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PREFACE 1 . Said Amir Arjomand, the Shadow of God and the Hidden

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PREFACE 1 . Said Amir Arjomand, the Shadow of God and the Hidden N o t e s P REFACE 1 . S a i d A m i r A r jomand, The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam; Religion, Political Order, and Social Change in Shi’ite Iran from the Beginning to 1890 (Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1984), 270. 1 THE STORY OF THE SHI’A 1 . H a m i d Enayat, “Shi’ism and Sunnism,” in Shi’ism: Doctrines, Thoughts, and Spiritualityy, ed. Seyyed Hossein Nasr (New York: State University of New York Press, 1988), 79–80; Rudi Matthee, “The Egyptian Opposition to the Iranian Revolution,” in Shi’ism and Social Protestt , eds. Juan R. I. Cole and Nikki R. Keddie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), 248; Michael Axworthy, I ran, Empire of the Mind—A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day (London: Penguin Books, 2007), 201–203. 2 . A x w o r t hy, Iran, Empire of the Mindd, 178. 3 . Karen Barkey, “Islam and Toleration: Studying the Ottoman Imperial Model,” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Societyy, vol. 19, no. 1/2 (December 2005), 10; Bruce Masters, “The Treaties of Erzurum ( 1823 and 1848) and the Changing Status of Iranians in the Ottoman,” Iranian Studiess , vol. 24, no. 1/4 (1991), 7–8; R. I. Cole and Moojan Momen, “Mafia, Mob and Shiism in Iraq: The Rebellion of Ottoman Karbala 1824–1843,” Past & Present , no. 112 (August 1986), 116; Juan R. I. Cole, “‘Indian Money’ and the Shi’i Shrine Cities of Iraq, 1786–1850,” Middle Eastern Studiess, vol. 22, no. 4 (October 1986), 470. 4 . Enayat, “Shi’ism and Sunnism,” 80. 5 . Graham E. Fuller and Rend Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi’a—The Forgotten Muslim (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 94–95. 6 . Bernard Lewis, “The Shi’a in Islamic History,” in Shi’ism, Resistance and Revolution , ed. Martin Kramer (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), 21. 7 . Richard Yann, Shi’ite Islam; Polity, Ideology, and Creedd (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1995), 28–31. 152 NOTES 8 . A’llamah Tabataba’i, “The Shi’i Interpretation of Hadith Literature,” in Shi’ism, Doctrines, Thought, and Spiritualityy, eds. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Hamid Dabashi, and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), 34–36. 9 . Moojan Momen, An Introduction to Shi’i Islam (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 176–177. 1 0 . I b i d . , 1 5 3 – 1 5 6 . 1 1 . S e y y e d H a m i d a l - I d r i s i , Al-Fadhiha leMadhhab al-Shia al-Imameya ([?]: Maktabat al-Radhwan, 2007), 15–16. Retrieved from www.waqfeya.com /book.php?bid=6113 (February 29, 2012). 1 2 . M o m e n , I ntroduction to Shi’i Islam , 173–174; Lewis, “Shi’a in Islamic History,” 29–30. 1 3 . E n a yat, “Shi’ism and Sunnism,” 71–75. 1 4 . Momen, I ntroduction to Shi’i Islam , 179–180; Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, “Une absence remplie de présences. Herméneutiques de l’occultation chez les Shaykhiyya (Aspects de l’imamologie duodécimaine VII),” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 64, no. 1 (2001), 8. 15 . Rola el-Husseini, “Resistance, Jihad, and Martyrdom in Contemporary Lebanese Shi’a Discourse,” Middle East Journall, vol. 62, no. 3 (Summer 2008), 401. See also Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, The Just Ruler (al‐sultan al‐adil) in Shi´ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudencee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 105. 1 6 . T he full name is: Mulla Muhammad Baqir bin Muhammad Taqi bin Maqsud, Bihar al-Anwar al-Jama’t lildarar Akhbar al-Imat al-Atharr (Taba’t Tehran, Dar al-kitab al-Islamia). 17 . Majeed al-Khalifa, Gharaib Fuqahiya I’nd al-Shi’a al-Imamiya, 44; http:// www.dr-majeed.net . 1 8 . M o m e n, Introduction to Shi’i Islam , 179–180. 19 . The Shi’a adds another part to its Shahada: “Ali is a Vicegerent of God.” 20 . Momen, I ntroduction to Shi’i Islam, 181–183; “The Doctrine of the Imamate,” The Origins and Early Development of Shi’a Islam , http://www .karbala-najaf.org/shiaism/289–316.htm. 21 . Marvin Zonis and Daniel Brumberg, “Shi’ism as Interpreted by Khomeini: An Ideology of Revolutionary Violence,” in Shi’ism, Resistance and Revolution , ed. Martin Kramer (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), 50. 2 2 . M a hmud Shahabi, “The Roots of Shi’ism in Early Islamic History,” in Shi’ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spiritualityy, ed. Seyyed Hossein Nasr (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), 15–20; Momen, Introduction to Shi’i Islam , 11–12. 