1

Monitoring and surveillance of environmental indicators in Tsitsikamma National Park

Contributors: Mr N. Cole (Alien Species Unit) Mr. L. Du Plessis (Scientific Management Services) Dr. N. Hanekom (Marine Biologist: Scientific Services) Ms. T. Kraaij (Terrestrial Ecologist: Scientific Services) Mr M. Malepe (Park Manager: Tsitsikamma National Park) Dr. R. Randall (Manager: Scientific Services: Rondevlei) Mr. A. Riley (Senior Ranger: Tsitsikamma National Park) Dr. I. Russell (Aquatic Ecologist: Scientific Services) Mr. W. Vermeulen (Scientific Management Services)

Last Updated: March 2009

2 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 3 2. MONITORING AND THRESHOLDS OF POTENTIAL CONCERNS ...... 6 2.1 OBJECTIVE - FUNCTIONAL ECOSYSTEMS ...... 6 2.1.1 SUB-OBJECTIVE - ESTUARY MANAGEMENT ...... 6 2.1.1.1 PROGRAMME - RECRUITMENT OF MARINE BIOTA ...... 6 2.1.2. SUB-OBJECTIVE - MARINE MANAGEMENT ...... 7 2.1.2.1. PROGRAMME - INTERTIDAL MUSSEL BEDS ...... 7 2.1.2.2 PROGRAMME - INTERTIDAL BAIT STOCKS ...... 9 2.1.2.3 PROGRAMME - INSHORE FISH STOCKS (Monitoring done by SAIAB) ...... 10 2.1.2.4 PROGRAMME - NEARSHORE FISH STOCKS (Monitoring done by SAEON) ...... 13 2.1.3. SUB-OBJECTIVE – FIRE MANAGEMENT ...... 15 2.1.3.1 PROGRAMME – FIRE REGIME ...... 15 2.1.4 SUB-OBJECTIVE - INDIGENOUS FORESTS ...... 16 2.1.4.1 PROGRAMME - INDIGENOUS FORESTS ...... 16 2.1.5 SUB-OBJECTIVE - THREATENED BIOTA...... 17 2.1.5.1 PROGRAMME - PLANTS ...... 17 2.1.5.2 PROGRAMME - BLUE DUIKER ...... 18 2.2. OBJECTIVE –REHABILITATION ...... 20 2.2.2. SUB-OBJECTIVE - ALIEN PLANTS AND OTHER ALIEN BIOTA ...... 20 2.2.2.1 PROGRAMME – ALIEN PLANTS ...... 20 2.3 OBJECTIVE- RECONCILING BIODIVERSITY WITH OTHER PARK OBJECTIVES ...... 21 2.3.1 SUB-OBJECTIVE - INTERNAL ACTIVITIES ...... 21 2.3.1.1 PROGRAMME – EFFLUENT OUTLET ...... 21 2.3.2 SUB-OBJECTIVE - EXTRACTIVE RESOURCE USE ...... 22 2.3.2.1 PROGRAMME – MARINE FISH UTILIZATION ...... 22 2.3.2.2 PROGRAMME – MARINE INVERTEBRATE UTILIZATION ...... 23 2.4 OBJECTIVE- RECONCILING BIODIVERSITY WITH EXTERNAL THREATS ...... 24 2.4.1.1. PROGRAMME - POLLUTION OF STREAMS BY GOLF ESTATE ...... 24 2.4.2.1 PROGRAMME – WATER QUALITY OF GROOT ESTUARY ...... 25 3. DATA COLLECTION AND REPORTING ...... 26 4. SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMME ...... 27 5. FUTURE MONITORING REQUIREMENTS ...... 27 6. REFERENCES ...... 28

3 1. Introduction

Protected areas are often established for a number of purposes, such as the protection of habitats, biodiversity and species, restoration of populations stocks and minimization of conflict among diverse resource users. To manage for such spatial and temporal heterogeneity generally requires the use of a management policy that is goal orientated and adaptive in approach (Pomeroy et al. 2004). Such an adaptive management system integrates design management and monitoring to systematically test assumptions, so as to learn and adapt (Salafsky et al. 2001 in Pomeroy et al. 2004). Although there are several different adaptive management models, they generally follow the same basic procedure of setting a desired future state, defining objectives and goals, planning and implementation of management actions, monitoring of indicators so as to audit goal achievement and enable informed evaluation of the management process. The strategic adaptive management model adapted by SANParks (Biggs & Rogers 2003), has a strong emphasis on planning and setting up of an effective monitoring programme (Rogers & Bestbier 1997), which enables one to test hypotheses for change from a set of limits. The concept of pre-defined limits or thresholds has long been applied in some aspects of monitoring, such as water quality standards for human use. However, determination of scientifically rigorous limits of changes for the management of broader ecosystem heterogeneity has proved more difficult. In the adaptive management model used by SANParks these pre-defined limits are termed Thresholds of Potential Concern (or TPC’s). They are in essence hypotheses of upper and/or lower levels of acceptable ecosystem change (Rogers 2003), and as such are always open to debate and refinement.

The selection of indicators should align with the management objectives and meet five criteria (Margolius & Salafsky 1998 in Pomeroy et al. 2004), namely:

Measurable: Able to be recorded and analysed in quantitative or qualitative terms. Precise: Defined the same way by all people. Consistent: Not changing over time so that it always measures the same thing even over a wide range of stress. Sensitive: Change in direct response to the mechanism, driver, pattern or process of interest and sensitive enough to provide early warning of change. Simple: Easy and cost effective to measure. Simple indicators are generally preferred to complex (composite ones).

Practical limitations, such as finite financial and human recourses, limit the number of indicators that can be selected, and the proposed ‘monitoring’ programmes at Tsitsikamma National Park do not address all the objectives outlined in the management plan for the park (Table 1). The description of each monitoring programme and its proposed thresholds of potential concern, are aligned with the relevant sub-objective of the management plan.

Table 1 Conservation objectives and sub-objectives for the Tsitsikamma National Park as given in the park management plan, with ‘monitoring’ programme that can test the achievement of objectives.

Objective Sub-objective Programme

Consolidation and expansion of land/ sea areas: Consolidation of protected areas Nil Representative ecosystems: focusing on under representative To incorporate a spectrum of ecosystems, functional linkages and viable terrestrial, aquatic, and processes. marine ecosystems characteristic of the Tsitsikamma region, and to Reintroduction of biota: re-introduce missing elements Reestablishment where possible, of where possible. locally extinct or depleted biodiversity components and Nil populations in accordance with IUCN principles and guidelines.

4

Objective Sub-objective Programme

Estuary Management : Manipulate appropriate biophysical • Recruitment of marine aspects of estuarine environment to biota into Groot Estuary achieve social and ecosystem conservation objectives.

• Intertidal mussel Marine Management: Strive to beds maintain long term persistence of • Intertidal bait stocks biodiversity patterns and processes • Inshore fish stocks– Functional ecosystems: in marine ecosystems, particularly SAIAB To ensure the long term the protection of fish stocks • Nearshore fish persistence of biodiversity stocks– SAEON patterns and processes, enabling natural variation in structure, function and composition over Fire management: space and time. Apply appropriate fire regime in • Fire management fynbos areas (frequency, season, intensity, size).

Indigenous Forests: • Forest management Maintain forest intactness and

natural ecological processes.

Threatened biota: • Plants Maintain viable populations of • Blue duiker threatened species.

Wetlands: Re-establishment of physical, chemical and biological Nil processes in degraded wetland areas.

Rehabilitation: Alien plants and other alien Rehabilitate degraded areas, • Alien plant control biota: Control and where possible including the re-establishment of • (Intertidal mussel beds eliminate alien biota to facilitate re- natural biodiversity patterns, and under Marine establishment of natural biodiversity the restoration of key processes management) pattern and process in invaded which support the long term persistence of biodiversity. areas.

5

Objective Sub-objective Programme

Internal developments: Minimise the impacts associated with the development of tourism and park management Nil infrastructure, and ensure that such developments do not compromise Reconciling biodiversity with biodiversity objectives. other park objectives: To ensure that non-biodiversity Internal activities: management aspects of Minimise the impacts associated SANParks operations (revenue with tourism and park management • Effluent outflow on generation including tourism, activities, and ensure that such shoreline resource use, developments, activities do not compromise management activities, etc.) are biodiversity objectives. informed and constrained by biodiversity conservation objectives, and that the impacts of Extractive resource use: these activities on biodiversity are Minimise the impacts of extractive minimised. resource use, and ensure that such • Marine fish utilization activities are aligned with corporate • Marine invertebrate use guidelines; are within management capacity constraints, and do not compromise biodiversity objectives.

External developments: Minimise the impacts associated Nil with inappropriate developments outside the park

External activities: Negotiate to ensure that external • Pollution of streams by resource and land use do not golf estate detrimentally affect ecological Reconciling biodiversity with processes within the park. external threats: To reduce external threats and pressures, and limit impacts of surrounding land & resource use Hydrological and water chemistry on biodiversity conservation changes: Participate in activities for the within the park. • Water quality of Groot maintenance of river flow regimes estuary and water chemistry within limits for

the maintenance of ecosystem processes in aquatic ecosystems within the park.

Illegal harvesting of resources: Prevent the illegal collection,

removal and destruction of physical and biological resources.

6 2. MONITORING AND THRESHOLDS OF POTENTIAL CONCERNS

Indicators were grouped according the objectives and sub-objectives given in the Management Plan

2.1 OBJECTIVE - FUNCTIONAL ECOSYSTEMS

2.1.1 SUB-OBJECTIVE - ESTUARY MANAGEMENT :

2.1.1.1 PROGRAMME - RECRUITMENT OF MARINE BIOTA

Rationale The Groot (West) Estuary, the only estuary in the park that is classed as a temporary closed system (Whitfield 2000), is blocked off from the sea for varying lengths of time by a sand bar which forms at the mouth (Morant & Bickerton 1983). This occurs during low river flows combined with longshore sand movements in the nearshore marine environment (Day 1981). Several biota occurring in the estuarine environments have an obligate marine phase in their life cycle. For most fully aquatic species movement between the estuarine and marine environments can only be achieved during periods when the estuary mouth is open (Whitfield 1989a, 1989b), or in the case of some larval fishes, when there is substantial over-wash of the sandbar (Whitfield 1992). The absence of an open mouth phase during various life-cycle stages could, in the short term, result in reduced or failed recruitment and hence unrepresented or lost age cohorts, and in the long term, loss of species.

Management objective To manage the Groot (West) Estuary so that its mouth opens to the sea for sufficient time to allow for suitable marine recruitment into the estuary.

Sampling methods Procedure - Observations of whether estuary mouth is open or closed (either with or without overtopping) will be regularly undertaken and the dates of breaching and closing recorded. If required ‘continuous’ water level heights recorded near the Nature’s Valley Rest-camp by the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry (DWAF) will be requested in order to verify the field data.

Spatial scale – Observations at mouth of Groot Estuary, water level at Nature’s Valley Rest-camp.

Temporal scale – Strive to undertake daily, but a minimum of weekly, observations of mouth state, in addition to continuous recording (at c. 15 minutes interval) of water level heights by DWAF.

