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Tohono O'odham Foodways FORGOTTEN FOOD: . ANTHROPOLOGICAL MARGINALIZATION OF TOHONO O'ODHAM . FOODWAYS DURING THE INDIAN NEW DEAL AND ITS CONSEQUENCES By EMILY BROOKS BURTON A Thesis Submitted to The Honors College In Partial Fulfillment of the Bachelots Degree With Honors in History THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA MAY 2014 Approved by: \ ~u.s.. · Dr. Jeremy Vetter Department of History The University of Arizona Electronic Theses and Dissertations Reproduction and Distribution Rights Form The UA Campus Repository supports the dissemination and preservation of scholarship produced by University of Arizona faculty , researchers, and students. The University Library, in collaboration with the Honors College, has established a collection in the UA Campus Repository to share, archive, and preserve undergraduate Honors theses. Theses that are submitted to the UA Campus Repository are available for publ ic view. 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Student signature: Date: Last update d: 04/01 /13 Abstract As the Tohono O’odham diabetes epidemic has become a topic for scholars of various fields, historians investigate the past to explain the transformations in foodways. It is crucial to understand how, when, and why diet declined in order to promote a healthy future. This thesis will argue that the Tohono O’odham traditional foodways were marginalized during the Indian New Deal. John Collier, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs from 1933-1945, reflected Boasian anthropology in his reforms to promote cultural preservation. He hired anthropologist Ruth Underhill to study the Tohono O’odham, as he did with anthropologists around the country, to ensure legislation respected cultural terms. While attending to cultural activities they viewed as central to preservation, such as religious practices and arts and crafts, foodways were overshadowed in anthropological studies. In an effort to return land to American Indians, Collier and Underhill did not focus on the possibility of preserving traditional agricultural practices. After the reforms, the ensuing relationships between the Tohono O’odham and land, water, and wage labor led them away traditional diets. The Indian New Deal’s commitment to cultural preservation thus ironically deemphasized the foodways that encompass all facets of Tohono O’odham culture and tradition. Introduction Destruction of the Tohono O’odham food system has led to a dramatic loss of Tohono O’odham language and cultural traditions, as equally devastating as the loss of the people’s physical health. Virtually all elements of traditional culture – ceremonies, stories, songs, language – are directly rooted in the system of food production. O’odham culture is truly an agri/culture. As a result, destruction of the traditional food system has contributed to the significant loss of many elements of the O’odham Himdag – Desert People’s Way.1 Tohono O’odham Community Action (TOCA) and the Tohono O’odham Community College published these statements in 2002 as part of a study to promote the return to traditional diets. Calling to consume the desert as they once did, the Tohono O’odham community is reacting to the 20th century onslaught of diabetes. The epidemic has swept the O’odham population and become a dominant topic in American Indian health discussions. Organizations like TOCA have formed to combat the issue and encourage a healthy population. The return to traditional diet is supported, as the O’odham nation did not suffer from diabetes when they relied solely on their customary subsistence system. According to TOCA, “during Maria Chona’s lifetime – and into the 1960’s – no member of the Tohono O’odham tribe had ever been afflicted with Type II (adult-onset) Diabetes” and yet “today more than half the population – including children as young as seven-years old – suffer from the disease. This is the highest rate of any 1 Daniel Lopez, Tristan Reader and, Paul Buseck, Community Attitudes Toward Traditional Tohono O’odham Foods. (Sells, AZ: Tohono O’odham Community Action and Tohono O’odham Community College, 2002),11. 1 population in the world.”2 Maria Chona was the subject of anthropologist Ruth Underhill’s studies on the Tohono O’odham in the 1930s. It is evident that changes occurred during Maria Chona’s life that influenced the health of her nation. The severity of the situation has drawn the attention of various disciplines, investigating the causes of this phenomenon. The diversity of speculations has stemmed from the past to the present, from archaeology to public health. According to zooarchaeological investigations, the credit for changes belongs to the Spanish and the introduction of missions.3 Meanwhile public health studies are searching in the present for causes linked to heredity and obesity.4 This is significant today because the diabetes issue is being discussed so thoroughly. It is used as a case study for the larger obesity epidemic that is causing concern in the country. It is also used to encourage the return to traditional foodways and local agriculture.5 This secondary literature is important in outlining the consequences of the 2 Lopez, Reader, and Buseck. Community Attitudes Toward Traditional Tohono O’odham Foods, 4. 3 Barnet Pavao-Zuckerman and Vincent M. LaMotta, “Missionization and Economic Change in the Primería Alta: The Zooarchaeology of San Agustín de Tucson,” International Journal of Historical Archaeology 11, no. 3 (2007), 260. 4 Dale A. Coddington and John J. Hisnanick, “Clinical Characteristics of Non-Insulin- Dependent Diabetes Mellitus among Southwestern American Indian Youths,” Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition 19, no. 1 (2001), 15. 5 Evelyne Cudel. “High Incidence of Diabetes in the O’Odham: A Community Approach in Prevention and Control for a Native American Tribe” (PhD diss., University of California, Riverside,1994); Fat and Happy? Directed by Alan Alda, 2001. (New York, NY: Films Media Group, 2009), DVD; Indian Oasis School District #40, When Everything was Real: An Introduction to Papago Desert Foods (Sells, AZ: Indian Oasis School District #40, 1980); Mariana Leal Ferreira and Gretchen Chelsey Lang, eds., Indigenous Peoples and Diabetes: Community Empowerment and Wellness (Durham: Carolina Academic Press, 2006); Gary P. Nabhan, Why Some Like It Hot: Food, Genes, and Cultural Diversity (Washington: Island Press, 2004, (Updated version in Nabhan, Gary Paul. “Rooting Out the Causes of Disease: Why Diabetes Is So Common Among 2 past and how this topic relates to broader issues. The Tohono O’odham diabetes topic has been an ongoing discussion in multiple sub-fields. The histories of anthropology, food, and Indian policy are three of such fields engaged in the conversation. This thesis will examine the 20th century transformation of diet and health of the Tohono O’odham through the context of anthropology, food, and Indian policy studies. For the 1930s, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Collier, and anthropologist Ruth Underhill’s reports are windows into the policies and effects of the policies, respectively. Historians debate about both Collier and Underhill’s approaches and how they reflect the anthropological practices of the time. Many historians agree that Collier had a radical approach in his emphasis of education, religion, politics, and land reform. Historians have discussed his welfare reformations and the cultural preservation intentions of Underhill’s ethnographic works. Yet Collier’s determination to promote welfare programs met resistance from both Anglos and the American Indian nations.6 The land allotment and agricultural aspects of the welfare were debated and thus connect policy and diet. Sources focus on Collier’s effort toward cultural preservation, but mention neither food nor diet.7 While Collier implemented policies, Underhill recorded information about the people they were affecting.
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