2 3 . Momen, I ntroduction to Shi’i Islam , 147. 24 . Ibid. Seyyed Hamid al-Idrisi, Al-Fadhiha leMadhhab al-Shia al-Imameya ([?]: Maktabat al-Radhwan, 2007), p. 11. Retrieved from www.waqfeya.com/book .php?bid=6113 (February 29, 2012). 25 . For further information, see chapter two and also Momen, Introduction to Shi’i Islam , 197–199. NOTES 153 2 6 . M o m e n , I ntroduction to Shi’i Islam , 181–182. 2 7 . I bid., 239, 285. 2 8 . I b i d . , 30. 2 9 . I bid., 240–242. 3 0 . I b i d . , 2 3 9 . 31 . Ibid., 15, 82. 3 2 . I b i d . , 1 6 1 . 3 3 . Y a n n , Shi’ite Islam , 41. 3 4 . M o m e n , I ntroduction to Shi’i Islam, 162–165. Some sources diverge as to the year of the twelfth imam First Occultation—873 or 874?; but this is a dif- ference of barely one year. Shiite sources claim 873. For more details on the Minor Occultation and Major Occultation during the Imamate Period and not only regarding the twelfth imam, and the Ulama’s power in the ancient Shiite society, please refer to the fascinating article: Said Amir Arjomand. “The Crisis of the Imamate and the Institution of Occultation in Twelver Shiism: A Sociohistorical Perspective,” International Journal of Middle East Studiess 4, vol. 28 (2009): 491–515. 3 5 . Momen, I ntroduction to Shi’i Islam, 162–171. For further explanation about the imam’s purity and his duties among the Shi’i community, see: Allamah al-Hilli, “Shi’i Theology,” in S hi’ism: Doctrines, Thoughts, and Spirituality, e d. Seyyed Hossein Nasr (New York: State Univ. of New York Press, 1988), 91–99. 2 THE REVIVAL OFTHE SHI’A AFTER THE QAJARS 1 . For further detailed information, see: Peter Jackson (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran—The Timurid and Safavid Periodss , vol. 6 (Cambridge University Press, 1986), 191–198, 646–658, 661–663; Michael Axworthy, “Shi’ism and the Safavids,” in Iran—Empire of the Mind, A History from Zoroaster to the Present Dayy (London: Penguin Books, 2007), chapter 4 (123–145); Said Amir Arjomand, “The Clerical Estate and the Emergence of a Shi’ite Hierocracy in Safavid Iran: A Study in Historical Sociology,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orientt, vol. 28, no. 2 (1985), 169–219; John Foran, “The Long Fall of the Safavid Dynasty: Moving beyond the Standard Views,” International Journal of Middle East Studiess, vol. 24, no. 2 (May 1992), 281–304; Ernest Tucker, “Nadir Shah and the Ja’fari Madhhab Reconsidered,” Iranian Studiess , vol. 27, no. 1/4, Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era (1994), 163–179. 2 . Peter Avery et al. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 7; From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republicc (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 712. 3 . A x w o r t h y , Iran—Empire of the Mindd, 174. 4 . Andrew J. Newman, “The Nature of the Akhbari/Usuli Dispute in Late Safawid Iran,” Part 2: The Conflict Reassessed, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studiess, University of London, vol. 55, no. 2 (1992), 254. 5 . A x w o r t h y, Iran—Empire of the Mindd, 174. 154 NOTES 6 . Moojan Momen, “Usuli, Akhbari, Shaykhi, Babi: The Tribulations of Qazvin Family,” Iranian Studiess , vol. 36, no. 3 (September 2003), 317–318. 7 . Ibid., 712–713; Denis MacEoin, “Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy in Nineteenth-Century Shi’ism: The Cases of Shaykhism and Babism,” Journal of the American Oriental Societyy, vol. 110, no. 2 (April–June 1990 ), 326; Juan Cole, “Shi’i Clerics in Iraq and Iran, 1722–1780: The Akhbari-Usuli Conflict Reconsidered,” Iranian Studiess , vol. 18, no. 1 (Winter 1985 ), 18–23; Momen, “Usuli, Akhbari, Shaykhi, Babi,” 320. 8 . Z a c k e r y M. Heern, Usuli Shi’ism : The Emergence of an Islamic Reform Movement in Early Modern Iraq and Iran, dissertation submitted to the fac- ulty of The University of Utah, Department of History, University of Utah, August 2011, 49–50. In this chapter we will not discuss the significant socio- political ramifications of the Usuli doctrine. Heern’s dissertation, among other respectable books and scholars, deals with this important issue. Our goal in this chapter is therefore to show the main dispute between the Usulis and the Akhbaris in order to present the religious debate concerning the interpretation of the role of the Shi’a and especially the role of the clerics in the community and politics. 9 . Mansoor Moaddel, “The Shi’i Ulama and the State in Iran,” Theory and Societyy , vol. 15, no. 4 (July 1986 ), 522–523. 1 0 . D u r i n g t he Qajar period, the clergy of all currents, especially the Usuliyya, succeeded in separating Shi’a jurisprudence into two levels: the U’rf, refer- ring to the customs and practices of a given society; and the Shar’, which covered civil law.
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