Threshold of potential concern (TPC’s) • A threshold of potential concern is reached if Groot estuary fails to remain open continuously for at least one complete lunar cycle (approximately 28 days) during the period 1 September to 31 March for two consecutive years.

The threshold for duration of mouth closure was based on collective judgement, while that for seasons was based on optimal recruitment period for the majority of abundant estuarine fishes (Whitfield 1998).

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle • Ascertain whether the populations of key marine species in the estuary still have a reasonable (>20%) juvenile component. • Ascertain possible causes of reduced freshwater inflow into the estuary. • Determine the desirability of artificially breaching the mouth of the estuary.

Project commencement Commenced in the early 2000s - ongoing.

Reporting frequency Annual.

7 Responsibilities: • Data collection - Park Management (observation), Scientific Services (request water level data from DWAF). • Data interpretation - Park Management to provide observation data to Scientific Services, who will undertake analyses and interpretation. • Data maintenance - Scientific Services will maintain databases. • Reporting - Scientific Services.

2.1.2. SUB-OBJECTIVE - MARINE MANAGEMENT

2.1.2.1. PROGRAMME - INTERTIDAL MUSSEL BEDS

Rationale Historically three indigenous mussel species formed extensive beds on rocky intertidal and shallow subtidal reefs of the South African coastline (Brown and Jarman 1978). A fourth mussel species, the invasive Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis was accidentally introduced on the west coast of South Africa between the late 1970s and early 1980s (Grant and Cherry 1985; Griffiths et al. 1992). It soon became an aggressive invader. By 1990 the Mediterranean mussel comprised over 70% of intertidal mussel biomass on the west coast, compared to only 1% on the warmer south and south-east coasts, where the brown mussel Perna perna was the dominant mussel (Van Erkom Schurink and Griffiths 1990). The numbers of the Mediterranean mussel on the south and south-east coasts (including the Tsitsikamma coastline) has continued to increase, but its abundance is variable and site specific (McQuaid and Phillips 2000; Rius 2004; Robinson et al. 2005; Hanekom 2008). At sites where the Mediterranean mussel is plentiful, it dominates the high-shore and brown mussel the low-shore, with a mixed zone at the mid-tide level (Bownes and McQuaid 2006).

Intertidal sites with large populations of mussels will be monitored, because: • Mussels are dominant species, forming dense beds on the intertidal, rocky shores of southern Africa (Van Erkom Schurink and Griffiths 1990). • Mussel beds provide a habitat for numerous other smaller invertebrate species, and they generally a have high species diversity of associated fauna (Suchanek 1985; Seed 1996; Hammond and Griffiths 2004). • The long-term affect of the Mediterranean mussel invasion of the indigenous brown mussel population still needs to be determined.

Management objective To maintain the species rich, indigenous mussel beds along the rocky intertidal shores of the Tsitsikamma National Park.

Sampling methods Procedure : The cover abundance value of mussels (all species) and that of the indigenous brown mussel will be estimated within 50 x 50 cm quadrats, which are subdivided by cord into 100 5 x 5 cm squares. Duplicate assessments will be done at 5 transect points, which are 5 m apart (or on more extensive shores 10 m apart) along the length of the mid zone of mussel beds at three wave exposed localities in the Tsitsikamma MPA, and in future at one site in the exploited De Vasselot Area.

Spatial scale: The rocky intertidal shore Swartrif, Jan Swart, Vergenoeg and, in the future, the exploited Nature’s valley area.

Temporal scale: Counts will be done annually.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• The mean cover abundance of mussels declines to less than 60 percent (the 95% confidence limit, Fig. 1) for three consecutive years in the mid zone of the mussel beds monitored in the Tsitsikamma MPA. 8

• The mean cover abundance contribution of the indigenous brown mussel decreases to less than 42 percent (the 95% confidence limit, Fig. 1) of the mussel population for three consecutive years in the mid zone of the bed monitored in the Tsitsikamma MPA.

These threshold values are based on the lower limits of 95% confidence range determined from cover abundance values recorded at the three sampling sites in the Tsitsikamma MPA during 2007/8, and they corresponded to the mean lower limits (68 % for mussel cover and 38% for contribution) recorded at Swartrif between 2005 and 2008 using a smaller (0.1m²) sampling quadrat.

Mussel cover

100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 %cover 20.0 0.0 Sw artrif J-Sw arts Vergenoeg Mean TPC Site

Indigenous mussel cover

100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 %contribution 0.0 Sw artrif J-Sw arts Vergenoeg Mean TPC Site

Figure 1. Percentage mussel cover and contribution by the indigenous mussel at three sites studied (vertical lines represent 95% confidence range).

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Assess appropriateness of methodology. • Ascertain whether observed trends in mussel abundance correspond with that from other areas in the southern Cape region. • Investigate methods of protecting the indigenous brown mussel. • Increase compliance activity in the area, should there be signs of mussel harvesting.

Project commencement Related mussel project commenced 2005, current project 2007/8 - ongoing

Reporting frequency Annual

Responsibilities • Data collection – Scientific Services. • Data interpretation – Scientific Services. • Data maintenance – Scientific Services. • Reporting - Scientific Services.

9 2.1.2.2 PROGRAMME - INTERTIDAL BAIT STOCKS

Rationale The exposed rocky coastline of the Tsitsikamma National Park supports an abundance of benthic invertebrate organism, including several organisms exploited by shore fishers for bait, such as redbait, venus ear and mussels. Although the general ecology of many of these organisms have been studied [e.g. red bait Pyura stolonifera (Berry 1982), venus ear Haliotis spadicea (Muller 1984), alikreukel Turbo sarmaticus (McLachlan & Lombard 1980, 1981; Yssel 1989), and brown mussels Perna perna (Berry 1978)], the extent and impact of harvesting is poorly understood (Griffith & Branch 1997; Anon. 1999; Mackenzie 2005). Extractive resource use is the biggest threat to biodiversity along the South African coast (Lombard et al . 2005), and a key function of the Tsitsikamma MPA is to provide a safe refuge for species threatened by exploitation. The abundance of targeted bait organisms, as well as of less sought after sea urchins, which often flourish in the absence of predators and/or inter-specific competitors, may provide an indication of the level of bait harvesting occurring within the intertidal zone of the park.

Management objective To protect, along the rocky intertidal shores of the Tsitsikamma National Park, the marine biota, especially those species that are harvested by bait collectors and fishers in adjacent exploited areas.

Sampling methods Procedure : Assessments will be done at least three sampling sites within the Tsitsikamma MPA, and in future at one site in the exploited De Vasselot Area. At each site five belt transects (covering 1 m wide strip) spaced at 5m apart (or on more extensive shores 10 m apart) will be done from the spring-low tide mark to the ‘high’ tide zone. On each transect the numbers of individuals per key bait species will be counted and the size of each individual estimated to the nearest centimetre using a tape measure.

Spatial scale: At three sites along the length of the MPA (Swartrif, Jan Swart and Vergenoeg), and one site in the De Vasselot section of the coast, where angling and bait collecting is permitted.

Temporal scale: Counts done annually.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern for the rocks between Jan Swart and Vergernoeg is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• The mean abundance of redbait ( P. stolonifera ) declines to less than 1 individuals/metre length of the shoreline (95% confidence level, Fig. 2) on three consecutive annual counts. • The mean abundance of venus ear ( H. spadicea ) declines to less than 0.1 /metre length of the shoreline (95% confidence level, Fig. 2) on three consecutive annual counts. • The mean abundance of sea urchins ( P. angulosus ) recorded is more than 9 individuals/metre length of the shoreline (95% confidence level, Fig. 2) on three consecutive annual counts.

The above preliminary threshold values are based on the limits of the 95% percent confidence range determined from values recorded along 5 transects at 4 localities in the Elandbos – Vergenoeg area of the Tsitsikamma MPA. Threshold limits will also be determined for the Swartrif and exploited De Vasselot Area. These threholds will be modified and refined as more data becomes available.

10

Redbait

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0 Numbers 0.0 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Mean Threshold -2.0 Site

Venus Ear

5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 Numbers 0.0 -1.0 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Mean Threshold Site

Sea urchins

12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 Numbers 2.0 0.0 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Mean Threshold Site

Figure 2. Mean numbers of three invertebrate ‘bait’ species at four sites in the Elandsbos- Vergenoeg area (vertical lines represent 95% confidence range).

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Assess appropriateness of methodology. • Investigate oceanographic anomalies and regional/national trends in bait organism densities. • Increase compliance activity in the area to reduce poaching activity.

Project commencement Commenced 2007/8 – ongoing.

Reporting frequency Annual

Responsibilities • Data collection – Scientific Services. • Data interpretation – Scientific Services. • Data maintenance – Scientific Services. • Reporting – Scientific Services. 11 2.1.2.3 PROGRAMME - INSHORE FISH STOCKS (Monitoring done by SAIAB)

Rationale Most ( c. 80 %) of the linefish species in the Tsitsikamma MPA are slow growing, long-lived species (>20 years), and many have a high degree of residency (Buxton 1987; Cowley 2000; Cowley et al. 2002; Brouwer et al . 2003; Kerwath et al. 2007), which makes them vulnerable to over-exploitation. A point highlighted by the fact that the catch rates during research studies in MPAs of the Garden Route are considerably higher than those recorded by fishers in nearby exploited areas (Buxton & Smale 1989; Brouwer 2001; Brouwer & Buxton 2002; Cowley 2000; Cowley et al. 2002; Götz 2005; Pradervand and Hiseman 2006). Furthermore, at Goukamma, where recreational, shore-based fishing is still permitted, the recorded sizes (expressed as mean annual weight) of blacktail Diplodus sargus capensis and galjoen Dichistius capensis caught declined significantly (p<0.05) over a 10 year (1993 to 2002) study period (Pradervand and Hiseman 2006). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are considered to be one of the most effective conservation strategies for fishes worldwide (Halpern 2003).

In the past legislated quotas, bag limits, size limits and closed seasons have often proved ineffective to control fishing pressure (Bennett et al. 1994), and the stocks of approximately 14 fish species, which are exploited by commercial or recreational fishers in South Africa, are regarded as collapsed or in urgent need of protection due to fishing pressure (Mann 2000). Therefore, it is essential to ascertain whether the Tsitsikamma MPA is providing effective protection of the fish stocks. The greatest threat to the biodiversity in the park is illegal extractive resource use, and monitoring will focus primarily on the abundance of key fisheries species, rather than community structure (which is analytically more complex to analyse). The blacktail ( Diplogus sargus capensis ) was selected as an indicator species , because it was the most abundant species caught ( c. 25% of total catch), it is generally restricted to shallow water (<25m) (Mann 1992), adult individuals are fairly resident (Attwood & Bennett 1995) and it has a wide dietary range (Mann 1992), which makes its susceptible to general deteriorations in invertebrate reef fauna.

Management objective To protect, along the inshore areas of the Tsitsikamma National Park, those fish species that are exploited by shore anglers along the South African coastline.

Sampling methods Procedure : Scientific Services will request a summary of the annual catch of Dr Cowley of South African Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity, who is undertaking a medium to long-term shore-based capture and release fishing in a 5 km section of park. His angling team fishes during daylight, using a variety of bait and hook sizes. The exact locality, bait used, time spent fishing, as well as the numbers and lengths of all fish species caught are recorded. This programme depends on the continued involvement of Dr Cowley and his team.

