Toward Gender Equality in Europe and Eurasia: a Toolkit for Analysis

TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS

MAY 24, 2012 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Elisabeth Duban and JBS International, with substantial input from Catherine Cozzarelli (Gender Advisor for the E&E Bureau, USAID). This document is one of a series of publications sponsored by the Social Transition Team in the Bureau for Europe and Eurasia on social transition issues in the Region. You may download the documents in this series from the USAID Development Experience Clearinghouse website (http://dec.usaid.gov), using the Doc IDs for reference. If you would like more information about these and upcoming products, please contact the Social Transition Team at USAID at [email protected]. The Social Transition Series includes:

Tackling the Demand that Fosters Human A Strategic Approach to Characterizing the TraffickingAugust 2011, Doc ID: Status and Progress of Child Welfare Reform in CEE/CIS Countries July 2008, Doc ID: PN-ADN-294 The Other Side of the Gender Equation: Gender Issues for Men in the Europe and Education Vulnerability Analysis for the E&E Eurasia Region July 2011, Doc ID: Region July 2008, Doc ID: PN-ADL-768

Trafficking of Adult Men in the Europe and An Analysis and Strategic Approach to Eurasia Region June 2010, Doc ID: PN-ADW-368 Monitoring the Status and Progress of Child Out of the Broken Mirror: Learning for Welfare Reform in 21 CEE/CIS Countries Reconciliation through Multi-perspective November 2007, Doc ID: PN-ADL-007 History Teaching in Southeast Europe May 2010, Examining the Intersection between Trafficking Doc ID: PD-ACS-531 in Persons and Domestic Violence June 2007, Doc Best Practices in Inclusive Education for ID: PN-ADL-005 Children with Disabilities: Application for Program Design in the Europe and Eurasia Quantifying the Relationship between Region March 2010, Doc ID: Corruption in Education and Economic Development in the Eastern Europe and An Evaluation Framework for USAID- Eurasia Region: an Exploratory Literature Funded TIP Prevention and Victim Protection Review May 2007, Doc ID: PN-ADL-006 Programs December 2009, Doc ID: PN-ADR-430 Europe and Eurasia Bureau Social Transition Transitions towards an Inclusive Future: Strategy June 2006, Doc ID: PD-ACH-406 Vocational Skills Development and Employment Options for Persons with Disabilities in Europe Child Welfare and Disability Project Database & Eurasia October 2009, Doc ID: PN-ADS-499 June 2006, Doc ID: PN-ADG-329

The Prevalence of Disability in Europe & USAID and Child Welfare Reform in Romania Eurasia September 2009, Doc ID: PN-ADT-697 Challenges, Successes, and Legacy June 2006, Doc National Security and the Social Sector in ID: PD-ACH-405 Georgia September 2009, Doc ID: PN-ADS-274 Promising Practices in Community-Based Toolkit for Integrating Domestic Violence Social Services in CEE/CIS/Baltics October 2006, Activities into Programming in Europe and Doc ID: PN-ADF-930 Eurasia July 2009, Doc ID: PN-ADO-921 Emerging Practices in Community-Based The Job that Remains: An Overview of USAID Services for Vulnerable Groups: A Study of Child Welfare Reform Efforts in Europe and Social Services Delivery Systems in Europe and Eurasia June 2009, Doc ID: PN-ADO-922 Eurasia June 2006, Doc ID: PN-ADG-301

Best Practices in Trafficking Prevention in Domestic Violence in Europe and Eurasia June Europe and Eurasia January 2009, Doc ID: PN- 2006, Doc ID: PN-ADG-302 ADO-543, PN-ADO-765 Gender Issues in Europe and Eurasia June 2006, Methods and Models for Mixing Services for Doc ID: PN-ADG-303 Victims of Domestic Violence and Trafficking in Persons in Europe and Eurasia December 2008, The Hope of Tomorrow—Integrating Youth into Doc ID: PN-ADN-297 the Transition of Europe and Eurasia Volumes Social Work Education and the Practice I&II May 2006, Doc ID: PN-ADG-304, Doc ID: PN- Environment in Europe and Eurasia December ADG-305 2008, Doc ID: PN-ADN-298 The Importance of Social Investments Best Practices for Programming to Protect for Economic Growth and Governing in and Assist Victims of Trafficking in Europe and Transitioning States: A Survey of Recent Eurasia November 2008, Doc ID: PN-ADN-295 Evidence June 2006, Doc ID: PN-ADG-306 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS

DISCLAIMER The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

CONTENTS

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS...... vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... ix SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.1 Why This Toolkit...... 1 1.2 Methodology of This Toolkit...... 2 1.3 Target Audience...... 3 1.4 Progress Toward Gender Equality in Europe and Eurasia...... 3 SECTION 2 USAID AND GENDER INTEGRATION...... 7 2.1 USAID Commitment to Gender Equality...... 7 2.2 USAID Policy on Gender Equality and Female Empowerment .... 8 2.3 Implementing USAID Policy ...... 8 SECTION 3 UNDERSTANDING GENDER ANALYSIS...... 11 3.1 How to Structure the Analysis...... 11 3.2 How to Apply the Six Domains Framework...... 13 SECTION 4 CONDUCTING GENDER ANALYSIS AT THE PROJECT LEVEL...... 19 4.1 Tips for Conducting Gender Analysis...... 19 4.2 Conducting Gender Analysis by Sector...... 22 Guidance Note 1: Gender & Agriculture...... 25 Guidance Note 2: Gender & Energy and Environment...... 29 Guidance Note 3: Gender & Political Processes...... 33 Guidance Note 4: Gender & Governance...... 37 Guidance Note 5: Gender & Civil Society...... 41 Guidance Note 6: Gender & Media...... 49 Guidance Note 7: Gender & Rule of Law...... 53 Guidance Note 8: Gender & the Labor Market...... 57 Guidance Note 9: Gender & Entrepreneurship...... 63 Guidance Note 10: Gender & Education...... 69 Guidance Note 11: Gender & HIV/AIDS...... 75 Guidance Note 12: Gender & Tuberculosis...... 79 Guidance Note 13: Gender & Disability...... 83 Guidance Note 14: Gender & Child Welfare...... 89 Guidance Note 15: Gender & Domestic Violence...... 95 Guidance Note 16: Gender & Trafficking in Persons...... 101 APPENDIX 1 OVERVIEW OF GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS...... 107 APPENDIX 2 GENERAL RESOURCES...... 109 REFERENCES...... 111

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADS Automated Directives System AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome AWID Association for Women’s Rights in Development CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategy CIS Commonwealth of Independent States CSO civil society organization DFID Department for International Development DO Development Objective DPO disabled persons organization E&E Europe and Eurasia GAD Gender and Development GE/FE Gender Equality and Female Empowerment HIV human immunodeficiency virus IGWG Interagency Gender Working Group ISCED International Standard Classification of Education ILO International Labour Organization IR Intermediate Result MARP most-at-risk population MSM men who have sex with men NGO nongovernmental organization NRM National Referral Mechanism OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe OP Operational Plan PAD Project Appraisal Document PPR Performance Plan Reports SME small and medium enterprise ST Social Transition TB tuberculosis TIP trafficking in persons TRM Transnational Referral Mechanism TVET technical and vocational education and training UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Program UNECE UN Economic Commission for Europe UNICEF UN Children’s Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development VoT victim of trafficking WEAI Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture WID Women in Development

vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

ith the release of the new Agency Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy (Policy on GE/FE), USAID reaffirmed that gender analysis is the key tool that must beW utilized to integrate gender effectively across the programming cycle. The Policy on GE/FE notes that gender analysis can be used proactively to address gender constraints and gaps in the course of “ Gender equality and female strategy and project design, identify new opportunities to promote empowerment are core women’s leadership and participation, and identify potential adverse development objectives, impacts and/or risks of gender-based exclusion that could result from planned activities. fundamental for the realization of human rights At first glance, it may appear that significant inequalities between women and men do not exist in the Europe and Eurasia (E&E) region, and key to effective and and it is true that, by and large, there is limited overt gender-based sustainable development 1 discrimination in most E&E countries. During the Soviet era, equality outcomes. No society between men and women was official policy, and the majority of E&E can develop successfully countries now have sound legislative frameworks that support gender equality principles. E&E countries also exhibit near parity at most without providing equitable levels of education (especially basic education), and women are well opportunities, resources, represented in the labor market. Thus, there appear to be few formal and life prospects for males barriers to women’s advancement. However, more in-depth analysis reveals many barriers that prevent women in the region from achieving and females so that they can true equality with men. It is precisely this context—in which gender shape their own lives and equality is a formal principle and gender differences are not obvious— contribute to their families that makes gender analysis imperative for designing projects that and communities.” effectively address nuanced gender differences and empower women to participate actively and equally in their societies at all levels. In usaid gender equality and conducting gender analysis in E&E countries, one must look beyond female empowerment policy, formal statements and principles of equality to uncover the reality for 2012, p. 1 women and men.

