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Fungi Active Microbial Metabolism Detection of Rhizopus Sp chemosensors Article Fungi Active Microbial Metabolism Detection of Rhizopus sp. and Aspergillus sp. Section Nigri on Strawberry Using a Set of Chemical Sensors Based on Carbon Nanostructures Marcia W. C. C. Greenshields 1, Bruno B. Cunha 1, Neil J. Coville 2, Ida C. Pimentel 3, Maria A. C. Zawadneak 3, Steffani Dobrovolski 3, Mireli T. Souza 3 and Ivo A. Hümmelgen 1,* 1 Departamento de Física, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Caixa Postal 19044, 81531-980 Curitiba, Brazil; marcia@fisica.ufpr.br (M.W.C.C.G.); [email protected] (B.B.C.) 2 DST-NRF Centre of Excellence in Strong Materials and Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, PO Wits, 2050 Johannesburg, South Africa; [email protected] 3 Departamento de Patologia Básica, Laboratório de Microbiologia e Biologia Molecular-LabMicro, Universidade Federal do Paraná, 81531-980 Curitiba, Brazil; [email protected] (I.C.P.); [email protected] (M.A.C.Z.); [email protected] (S.D.); [email protected] (M.T.S.) * Correspondence: iah@fisica.ufpr.br; Tel.: +55-41-3361-3645 Academic Editor: Igor Medintz Received: 20 April 2016; Accepted: 6 September 2016; Published: 14 September 2016 Abstract: We use a set of three resistive sensors based on undoped multi-walled carbon nanotubes, B-doped multi-walled carbon nanotubes, and N-doped multi-walled carbon nanotubes to study fungal infection in strawberries inoculated with Rhizopus sp. or with Aspergillus sp. section Nigri. We apply tristimulus analysis using the conductance variation of the sensors when exposed to the infected strawberries to distinguish between uninfected strawberries and strawberries infected with Rhizopus sp. or with Aspergillus sp. section Nigri, and to obtain a graphical representation providing a tool for the simple and fast detection and identification of the fungal infection. Keywords: Rhizopus; Aspergillus; fungi microbial metabolism; sensors; carbon nanostructures 1. Introduction The strawberry fruit is pleasant to the eye and to taste. It has a characteristic flavor, a bright red color, and good consumer acceptance. It can be consumed in natura, or in the form of candies and beverages, having a large market. Strawberries are non-climacteric fruits [1,2], having a slow and steady decline in post-harvest respiratory rate. They only ripen on the plant and do not produce ethylene after harvest, constituting a highly perishable product. They present a limited post-harvest life, different from climacteric fruits that react in the presence of ethylene, maturing even after being separated from the plant and producing ethylene at high rates [3]. If strawberries are harvested in an advanced maturation state, they may be difficult to commercialize because of decomposition and rot; if they are harvested before maturation and without post-harvest ripening, they may show high acidity, astringency, and no flavor [4,5]. After harvesting, careful planning is also required during storage and transport to ensure that the fruits are not degraded by microorganisms [6–8]. Some factors that influence strawberry quality after harvest are related to physical, physiological, and pathological damage which may occur during transport [5,9] and storage in the markets, or in the hands of consumers [10–12]. Physical damage found in fruits can be the gateway to many pathogens (mainly fungi [13]), causing post-harvest rot [11,12]. Additionally, strawberries constitute an excellent substrate for the development of fungi [14] due to the low pH, high water content, as well as the nutritional composition of the fruit, which consists of sugars, acids, and vitamins. Fungi begin their Chemosensors 2016, 4, 19; doi:10.3390/chemosensors4030019 www.mdpi.com/journal/chemosensors Chemosensors 2016, 4, 19 2 of 9 colonization by feeding on these nutrients, causing the putrefaction of the fruit, which suffers intense metabolic activity as it matures [15–17]. Strawberries are commonly susceptible to fungi such as Botrytis sp., Penicillium sp., Phomopsis sp. [18], Aspergillus sp. section Nigri [19], and Rhizopus sp. [20]. Several tests and studies have been conducted on strawberries in order to expand and optimize the strawberry life cycle [21], because the appearance of fungal infection directly affects the commercial value of strawberries, constituting a major cause of fruit rejection and hence reducing the supply to the consumer [22,23]. It is common for fungi to produce volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during fruit infection [24]. These gaseous compounds are made up of various carbon-based mixtures [6,13,16]. Researchers have identified about 250 VOCs released due to fungi metabolism during colonization, when fungi feed on nutrients found in fruit [16,25]. The main VOCs found in this rotting process are iso-amylalcohol, 1-octen-3-ol, and numerous other eight-membered carbon ketones and alcohols [2,9,19,22,25,26]. The discovery of simple procedures to make a range of novel carbon nanostructures has led researchers to use these new materials to develop organic electronic