Spatial scale: Cowley’s study area is a 5 km stretch of coastline between the Bloukrans River and Klip River.

Temporal scale : Between 1997 and 2004 Cowley undertook field trips every alternate month, thereafter biannually.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• The annual annual catch per unit effort ( cpue ) is less than 89 fish/100 angling hours (< 95% confidence limits, Fig. 3) for three consecutive years. • The annual cpue for blacktail is less than 21 individuals/100 hrs (< 95% confidence limits, Fig. 4) for three consecutive sampling years. • The mean fork length of blacktail is less than 273 mm (95% confidence limits, Fig. 5) for three consecutive sampling years.

The above threshold values are based on the lower limits of 95% confidence range recorded for the catch rates recorded between 1995/8 and 2004. In fisheries management a catch per unit effort of less than 25% of that recorded in protected areas is usually indicatives that a stock has collapsed (Griffiths et al. 1999). The proposed thresholds are more 80% of the overall mean 12 recorded values. Should Dr Cowley undertake multivariate (community) analyses of the fish catches, a threshold will be set at: • A significant (p<0.05), directional temporal change in the catch composition of the anglers, as determined by multivariate analysis, towards one that exhibits signs of over-exploitation.

Total catch per unit effort

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 Numbers100per hrs 0

7 9 0 2 4 5 7 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 tal 9 9 0 0 0 0 TPC 1995 1996 1 1998 1 2 2001 2 2003 20 2 2006 2 2008 To Year

Figure 3. Annual total catch per unit effort (the vertical line represent 95% confidence range) based on data provided by Cowley in lit. 2009.

Blacktail catch per unit effort

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Numbersper100 hrs 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Mean TPC Year

Figure 4. Annual catch per unit effort for blacktail (the vertical line represent 95% confidence range) based on data of Götz et al. (2008).

Blacktail length

285

280

275

270

265 Length (mm) Length 260

255 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Mean TPC Year

Figure 5. Mean fork length of blacktail caught each year (the vertical line represent 95% confidence range) based on data of Götz et al. (2008).

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle • Investigate oceanographic anomalies and regional/national trends in fish catches. • Investigation of fishing activity in the area. • Increased law enforcement activity in the area to reduce poaching in the park. • Negotiate with MCM and other NGOs (WWF) to decrease bag limits, increase legal size limits, and for the most overexploited species to close the fishery in open areas.

13 Project commencement Commenced 1995 – ongoing.

Reporting frequency Annual.

Responsibilities • Data collection – Scientific Services will request relevant parts of the data collected by SAIAB. • Data interpretation – Scientific Services (with assistance from SAIAB, where necessary). • Data maintenance – Scientific Services (maintain core data relevant to TPC). • Reporting - Scientific Services (core data relevant to TPC).

2.1.2.4 PROGRAMME - NEARSHORE FISH STOCKS (Monitoring done by SAEON)

Rationale Fish communities of the nearshore reefs differ from those of the inshore (surf zone) of the Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area (MPA) and they include several endemic reef fish species (Buxton & Smale 1984; Burger 1990), whose stocks are regarded as collapsed or in urgent need of protection due to fishing pressure (Mann 2000). In the past legislated quotas, bag limits, size limits and closed seasons have frequently proved ineffective to control fishing pressure (Bennett et al. 1994), and it is essential to ascertain whether Tsitsikamma MPA is providing effective protection for these fishes.

Multivariate analysis is able to detect differences between exploited fish communities outside the Tsitsikamma MPA and protected ones inside the MPA (Bennett 2007), and this analysis has the potential to determine community changes inside the MPA. However these results would provide little insight into the status of the communities, and indicator species may be used for this purpose (Bennett 2007).

Roman ( Chrysoblephus laticeps) was selected as the main indicator species, because it is a reef fish, with a small home range, and it feeds on wide variety invertebrate prey items (Buxton 1987; Cowley et al. 2002; Kerwath et al. 2007). It is also one of the dominant reef species caught in the controlled fishing experiments in both the Tsitsikamma MPA and an adjacent exploited areas, with significantly higher catch rates and mean lengths being recorded in the MPA (Smith 2005; Bennett 2007).

Management Objective To protect, in the near-shore areas of the Tsitsikamma National Park, those fish species that are exploited by recreational and/or commercial anglers along the South African coastline.

Sampling methods Procedure : Scientific Services will annually request data from the South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON), which undertakes nearshore fish research in the park. They use both underwater visual counts and controlled fishing.

(a) Underwater Visual Counts: Historical baseline data for the abundance of roman on the near- shore reefs of the park were obtained from Buxton and Smale (1989), Burger (1990) and Bennett (2007), who did underwater transect counts. Since 2007 SAEON have, and will continue to undertake biannual transect counts. Two 50m transects per site will be conducted simultaneously by two divers, and the number of individuals per fish species is recorded.

(b) Controlled fishing: Once-off controlled fishing experiments have been undertaken by Smith (2005) and Bennett (2007) using two and four anglers respectively, as well as standardized hook- line configuration. Since 2007 SAEON have, and will continue to undertake biannual fishing excursions, using four anglers and standardized hook-line configuration.

Spatial scale: Subtidal reefs between Storms River and Rheeder se Knol.

Temporal scale: Irregular counts and fishing done prior to 2007, thereafter biannual counts were implemented by SAEON.

14 Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• A more than 10% (or ca. 0.2 roman/100 m²) decline in the mean number of roman recorded on transect counts over two consecutive years, or a mean density of less than 1.8 roman/100 m² over two consecutive years. • A more than 10% (or ca. 0.4 roman/angler hour) decline in the mean cpue of roman over two consecutive years, or a mean cpue of less than 3.6 roman/angler hour over two consecutive years. • A more than 10% (or ca. 31 mm) compound decline in the mean fork length of roman over two consecutive years, or a mean fork length less than 274 mm over two consecutive years.

Similar types of thresholds may in future be determined for fransmadam (Boopsoidea inornata ). This species has a similar diet to that of roman, and it appears to be in competition with roman, with its numbers being negatively influenced by that of roman (Götz 2005; Bennett 2007).

The pre-defined limits for: (a) Catch per unit effort values for roman were based on controlled fishing of Smith (2005) and Bennett (2007), (i.e. 4.6 and 4.2 roman per angler hour respectively), (b) Mean fork lengths of the roman on values recorded by Smith (2005) and Bennett (2007) in Tsitsikamma MPA and Gotz (2005) in Goukamma MPA (313, 331 and 302 mm respectively), (c) Observed abundance on the underwater transect counts of Buxton and Smale (1989), Burger (1990) and Bennett (2007) (densities of 2.3, 2.1 and 2.3 roman/100 m² respectively).

Should SAEON undertake multivariate (community) analyses of underwater visual counts and fishing experiments, a threshold will be set at: • A significant (p<0.05), directional temporal change in the community composition, as determined by multivariate analysis, towards one that exhibits signs of over-exploitation.

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Investigate oceanographic anomalies and regional / national trends in fish catches. • Investigation of fishing activity in the area. • Increased law enforcement activity in the area to reduce poaching in the park. • Negotiate with MCM and other NGOs (WWF) to decrease bag limits, increase legal size limits, and for the most overexploited species to close the fishery in open areas.

Project commencement Commenced: Irregular counts between 1981 and 2005, biannual counts from 2008 and ongoing

Reporting frequency Annual

Responsibilities • Data collection–Scientific Services will request relevant parts of the data collected by SAEON. • Data interpretation – Scientific Services (with assistance from SAEON, where necessary). • Data maintenance – Scientific Services (maintain core data relevant to TPC). • Reporting - Scientific Services (core data relevant to TPC).

15

2.1.3. SUB-OBJECTIVE – FIRE MANAGEMENT

2.1.3.1 PROGRAMME – FIRE REGIME

Rationale The vegetation of the park largely comprises two vegetation types Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos and Southern Afrotemperate Forest (Mucina & Rutherford 2006). The fynbos component occurs primarily in the mountainous Soetkraal area, and to a much smaller extent on the coastal plateau and escarpment. Fire is the most important disturbance agent in fynbos vegetation. Of critical importance in the management of fynbos is fire frequency, fire season and fire intensity (Van Wilgen et al . 1992; Bekker 1994).

The minimum fire frequency is ascertained by the time it takes for the vegetation to reach maturity and species to complete their life cycle (Van Wilgen 1981). Fire season is determined by climatic factors and it can have a marked effect on species response to fire, especially in terms of regeneration patterns, and species composition of mature fynbos (Van Wilgen & Viviers 1985; Le Maitre 1988; Van Wilgen et al . 1992). In addition to fire frequency and fire season, post-fire regeneration and plant species composition after fire, could also be severely impacted by fire intensity (Van Wilgen et al . 1992; Bekker 1994). For example, low intensity fires would benefit sprouting species, and species with shallow seed banks, while others could benefit from high intensity fires. The fire intensity would depend on the fuel load, the compactness and arrangement of fuels, fuel moisture content and the rate at which they burn (Van Wilgen et al . 1992; Teie 2003), as influenced by climatic conditions. Although prescriptions in terms of the appropriate fire frequency and season for the Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos do exist ( vide Southwood & De Lange 1984; Seydack et al . 1986), these should be reviewed, taking account of recent research findings indicating more variable recruitment conditions throughout the year and different plant growth rates towards the eastern part of the Cape Floristic Region where climate is less seasonal (Heelemann et al. 2007).

Management objective To maintain a diverse natural fynbos community by maintaining the appropriate fire regime within the Tsitsikamma National Park.

Sampling methods Procedure: The date, extent and cause (based on GPS readings or 1:50 000 maps) of all fires in the park will be documented after each fire and captured on a GIS database. The estimated age of major fynbos communities will be updated annually and field studies of post-fire recruitment will be done, if deemed necessary.

Spatial scale : Burnt areas throughout the park.

Temporal scale: Intermittently dependent on occurrence of fire.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• More than 33 % of the total Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos area on the steep coastal escarpment of the park is burnt in any one year. • The fire frequency of fynbos on the: (a) mountains and coastal plateau is either less than 10 years or more than 25 years, (except for limited areas managed at an 8 year fire rotation to afford fire protection to adjacent plantations). (b) coastal escarpment is less than 15 years. • Any area is burnt three times in succession outside of the ecological fire season (Dec-Apr) prescribed for the western part of the Cape Floristic Region. • Control fires are either excessively hot or very cool.

• Failure of re-seeding Proteaceae to recruit after fire.

Pre-defined limits were based on collective judgement and guided by the work Southwood & De Lange (1984), Van Wilgen & Viviers (1985), Seydack et al. (1986), Le Maitre (1988) and Van 16 Wilgen et al. (1992). However, this programme will be updated upon the production of ecological guidelines and thresholds for fire management in the Garden Route area in association with the regional vegetation map of Vlok & Euston-Brown (2008).

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Determine the reasons why thresholds were exceeded. • Establish more effective fire breaks, or implement management burn where applicable. • Establish better fire management/protection program with adjacent land owners. • Adjust fire plan if plant recruitment results show that some aspects of fire regime are detrimental to recruitment of indicator species or species of special concern.