TOOLKIT PURPOSE This Toolkit has been prepared to provide USAID Mission staff working in the E&E region with a resource for conducting gender analysis in the context of project design. The Toolkit builds upon and supplements earlier initiatives, and provides concrete guidance and recommendations to assist in meeting USAID gender integration

1. This Toolkit focuses on E&E countries where USAID maintains an active presence: Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Russia, Serbia, and Ukraine.

ix requirements. It is intended as a tool for USAID Mission and USAID/ Washington personnel, particularly Gender Advisors/points of contact and project design team members, to assist in implementing USAID policy on promoting gender equality and female empowerment. The creation of this Toolkit was motivated by a desire to respond to a very real need observed among USAID Mission staff and USAID/ Washington personnel—the need for concrete tools and resources that can be used to translate Agency policy on gender integration into the nuts and bolts of day-to-day development work. While conducting country-level gender analyses in the context of USAID Mission strategic planning in 2010–12, the E&E Bureau’s Gender Advisor met with Mission staff in numerous Missions and identified a common concern. Although there is widespread awareness in the E&E region “ Promoting gender equality of gender analysis requirements and a willingness to carry them out, and female empowerment is a great many staff members also expressed doubts that they had the necessary knowledge, skills, and capacity to conduct this analysis. The a shared Agency responsibility Toolkit was designed to fill this need. and depends on the This Toolkit is based on a review of USAID and other international contribution and collective development agencies’ materials and guidance on gender analysis. commitment of all staff.” Information about gender issues in specific sectors was drawn from usaid gender equality and recent USAID gender analyses and other publications, the academic literature, statistical databases, and analytic reports produced by female empowerment policy, other organizations and agencies. The E&E Bureau Gender Advisor 2012, p. 14 contributed extensively to the Toolkit, and a large number of sector experts within the E&E Bureau reviewed the sector guidance notes and made substantive contributions.

STRUCTURE OF THE TOOLKIT The Toolkit provides an overview of the relevance of gender analysis to USAID development goals and uses the Six Domains Framework as a sample gender analysis methodology. This general introduction is followed by 16 guidance notes that provide detailed information about gender. Twelve provide information on a variety of sectors in the broad fields of democracy and governance, economic growth, social transition, health, energy, and the environment in the E&E region. Four guidance notes cover vulnerable groups such as children living outside of parental care, people with disabilities, and victims of human trafficking. The Toolkit has a regional focus and as such, it reflects a synthesis of data and trends across the countries in the E&E region. When designing a project in a specific country,Toolkit users will need to carry out further research to articulate the more nuanced patterns of gender- related trends specific to that country.

x TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS The Toolkit is divided into four sections. • Section 1 presents a brief overview of gender issues in the E&E region and the purpose of the Toolkit. • Section 2 reviews USAID requirements on gender integration and gender analysis and discusses why gender analysis is relevant to USAID’s development goals. • Section 3 explains the purposes of gender analysis and introduces a theoretical framework for conducting gender analysis. • Section 4 is the heart of the Toolkit and presents a practical approach and concrete tools for integrating gender at the project level. As described above, this section includes the guidance notes on how to conduct gender analysis in the areas that are currently most relevant to USAID activities in the E&E region. Each of the 16 guidance notes can also serve as a stand-alone resource.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xi ALBANIAN DISABILITY RIGHTS FOUNDATION SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION

he purpose of this Toolkit is to provide USAID Mission staff working in the Europe and Eurasia (E&E) region with resources for conducting gender analysis in the context of Tproject design. The Toolkit builds upon and supplements earlier resources that have been produced by the Social Transition (ST) Team in the E&E Bureau (e.g., online gender integration course, REMEMBER: Promoting analytic guides to gender issues in the region) and other entities at USAID (including the Office of Gender Equality and Women’s gender equality and Empowerment, the Bureau for Global Health) and provides users women’s empowerment is a with concrete tools to help in meeting USAID gender integration responsibility shared across requirements. The Toolkit is intended to assist USAID Mission and the Agency; progress toward USAID/Washington personnel, particularly Gender Advisors/points of contact and project design team members, to implement USAID this goal depends on the policy on promoting gender equality and female empowerment contributions of all USAID staff, effectively. implementers, and partners. The Toolkit provides an overview of the relevance of gender analysis to USAID development goals and outlines the Six Domains Framework as a sample gender analysis methodology. This general introduction is followed by 16 guidance notes that provide detailed information about gender. Twelve provide information on a variety of sectors in the broad fields of democracy and governance, economic growth, social transition, health, energy, and the environment in the E&E region. Four guidance notes cover vulnerable groups such as children living outside of parental care, persons with disabilities, and victims of human trafficking. Each guidance note begins with an outline of the key gender issues for that sector/topic and provides a list of sample questions to use when conducting gender analysis while designing a project in that sector or addressing that crosscutting topic. These questions focus on basic statistical information about women and men, gender roles and responsibilities, the extent to which women and men have access to key assets and resources, and the extent to which men and women are represented in decision making positions. Links to further background and overview materials produced by USAID and other donor and international organizations are highlighted throughout the text, in the guidance notes, and in the references and appendixes.

1.1 WHY THIS TOOLKIT With the release of the new Agency Policy on Gender Equality and Female Empowerment (Policy on GE/FE), USAID reaffirmed that gender analysis is the key tool that must be used to integrate gender

1 “ Gender equality and female effectively across the programming cycle. The Policy notes that gender empowerment are core analysis can be used proactively to address gender constraints and gaps in the course of project design, identify new opportunities to promote development objectives, women’s leadership and participation, and identify potential adverse fundamental for the impacts and/or risks of gender-based exclusion that could result from realization of human rights planned activities. and key to effective and The creation of this Toolkit was motivated by a desire to respond to sustainable development a very real need observed among USAID Mission staff and USAID/ outcomes. No society Washington personnel—the need for concrete tools and resources that can be used to translate Agency policy on gender integration into the can develop successfully nuts and bolts of day-to-day development work. While conducting without providing equitable country-level gender analyses in the context of USAID Mission opportunities, resources, strategic planning in 2010–12, the E&E Bureau’s Gender Advisor met with Mission staff in numerous Missions and identified a common and life prospects for males concern. Although there is widespread awareness in the E&E region of and females so that they can the gender analysis requirements and a willingness to carry them out, shape their own lives and a great many staff members also expressed doubts that they had the contribute to their families necessary knowledge, skills, and capacity to conduct this analysis. The Toolkit was designed to fill this need. and communities.” usaid gender equality and 1.2 METHODOLOGY OF THIS TOOLKIT female empowerment policy, This Toolkit is based on a review of USAID and other international 2012, p. 1 development agencies’ materials and guidance on gender analysis. Information about gender issues in specific sectors was drawn from recent USAID gender analyses and other publications, the academic literature, statistical databases, and analytic reports produced by other organizations and agencies. The E&E Bureau Gender Advisor contributed extensively to the Toolkit, and a large number of sector experts within the E&E Bureau reviewed the sector guidance notes and made substantive contributions. The Toolkit has a regional focus and as such, it reflects a synthesis of data and trends across the countries in the E&E region. When designing a project in a specific country, Toolkit users will need to carry out further research to articulate the more nuanced patterns of gender- related trends specific to that country. The Toolkit is divided into four sections. • This section presents a brief overview of gender issues in the E&E region. • Section 2 reviews USAID requirements on gender integration and gender analysis and discusses why gender analysis is relevant to USAID’s development goals. • Section 3 explains the purposes of gender analysis and introduces a theoretical framework for conducting gender analysis.

