6 sculptures (Tab. 2) with their backs turned the fight for freedom always continued. This to the river. In total, 37 men have been com- bridge is named in honour of all those gen- memorated. erations of people who sacrificed their lives Who are the artists on the monuments throughout the centuries in the individual and we can learn by studying name plaques collective fight for freedom”. (sometimes giving also their nicknames), years Although the text explains the name of the of birth and death, and main activity area. bridge, the message of decorations on the Information is written in Macedonian and railings depicting Macedonian folklore placed in English; the English version is a latinization

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 95

Figure 5. Bridges erected under the Skopje 2014 project: the Art Bridge (A) and the Bridge of Civilisations (B) of the name written in Cyrillic alphabet. That 7 poets, 5 educators, 5 painters, 4 compos- is rather strange because the same has been ers, 2 actors, as well as a singer, grammar- done to Turkish and Albanian names, which ian, folklorist, a public person, an author in the English texts could have been written of textbooks and an icon painter who was in accordance with the Turkish or Albanian also a writer. According to information about standard. There is a certain order in the the bridge, these people should be connected way the statues are placed on the bridge. with the modern history of Macedonian art. Its south-east part is occupied by musicians, Sculptures on the bridge depict personalities, south-west by painters while the remain- whose life and oeuvre cover the 20th century ing areas of the bridge are occupied mainly (only 4 come from the 19th century), while by monuments of people linked with litera- 9 monuments on the banks of the Vardar Riv- ture with the exception of one composer and er commemorate people who lived between an actor whose statues are in the north-east 17th and 20th centuries. From the inscrip- part. Monuments on the northern bank of the tions on the monuments it is hard to learn the Vardar commemorate people of different nationality, origin or achievements of these fields of culture. In total there are 8 writers, people while information about the bridge

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 96 Armina Kapusta

Table 2. Personalities commemorated on the Art Bridge Joakim Krchovski Kiril Pejchinovitch Partenija Zografski Kuzman Shapkarev (1751-1820) educator (1874-1926) educator (1874-1926) (1834-1909) folklorist(1834-1909) (1771-1845) educator Krste Misirkov Petkov Venijamin MachukovskiVenijamin (1847-1878) grammarian (1847-1878) (1847-1898) public figure (1847-1898) Dimitar Vasilev Makedonski (1818-1876) author of textbooks (1818-1876) Risto actor Shishkov (1940-1986) Hristofor Zhefarovich century (17 / 1753) icon and fresco1753) writer painter,

Stale Popov (1902-1965) writer Petre Prlichko (1907-1995) actor Adem Gajtani (1939-1982) poet Stefan Gajdov (1905-1992) composer Vancho Nikoleski (1912-1980) writer Vasil Iljoski (1902-1995) writer Jordan Hadji Konstantinov-Djinot Zhivko Chingo (1935-1987) writer (1821-1882) educator Murteza Peza (1919-1981) writer Nedjati Zekerija (1928-1988) poet Kocho Racin (1908-1943) poet Vojdan Chernodrinski (1875-1951) writer Konstantin Mila- Dimitar Miladinov dinov (1830-1862) (1810-1862) poet educator Slavko Janevski (1920-2000) poet Grigor Prlichev (1829-1893) writer Nikola Vapcarov (1909-1942) poet Blazhe Koneski (1921-1993) writer Dimitar Kondovski (1927-1993) painter Aco Shopov (1923-1982) poet Dimitar Pandilov (1898-1963) painter Vlastimir Nikolovski (1925-2001) composer Petar Mazev (1927-1993) painter Trajko Prokopiev (1909-1979) composer Nikola Martinoski (1903-1973) painter Todor Skalovski (1909-2004) composer Lazar Lichenoski (1901-1964) painter Todor Proeski-Toshe (1981-2007) singer Source: own compilation based on field studies, 2016. (horizontally – sculptures on the bridge, vertically – monuments on the left bank of the Vardar River; inscriptions on monuments are in Macedonian and English; the Table gives English names only) suggests that they belong to the Macedonian should be welcome, however, they encourage cultural heritage, exerted powerful impact further studies. From the latter we have found upon Macedonian art and come from Mace- out that 35 of these people were born in the donia. Considering the turbulent history of the geographic region of Macedonia, out of them region which fuels the still pending dispute 30 people in Vardar Macedonia and 4 (Vasi- between Macedonia, Greece and Bulgaria, lev, Machukovski, Shishkov, and Petkov Mis- such enigmatic and balanced statements irkov) in Aegean Macedonia, while Vapcarov