Project commencement Commenced: Fire records have been kept since 1985, but accuracy of data prior to 2005 needs to be verified.

Reporting frequency • Annual.

Responsibilities • Data collection – Park management (date, extent and cause of fire), Scientific Services (the rest). • Data interpretation –Scientific Services. • Data Maintenance – Scientific Services (continue to update records). • Reporting - Scientific Services.

2.1.4 SUB-OBJECTIVE - INDIGENOUS FORESTS

2.1.4.1 PROGRAMME - INDIGENOUS FORESTS

Rationale The largest complex of Southern Afrotemperate Forest is found along the coastal strip between Humansdorp and Mossel Bay. Most (>50%) of this forest complex is protected, with only about 300 ha in the southern Cape having been transformed for pine plantation (Mucina & Rutherford 2006). The Southern Afrotemperate Forest is not a fire-driven vegetation type (Moll, 1983; Van Wilgen 1987), and is restricted to areas that are moist throughout the year. The forest complex at De Vasselot is the largest in the park, and contains populations of three forest species ( Strychnos decussate , Hippobromus pauciflorus and Strelitzia alba ) which have limited representation elsewhere in the Southern Cape (Geldenhuys 1992, 1993).

Maintenance of a healthy forest ecotone is an important part of the management of indigenous forests, especially in the case of small, isolated forest patches, which are bordered by fire prone vegetation such as fynbos. Fire may play an important ecological function in the maintenance of natural forest/fynbos ecotones, which supports both forest and fynbos elements, as well as species ‘unique’ to this zone. A short rotation will not allow for the recovery of damaged ecotones before the next fire, while a too long fire rotation can lead to a high fire intensity, which could destroy small forest patches. Agricultural and silvicultural activities may also adversely affect the forest by disturbing the forest margin.

Management objective To maintain the integrity of the forest patches within the Tsitsikamma National Park through appropriate management of the forest ecotone.

Sampling methods Procedure: The extent and outer boundary of the major forest patches in De Vasselot and at Storms River mouth will be mapped and captured on GIS by 2010. After any major fire, or tree felling in bordering plantations, the level of damage to the forest/fynbos ecotones will be assessed.

Spatial scale : Forests at De Vasselot and Storms River Mouth.

17 Temporal scale: Intermittently

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply: • More than 30 % of forest/fynbos ecotone is cleared or disturbed by human activity. • More than 30 % of the forest/fynbos ecotone is heavily infestation of invader plants, resulting in heavy fuel load and change in the vegetation structure. • The fire frequency of the forest margin is less than 10 years.

Determination of thresholds was based on collective judgement.

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Determine the reasons why thresholds were exceeded. • Implement more effective invasive alien plant control where applicable. • Establish better fire management/protection program with adjacent land owners.

Project commencement Commenced 2008 – ongoing.

Reporting frequency Annual.

Responsibilities • Data collection – Park management (invasive alien plant infestation, fire events & human activities), Scientific Services (the rest). • Data interpretation –Scientific Services. • Data Maintenance – Scientific Services (continue to update records). • Reporting - Scientific Services.

2.1.5 SUB-OBJECTIVE - THREATENED BIOTA

2.1.5.1 PROGRAMME - PLANTS

Rationale Nineteen Red Data plant species have been recorded at TNP (including Soetkraal), of which two are Endangered ( Leucospermum glabrum , Ocotea bullata ), six Vulnerable ( Mimetes pauciflorus , Erica inconstans , E. glandulosa fourcadei , Indigofera hispida , Dioscorea sylvatica , Disa cernua ), and the remainder in lower categories or data deficient (South African Plant Red List 2008, SANBI). Added to the Red Data species are three other plant species of special concern (SSC) (Strychnos decussata , Hippobromus pauciflorus , Strelitzia alba ) on account of their disjunct distribution in the park. The vegetation (particularly the fynbos) of TNP needs to be managed with emphasis on the fire regime and alien invasive plants to ensure the long-term persistence of the vegetation, including the plant SSC. Knowledge of the location, distribution and performance of populations of plant SSC is inadequate but may be improved through collaboration with the Threatened Species Program of SANBI, involving volunteers in rare plant species surveys (CREW programme). Information gained from rare species research/monitoring should inform future management actions at TNP, and feed into national assessments of the status of rare/threatened plant species.

Management objective To protect populations of Red Data plant species found within the Tsitsikamma National Park.

Sampling methods Procedure : Plant SSC should be searched for during their flowering period, guided, but not restricted, by historical records of occurrence. The following information should be recorded (as per the method and datasheet of CREW): locality coordinates, habitat characteristics, estimated population size, distribution pattern, area of extent, distance to next population, population age composition, mechanisms of reproduction, pollination and dispersal. A simplified method of data collection, using Cybertrackers, has been developed that could be employed by park rangers. 18

Uncertainty about future jurisdiction over Soetkraal, and difficult access to the area, currently constrain monitoring efforts.

Spatial scale : Areas identified from historical records or where plant SSC are likely to occur.

Temporal scale: At least once every five years, and within 18 months after fire.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) • Failure of plant SSC to recruit after fire. • > 30 % total decline in numbers of plant SSC recorded in known populations over two successive monitoring intervals.

Thresholds were based on collective judgement and species-specific TPC’S s may be developed later as more ecological information on these species becomes available.

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Assess appropriateness of methodology. • Investigate possible causes of population decline and poor reproduction. • Investigate elements of fire regime (season, intensity) as potential causes of poor plant species recruitment, and revise fire plan accordingly. • Implement more effective invasive alien plant control where applicable. • Arrange for seed collection by Millennium Seed Bank Project if persistence of park endemics is at risk.

Project commencement Needs to be implemented.

Reporting frequency Bi-annual.

Responsibilities • Data collection – Scientific Services, CREW (SANBI). • Data Interpretation – Scientific Services & SANBI (Red-Listing exercise). • Data Maintenance – Scientific Services & SANBI. • Reporting - Scientific Services.

2.1.5.2 PROGRAMME - BLUE DUIKER

Rationale Forty-one terrestrial mammal species have been recorded for the coastal sector of the park. These include the Vulnerable blue duiker and six Near-Threatened species, namely the honey badger, fynbos golden mole , and four bat species. The coastal section of the park is narrow and largely unfenced and ‘predatory’ species, such as leopard and honey badger, move freely in and out of the park and they receive relatively little protection from the reserve. Those Red Data Book species that significantly benefit from the park are the blue duiker Philantomba monticola and the four insectivorous bat species which roost in caves in the park.

TNP is situated close to the southern distribution limit of the blue duiker, which is a small, shy forest antelope (Skinner & Smithers 1990). Blue duiker studies in the southern Cape have investigated population densities, fluctuations in abundance and group structure (von Gadow 1978; Crawford 1984; Crawford & Robinson 1984; Hanekom & Wilson 1991; Seydack et al. 1998). The population density of duiker in the forest at Storms River Mouth was estimated to be 2 individual per 11 ha in the late 1980s (Hanekom & Wilson 1991). This density corresponds to that recorded in four other southern Cape forests (von Gadow 1978). The blue duiker is the most threatened of the terrestrial mammal in TNP, and potential dangers to the local populations are dogs and poaching, as well as habitat fragmentation due to activities on the borders of the park (Friedmann & Daly 2004).

19 Management objective To maintain (through management actions) conditions in Tsitsikamma National Park that are suitable for the continued existence of the Vulnerable blue duikers.

Sampling methods Procedure: The number of dogs, snares and blue duiker kills in forest patches of the park will be recorded during compliance patrols. Faecal pellet counts will be done in a series of 20 x 20m plots in the forest at Storms River Mouth, as part of a larger study monitoring blue duiker densities in the Garden Route.

Spatial scale : Dogs and snares recorded in forests at Storms River Mouth and De Vasselot, and faecal pellets assessments at the former site.

Temporal scale : Pellet counts will be done at least once every five years, while dogs and snares recorded on regular patrols.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• Estimates of less than 7 blue duikers/100 ha are recorded on two consecutive counts in the Storms River Mouth Area.

• Marked (> 20 %) increase in the number of dogs and/or snares recorded on two consecutive annual censuses.

The lower limit for duiker are based on the the density estimates (0.12 & 0.07 duiker/ha) derived from on pellet counts by Hanekom & Wilson (1991) and that (0.15 duiker/ha) Seydack et al. (1998) for the Storms River Mouth and De Plaatbos areas, while that for dogs and snares on collective judgement.

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Assess the appropriateness of the census methodology. • Ascertain regional/national trends in blue duiker numbers. • Undertake regular patrols to remove snares and identify sites where dogs are hunting. • Erect boundary fences in key areas of the park to keep dogs out of the park. • Remove any stray dogs. • Attempt to influence development activities on the border of the park to reduce the fragmentation of the forest habitat.

Project commencement Commencing in 2009.

Reporting frequency Annual.

Responsibilities • Data collection –Scientific Services (pellet counts), Park Management (snares and dogs). • Data Interpretation – Scientific Services (pellet counts), Park Management (snares and dogs). • Data Maintenance – Scientific Services (pellet counts), Park Management (snares and dogs). • Reporting - Scientific Services . 20

2.2. OBJECTIVE –REHABILITATION

2.2.2. SUB-OBJECTIVE - ALIEN PLANTS AND OTHER ALIEN BIOTA

2.2.2.1 PROGRAMME – ALIEN PLANTS

Rationale Eighteen alien invasive plants have been listed in TNP of which fourteen are established and four are emergent species. All are considered a potential threat to the indigenous flora. These are silky hakea Hakea sericea , port jackson Acacia saligna , rooikrans A. cyclops long-leaf wattle A. longifolia, black wattle A. mearnsii , Australian blackwood, A. melanoxylon gums , Eucalyptus spp. , pines Pinus radiata and P. pinaster , pricky pear Opuntia sp., castor oil bush Ricinus communis , and more recently sesbania Sesbania punicea , stink bean Paraserianthes lophantha and Pereskia sp. Emergent weeds include lantana Lantana camara , bramble Rubus cuneifolius, bugweed, Solanum maurtitianum and Madeira vine Anredera cordifolia . The Sandstone Fynbos is susceptible to encroachment by alien invasive plants. The highest densities of invasive plants are found in Soetkraal, where there are large infestations of hakea on the mountain slopes and black wattle in the river courses. Soetkraal has been the focal point of much of the alien control work.

Undisturbed forests are resistant to alien invasion and show remarkable recovery potential following infrequent disturbance (Geldenhuys et al ., 1986). In forests, alien invader plants generally only establish in disturbed forest margins or large gaps in exploited forest. Such invasions can displace the indigenous vegetation, as well as increasing the fuel load in the forest ecotone.

Management objective To effectively control and limit the spread of alien invasive plant populations within Tsitsikamma National Park.

Sampling methods Procedure: Alien species will be identified, and the density class (based on stem counts of trees or cover abundance of shrubs) will be determined for each stand and its extent measured using a GPS or in the case large infestations 1: 50 000 cadastral maps.

Spatial scale : Throughout the park, but primarily at Soetkraal and De Vasselot.