2 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS • Section 4 is the heart of the Toolkit and presents a practical approach and concrete tools for integrating gender at the project level. As described above, this section includes guidance notes on how to conduct gender analysis in the areas that are currently most relevant to USAID activities in the E&E region. Each of the 16 guidance notes can also serve as a stand-alone resource. The Toolkit includes illustrations, charts, and tables; throughout the document, background and overview materials produced by USAID and other donor and international organizations are highlighted in One-Click Resources sections. These materials together constitute a resource library for conducting gender analysis. Links to general resources and background materials on gender issues in the E&E region are provided in Appendix 2 and in each guidance note.

1.3 TARGET AUDIENCE Although this Toolkit was prepared with a primary focus on the E&E region, much of the material and information it includes may be relevant to other regions as well. In particular, the sample gender analysis questions should be broadly applicable across USAID regions and Bureaus. The Toolkit is aimed at a variety of USAID Mission and USAID/Washington personnel, with a specific focus on those who are involved in strategy development or project design, Contract and Agreement Officer Representatives (CORs/AORs) who monitor the technical performance of USAID implementers, Gender Advisors, and gender points of contact. It is hoped that this Toolkit will be a useful resource for this audience and for their colleagues and counterparts across other U.S. Government agencies, donors, and implementing partners.

1.4 PROGRESS TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA At first glance, it may appear that significant inequalities between women and men do not exist in the E&E region, and it is true that, by and large, there is limited overt gender-based discrimination in most E&E countries. 1 During the communist era, equality between men and women was official policy, and the majority of E&E countries now have sound legislative frameworks that support gender equality principles. E&E countries also exhibit near parity at most levels of education (especially basic education), and women are well represented in the labor market. Thus, there appear to be few formal barriers to women’s advancement. However, more in-depth analysis reveals many

1. INTRODUCTION 3 barriers that prevent women in the region from achieving true equality with men. It is precisely this context—in which gender equality is a formal principle and gender differences are not obvious—that makes gender analysis imperative for designing projects that effectively address nuanced gender differences and empower women to participate actively and equally in their societies at all levels. In conducting gender analysis in E&E countries, one must look beyond formal statements and principles of equality to uncover the reality for women and men. The first step is to understand the gender inequalities that persist in E&E countries and why gender is still a critical issue for the region as a whole. The following brief orientation illustrates some of the major trends relevant to advancing gender equality in the region.

Gender Stereotypes Gender stereotypes, while perhaps not always obvious, persist across the region. Women are seen as being primarily responsible for domestic matters and child care, and men for providing financially for the family. Although women now comprise a substantial proportion of the workforce in many countries, men have not assumed correspondingly greater responsibility for domestic work. Gender norms that depict men as leaders and women in supporting roles are deeply embedded across E&E countries. These gender norms influence the behavior of men and women in numerous ways, including by having an impact on whether women run for political office or men exercise their right to take paternity or child care leave.

Policymaking Important initiatives have been undertaken in all E&E countries to address women’s empowerment and gender equality, through law, national action plans, and strategies. Unfortunately, while providing an important underpinning for national-level efforts, such laws and policies remain largely declarative and have yet to be implemented in a comprehensive manner. National and local gender equality programs are for the most part underresourced, both in terms of personnel and funding. Gender equality principles are still largely understood as referring to assistance for women in social sectors, and thus gender considerations are rarely incorporated into policy discussions about such topics as economic development, post-crisis recovery, or conflict resolution. In addition, most people in the region do not understand that addressing gender issues also means closing gender gaps that negatively affect men.

Women’s Economic Status Women remain vulnerable to poverty in the region, especially specific groups of women such as single mothers, the elderly, ethnic minorities, and women with disabilities. Despite overall economic growth in Europe and Eurasia during the transition to a market economy,

4 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS specific gender gaps in women’s access to employment and economic empowerment have remained stable for the last decade. Critically, women were disadvantaged in the transition period in terms of access to privatized resources, and they are therefore not well positioned to benefit from economic growth on equal terms with men. On the other hand, the economic crisis brought particular hardships for men in many E&E countries as industries that primarily employ men were often disproportionally affected by the crisis and many men lost their jobs. Women in the region tend to have jobs in sectors that are financed through state budgets, such as health care, social services, and education. Men are overrepresented in many more profitable sectors such as construction, mining, communications, transport, and energy. They are also more likely to be injured or killed on the job because they are expected to work in dangerous environments.2 Indeed, laws in most E&E countries prohibit women from holding certain types of jobs including those involving work with chemicals, or in mining, heavy industry, construction, and so forth.3 In private enterprise, women-owned and -operated businesses are generally smaller than those owned by men. Women are vastly underrepresented in top management positions throughout their working lives. Although maternity protections are strong in the region, women still must balance their careers with unpaid family obligations to an extent that is not required of men. With the dissolution of communist systems, a large number of preschool and child care facilities once linked to workplaces closed or were transferred to municipalities or private hands. For many women, preschools are not accessible because of insufficient facilities or the high cost of care. These and other factors contribute to a considerable gender pay gap that is observed in the region and present challenges to women who are returning to work after having a child, working full time, and advancing in their careers.

Access to Education Overall, the E&E region has maintained very high male and female literacy rates and exhibits gender parity in enrollment at most educational levels, although there are differences between subregions and between urban and rural settings. It is notable that in a number of countries the enrollment rates for women in higher education are greater than they are for men. Enrollment rates in academic fields in higher education also show clear gender differences, with women

2. Jean Bonhomme, The Gender Longevity Gap: Is It Really Biology? Journal of Men’s Health, 6 No. 3 (2009): 151–154. 3. Susan Somach, “The Other Side of the Gender Equation: Gender Issues for Men in the Europe and Eurasia Region” (Washington, D.C., USAID, JBS International Inc., 2011).

1. INTRODUCTION 5 concentrated in such fields as health and teaching and men dominating technical areas of study. These differences are also reflected in occupational segregation of the labor market. Overall, women’s higher educational achievement does not correlate with similar advances in the labor market and, “is not yet reflected in women’s job quality and remuneration.”4

Leadership Women are missing from leadership roles and decision making positions at all levels and thus have limited access to power. Women represent less than 30 percent of the members of national parliaments in most countries in the region. They are similarly underrepresented in executive offices. Even, “where women are given more political responsibility, it tends to be in socio-cultural issues,” which are seen as consistent with accepted women’s roles and interests.5 Only a handful of countries have election quota laws in place, and women who wish to run for office face numerous gender-specific barriers.

Health Women and men in the E&E region both experience serious health issues including exposure to tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and chronic diseases. Patterns of exposure and risk factors for these diseases vary by sex, and women face a variety of reproductive issues as well, including high rates of abortion, and contraception. One of the gender issues affecting men to receive attention in recent years is the wide gender gap in life expectancy, with women living much longer than men in many countries in the E&E region.6

Violence and Exploitation Gender-based violence, particularly domestic violence, remains a critical issue for the region and has a profound impact on women, children, and families. Because gender-based discrimination leads to women’s disempowerment, women are more at risk for gender-based violence than men. Domestic violence is a widespread problem for the region, but comprehensive statistics, data, and research are limited. In addition, discussing domestic violence publicly is still taboo in many countries, there is an acute shortage of services for victims of violence, many acts of violence go unreported because victims fear reprisals, and abusers are rarely prosecuted. Gender norms also influence men’s behavior and in some cases, may make it more likely that men resort to violence to deal with stressors

4. UNECE, The MDGs in Europe and Central Asia: Achievements, Challenges and the Way Forward (Geneva: UNECE, 2010). 5. UNECE, The MDGs in Europe and Central Asia. 6. Somach, The Other Side of the Gender Equation.