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 97 in Pirin Macedonia. Moreover, Gajtani was and semantically links to it. On both sides born in Kosovo and Peza in Albania. The fact of the bridge there are altogether 30 statues, that the majority of the artists were born one is in the centre, 8 on the northern bank in Vardar Macedonia does not mean they of Vardar on the east side of the bridge, 4 ped- were of Macedonian origin. Among commem- estals with 5 statues on the west (Tab. 3). Nev- orated men there is one Turk (Zekerija), two ertheless, contrary to what we can read on the ethnic Albanians (Peza, Gajtani) and Aroma- plaque explaining the symbols of the bridge, nians (Martinoski, Proeski), as well as people not only kings (10 people), rulers (4), tsars (3), considered Macedonians in Macedonia and dukes (2), or provincial governors (1) are com- Bulgarians in Bulgaria (Prlichev, Miladinov memorated, but also people linked with reli- brothers, Hadji Konstantinov, Chernodrin- gious practices: 2 archbishops, 2 archpriests, ski, Vasilev Makedonski, Machukovski, Petkov 3 bishops, 3 hermits, a priestess, metropoli- Misirkov, Shapkarev, Zografski, Pejchinovitch, tan, church benefactor and manuscript illumi- Krchovski, Zhefarovich, and Vapcarov). The nator, a Christian saint, and also a general, analysis may lead to a paradoxical conclusion a nobleman, 2 rebellion leaders, a scholar, that according to the decision makers in Skop- benefactress, a composer, and fresco paint- je the Ottoman Empire which was the rulers. All these people are connected with the ing power in the territory for over 500 years territory and history of Macedonia understood favoured the development of Macedonian as a geographic region, which, as we can see and Bulgarian culture while Turkish and Alba- from the above overview, owes its develop- nian influences were marginal. On top of that, ment mainly to the rulers, to a smaller degree we need to note that before Macedonia got to clergymen and slightly to artists. Sculptures incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, of the latter are placed on the left bank of Var- Croats, and Slovenes, Macedonian – Bulgar- dar, hence we can guess that they semanti- ian cultural bonds had been very strong and cally connect the Art Bridge and the Bridge inseparable. Similar complex cultural and of Civilisations. On both information plaques historical relations can be observed on the are placed in the same way but on the Bridge Bridge of Civilisations where, like on the Art of Civilisations these plaques have a different Bridge, statues and richly decorated hang- shape and provide different data: name, func- ing lights were placed. The design idea tion, years or century when the person ruled is explained in the information written on the or was active. Apparently, the plaques were bridge: “The Bridge of Civilizations in Mac- made in a hurry and mistakes and omissions edonia was built in 2013. It symbolizes the impede browsing for detailed information civilizations that lived and developed on this about these people in English language litera- territory. The statues erected on the bridge ture. Moreover, searches in Macedonian are represent distinguished individuals from Mac- also difficult since even if these were ’distin- edonian and world history. Numerous sig- guished individuals’ of their times, they were nificant and invaluable archaeological finds not promoted in historic or popular literature dating from the time of their reign have been of the 20th and 21st centuries. The remark discovered on the territory of the present-day is true for some of them as many are com- Republic of North Macedonia. Many of these monly known and their names have already artifacts which represent the depth of Mace- been mentioned in the section focused on the donian history and the spirit of the time when history of Skopje. To those not very familiar these individuals reigned are displayed in the with the history of the region some sugges- Archaeological Museum of Macedonia which tions may come from the period of activism can be reached via this bridge”. or the function. Trying to sum up what civilisa- The Bridge of Civilisation is commonly called tions “lived and developed on this territory”, the Eye Bridge because of its characteristic we need to note that out of the whole com- shape. It leads to the Archaeology Museum memorated group of personalities 17 lived