Temporal scale: Annual assessments.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• A 10 % increase in distribution or density of previously recorded AIP species within the park. • Presence of any new emergent weed in the park, including Spanish reed ( Arundo donax ) red water fern ( Azolla filiculoides ) and Kariba weed ( Salvinia molesta ). • Lack of follow-up operations in previously cleared areas at the prescribed time. • Inappropriate control operations, e.g. herbicide spillage, poor application, etc. aggravating the problem.

The above estimated limits are based on collective judgement.

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review TPC via adaptive management cycle. • Assess appropriateness of methodology. • Investigation into possible causes of the TPC being exceeded. • Motivate for greater resources to deal with the plant invasion problem. • Engage with adjacent land owners if their land is a source for invasive alien species. • Address inefficiency of control operations or methods.

Project commencement Commenced 2007 - ongoing 21

Reporting frequency Annual

Responsibilities • Data collection – Alien Invasive Species Unit & Park Management. • Data Interpretation – Alien Invasive Species Unit. • Data Maintenance – Alien Invasive Species Unit. • Reporting - Alien Invasive Species Unit.

2.3 OBJECTIVE- RECONCILING BIODIVERSITY WITH OTHER PARK OBJECTIVES

2.3.1 SUB-OBJECTIVE - INTERNAL ACTIVITIES

2.3.1.1 PROGRAMME – EFFLUENT OUTLET

Rationale Two thirds of the world’s population resides within the coastal zone and this is projected to increase to three quarters by 2025 (DEAT 2001). Along with the population increase, land based pollution released into the marine environment increases accordingly. Domestic effluent from the Storms River Rest-camp is treated by five biofilter purification units. The outflow of three of these units runs into intertidal gullies below the rest-camp. At times the outflow has been of poor quality, having elevated levels of suspended solids, ammonia and chemical oxygen demand. This poses a potential threat to humans and benthic fauna of the intertidal.

Management objective To ensure that effluent outflow from the Storms River Mouth Rest-camp is not a health hazard to tourist, staff and intertidal fauna.

Sampling methods Procedure: Samples of effluent from the sewerage purification plants in the rest-camp are collected and sent to the Bitou Municipality for chemical and bacterial analysis. Factors tested are chemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, ammonical nitrogen, pH and faecal coliforms.

Spatial scale : Storms River Mouth Rest-camp.

Temporal scale: Chemical and bacterial analysis done every two months.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply: • Counts of greater than 400 faecal coliforms/100ml are recorded in more than 10% of samples. • Counts of greater than 2000 faecal coliforms/100ml are recorded in more than 1% of samples.

These values were based on water quality criteria for the South African coastal zone (Lusher 1984).

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review TPC via adaptive management cycle. • Assess appropriateness of methodology. • Investigation into possible causes of TPC being exceeded. • Motivate for greater resources to deal with the upgrade the biofilter units.

Project commencement Chemical analysis commenced in 1990s. Biological observations will commence in 2008.

Reporting frequency Annual.

22 Responsibilities • Data collection – Technical Services (collection of samples for analysis by Bitou Municipality), Scientific Services (assessment of intertidal pools). • Data interpretation – Technical Services (water analysis), Scientific Services (intertidal pools). • Data Maintenance – Technical Services (water analysis), Scientific Services (intertidal pools). • Reporting - Technical Services (water analysis), Scientific Services (intertidal pools).

2.3.2 SUB-OBJECTIVE - EXTRACTIVE RESOURCE USE

2.3.2.1 PROGRAMME – MARINE FISH UTILIZATION

Rationale Recreational bait collecting and fishing is permitted in accordance with the Marine Living Resources Act (1998) along a 9 km stretch of the De Vasselot section of the park. Fishing is generally selective with larger fish being removed from a population first. Larger and older fish are more fecund than smaller recently mature fish in that they spawn more eggs which are larger and stronger, thereby disproportionately contributing to the spawning capacity of a population. Therefore fishing often rapidly reduces egg production and the genetic fitness of the targeted fish population (Longhurst 2002; Berkeley et al. 2004), and the status of the catches at De Vasselot need to be monitored.

The mean recorded cpue of Cowley (2005) in the no-take TNP MPA over an 11 year period was 99 (± SD = 0.14) fish/100 angler-hours. This value is more than double that recorded for open areas at Port Elizabeth in the 1980s (29 fish/100 angler-hours) and Plettenberg area (37 fish/100 angler-hours) in 2000s (Clarke & Buxton 1989; King 2005). Traditionally in fisheries science, a fish population is considered: (a) over-exploited once the spawner biomass-per-recruit ratio falls below 40%, and (b) collapsed at ratios below 25% (Griffiths et al. 1999). When the spawner biomass- per-recruit ratio falls below 25% there are not enough adults left to reproduce and rebuild the population.

Management objective To ensure that fish stocks in the open De Vasselot section of the park are not overexploited as a consequence of permitted extractive resource use.

Sampling methods Procedure: Regular roving creel surveys will be undertaken to assess recreational fish catches. Data recorded will include: numbers of anglers, time spent fishing, bait used, number and size of each fish species caught.

Spatial scale : De Vasselot coastline.

Temporal scale: Initially monthly surveys of anglers to assess seasonality in catches.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply: • An annual, overall cpue of less than 40 fish/100 angler-hours is recorded for three consecutive years. • An annual cpue for blacktail of less than 8 individuals/100 hours is recorded for three consecutive years by anglers targeting reef species. • A significant, directional temporal change in the catch composition of the recreational anglers, as determined by multivariate analysis, towards one that exhibits signs of overexploitation.

Assuming that catch per unit effort would largely mirror spawner biomass-per-recruit ratios, the lowest acceptable limit was taken as 40% of the catch rate recorded in the no-take Tsitsikamma MPA (Cowley 2005).

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Assess the appropriateness of the census methodology. • Ascertain regional/national trends in recreational fish catches. 23

• Undertake regular patrols to ensure greater compliance with the legislated bag limits and close seasons. • Initiate actions to reduce bag limits, and/or fishing pressure in the area.

Project commencement Commenced: Monitoring of catch data will be implemented in 2008, multivariate analyses in about 2006 – ongoing.

Reporting frequency Annual.

Responsibilities • Data collection – Scientific Services assisted by Park Management. • Data interpretation – Scientific Services. • Data Maintenance – Scientific Services. • Reporting - Scientific Services.

2.3.2.2 PROGRAMME – MARINE INVERTEBRATE UTILIZATION

Rationale Recreational fishing effort along the South African coast has increased drastically since the early 1900s, supporting approximately 500 000 fishers during 1995 (McGrath et al. 1997). As fishing pressure increases, so does the pressure on the invertebrate species harvested for bait along a 9 km stretch of the De Vasselot section of coast.

Management objective To ensure that bait stocks in the open De Vasselot section of the park are not overexploited as a consequence of permitted extractive resource use.

Sampling methods Procedure: Regular roving creel surveys will be undertaken to assess the extent of bait collecting on the coast. Details recorded will include: numbers of bait collectors, time spent collecting, species targeted, numbers and size of each bait organism collected.

Spatial scale : De Vasselot coastline.

Temporal scale: Initially monthly surveys of anglers assess seasonality in catches.

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• Legislated bag limits for bait organism are exceeded on more than 20% of the fishing outings. • More than 20% of the alikreukel ( Turbo sarmaticus ) collected are undersized (< 63 mm).

Estimated limits are based on the sustainability matrix of King (2005).

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Assess the appropriateness of the census methodology. • Ascertain regional/national trends in recreational fish catches. • Undertake regular patrols to ensure greater compliance with the legislated bag limits and close seasons. • Initiate actions to reduce bag limits, and/or fishing pressure in the area.

Project commencement Commenced 2008 – ongoing.

Reporting frequency Annual.

24 Responsibilities • Data collection – Scientific Services assisted by Park Management. • Data interpretation – Scientific Services. • Data Maintenance – Scientific Services. • Reporting - Scientific Services.

2.4 OBJECTIVE- RECONCILING BIODIVERSITY WITH EXTERNAL THREATS

2.4.1.1. PROGRAMME - POLLUTION OF STREAMS BY GOLF ESTATE

Rationale The Tsitsikamma Golf estate, which will include more than 400 housing units, a hotel and 18-hole golf course, is currently being constructed on the northern boundary of the park. A substantial portion of this development lies in the catchment of a stream, which is currently the primary source of potable water to the Storms River Mouth Rest-camp. Much of the vegetation has been removed to build the houses and shape the golf course, increasing sediment deposition in these streams. On completion the greens and fairways of the golf course will need to be maintained, and golf courses are notorious for the copious use of herbicides, pesticides, fungicides and fertilizers. Thus, there is strong possibility that the Tsitsikamma Golf estate will adversely affect the water quality of the streams supplying potable water to the rest camp.

Management objective To ensure that the water supply to the Storms River Rest-camp is of a high quality and is not a health hazard to visitors, tourist and staff.

Sampling methods Procedure : Park management will request data from LL&L Water Care, consultants paid by the developer (in terms of Record of Decision) to collect and analyze water samples from the stream, which flow through the Tsitsikamma Golf Estate and supplies the Storms River rest-camp with potable water. Approximately 20 different variables are measured (see Preliminary TPC’s below). In addition to regular sampling, spot samples are taken at three sites along the length of the stream that flows out into sea next to the restaurant during heavy rainfall conditions. These samples are sent to the Plettenberg Bay Municipality for analysis of suspended solids, ammonia, chemical oxygen demand and faecal coliform.

Spatial scale : The section of the stream on the borders of the golf estate and the park.

Temporal scale: LL&L Water Care sampling is done monthly, while that of SANParks is driven by events that are likely to negatively impact the water quality (e.g. heavy rains).

Preliminary TPC's A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply on more than two consecutive sampling dates or >25% of the sampling dates:

Chemical/Physical TPCs Units

pH <5.0 or > 9.5 pH units Electrical Conductivity >150 mS/m Colour >20 mg/l Pt Turbidity >1 NTU Total Dissolved Solids >1 000 mg/l Calcium as Ca >150 mg/l Magnesium as Mg >70 mg/l

Sulphate as SO 4 >400 mg/l Nitrate as N >10 mg/l Ammonium as N >1 mg/l Copper as Cu >1 mg/l Potassium as K >0 mg/l Sodium as Na >200 mg/l 25

Chemical/Physical TPCs Units

Aluminium as Al >0.3 mg/l Chloride as Cl >200 mg/l Iron (Total) as Fe >0.2 mg/l Microbiological Heterotrophic plate count >100 count/ml Total coliform >0 count/100 ml Faecal coliform >0 count/100 ml

These TPC’s limits were based largely on (DWAF 1993)

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Assess the appropriateness of the census methodology. • Engage with proponent of the Tsitsikamma Golf Estate. • Request assistance from the Department of Water Affairs. • Issue an advisory note to the tourists. • Take legal action against proponent.

Project commencement Commenced 2008 – ongoing.

Reporting frequency Annual.

Responsibilities • Data collection –Park Management (request copies of analytical data from LL&L Water Care). • Data interpretation – LL&L Water Care & Scientific Services (chemical analysis). • Data Maintenance – Park Management assisted by Scientific Services. • Reporting - Park Management assisted by Scientific Services.