6 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS and interpersonal difficulties. Men’s mortality levels from all types of intentional injuries is at least twice that for women, and men are more likely to die from self-inflicted injuries that become successful suicides.7 Trafficking in persons, for the purposes of sexual exploitation and in connection with labor migration, affects both females and males, but in significantly different ways. Considerable international attention has been devoted to better understanding and responding to TIP for the purposes of sexual exploitation, which primarily affects women and adolescent girls. Men are also vulnerable to trafficking, most often into situations involving labor exploitation, although people who are exploited for their labor are less likely to be identified as having been trafficked than those who are exploited for sex, and overall, services for male trafficking victims are lacking.

7. Somach, The Other Side of the Gender Equation.

1. INTRODUCTION 7

SECTION 2 USAID AND GENDER INTEGRATION

2.1 USAID COMMITMENT TO GENDER EQUALITY Gender integration is not a new concept for USAID. Including women and girls in development efforts has been an integral part of the Agency’s work since the Foreign Assistance Act was amended four decades ago, calling for the integration of women in development assistance programs and establishing USAID’s Office for Women in Development (WID), which in 2011 was renamed the Office of Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (Gen/Dev). USAID’s commitment to gender equality was reaffirmed in early 2012 with the release of the USAID Policy on GE/FE.1 In the Policy, increased “ We [USAID] know that equality and female empowerment are presented as core development long-term, sustainable objectives, fundamental for the realization of human rights and key to development will only be effective and sustainable development outcomes. possible when women Other actions over the past few years also attest to the Agency’s and men enjoy equal revitalized focus on gender. In 2009, USAID revised its Automated opportunity to rise to their Directives System (ADS), and included requirements that the results of gender analysis must be integrated in strategic planning, project potential. But today, women design and approval, procurement processes, and measurement and and girls continue to face evaluation. In 2011, the Agency also introduced new definitions disadvantages in every sector of gender subkey issues for budget attributions and reporting in Operational Plans (OPs) and Performance Plan Reports (PPRs), along in which we work, and—in with a set of seven common, standard indicators designed to assess other cases—boys are falling progress toward increasing gender equality and female empowerment behind. With this policy, we and decreasing gender-based violence. Several new staff positions were can ensure our values and created with an exclusive focus on gender. Also, the Agency was a key partner in developing the U.S. Government’s 2011 National Action commitments are reflected Plan on Women, Peace, and Security, which focuses on empowering in durable, meaningful results women as equal partners in preventing conflict and building peace and for all.” increasing the protection of women and girls in situations of conflict and insecurity. rajiv shah, usaid administrator, usaid gender equality and The new Policy on GE/FE reaffirms that gender analysis is the key tool USAID will employ in order to integrate gender effectively across the female empowerment policy, programming cycle. The Policy articulates that gender analysis should 2012, p. iv be used proactively to address gender constraints and gaps in the course of project design, identify new opportunities to promote women’s leadership and participation, and identify potential adverse impacts

1. The Policy uses the term “female empowerment” rather than “women’s empowerment” to emphasize its applicability to USAID’s work with girls as well as women.

9 “ Gender equality and and/or risks of gender-based exclusion that could result from planned female empowerment are activities. essential for achieving our development goals. Unless 2.2 USAID POLICY ON GENDER EQUALITY AND FEMALE EMPOWERMENT both women and men are USAID policy on gender integration is set forth in the 2012 Policy on able to attain their social, Gender Equality and Female Empowerment and the ADS. The goal of economic and political the Agency’s Policy on GE/FE is aspirations, and contribute to to improve the lives of citizens around the world by advancing equality and shape decisions about the between females and males, and empowering women and girls to participate fully in and benefit from the development of their societies. future, the global community It will be addressed through integration of gender equality and female will not successfully promote empowerment throughout the Agency’s Program Cycle and related processes: in strategic planning, programming, project design and peace and prosperity. implementation, and monitoring and evaluation2 Realizing this policy in all As stated above and in the first principle outlined in the Policy, of the countries in which USAID’s primary approach will involve integrating approaches and we work will enable USAID actions to advance gender equality and female empowerment. However, to be a catalytic force for the Policy also clarified that when circumstances warrant, stand-alone gender equality and women’s activities devoted to empowering females or closing gender gaps may be implemented. Decisions about whether to support stand-alone projects empowerment worldwide and and about how to best integrate gender across an Operating Unit’s bring to fruition the vision of portfolio are to be based on the findings of gender analysis. Box 4 a world in which all people in the Policy, reproduced here as box 2.1, also specifies that gender analysis should be used not only to identify opportunities to empower are equally empowered women but also to reveal potential unintended consequences of USAID to secure better lives for programming. More specific guidance related to the implementation themselves, their families, and of the Policy (including templates, timelines, resource lists, examples of their communities.” good practices, etc.) will be issued on a rolling basis. usaid gender equality and 2.3 IMPLEMENTING USAID POLICY female empowerment policy Conducting Gender Analysis 2012, p. 20 At the time this Toolkit was being drafted, several sections of the ADS had just been revised so as to harmonize them with new developments related to the development of Country Development Cooperation Strategies (CDCSs), project design, and the program cycle. The language pertaining to gender integration was also updated in this ONE-CLICK RESOURCES: process. Although the fundamental requirements vis-à-vis gender did USAID POLICY DOCUMENTS not change, some of the details did.3 For example, although the 2009 • Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy (2012) • Program Cycle Overview (2011) 2. USAID, “Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy," p. 1. 3. It is expected that the gender provisions in the ADS will again be updated in the latter part • Project Design Guidance (2011) of 2012. Although some of the details in the requirements related to gender might change in this process, USAID’s general approach is not expected to change significantly and the broad overview of ADS gender requirements in this Toolkit should remain applicable.

10 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS BOX 2.1 GENDER ANALYSIS The ADS requires staff to conduct inequalities or obstacles to female paternity leave, or marital status; a gender analysis in the design of empowerment in that context (d) Increasing the risk of gender- country strategies and projects, so that USAID can proactively based violence, including sexual which must in term be reflected address them in the project design exploitation or human trafficking, in associated project appraisal and seek out opportunities to sexually transmitted diseases, and documents, Statements of Work promote women’s leadership HIV/AIDS, and (e) Marginalizing (SOWs)/Program Descriptions and participation. The gender or excluding women in political and Requests for Applications analysis should also identify and governance processes. (RFAs)/Requests for Proposals potential adverse impacts and/ Because males and females are (RFPs). Gender analysis is a tool for or risks of gender-based exclusion not homogenous groups, gender examining the differences between that could result from planned analysis should also to the extent the roles that women and men play activities, including: (a) Displacing possible disaggregate by income, in communities and societies, the women from access to resources region, caste, race, ethnicity, different levels of power they hold, or assets; (b) Increasing the disability, and other relevant their differing needs, constraints and unpaid work or caregiver burden social characteristics and explicitly opportunities, and the impact of of females relative to males; recognize the specific needs of these differences on their lives. (c) Conditions that restrict the young girls and boys, adolescent participation of women or men girls and boys, adult women and At the strategy and project level, in project activities and benefits men, and older women and men. the gender analysis should identify based on pregnancy, maternity/ Source: USAID, “Gender Equality and Female root causes of existing gender Empowerment Policy,” p. 12.