devices [27–29], including chemical sensors [30] based on these carbons. The use of carbon nanostructure-based sensors [31,32] to target fruit VOCs constitutes an opportunity to develop strategies to detect strawberry fungi-related VOCs, and to perform real-time monitoring of the evolution of fungal infection in strawberries. The objective of this work is to demonstrate a potentially inexpensive, fast, and highly-sensitive set of unspecific chemical sensors and subsequent related data analysis procedures that are able to detect the appearance of the fungus at an early stage in strawberry ripening. This may allow, for example, the withdrawal of batches of infected fruits before contamination dissemination, and thus the ability to timely determine anti-fungicidal applications and the prediction of the ideal harvesting time. The availability of such a technology may contribute to a reduction in post-harvest losses. In this study, we investigate the chemical sensor response based on three different carbon nanostructures (CNSs) that can identify the possible appearance of fungus on the strawberry fruits. They are: multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), multi-walled carbon nanotubes doped with nitrogen (N-MWCNTs) [31], and multi-walled carbon nanotubes doped with boron (B-MWCNTs), [33]. We identified two genera of fungi: Aspergillus sp. section Nigri and Rhizopus sp., which in the study will be denoted simply as Aspergillus and Rhizopus, respectively. The mathematical method used to graphically present the data is based on tristimulus analysis [34]. 2. Materials and Methods The MWCNTs, N-MWCNTs, and B-MWCNTs used in this study have an inner diameter of ~10 nm and an outer diameter of around 20–30 nm. Their synthesis and characterization procedures have been reported elsewhere [31,32,34,35]. The composites used in the sensors were prepared using one of the CNSs dispersed in a 1.3 × 105 Da poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) matrix. The dispersion was prepared by adding 6 mg/mL hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and 4 mg/mL of one of the CNSs in water [33], using a procedure similar to that reported elsewhere [35–38]. The dispersion was ultrasonicated for 30 min at room temperature and sequentially, for 60 min at 0 ◦C. It was then left for 4 days at ~0 ◦C, which is ◦ below the Kraft temperature (TK = 25 C) of CTAB [39], allowing for the precipitation of the excess surfactant in the form of hydrated crystals. In the sequence, 50% of the total volume of the supernatant was removed and mixed with 6 mg/mL of PVA in water, giving a final CNS weight content in PVA of 87%. The mixture was then stirred for 2 h at a temperature below TK, thus avoiding the formation of CTAB micelles. We used interdigitated ENIG (Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold) electrodes (nine pairs; 7.5 mm long, with a gap of 0.3 mm between electrode strips) patterned on a FR4 epoxy resin/fiber glass board, supplied by Micropress SA (see Figure1a). Interdigitated electrodes were sequentially cleaned in acetone, isopropanol, and ultrapure water (20 min each) in an ultrasonic bath and dried in air stream. Chemosensors 2016, 4, 19 3 of 9 Chemosensors 2016, 4, 19 3 of 9 FigureFigure 1.1. (a) Interdigitated electrodes with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) film;film; ((bb)) greengreen strawberries;strawberries; andand ((cc)) strawberriesstrawberries inoculatedinoculated withwith AspergillusAspergillus.. Sensors were prepared by simply dropping 10 μL of a CNS–PVA dispersion in water on top of Sensors were prepared by simply dropping 10 µL of a CNS–PVA dispersion in water on top of an interdigitated electrode. After deposition on top of the substrate, the dispersion was annealed for an interdigitated electrode. After deposition on top of the substrate, the dispersion was annealed for 30 min at 50 °C to completely evaporate the solvent. 30 min at 50 ◦C to completely evaporate the solvent. In this study, we used chemical sensors to monitor six green strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa) In this study, we used chemical sensors to monitor six green strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa) (see Figure 1b), for the detection of Aspergillus and Rhizopus fungal infestation. The strawberries were (see Figure1b), for the detection of Aspergillus and Rhizopus fungal infestation. The strawberries were harvested in organic strawberry fields, located in Pinhais, Paraná state, Brazil (25°23’S, 49°07′W). harvested in organic strawberry fields, located in Pinhais, Paraná state, Brazil (25◦230S, 49◦070W). Strawberries were sequentially washed in water, ethanol (50%) for 1 min each, and 1% sodium Strawberries were sequentially washed in water, ethanol (50%) for 1 min each, and 1% sodium hypochlorite solution in sterile water for 30 s to remove any microorganisms present during hypochlorite solution in sterile water for 30 s to remove any microorganisms present during harvesting. harvesting. We began monitoring the green strawberries on the same day as the harvesting occurred.
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