2.4.2.1 PROGRAMME – WATER QUALITY OF GROOT ESTUARY

Rationale

Waters of the Groot Estuary are cut off from the sea for varying lengths of time by a sand bar which forms at the mouth (Morant & Bickerton 1983). This occurs during low river flows combined with longshore sand movements in the nearshore marine environment (Day 1981).

Development of residential properties and associated infrastructure in Natures Valley on the estuarine floodplain has in the past been approved by local municipalities. If the estuary is left to breach naturally, water levels under a typical flooding regime may result in partial inundation of an access road in Nature’s Valley; the public parking area near the estuary mouth, private gardens along Lagoon drive, and some camping sites in the SANParks Nature’s Valley rest-camp, in the mid reaches of the estuary. High water levels also result in the flooding of septic tanks situated on some waterfront properties, which in turn can result in faecal contamination of the estuary indicated by high E. coli counts, particularly during draw-down periods. Therefore, the natural stream flow and salinity regime of the Groot Estuary is affected by fresh water abstraction above the road bridge and the artificial breaching of the estuary mouth to prevent flooding when water levels are high.

Management objective To ensure that the water quality of the Groot River estuary is high quality and that fresh water abstraction from Groot River is not resulting in elevated salinity values in the estuary.

Sampling methods Procedure : Regular salinity analyses will be done at fixed localities along the length of estuary, inspections for signs of sewage pollution, and reports by the public investigated. If necessary 26

data will be requested from the Bitou Municipality on their water quality and bacteriological sampling conducted along the Groot Estuary will be requested.

Spatial scale – Throughout Groot Estuary.

Temporal scale – Monthly sampling of salinity (SANParks), Weekly water quality and bacteriological sampling (Bitou Municipality).

Preliminary thresholds of potential concerns (TPC’s) A threshold of potential concern is reached if one or more of the following conditions apply:

• Odours and water colouration that suggest sewage pollution of a magnitude are judged by SANParks personnel to pose a health risk to the public. • More than 10 percent of the samples taken by the Bitou Municipality have more than 400 faecal coliforms/100ml. • Mean salinity (g kg -1) in surface water of saline waterbodies measured at 30cm depth exceeds, for a period longer than ninety (90) days the ranges: • 5.0-35.0 g kg -1 in the lower reaches. • 0.0-18.0 g kg -1 in the upper reaches during closed phases. • 0.5-5.0 g kg -1 in the upper reaches during open phases.

The limits for salinity were based on sampling data between 2003 and 2006.

Possible actions if TPC is exceeded • Review the TPC via the adaptive management cycle. • Assess the appropriateness of the census methodology. • Engage with the Nature’s Valley Rate Payers council with respect to freshwater abstraction. • Request assistance from the Department of Water Affairs. • Issue an advisory note to the tourists. • Take legal action against proponent.

Project commencement Commenced 2003 – ongoing.

Reporting frequency Annual.

Responsibilities • Data collection – Park Management request salinity readings, as well as request water quality and bacteriological from Bitou Municipality. • Data interpretation – Park Management salinity and water quality and bacteriological from Bitou Municipality. • Data maintenance – Park Management and Scientific Services. • Reporting - Scientific Services.

3. DATA COLLECTION AND REPORTING

Not all of the programmes listed above require systematic, regular data collection, and not all could be undertaken with existing SANParks resources and capacity. Indicators that it is proposed that be regularly evaluated and reported on, based on data collected during formal monitoring using existing SANParks capacity and the assistance of outside institutions are:

• Recruitment of marine biota into Groot Estuar, • Intertidal mussel beds, • Intertidal bait stocks, • Inshore fish stocks (SAIAB), • Nearshore fish stocks (SAEON), • Blue duiker, • Marine fish utilization, • Marine invertebrate utilization, • Pollution of streams golf estate, • Water quality of Groot estuary 27

Indicators that it is proposed be regularly evaluated and reported on, based on ad hoc data collection using existing SANParks capacity, are: • Fire management, • Indigenous forests, • Alien plants

4. SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMME

Interpretation of the cause and significance of changes recorded within the monitoring programme can be facilitated by the availability of supplementary data. For this purpose a complementary surveillance programme will also be also undertaken. They will entail the regular collection of data, but for which no TPC’s will be developed. Surveillance collections that will be undertaken with existing SANParks capacity are: • Sea temperature - daily measurements at Storms River. • Sediment movement - sediment profiles measured in the lower portions of Groot River, usually annually though frequency may alter depending on the interval between breaching.

Surveillance collections that are undertaken by external agencies, but where the available data could be used to support present and future Tsitsikamma National Park monitoring programmes are: • Meteorology - continuous measurements (at approximately 1 hour intervals) at Storms River using automatic weather station (Weather Bureau). • Nearshore sea temperatures and ocean currents – continuous measurements (at approximately 1 hour intervals) using Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (Marine and Coastal Management), with a 6 -12 month lag between data measurement and availability. • Water level - continuous measurements ( c. 15 min intervals) in Groot Estuary, and the upper reaches of the Salt River by Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, with a 6 - 9 month lag between data measurement and availability to SANParks. • River water temperature - loggers records values every 4 hours at two sites in 11 rivers of the Tsitsikamma area. Initially monitoring will cover a two year period as part of a CAPE programme. • Water quality - usually monthly measurement of bacterial content of waters in the Groot River (west) estuary, with roughly a 3 month lag between data measurement and availability to SANParks.

5. FUTURE MONITORING REQUIREMENTS

Relatively few long-term monitoring studies have been undertaken in the park, and this document is just the first attempt using available data to identify indicator and describe potential thresholds of potential concern. Therefore, the identification and emphasis of such indicators should form component of a regular review process. It is also probable, however, that future environmental and/or legislative changes may necessitate incorporation of indicators not currently included within the monitoring and surveillance programme. At present it is foreseen that, subject to the availability of resources and increased SANParks capacity, the monitoring/surveillance program could benefit by inclusion of assessments of:

• Aquatic fauna The aquatic invertebrates in the rivers of the southern Cape are generally dominated by insects that are specialised and adapted to cool temperatures and high oxygen levels in the waters (De Moor 1998). Surveys of the Salt River, which is an unusual river system with no indigenous freshwater fish species in its middle and upper reaches, revealed a diverse community of aquatic insects (Barber-James 2000; De Moor & Barber-James 2001; De Moor et al. 2004). Many of these invertebrates show a high degree of ecological specialisation due to the absence of fish in the system, and include three previously undescribed genera and 13 undescribed species (De Moor et al. 2004). Preliminary data from current surveys of other streams of the Tsitsikamma region suggest that the Elandsbos, Bloukrans and Groot (west) rivers may also have unusual aquatic invertebrate fauna. Unfortunately substantial sections of these rivers extend beyond the boundaries of the park and outside activities potentially threaten the continued existence of the invertebrate communities.

28

• Slender Redfin Minnow The fresh water streams in the Tsitsikamma region are generally impoverished (Smith & Smith 1966), and only four indigenous fish species have been recorded in the sections of the rivers protected by the park (Russell 2002). However, one of these is the Endangered slender redfin Pseudobarbus tenius , which has been recorded in the Langbos-, Diep- and Palmiet rivers in then contractual Soetkraal area of the park (Russell 2002). The joint management contract between SANParks and Rand Mine Properties has lapsed, and SANParks is negotiating to acquire the property. Soetkraal potentially provides SANParks with a unique opportunity to conserve the slender redfin, provided the threat of alien wattle infestations and predatory bass species can be contained (Russell 2002).

• Knysna leaf-folding frog The Endangered Knysna leaf-folding frog Afrixalus knysnae is found in coastal wetlands along a short ( c. 100 km) stretch of coast between Covie in the east and Groenvlei in the west (Minter et al . 2004), and adult frogs have been recorded close to the borders of the De Vasselot section of the park (Branch & Hanekom 1987). The survival of this species is threatened by changes to or loss of habitat through urban-, forestry- and/or agricultural development (Minter et al . 2004).

• Cape cormorant Three Near-threatened seabird species have been recorded breeding in the park, namely Cape cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis , African black oystercatcher Haematopus moquini and in 2003 crowned cormorant Phalacrocorax coronatus (Crawford 1983; Whittington 2004). However, only the Cape cormorant breeds in substantial numbers (> 35 pairs). This species is endemic to southern Africa. There are approximately 60 breeding colonies, which vary greatly in extent (Cooper et al. 1982; Berruti 1989). Individual breeding colonies may also vary in size from year to year (Duffy et al. 1987). The overall number of Cape cormorant in southern Africa declined from approximately 500 000 pairs in the 1970s to 120 000 pairs in the mid- 1980s (Berruti 1989). This species is largely dependent on surface shoals of fish as food, and the numbers of Cape cormorants that breed are affected by food availability (Crawford & Shelton 1978, 1981 in Crawford et al. 1983), while their breeding success is susceptible to temporary and local shortages in abundance of fish stocks (Crawford et al. 1986; Berruti 1989; Crawford & Dyer 1995). Research on the West Coast found that Cape cormorants abandoned nests when their main prey item (anchovy) was scarce and deferred breeding until anchovy became more plentiful (Crawford et al 1983; Crawford & Dyer 1995).

• Abalone Abalone Haliotis midae , is harvested extensively for culinary purposes (Tarr 1989). It is a long lived mollusc that only reaches sexual maturity after 8-10 years. Adults occupy crevices or exposed positions on shallow reefs, and feed on algae. Abalone is a CITES (Appendix III) species, and its stocks are presently facing a severe crisis as a result of large scale poaching and ecological changes in parts of it distributional range (Griffiths et. al. 2004). Illegal harvesting is occurring in the Tsitsikamma National Park, especially in the De Vasselot section of the park, and the impact on the abalone of the park is unknown.

Finding the appropriate balance between inclusively, economy and efficiency will be ongoing.