ADS revisions required that Operating Units conduct gender analysis at the project and activity level, the new Project Design Guidance focuses solely on design and approval at the project level, usually associated with an Intermediate Result (IR) under one of the CDCS Development Objectives (DOs). (The newProject Design Guidance also lists gender analysis as one of only three mandatory analyses to be carried out in the context of project design.) Accordingly, the revised ADS language on “ Promoting gender equality gender also focuses on the project, rather than the activity, level. and female empowerment is Although gender analysis is required for both strategies and projects, a shared Agency responsibility the scope of this analysis will differ depending on the level of focus. and depends on the At the strategy (e.g., CDCS) or country level, attention is given to long-term planning and to consideration of how gender equality and contribution and collective female empowerment can be linked to the achievement of an Operating commitment of all staff.” Unit’s high-level goals. Gender analysis at this level should also focus usaid gender equality and on articulating ways in which the programming carried out under a CDCS can help achieve the three key outcomes laid out in the Policy female empowerment policy on GE/FE. The results generated by country-level gender analysis 2012, p. 14 can also be the starting point for project-level gender analysis, which should include attention to any relevant high-level barriers to gender

2. USAID AND GENDER INTEGRATION 11 “ USAID uses gender analysis equality and female empowerment that can be addressed by a proposed to identify, understand, and project. Gender analyses carried out at this more specific level should also dig deeper and identify the relevant differences in the roles and describe gender differences status of women and men in the context of the proposed project, any and the impact of gender inequalities that could hinder the achievement of project goals, and any inequalities on a sector or possible differential effects the project might have on men and women. program at the country or At this level, gender analysis should influence the project design so as to ensure that it addresses any differences or inequalities that are revealed, project level.” and results in equal outcomes and benefits for males and females. usaid gender integration Results of gender analysis at this level may also lead an Operating Unit matrix, additional help for ads to build in project components that specifically focus on empowering women and girls, if the analysis suggests that this is important for chapter 201, 2011, p. 5 achieving development results.

Acting on the Gender Analysis in Project Design: Next Steps The ADS requires that conclusions from the mandatory gender analysis be used to support the final project design and results framework and be reflected in the Project Appraisal Document (PAD). (Note that use of the term “Activity Approval Document” was discontinued under the new USAID Project Design Guidance issued in December 2011.) To ONE-CLICK RESOURCES: ensure that the project is carried out by implementers with the capacity USAID GUIDANCE ON ADS to address gender gaps and to empower women and girls, the ADS also REQUIREMENTS requires that gender be integrated in the Statement of Work/program • The ADS and Gender (website) description and the evaluation criteria for procurement requests and USAID Office of Gender Equality solicitations (including requests for proposals, requests for task order and Women’s Empowerment proposals, annual program statements, etc.). Finally, the ADS requires • Guide to Gender Integration and project performance management systems to include gender-sensitive Analysis: Additional Help for ADS indicators and sex-disaggregated data so as to improve the overall Chapters 201 and 203, USAID impact of USAID programs and to ensure that women and men benefit (2010) equally. • Sample Scopes of Work for Gender- Related Analyses and Training Additional Help for ADS Chapter 201, USAID (2011) • Tips for Conducting a Gender Analysis at the Activity or Project Level Additional Help for ADS Chapter 201, USAID (2011) • USAID Gender Integration Matrix Additional Help for ADS Chapter 201, USAID (2011)

VAHID MUCIQI

12 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS SECTION 3 UNDERSTANDING GENDER ANALYSIS

ender analysis is used by most, if not all, development organizations to increase the effectiveness of development assistance by ensuring that donor-funded programming Greflects the needs and differing realities of both men and women, and can serve as a vehicle for female empowerment. Broadly speaking, gender analysis is an analytic tool in which a systematic method is used to identify, understand, and describe gender differences and the relevance of gender in a specific context. Such analysis typically involves examining differences in the status of women and men and in their access to assets, resources, and power; the influence of gender roles and norms on their lives and in their communities; constraints, opportunities, and entry points for narrowing gender gaps and empowering females; and potential differential impacts of development policies and programs on males and females, including unintended or negative consequences. This analysis process typically includes the collection of sex-disaggregated and gender- sensitive data.

3.1 HOW TO STRUCTURE THE ANALYSIS There are a large number of frameworks that have been developed for conducting gender analysis (e.g., Harvard Analytical Framework, Moser Framework, Social Relations Approach Framework, Gender Analysis Matrix); a summary of some of these frameworks is included in

Appendix 1, and more detailed SHKUMBIN RAMA

13 BOX 3.1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN GENDER ANALYSIS Sex. A biological construct are not related to biological or barriers that lead to inequalities that defines males and physical imperatives. Such gender in society. A GAD approach often females according to physical roles can represent tremendous leads to interventions that target characteristics and reproductive potential but also present both women and men to address capabilities. USAID policy calls serious challenges and barriers gender equality. for the collection and analysis to development projects. A key Female empowerment. This is of sex-disaggregated data (male aspect of gender analysis involves achieved when women and versus female) for individual-level examining gender roles and the girls acquire the power to act indicators and targets. “Gender” impact they could have on USAID freely, exercise their rights, and and “sex” are not synonyms. activities. fulfill their potential as full and Gender. A social construct that Women in Development (WID) equal members of society. While refers to relations between and approach. A pioneering approach, empowerment often comes from among the sexes, based on their adopted several decades ago, within, and individuals empower relative roles. It encompasses in which a concerted effort is themselves, cultures, societies, the economic, political, and made to address the “invisibility” and institutions create conditions sociocultural attributes, constraints, of women in the development that facilitate or undermine the and opportunities associated with process and to respond to possibilities for empowerment. being male or female. As a social women’s needs across all sectors Gender integration. Involves construct, gender varies across (reproductive health, income identifying, and then addressing, cultures, and is dynamic and open generation, agriculture, violence gender inequalities during strategy to change over time. Because of against women, women’s political and project design, implementation, the variation in gender across representation, etc.). and monitoring and evaluation. cultures and over time, gender Gender and Development (GAD) Since the roles and power roles should not be assumed, approach. A perspective that relations between men and but investigated. “Gender” is not considers power relations between women affect how an activity is interchangeable with “women” or women and men and their implemented, it is essential that “sex.” interdependence, the dynamics project managers address these Gender roles. Roles based on the of access to and control over issues on an ongoing basis.

social definitions of what it means resources, and specific cultural Sources: USAID, “Gender Equality and Female to be either male or female in and economic contexts. This Empowerment Policy”; USAID, “Gender Terminology” (Washington, D.C.: USAID); and a specific society. These roles approach is not exclusively focused USAID, Guide to Gender Integration and Analysis: are driven by culture, tradition, on problems unique to women Additional Help for ADS Chapters 201 and 203 (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2010). presumptions, and stereotypes and but instead on the entrenched

descriptions are available in the One-Click Resources. Each framework tends to have a different focus, involves different tools, and is often best suited to specific contexts. There is no consistency in the choice of gender analysis methodologies or frameworks that are used in development work around the world by donor and other organizations. Becoming familiar with the various methodologies can be useful as a way of identifying common approaches to gender analysis and critical questions that should be asked. Many publications on gender analysis

14 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS frameworks also provide sample analytic tools and other concrete ONE-CLICK RESOURCES: resources that can assist the user in mastering the nuts and bolts of GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS carrying out the analysis. • Gender Analysis, UNDP Learning and Information Pack, UNDP (2001) USAID Missions and offices have utilized a wide variety of gender analysis tools and frameworks, since there is no one gender analysis • Gender Analysis website, World Bank methodology that has been adopted as the preferred USAID model. In (n.d.) order to familiarize readers with the kinds of questions that should be • A Guide to Gender Analysis asked while conducting gender analysis, this Toolkit includes a detailed Frameworks, March, C., Smyth, I., & description of the Six Domains of Gender Analysis Framework. Mukhopadhyay, M. (1999) Oxfam This is the methodology that has been used in prior analytic reports and trainings on gender by the E&E Bureau.1 It is adaptable to many • Review of Gender Analysis contexts and regions and is one of the most comprehensive frameworks, Frameworks, DevTech Systems, Inc. as it helps to identify and organize information about gender differences (n.d.) in six major areas of inquiry. Nevertheless, the choice of whether to adopt this or another framework for gender analysis is up to the individual practitioner.