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 98 Armina Kapusta

Table 3. Personalities commemorated on the Bridge of Civilisations (1497-1515) (1528-1550) (1280-1360) (1371-1393) (1365-1371) (15th century) (1371 – 1379) (1371 (14th century-1395) (14th John Uglesha, ruler Uglesha, John (14th century-1371) (14th painters (1294-1317) painters (1294-1317) St George of Kratovo Archbishop Prochorus (14th – 15th centuries) – 15th (14th Archbishop Dorotheus King Demetrius Volkashin Constantine Dragash, ruler St John Kukuzelis, composer Andreach, church benefactor church Andreach, Andrea Gropa, provincial governor manuscript century) illuminator (16th John the Fresco metropolitan Painter, Michael Astrapas and Eutychios, fresco Visarion of church Debar, benefactor and

King Marko (1371-1395) Tsar Stephen Dushan (1331-1355) Dobromir Hrs, ruler (1185-1202) Sebastokrator Strez, ruler (1207-1214) Peter Delyan, rebellion leader (1040-1041) Georgi Voyteh, rebellion leader (1072-1073) St Joachim of Osogovo, hermit (11th-12th St Prochorus of Pchinja, hermit (11th-12th centuries) centuries) Tsar Ivan Vladislav (1015-1018) Count Ivats, nobleman (10th -11th centuries) St Gavril of Lesnovo, hermit (11th-12th Tsar Gavril Radomir (1014-1015) centuries) Duke Hatson (7th century AD) Duke Prebond (7th century AD) Paeonian Priestess (8th-7th centuries) Bishop Dionysius (4th century AD) St Achillius, bishop of Prespa (4th century AD) Publius Sentius Septimius Nicholaus, arch- Bishop Budius (4th century AD) priest (3rd century AD) Iulia Tertylla, benefactress (2nd century AD) Aurelius Crates Ptolemaei, scholar (3rd century AD) King Perseus (179-168 BC) Titus Flavius Orestes, archpriest (2nd-3rd centuries AD) King Audoleon (315-285 BC) King Philip V (221-179 BC) King Amyntas III (392-370 BC) General Parmenion (4th century BC) King Alexander I Philhellene (498-454 BC) King Archelaus I (413-399 BC) King Caranus (9th-8th BC) King Perdiccas I (707,659 BC) Source: own compilation based on the field studies, 2016. (horizontally – sculptures on the bridge, vertically – monuments on the left bank of the Vardar River; inscriptions on the monuments are in Macedonian and English; in the Table we have included only English versions in accordance with the local spelling) in the ancient times (including 8 in ancient Orthodox church), and 5 in the 15th and 16th Macedonia, 2 in Paeonia, and 7 in ancient centuries and all of them were connected with Rome), 21 in the Middle Ages (14 Slavic rul- the Orthodox church. Statues on the bridge ers, one Albanian feudal, 6 monuments were are placed in chronological order, however, dedicated to people connected with the a clear key to their selection is hard to identify,