6. REFERENCES

ANON. 1999 . Assessment of the marine resource availability for subsistence fisheries along the coast of South Africa. Centre for Marine Studies, University of Cape Town. ATTWOOD, C.G. & B.A. BENNETT. 1995a. A procedure for setting daily bag limits on recreational shore-fishery of the South-Western Cape, South Africa. South African Journal of marine Science 15: 241 – 252. BARBER-JAMES, H.M. 2000. Preliminary investigation of the freshwater macroinvertebrates in the Salt River, in relation to the proposed stocking of trout into the upper salt river, Farm 236, The Crags. Albany Museum Environmental Impact Assessment Report. 18pp BEKKER, S.J. 1994. The management of fynbos mountain catchments. In: Van der Sijde, H.A. (Ed.). South African Forestry Handbook . Southern African Institute of Forestry. Pretoria. pp. 691-714. BENNETT, R.H. 2007. Optimisation of a sampling protocol for long-term monitoring of temperature reef fishes. M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University. Grahamstown. 29

BENNETT, B.A., ATTWOOD, C.G. & J.D. MANTEL 1994. Teleost catches by three shore-angling clubs in the South-western Cape, with an assessment of the effect of restrictions applied in 1985. South African Journal of Marine Science 14: 11 – 18. BERKELEY, S.A., CAPMAN, C. & S. SOGARD 2004. Maternal age as a determinant of larval growth and survival in marine fish, Sebastes melanops . Ecology 85 (5): 1258 – 1264. BERRUTI, A. 1989. Resident seabirds. Pp 257-273. In: Payne, A.I.L. & R.J.M. Crawford (eds). Oceans of Life off southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town. BERRY, P.F. 1978. Reproduction, growth and production in the mussel Perna perna (L) on the east coast of South Africa. Oceanographic Research Institute Investigational Report 48: 1- 28. BERRY, P.F. 1982. Biomass and density of detritivores on a littoral rocky reef on the Natal coast, with an estimate of population production for the ascidian Pyura stolonifera Oceanographic Research Institute Investigational Report 53: 1- 15. BIGGS, H.C. & K.H. ROGERS 2003. An adaptive system to link science, monitoring and management in practice. In: Du Toit J.T., Rogers K.H. & H.C. Biggs (eds) The Kruger Experience. Ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Island Press. Washington. pp 59-80. BOWNES S AND MCQUAID CD 2006. Will the invasive mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck replace the indigenous Perna perna L. on the south coast of South Africa? Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 338: 140-151. BRANCH, G.M. & M. BRANCH 1981. The Living Shores of Southern Africa. C. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. BRANCH, W.R. & N. HANEKOM 1987. The herpetofauna of the Tsitsikamma National Park. Koedoe 30: 49 - 61. BROUWER, S.L. 1997. An assessment of the South African east coast linefishery from Kei Mouth to Still Bay. M.Sc. thesis. Rhodes University, Grahamstown. BROUWER, S.L. 2001. Tsitsikamma linefish population assessment – Final report. Progress report for South African National Parks for 2000. 27 pp. BROUWER S.L. 2004. Biology, population structure and management of carpenter ( Argyrozona argyrozona ) an endemic South African reef fish. Ph.D. thesis. Rhodes University, Grahamstown. BROUWER S.L. & C.D. BUXTON 2002. Catch and effort of the shore and skiboat linefisheries along the South African Eastern Cape coast. South African Journal of marine Science 24: 341 - 354 . BROUWER S.L., GRIFFITHS, M.H. & M.J. ROBERTS 2003. Adult movement and larval dispersal of Argyrozona argyrozona (Pisces: Sparidae) from a temperate marine protected area. African Journal of marine Science 25: 395 - 402. BROWN, A.C. & JARMAN, N. 1978. Coastal marine habitats. In Biogeography and Ecology of Southern Africa , (eds) Werger, M.J.A. & A.C. van Bruggen, 1241 – 1277. W. Junk. The Hague. BURGER, L.F. 1990. The distribution patterns and community structure of the Tsitsikamma rocky littoral ichthyofauna. M.Sc. thesis. Rhodes University, Grahamstown, R.S.A. BUXTON, C.D. 1987. Life history changes of two reef fish species in exploited and unexploited marine environments in South Africa. Ph.D. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown. BUXTON, C.D. & M. J. SMALE. 1984. A preliminary investigation of the marine ichthyofauna of the Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. Koedoe 27 : 13 - 24. COOPER, J., BROOKE, R.K, SHELTON, P.A. & R.J.M. CRAWFORD. 1982. Distribution, population size and conservation of the Cape Cormorant, Phalacrocorax capensis . Fisheries Bulletin of South Africa 16: 121 -143 COWLEY, P. D. 2000. Shore-tagging in the Tsitsikamma National Park. Tagging News 13: 9 – 11. COWLEY, P D. 2005. Monitoring of inshore linefish resources in Tsitsikamma National Park. Report submitted to Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. 25pp. COWLEY, P.D., BROUWER, S.L. and R.L. TILNEY 2002 - The role of the Tsitsikamma National Park in the management of four shore-angling fishes along the South-eastern Cape Coast of South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 24 : 27-35. COWLING, R.M. & HEIJNIS, C.E. 2001. The identification of Broad Habitat Units as biodiversity entities for systematic conservation planning in the Cape Floristic Region. South African Journal of Botany 67:15-38. CRAWFORD, R.J.M. 1983. Seabirds breeding in the Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. Koedoe 26: 145 - 153. CRAWFORD, R.J.M. 1984. Activity group structure and lambing of blue duikers Cephalophus monticola in the Tsitsikamma National Parks, South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research . 14 (3) 65 - 68. CRAWFORD, R.J.M. & B.M. DYER. 1995. Responses by four seabirds to a fluctuating availability of Cape Anchovy Engraulis capensis off South Africa. Ibis 137: 329-339. CRAWFORD, R.J.M. & G.A. ROBINSON 1984. History of the blue duiker Cephalophus monticola populations in the Tsitsikamma Forest and Coastal National Parks . Koedoe 27: 61 - 73. 30

CRAWFORD, R.J.M., SHELTON, P.A., & A. BERRUTI. 1983. Cape Cormorants as potential indicators of pelagic fish stocks off Southern Africa . South African Journal of Science 79: 466 – 468. CRAWFORD, R.J.M & P.A. SHELTON 1978. Pelagic fish and seabird interrelationships off the coasts of South West and South Africa. Biological Conservation 14: 86 – 109. CRAWFORD, R.J.M & P.A. SHELTON, 1981. Population trends for some southern African seabirds related to fish availability. In Proceedings of Symposium on Bird of Sea and Shore. Cooper, J. (ed) African Seabird Group, Cape Town, 15 – 41. CRAWFORD, R.J.M., WILLIAMS, A.J., AND P.B. CRAWFORD 1986. A note on mortality of seabirds off western southern Africa, October 1985 – February 1986 . South African Journal marine Science 4: 119 – 123. DAY, J.H. 1981. Coastal hydrodynamics, sediment transport and inlet stability. In : Day, J.H. (Ed.) Estuarine Ecology with particular reference to southern Africa . A.A. Balkema Cape Town. 7-25. DE MOOR, F. C 1998. Freshwater invertebrates. In: Lubke, R. & I.R. de Moor (Eds) Field guide to the Eastern & Southern Cape coast. University of Cape Town Press. Cape Town. 198 - 204 pp. DE MOOR, F. C. AND BARBER-JAMES H. M. 2001. Report on the second survey of macroinvertebrates to assess the potential impact of trout stocking in the upper Salt River, The Crags. Albany Museum Environmental Impact Assessment Report. 32pp. DE MOOR, F.C., DE MOOR, I.J., JAMES, N.P.E. & H.M. BARBER-JAMES 2004. An autumn survey of the freshwater macroinvertebrates in the Salt River, Southern Cape. Albany Museum Investigational Contract Report for Nature's Valley Trust. September 2004. DEAT 2001. Coastcare fact sheets series, 2D. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. DEPARTMENT OF WATER AFFAIRS & FORESTRY 1993. South African Water Quality Guidelines . Volume 1. Domestic Use. Pretoria. DUFFY, D.C., R.P. WILSON & M.P. WILSON 1987. Spatial and temporal patterns of diet in the Cape Cormorant of southern Africa. The Condor 89: 830 – 834. FRIEDMANN, Y. & B. DALY (eds) 2004. Red Data Book of the mammals of South Africa: A conservation assessment: CBSG Southern Africa, Conservation Breeding specialist Group (SSC/IUCN) Endangered Wildlife Trust. South Africa. GELDENHUYS, C.J., LE ROUX, P.J. & COOPER, K.H., 1986. Alien invasions in indigenous evergreen forest. In: Macdonald, I.A.W., Kruger, F.J. & Ferrar, A.A. (Eds.). The ecology and management of biological invasions in southern Africa. Proceedings of the National Synthesis Symposium on the ecology of biological invasions. Oxford University Press. GELDENHUYS, C.J. 1992. Disjunctions and distribution limits of forest species in the Southern Cape. South African Forestry Journal 161: 1 - 14. GELDENHUYS, C.J. 1993. Floristic composition of the southern Cape forests with an annotated checklist. South African Journal of Botany. 59 (1): 26 - 44. GRIFFITHS, M.H., ATTWOOD, C. & R. THOMPSON 1999. New Management protocol for the South African Linefishery. In Mann, B.Q. (ed). Proceedings of Marine Linefish Symposium 29 April – 1 May 1999. SANCOR Occasional Report 5: 159 pp. GRIFFITHS, C.L. & G.M. BRANCH 1997. The exploitation of coastal invertebrates and seaweeds in South Africa: Historical trends, ecological impacts and implications for management. Transaction of the Royal Society of South Africa 52(1): 121 - 148. GRIFFITHS, C.L., HOCKEY, P.A.R., VAN ERKOM SCHURINK, C. and LE ROUX, P.J. 1992. Marine invasive aliens on South African shores: implications for community structure and trophic functioning. In: Payne, A.I.L., Brink, K.H., Mann, K.H. and R. Hilborn (eds). Benguela Trophic Functioning, South African Journal of Marine Science 12 : 713 – 722. GÖTZ, A. 2005. Assessment of the effect of Goukamma Protected Area on community structure and fisheries dynamics. Ph.D. thesis. Rhodes University, Grahamstown GÖTZ, A., COWLEY, P.D. & H. WINKER 2008. Selected fishery and population parameters of eight shore-angling species in the Tsitsikamma National park no-take marine reserve. African Journal of marine Science 30 (3): 519 - 532. GRANT, W.S. & CHERRY, M.I. 1985. Mytilus galloprovincialis Lmk. in southern Africa. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 90 (2): 179 – 191. GRIFFITHS, C.L., VAN SITTER, L. , BEST, P.B., BROWN, A.C., CLARK, B.M., COOK, P.A., CRAWFORD, R.J.M., DAVID, J.H.M., DAVIES, B.R., GRIFFITHS, M.H., HUTCHINGS, K., JERARDINO, A., KRUGER, N., LAMBERTH, S., LESLIE, R.W., R. MELVILLE-SMITH, TARR, R. & C.D. VAN DER LINGEN 2004. Impacts of human activities on marine animal life in the Benguela: Historical overview. Oceanographic and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 42: 303 – 392. HALPERN B.S. 2003. The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and does size matter? Ecological applications 13 : 117-137. HAMMOND W. & C.L. GRIFFITHS 2004. Influence of wave exposure on South African mussel beds and their associated infaunal communities. Marine Biology 144: 547- 552. 31 HANEKOM, N. 2008. Invasion of an indigenous Perna perna mussel bed on the south coast of South Africa by an alien mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and its effect on the associated fauna. Biological Invasion 10: 233 – 244. HANEKOM, N. & P. S. COETZEE 1990. Subtidal macrobenthic community survey of the Tsitsikamma National Park. Poster paper. Zoological society of Southern Africa Symposium: The influence of water availability and water movement in animal ecology: terrestrial and aquatic systems, University of Port Elizabeth, Port Elizabeth. HANEKOM, N. & V. WILSON. 1991. Blue duiker Philantomba monticola densities in the Tsitsikamma National Parks and probable factors limiting these populations. Koedoe 34 (2) 107 – 120. HARRISON, T.D., COOPER, J.A.G., RAMM, A.E.L. & SINGH, R.A. 1996. Health of South African estuaries, Groot (Wes) – Great Fish. Executive Report, Coastal and Catchment Environmental Programme, CSIR, Durban. Movement patterns and home range of Roman Chrysoblephus laticeps. HEELEMANN, S., PROCHES, S., REBELO, A.G., VAN WILGEN, B.W., POREMBSKI, S. & COWLING, R.M. 2008. Fire season effects on the recruitment of non-sprouting serotinous Proteaceae in the eastern (bimodal rainfall) fynbos biome, South Africa. Austral Ecology 33(2): 119-127. KERWATH S.E., GOTZ A, ATTWOOD C.G., COWLEY PD, & W.H.H. SAUER 2007. Movement pattern and home range of roman Chrysoblephus laticeps. African Journal of marine Science 29 : 93-103. KING, C. M. 2005 - Towards a new approach to coastal governance with an assessment of the Plettenberg Bay shore based linefishery. M.Sc. Thesis. Rhodes University, Grahamstown. 172pp. LE MAITRE, D.C. 1988. The effects of parent density and season of burn on the regeneration of Leucadendron laureolum (Proteaceae) in the Kogelberg. South African Journal of Botany 54(6): 581-584. LOMBARD, T.A., STRAUSS, T., HARRIS, J. SINK, K. ATTWOOD, C. & L. HUTCHINGS 2005. South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Technical Report. Volume 4: Marine Component. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute. LONGHURST, A. 2002. Murphy’s law revisited: longevity as a factor in recruitment to fish populations. Fisheries Research 56: 125 – 131. LUSHER, J.A. 1984. Water quality criteria for the South African coastal zone. South African National Scientific Programmes Report No 94 . CSIR, Pretoria. MACKENZIE, B.L. 2005. An assessment of the shore baitfishery in the Eastern Cape. M.Sc. thesis. Rhodes University. Grahamstown. MANN, B.Q. 1992. Aspects of the biology of two inshore sparid fishes ( Diplodus sargus capensis and D. cervinus hottentotus ) off the south-east coast of South Africa. M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown MANN, B.Q. (ed.) 2000. Southern African Marine Linefish Status Reports. Special Publication Oceanographic Research Institute 7: 1-257. MARGOLIUS, R.A. & N., SALAFSKY 1998. Measures of success: designing, managing and monitoring conservation and development projects. Island Press, Washington DC, USA. McGRATH MD, HORNER CCM, BROUWER SL, LAMBERTH SJ, MANN BQ, SAUER WHH, & ERASMUS C. 1997. An economic valuation of the South African linfishery. South African Journal of marine Science 18 : 203 – 221. McLACHLAN, A. & H.W. LOMBARD. 1980. Seasonal variations in energy and biochemical components of an edible gastropod (Mollusca). Aquaculture 19:117 - 125. McLACHLAN, A. & H.W. LOMBARD. 1981. Growth and production in exploited and unexploited populations of a rocky shore gastropod, Turbo sarmaticus . Veliger 23 (3) 221 - 229. MCQUAID C.D. & T.E. PHILLIPS 2000. Limited wind-driven dispersal of intertidal mussel larvae: in situ evidence from the plankton and the spread of the invasive species. Marine Ecology Progress Series 201: 211-220. MINTER, L.R., BURGER, M. HARRISON, J.A. BRAACK, H.H., BISHOP, P.J. & D. KLOEPFER, (eds) 2004. Atlas and Red data Book of the frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. SI/MAB Series #9. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. MOLDAN, A.G.S. 1989. Marine pollution. In Payne, A.I.L. & R.J.M. Crawford (eds) Oceans of Life off southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publication. MOLL, E.J., 1983. The Southern Cape Forests. South African Forestry Journal 127: 31-34. MORANT, P.D. & I.B. BICKERTON. 1983. Estuaries of the Cape. Part II: Synopses of available information on individual systems. Report no 19: Groot (wes) (CMS23) & Sout (CMS 22). CSIR Research Report 418. CSIR Stellenbosch. MUCINA, L. & M.C. RUTHERFORD (Eds) 2006. The vegetation map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19 . South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. MULLER, S. 1984. Studies on the ecology, feeding, growth and reproduction of Haliotis spadicea Donovan, 1808. Mollusca, Gastropoda. M.Sc. thesis, University of Port Elizabeth. 1 – 195. 32