3.2 HOW TO APPLY THE SIX DOMAINS FRAMEWORK The Six Domains Framework focuses analysis of gender issues in terms of 1. Access to assets; ONE-CLICK RESOURCES: 2. Knowledge, beliefs, and perceptions; USING THE SIX DOMAINS FRAMEWORK 3. Practices and participation; • Tips for Conducting a Gender Analysis at the Activity or Project 4. Time and space; Level: Additional Help for ADS 5. Legal rights and status; and Chapter, USAID (2011) 6. Balance of power and decision making. • For USAID Staff, Module Two of the E&E Gender Integration Training, Table 3.1 summarizes the key issues to consider when conducting available for USAID University, gender analysis using this framework; these issues are further detailed in reviews the Six Domains and the following subsections. includes sample activities to test your Access to Assets understanding. Access to assets refers to the extent to which women and men are able to use the resources necessary to be fully active and productive participants (socially, economically, and politically) in society. Assets

1. The 6 Domains Gender Analysis Framework was originally developed by Deborah Caro and Deborah Rubin under projects funded by the USAID WID Office and the USAID Bureau for Global Health for USAID’s Interagency Gender Working Group. The Domains Framework has benefited from additional ideas and revisions from multiple trainers in addition to the original developers. Variations on this framework are used by the E&E and Global Health Bureaus.

3. UNDERSTANDING GENDER ANALYSIS 15 TABLE 3.1 THE SIX DOMAINS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED KEY ISSUES

DOMAIN KEY ISSUE Access to assets Who has access to which particular assets? What constraints do they face? Knowledge, beliefs, Who knows what? What beliefs and perceptions shape gender identities and norms? perceptions Who does what? What are the gender roles and responsibilities that dictate the activities Practices and in which men and women participate? How do men and women engage in development participation activities? Time and space How do men and women spend their time, as well as where and when? Legal rights and status How are women and men regarded and treated by customary and formal legal codes? Balance of power and Who has control over the power to make decisions about one’s body, household, decision making community, municipality, and state? Are such decisions made freely?

should be considered in the broadest possible sense—both tangible and intangible; they include the following, among others:2 • Human assets—for example, health services, education/training, knowledge, and skills TIP: Be sure to analyze both who has access to particular • Natural assets—for example, land, forests, waterways, labor assets as well as who has • Social assets—for example, social networks, economic markets, control over how such value chains resources are used. • Physical assets—for example, transport, communication technology, equipment, raw materials • Financial assets—for example, capital/income, collateral, credit

ILLUSTRATION: ACCESS TO ASSETS In several E&E countries, selling it. In parts of Montenegro, do women and men have equal domestic property such as a women are often employed in the access to and ability to use those house, apartment, car, or land is agricultural sector; however, they assets during the activity? commonly registered in the name “are unlikely to own the land on Sources: Catherine Cozzarelli, 2010 Gender of the male head of the family. which they work.” Assessment for USAID/Albania (Washington, So although women have access D.C.: USAID, 2010); Elisabeth Duban, Gender Does your activity assume that Assessment USAID/Armenia (Washington, D.C.: to such property, they generally USAID and DevTech Systems, Inc., 2010); beneficiaries will have access to Elisabeth Duban, Gender Assessment USAID/ cannot make legal decisions Georgia (Washington, D.C.: USAID and DevTech about how it will be used, such as certain assets, such as land to Systems, Inc., 2010); Catherine Cozzarelli, use as collateral for a loan? If so, 2010 Gender Assessment for USAID/Montenegro offering it as collateral for a loan or (Washington, D.C.: USAID. 2010).

2. See also Helen Derbyshire, Gender Manual: A Practical Guide for Development Policy Makers and Practitioners (London: DFID, 2002).

16 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS Keep in mind that women may have access to certain resources, but they may not control them. It is a useful practice to first identify who has access to which assets and in turn question who has control over decisions regarding these particular assets.

KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, AND PERCEPTIONS This domain involves understanding the beliefs that shape gender identity and behavior and the perceptions that guide how men and women interpret aspects of their lives differently depending on their gender identity. Men and women may also have different types of knowledge or beliefs, and some forms of knowledge may be accessible to one sex only. Among other considerations, those who are conducting gender analyses should closely examine whether any gender-based stereotypes could have an impact on a given project or its outcomes.

ILLUSTRATION: KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, AND PERCEPTIONS In many E&E countries, strong Looking at the political system, men women and men participating gender stereotypes persist, including are more often perceived as natural in the activity? Could specific that men are leaders and should leaders, and negative stereotypes interventions be included to be solely responsible for providing persist in many countries about address dominant stereotypes? for their families, and that women how politics is “unsuitable” for Sources: Women’s Consortium of Ukraine, are inherently better suited to care- women. Women themselves often Alternative Report on the Implementation of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms giving and social roles. In terms of adopt these beliefs and are thus of Discrimination in Ukraine (Kyiv, Ukraine: employment, the belief that men uninterested in running for office. International Renaissance Foundation, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, UNICEF, and UN Office in are breadwinners often translates Ukraine, 2008); Petina Tonkachva, et al., Shadow to a presumption that males are Does your activity take into Report on the Implementation of the Convention consideration societal perceptions on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination in greater need of a job than in the Republic of Belarus (Belarus: Public females and that male employees about women and men that Association Women’s Independent Democratic Movement, 2010). are entitled to higher salaries. In are based on stereotypes? reality, single mothers head many Will such stereotypes function households in E&E countries. as a facilitator or barrier for

PRACTICES AND PARTICIPATION This domain requires an examination of behaviors and actions in life— what people actually do—and how this is influenced or determined by gender. This should include exploring how various roles are divided according to gender, and how responsibilities and activities are socially allocated to men and women. While it may not be noticed in everyday life, all societies assign gender roles based on what is considered “appropriate” for men and women, and different roles are valued differently. Gender analysis at this stage requires identifying who does what—looking both at quantitative and qualitative information. Examining participation also includes looking at how men and women engage in development activities and the ways in which gender roles and norms affect their participation.

3. UNDERSTANDING GENDER ANALYSIS 17 ILLUSTRATION: PRACTICES AND PARTICIPATION A number of countries in the example, it has been reported How would you take women’s E&E region are beginning to allow that annually fewer than 20 men reproductive role and associated fathers to take parental leave take allowable paternity leave. This domestic responsibilities into along with the mother of a child. In suggests that women continue to consideration in activity design? practice, the number of men who take on the major responsibilities Source: Elisabeth Duban, From Cairo to Beijing make use of such leave provisions for child care, even though they and Beyond: The Unfinished Agenda on Gender Equality in Eastern Europe and Central Asia is extremely small. In Serbia, for are also working outside the home. (Istanbul: UNFPA, 2010).

Although not formally a part of the Six Domains Framework, it may be useful to consider further subdivisions of roles and responsibilities when conducting gender analysis. These subdivisions can include:3 • Productive roles—activities that produce goods or services and therefore economic resources, including paid work, self-employment, or subsistence farming • Reproductive roles—activities that are usually unpaid and take place at the domestic level, including childbirth, child care, care for the elderly, domestic chores, and fuel and water collection • Community participation/managing roles—voluntary work at the community level that contributes to the well-being of the community overall, including maintenance of collective resources and infrastructure, and provision of community services • Community politics—representation of men and women in making decisions on behalf of their community as a whole. Such political and advocacy activities can be considered at various levels (local, national, and/or international) Keep in mind that women’s reproductive roles are often not visible to society or project planners. Women’s unpaid reproductive work is connected to societal expectations about women’s role generally, and the burden of such work can compromise their ability to take part in development activities.