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 99 except the display of artefacts connected with commemorated together with subsequent rul- them in the Archaeological Museum as men- ers, who exerted significant impact upon the tioned on informational plaque. Surely those, Macedonian history but also upon the history whose mammoth monuments already feature of Bulgaria and Serbia. Another commemo- in other locations (e.g., Alexander the Great, rated person is Gropa, a Serbian vassal from emperor Justinian) have been omitted. Two a noble ethnic Albanian family, administer- personalities connected with Paeonia have ing the region of Ohrid remembered thanks been commemorated: king Audoleon and to Serb epic poetry. Poems tell stories also a priestess whose sculpture has been placed about prince Marko. The Mrnjavčević dynas- in the middle of the bridge with her body fac- ty, from which he originates is also representing the east and the head looking up into ed by his father Volkashin, uncle John Uglesha the skies most probably because the Paeoni- and brother Andreach, referred to as a church ans worshipped the Sun. The gallery of kings benefactor rather than a ruler. Merits for the of ancient Macedonia includes the first ruler development of spiritual life were reasons why who integrated Macedonian territories Perdic- other people originating from Greece, Bulgar- cas I and Perseus, the last one of the Antigo- ia, Albania, Macedonia, and Serbia have been nids dynasty. Important cities of Roman times commemorated. Surprisingly, on the bridge were, inter alia, Stobi, Heraclea Lyncestis, and intended to commemorate people who con- Lychnidos (currently Ohrid), and commemo- tributed to the growth of Macedonia we can rated personalities representing the period see mainly ancient and Medieval Slavic rulers between 2nd and 4th centuries AD were and representatives of Orthodox Church irre- connected with these urban centres with the spective of their origin. There is not a single exception of bishop St Achillius. Thus, it is hard sculpture which would testify to Ottoman to identify his intentional input into the growth influences. They are recalled only by the Stone of the Macedonian civilisation. His cult was Bridge (Fig. 6) west of the Bridge of Civilisa- promoted by tsar Samuel, who wanted to get tions and distinctive with its majestic peace. relics of any early Christian saint and he had The architecture of the oldest bridge in Skopje St Achillius remains transferred to the island is harmonious and plain. It has a charac- on the Lake Prespa. In the 6th century the teristic watchtower shaped like a mihrab Slavs reached these territories, which is why reconstructed in 2008 with a commemo- the first dukes Prebond and Hatson have been rative plaque in Macedonian and English,

Figure 6. Stone Bridge

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 100 Armina Kapusta from which we can learn that the bridge was substantially rebuilt after the earthquake originally built in 1421–1451 during the rule in 1963, combines eclectic and modernist of Mehmed the Conqueror on the foundations architecture. The Vardar River is a natural from the 6th century. The latest renovation border between the two districts, however, started in 1994 and it went against efforts in accordance with the 1963 reconstruction planned under the Skopje 2014 project. The plan they were supposed to complement bridge was restored to its original shape with each other with clearly allocated functions only two matching plaques: one dedicated and bridges acting as linking elements. to the bridge and the other one commemo- Reconstructions of the existing bridges rating the execution of Karposh. Left without and the construction of new ones under the any sculptures, the Stone Bridge is the sym- Skopje 2014 project could be considered the bol of the city, link between the northern and continuation of this idea, at least in terms southern, Albanian and Macedonian, old and of their functionality. However, they were new parts of the city. As one of very few struc- used to promote a specifically interpreted tures in this part of the city that survived the Macedonian heritage. Railings on the bridg- earthquake in 1963, it manifests the spirit and es are not only utilitarian but they convey the vitality of the city and its people. Its simple some content. Their semantic load, on the form makes a more powerful semantic state- one hand, refers to historical periods as well ment than pedestrian bridges built in the 21st as politicians, artists, and religious person- century overloaded with decorations. alities important to Macedonian culture. On the other hand, they negate some cul- Conclusion tural impacts. Railings and fencing on different bridges present symbols connected with Skopje is a city with complex but fascinat- ancient Macedonia and reliefs presenting ing history that has been developing for Macedonian folklore. Besides, the entrance centuries. Natural disasters and conquests to the Goce Delčev Bridge is guarded by lions entailed morphological, physiognomic, (symbols of Macedonia) on pedestals orna- and social transformations. Walking along mented with reliefs depicting scenes con- the streets of Skopje we can study the his- nected with ancient Macedonia and political tory of the city and of the region by look- developments from the late 19th century. ing at structures erected under the Skopje Pedestrian bridges are semantically coher- 2014 project initiated 19 years after the ent but difficult to digest as the multiplicity proclamation of independence of the Repub- of sculptures featuring on them is overwhelm- lic of Macedonia. Richly decorated bridges ing and tiring rather than encouraging any over the Vardar River feature prominently reflection on Macedonian history and culture. among these structures; they also facilitate Many statues, in particular on the Bridge moving between the oldest district of Čair of Civilisations, depict people little known inhabited mainly by Albanians and located to general public and brief inscriptions are not south of it the district of Centar dominat- enough to learn about their accomplishments. ed by the Macedonians. These two parts Literature studies have led us to conclude of the city differ significantly between each that commemorated personalities represent other not only because they are inhabited ancient Macedonians, inhabitants of the by two different nations who speak differ- Vardar Macedonia in the Roman times and ent languages and have different religious Slavs (Bulgarians, Serbs and Macedonians). affiliation. Old Bazaar in the Čair district Tribute has been paid to leaders, rulers, peo- has attributes typical of Turkish cities while ple who have contributed to the development the part located south of the Vardar River, of spiritual life, literature, music, and paint- which developed mostly after the railway ing. There are few representatives of Alba- line was put into operation in 1873 and was nian and Turkish culture among outstanding