POMEROY, R.S., PARKS, J.E. & L.M. WATSON 2004. How is your MPA doing? A guidebook of natural and social indicators for evaluating marine protected area management effectiveness. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 216pp. PRADERVAND, P & R. HISEMAN 2006. An analysis of the recreational shore fishery in the Goukamma Marine Protected Area. African Zoology 41 (2): 275 – 289. RIUS V.M. 2004 The effect of the invasive mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and human exploitation on the indigenous mussel Perna perna on the South Coast of South Africa. M.Sc. thesis, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, South Africa, 203 pp. RIUS M. & C.D. MCQUAID 2006. Wave action and competitive interaction between the invasive mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and the indigenous Perna perna in South Africa. Marine Biology 150 (1): 69 – 78. ROBERTS C.M. & N.V.C. POLUNIN. 1991. Are marine reserves effective in management of reef fisheries? Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 1: 65 - 91. ROBINSON G.A. & G. DE GRAAFF 1994. Marine protected areas of the Republic of South Africa Council for the Environment. IUCN. ROBINSON, T.B., GRIFFITHS, C.L., MCQUAID, C.M. & M. RIUS 2005 Marine alien species of South Africa – status and impacts. African Journal of Marine Science 27 (1): 297- 306. ROGERS, K.H. 2003. Adopting a heterogeneity paradigm: Implications for management of protected savannas. In: Du Toit, JT, Rogers KH & Biggs HC (eds) The Kruger Experience. Ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Island Press. Washington. pp 41-58. ROGERS, K.H. & R. BESTBIER 1997. Development of a protocol for the definition of the desired state of riverine systems in South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria. RUSSELL, I.A. 2002. Freshwater fishes of Tsitsikamma National Park. Koedoe 45 (2): 13 – 17. SALAFSKY, N., MARGOLIUS, R. & K. REDFORD 2001. Adaptive Management: a tool for conservation practioners. Biodiversity Support Program, Washington, DC, USA et al. 2001. SAMLMA 2001. South African Marine Linefish Management Association Executive Committee meeting minutes. January 2001. Oceanographic Research Institute. SEED R (1996) Patterns of biodiversity in the macro-invertebrate fauna associated with mussel patches on rocky shores. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 76: 203 – 210. SEYDACH, A.H.W, HUISAMEN, J. & R. KOK 1998. Long-term antelope population monitoring in Southern Cape Forests. South African Forestry Journal 182: 9 - 19. SEYDACK, A.H.W., SOUTHWOOD, A.J., BEKKER, S.J. DE LANGE, C., SWART, J.A.J. & VOGES, K. 1986. Regional policy memorandum for the management of mountain catchment areas in the Southern Cape and Tsitsikamma forest regions. Department of Environment Affairs, Knysna. 59 pp. Unpublished. SMITH, M. K. S. 2005. Towards a new approach to coastal governance with an assessment of the Plettenberg Bay near shore linefisheries. M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown. 218 pp. STOCK, W.D. & ALLSOPP, N. 1992. Functional perspective of ecosystems. In: Cowling, R.M. (Ed.). The ecology of fynbos. Nutrients, fire and diversity . Oxford University Press, Cape Town. pp. 241- 259. SUCHANEK TH (1985) Mussels and their role in structuring rocky shore communities. In: PG Moore and Seed R (eds) The Ecology of Rocky Coasts , pp 70–96. Columbia University Press, New York TARR, R.J.Q. 1989. Abalone. In Payne, A.I.L. & R.J.M. Crawford (eds) Oceans of Life off southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publication. TEIE, W.C. 2003. Fire manager’s handbook on veld and forest fires. Strategies, tactics and safety. South African edition. Southern African Institute of Forestry . Menlo Park. 488 pp. UNDERHILL, L.G., BARTLETT, P.A., BAUMANN, L., CRAWFORD, J.R.M., DYER, B.M., GILDENHUYS, A., NEL, D.C., OATLEY, T.B., THORNTON, M., UPFOLD, L., WILLIAMS A.J., WHITTINGTON P.A. and A.C. WOLFAARDT. 1999. Mortality and survival of African Penguins Spheniscus demersus involved in the Appollo Sea oil spill: an evaluation of rehabilitation efforts. Ibis : 141: 29 – 37. UNDERHILL, L.G., WHITTINGTON, P.A., CRAWFORD, J.R.M. and A.J. WILLIAMS 1997. Results of monitoring oiled African penguins Spheniscus demersus for three years after the Appollo Sea incident of June 1994. Sula 11 (3): 187 – 192. VAN ERKOM SCHURINK, C. & GRIFFITHS, C.L. 1990. Marine mussels of southern Africa – their distribution patterns, standing stocks, exploitation and culture. Journal of Shellfish Research 9 (1): 75 – 85. VAN WILGEN, B.W. 1981. Some effects of fire frequency on fynbos plant community composition and structure at Jonkersberg, Stellenbosch. South African Forestry Journal 118: 42-55. VAN WILGEN, B.W., 1987. Fire regimes in the fynbos biome. In: Cowling, R.M., Le Maitre, D.C., McKenzie, B., Prys-Jones, R.P. & Van Wilgen, B.W. (Eds.). Disturbance and the dynamics of fynbos biome communities. South African National Scientific Programmes Report No. 135. CSIR, Pretoria. pp. 6-14. 33

VAN WILGEN, B.W., BOND, W.J. & RICHARDSON, D.M. 1992. Ecosystem management. In: Cowling, R.M. (Ed.). The ecology of fynbos. Nutrients, fire and diversity . Oxford University Press, Cape Town. pp. 345-371. VAN WILGEN, B.W. & VIVIERS, M. 1985. The effect of season of fire on serotinous Proteaceae in the Western Cape and the implications for fynbos management. South African Forestry Journal 33: 49- 53. VLOK, J.H.J., EUSTON-BROWN D.I.W. & WOLF, T. 2008. A vegetation map for the Garden Route Initiative. Unpublished 1:50 000 maps and report supported by CAPE Fsp Task Team. VON GADOW, K. 1978. A pellet count of blue duiker and bushbuck in the Knysna forests. South African Forestry Journal 107: 77 - 81. WHITFIELD A.K. 1989a. Ichthyoplankton interchange in the mouth region of a southern African estuary. Marine Ecology Progress Series 54: 25-33. WHITFIELD A.K. 1989b. Recruitment of ichthyoplankton into the Swartvlei Estuarine System. J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology Investigational Report No. 30: 5 pp. WHITFIELD A.K. 1992. Juvenile fish recruitment over an estuarine bar. Ichthos 36: 23. WHITFIELD AK (1998) Biology and ecology of fishes in southern African estuaries. Ichthyological monograph of the J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology No. 2. 223 pp. WHITFIELD, A.K. 2000. Available scientific information on individual South African estuarine systems. Water Research Commission Report No. 577/3/00. WRC, Pretoria. 217pp. WHITTINGTON, P. A. 2004. New breeding locality for Crowned cormorant. Koedoe 47. WOOD, A.D., BROUWER, S.L., COWLEY, P.D. & T.D. HARRISON 2000. An updated checklist of the ichthyofaunal species assemblage of the Tsitsikamma National Park, South Africa. Koedoe 43 (1): 83 – 95. YSSEL, S. G. 1989. Long term trends in a population of Turbo sarmaticus, Linneaus 1758 , in the Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park . M.Sc. thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, Port Elizabeth. 132pp.