TIME AND SPACE TIP: Remember to think Analyzing time and space means recognizing both the gender broadly—not only about what differences in the availability and allocation of time as well as the place men and women do, but also in which time is spent. Consider the gender differences in the division of both productive and reproductive labor, and identify how and where where (the location of work; for time is spent during the day, week, month, or year and in different example, household or migrant labor) and when (time of day 3. See also Derbyshire, Gender Manual: A Practical Guide for Development Policy Makers and and/or season). Practitioners.

18 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS ILLUSTRATION: TIME AND SPACE High levels of labor migration example, female partners of male different times of the year in a in several countries in the E&E migrants often stay behind to care community that is experiencing region mean that many men and for the family, acting as head of labor migration impact the women work for much of the year the household in the husband’s implementation of a project? How away from their homes. Labor absence. might such time commitments migration has distinct gender- affect the ability of both women specific patterns and impacts on How would the presence and absence of men and women at and men to participate in men, women, and families. For projects?

seasons. This analysis will help determine how men and women contribute to the maintenance of the family, community, and society. A time use analysis will also reveal whether men and women have equal access to unallocated or leisure time. An analysis of time and space should also explore the implications that different time commitments for women and men have on their availability to participate in development projects. Such analysis should also look at whether men and women’s time is flexible, negotiable, or interchangeable.

LEGAL RIGHTS AND STATUS Analysis under this domain involves assessing how men and women are regarded and treated by both the customary and formal legal codes TIP: Think broadly about the and judicial systems. This includes: (1) how men and women access types of legal or status issues legal documentation such as identification cards, voter registration, relevant to the context of the and property titles; and (2) protection of their human and legal rights planned project. generally (e.g., the right to inheritance and to employment, the right to representation in legal processes, and to redress for violations of rights).

ILLUSTRATION: LEGAL RIGHTS AND STATUS Several countries in the E&E and the abuser in such situations especially helpful to women, given region do not have a stand-alone disadvantages women who are the reported patterns of domestic law on domestic violence. Instead, seeking justice in court. Some violence. the legal system treats domestic countries, such as Georgia, have violence as a criminal act— adopted specific legal mechanisms Are there any gender-neutral laws causing physical injury—which that apply in situations of domestic or regulations that could have a could equally apply to violence violence. For example, the police negative impact on women in the committed by strangers. Because and courts have the power to context of the activity? Is there women are the majority of the remove an abuser from the home a need to adopt gender-specific victims of domestic violence, the temporarily, which gives the victim legislation in order to empower lack of legal recognition of the time to seek assistance. This legal women or promote gender relationship between the victim provision is gender neutral but is equality?

3. UNDERSTANDING GENDER ANALYSIS 19 “ Gender analysis is a tool BALANCE OF POWER AND DECISION MAKING to make sure that you This domain involves taking a close look at the ability of men and women to decide, influence, and exercise control. It refers to the broad have real information to capacity to make decisions freely and to exercise power over one’s body base your activities on, not and within one’s household, community, municipality, and the state. assumptions.” It also includes the capacity to vote and to run for office at all levels of government. arja vainio-mattila, navigating gender: a framework and tool It may be helpful to think about how power and decision making are shared by men and women in relation to various types of assets and for participatory development, resources, including those that are both tangible and intangible. For 2001, p. 8 example, depending on the specific activity, an evaluation of decision making over resources could range from exploring who makes decisions in the household about how income will be spent to who holds political office and therefore determines national policy on energy consumption. Research has shown that women are more likely to participate in development activities when they have some control over the benefits that will be generated.4 For this reason, when conducting gender analysis, it is also important to determine who has control over the benefits of a particular project; these benefits, again, can be tangible (such as income or crops) or intangible (such as health services or education).

ILLUSTRATION: BALANCE OF POWER AND DECISION MAKING USAID carries out programming in the sector as well as in leadership influence decision making in that several E&E countries designed to roles, such as ministerial positions. field? What positive measures improve energy security. Despite Male domination of the energy could be included in program the fact that women are major sector means that women‘s design to ensure that women’s consumers of energy, especially priorities for development may not views and concerns are taken at the household level, they are be taken into consideration. into consideration and that generally underrepresented in the If women are underrepresented women can participate fully in energy sector across the region, development projects? both in terms of employment in in a specific sector, to what extent will they be able to

4. AusAID, Gender and Development Guide (Canberra, Australia: AusAid, 1998).

20 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS SECTION 4 CONDUCTING GENDER ANALYSIS AT THE PROJECT LEVEL

his section of the Toolkit provides some tips and advice on how to conduct gender analysis during project design, and includes some concrete suggestions for carrying out the nuts TIP: In 2010–11, the majority Tand bolts of the analysis. This section is followed by 16 guidance of Missions in the E&E region notes that help frame the questions that will be asked during the gender analysis process for projects in many of the key areas in which undertook country-level gender E&E Missions work. analyses, and the results of this higher-level gender analysis are 4.1 TIPS FOR CONDUCTING GENDER ANALYSIS a good starting point for this Choosing an Analytical Framework task. The first step in conducting gender analysis at the project level is to choose a gender analysis framework or methodology that will guide the process. As noted in section 3, no specific methodology is required by USAID, and some may be more suited to gender analysis in specific sectors than others. Although there are numerous frameworks available for conducting gender analysis, a review of practices from the international development community shows that several critical areas of inquiry are common across all organizations, and are reflected in the Six Domains Framework as well. These common areas of inquiry are listed below, and at a minimum, any gender analysis should tackle these key issues: • Gender roles and responsibilities (sometimes termed the gender division of labor) • Access to assets • Control over resources and benefits • Patterns of decision making power Keep these key areas in mind when reviewing data, conducting research, speaking with experts, and meeting with

stakeholders. DOINA NISTOR CHEMONICS INT

21 TIP: Do not overlook issues of Identifying Gender Issues and Sources of Information diversity. Be sure to include The next step is to identify the broad gender issues that will be the focus of the analysis, and to locate key sources of quantitative and qualitative people of different ages, from information that can inform this analysis. Keep in mind that many different parts of the country or gender issues may not be readily apparent since gender roles are often region, depending on the level accepted as “natural” and the impacts of socialization are often difficult to discern. Therefore, it will be important to dig beneath the surface of analysis, and minority groups and collect as much detailed information about gender as possible, in stakeholder meetings as they using a wide array of sources. can provide a variety of views Think broadly about where to find information on the roles and status from the groups the project of men and women relevant to the project being designed. Although may affect.. sector-specific publications may not contain much information on gender issues, gender experts may be able to provide supplementary information regarding inequalities relevant to a particular field.

ONE-CLICK RESOURCES: When conducting gender analysis and taking diversity into GENDER AND DIVERSITY consideration, it is most useful to consult with local organizations that • European Roma Rights Centre— represent or work specifically with minority populations of men and research and other resources on women. Romani women Gender analysis entails examining factual information about women • ILGA-Europe (International Lesbian, and men, which generally means studying sex-disaggregated data. Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Statistics can point to clear inequalities and disparities (e.g., in the Association)—research and country- number of girls and boys enrolled in primary school or the number specific information and assessments of newly diagnosed cases of HIV among males and females). Project design teams (and others carrying out gender analysis) should review • International Disability Rights basic statistical information, disaggregated by sex, about the relative Monitor—regional reports and status of men and women in the given sector and should also seek out country-specific news data that are disaggregated by other factors that may affect the project, such as age, ethnicity, or disability. Most national governments in the E&E region regularly gather and publish compilations of statistics about men and women. Other organizations, such as United Nations

BOX 4.1 GENDER AND DIVERSITY A core principle behind gender analysis, it is a good practice to in this way is codified in one of analysis is the examination of consider other factors that might the core operational principles differences between men and affect the relative status of females of the Policy on GE/FE, “Pursue women, boys and girls; however, and males. Such factors can include an inclusive approach to foster it is equally important to keep age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, equality,” which acknowledges that in mind that none of these are location (whether in a rural or gender issues may change across homogenous groups. Gender urban setting), household structure, the lifespan and that closing gender analysis requires an inclusive disability status, refugee status, gaps in adolescence is particularly perspective in which diversity is sexual orientation, and gender important.

considered. In conducting gender identity. Recognizing diversity Source: USAID, “Gender Equality and Female Empowerment Policy.”