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 The Vardar River as a border of semiosphere – Paradox of Skopje regeneration 101 personalities. In contemporary Macedonia addressed to city dwellers and semantics that the Ottoman rule which went on for over five highlights values important to Macedonians hundred years is considered an occupation but paradoxically producing divergent views and symbols placed on the bridges suggest among themselves. Manipulating symbols that Turks living in those times and Albanians results in conflicts and destroys social rela- did not contribute to the development of Mac- tions. It is hard to provide an unambiguous edonian territories neither in political nor assessment of the project and its impact in cultural way. upon residents of Skopje because the inter- Thus, the Vardar River has turned into ventions have not been completed. At the a double barrier between the northern and current stage, if we apply semiotic approach southern part of Skopje: it is not only a natu- we can conclude that semantically, through ral border but also a border between two cul- the examination of meanings encoded tures posed by symbols placed on it. Bridges on bridges, the project has produced spe- could become borders of the semiosphere cific social and cultural regeneration: revival in the meaning of Lotman, however, in this of discussions, bringing back old ideas mostly case they do not act as filters facilitating the unknown to residents of contemporary Skop- exchange of codes but as walls that belong je, and conflict escalation. By the same token, to one semiotic space and are in opposi- transformations of the urban space lead tion to the other. We may conclude that this to the destruction of social bonds between is a lost opportunity to use bridges to improve supporters of different ideas of the country the communication between two dominant development and representatives of ethnic groups in Skopje, build good relations and groups inhabiting it: the project favours Mac- link districts. Instead, in the city space there edonians, negates the heritage of the Albani- is symbolic power in the meaning of Pierre ans and excludes Turkish heritage. Bourdieu (1991) or structural violence or cul- Semiotic analysis helps noticing a vital tural violence according to Johan Galtung’s issue in the regeneration of Skopje: the Vard- idea (1969, 1990). ar River which could be a border between the On top of that, symbols on the Vardar semiospheres with bridges acting as filters River are not approved by some Macedoni- becomes a symbolic wall dividing two com- ans. Besides those who appreciate their func- munities and impeding the building of proper tions and artistic merits, to whom sculptures relations between them; it may also become have become inspirations to dig into the the source of conflicts and disintegration history of the region there are people who of relations. Yet, the Stone Bridge makes believe that costly structures erected under us remember that bridges may and should the Skopje 2014 project testify to national- link, irrespective of the political context, and istic tendencies and erroneous policy of the the Vardar River may be a border of semiotic VMRO-DPMNE government. During the spaces. After all, river is the best reflection events of April 2016, the so called Colour- of Heraclitus words panta rhei. ful Revolution provoked by political scandals in the Republic of Macedonia, people would Acknowledgements throw paint of different colours at government buildings and structures constructed This paper is financed by National Science under the Skopje 2014 project (including the Centre of Poland based on decision no. DEC- bridges), which means they are not approved 2014/15/B/HS4/01940. by general public. Establishments built after 2010 regenerate the urban space yet they Editors‘ note: have also become stigmatising tools. Unless otherwise stated, the sources of tables and Bridges covered by the analysis reflect figures are the authors‘, on the basis of their own the conflict between transportation function research.

Geographia Polonica 2019, 92, 1, pp. 83-102 102 Armina Kapusta

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