22 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS (UN) agencies and the World Bank, also compile statistics relevant CHECKLIST: MATERIALS AND to specific fields. Additional data sources are detailed in the guidance SOURCES OF INFORMATION notes. Mission gender assessments A review of quantitative data provides an overview of any general Official national- and regional-level differences or inequalities. However, analysis should not stop at the data and statistics level of data comparison, but entail a deeper examination of the Periodic reports to UN human rights “pattern and norms of what women and men, girls and boys do and committees, conclusions, and shadow experience in relation to the issues being examined and addressed.”1 reports This step should also include a review of qualitative studies that shed Reports by UN and regional light on the reasons behind any disparities that have been noted or that intergovernmental organizations can help fill in the gaps that are left by missing or incomplete data. There are a great many sources of qualitative information available Reports/assessments by other related to gender issues, some of which provide overviews of the status donors of women in a particular country and others that address a narrow Reports by NGOs issue or topic. Some useful overviews include periodic reports on the implementation of international human rights obligations submitted Materials prepared by implementers to UN treaty monitoring bodies. For example, the Committee on Research and reports produced by the Elimination of Discrimination against Women reviews national think tanks and research institutes reports and issues recommendations for action. Nongovernmental worldwide, especially the E&E region, organizations (NGOs) may prepare alternative reports during the and countries that have graduated review process that offer another perspective on women’s rights. Other from USAID assistance. periodic reports that generally include information on gender equality or the status of women and girls include the Universal Periodic Review (by the Human Rights Council) and reports to the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child.

UN entities (such as the United Nations Development Programme, CHECKLIST: POTENTIAL EXPERTS the UN Population Fund, UN Women, and the Special Rapporteur AND STAKEHOLDERS on Violence Against Women) and regional intergovernmental Representatives from national, local organizations (e.g., the Organization for Security and Co-operation in or community government Europe, the Council of Europe) publish reports on issues of particular Staff from international, donor and concern to women as well as on progress toward gender equality. Other development organizations donors may have produced assessments or reports relevant to the country in general or a specific sector. Local gender experts: NGOs, academics/researchers, journalists, etc. NGOs, including think tanks, research centers, and academic institutions, are generally good sources for topic-specific studies Implementers and assessments. If a project is a follow-on to a similar activity, Potential beneficiaries implementers may have conducted needs assessments or surveys that could provide useful quantitative and qualitative information.

1. Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), “Gender Analysis (sheet 3),” Gender Tool Kit—Instruments for Gender Mainstreaming (Berne, Switzerland: SDC, n.d.).

4. CONDUCTING GENDER ANALYSIS AT THE PROJECT LEVEL 23 GOOD PRACTICE: USING A PARTICIPATORY PROCESS AND INVOLVING STAKEHOLDERS It is a good practice when organizations, particularly gender women will be able to participate conducting gender analysis to experts. In many countries, there in and benefit from the project. involve women and men directly are government agencies or The participatory process in the process. Participation can institutions dedicated to women’s should allow both women and take several forms: discussions issues or gender equality. Relevant men to provide information. In with experts, meetings with ministries may have gender some sectors where there are stakeholders, and seeking focal points, and some national distinct gender imbalances, it information from potential parliaments have specialized may be necessary to take special beneficiaries. This practice can be committees on gender equality. measures to ensure that the views carried out in connection with Local gender experts can also of both sexes are represented. identifying sources of information, be found in NGOs, and among In conducting meetings, round since there is some overlap in the academics or media professionals. tables, or focus groups, bear in types of materials to review and Implementers of similar projects mind that women or men may the experts to meet. may be able to provide valuable feel constrained in expressing information based on their Because gender differences can their opinions on certain subjects experiences. be quite nuanced and difficult in a mixed group setting. It will to capture through statistics or Ideally, when designing a project, be necessary to develop a data surveys, discussions with experts potential beneficiaries should collection methodology that can prove especially fruitful. be included in the gender ensures that women and men can Such experts may include staff analysis process in order to test voice their views equally. of other donor or international assumptions about how men and

4.2 CONDUCTING GENDER ANALYSIS BY SECTOR The guidance notes on the following pages are designed to apply the above recommendations for carrying out gender analysis work in a variety of specific sectors. Each note is organized as follows: TIP: Remember that this stage • Why consider gender? This section provides a conceptual of gender analysis need not be background on the relevance of gender to a particular sector and limited to assessing gender- articulates why gender issues need to be taken into account to ensure based constraints. The unique that projects will be effective. gender roles of women and • Gender issues in the region. This section describes the most men could also offer useful significant gender issues relevant to the sector in the E&E region and will help to narrow the area of inquiry for the gender analysis. opportunities for programming The subsequent analysis will itself likely uncover additional issues when properly recognized and and a more nuanced perspective, but this overview will serve as an considered. orientation to the critical issues. • Key questions to guide gender analysis. A series of questions are provided in each guidance note to help readers carry out the gender analysis. These questions can help frame the search for information and/or research, and they can be directed to experts and stakeholders.

24 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS During the analysis, additional and more focused questions will CHECKLIST: MINIMUM KEY AREAS OF almost certainly arise, but the questions that are provided in this INQUIRY Toolkit are meant to serve as an illustrative starting point. The key Why is gender relevant to this questions are grouped into broad categories as follows; note that the sector? last three sets of questions are the areas of inquiry common to all What are the key gender issues? gender analysis frameworks: What affects gender equality in a –– Sex-disaggregated data and information. These questions are a given sector (e.g. laws, policies, or reminder of the basic types of data and statistics that should be stereotypes)? located and consulted (where they exist). What roles and responsibilities do –– Background and context. These questions are aimed at helping women and men have? to articulate the context that affects gender equality in the given sector. Unlike the questions posed under the Six Domains Who does what? Framework and other gender analysis methodologies, which are What are the dominant gender inquiries about the status and roles of individual women and norms and how is labor divided men, contextual questions help identify other factors, such as the along gender lines? existence of laws, policies, or stereotypes that would promote or hinder gender equality. Who has access to which particular assets or resources? –– Gender roles and responsibilities. These questions also aim to uncover information about gender norms and expectations. Who has control over which resources at various levels? –– Access to and control over assets and resources. Who holds power and makes –– Patterns of power and decision making. decisions in particular contexts? • Resources. Several types of sample resources are provided for further reference. These materials provide an overview of the accepted practices for addressing gender issues in a given field. Some provide qualitative and quantitative information relevant to a particular field and the E&E region. Other resources are policy guidelines on how to address the intersections of gender and sectoral issues. This information helps in the formulation of targeted questions during the analysis, and provides suggestions for program design that is responsive to gender differences.

ILLUSTRATION Imagine an activity designed to could also be determined. build the capacity of political Further analysis and expert parties. A review of basic opinions could then be statistics would reveal the considered to reveal some of number of men and women in the reasons why women hold the country’s political parties specific positions in political and in political office by party. parties or why they are largely The number of women in absent. party leadership positions

4. CONDUCTING GENDER ANALYSIS AT THE PROJECT LEVEL 25 TIP: Remember that gender Even though the guidance notes present information by individual analysis should be conducted sector, there is likely to be overlap across sectors. For example, women’s NGOs provide critical services to victims of domestic violence, but early in the activity planning constraints on civil society organizations may limit their effectiveness process and alongside other in this area. The media can play a role in perpetuating gender-based project-level analysis. The stereotypes about women’s suitability for political office. To best capture results of the gender analysis this overlap, review guidance notes for sectors outside of the specific programming area, as well as the notes on crosscutting issues such as can then be taken into gender and disability. consideration in the subsequent stages of project planning and synthesized into a final logical framework and project design.

26 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 1 GENDER & AGRICULTURE

This guidance note provides information about general trends in the region based on a synthesis of literature cited as references and in the “Resources” section, observations and research of gender experts, and contributions from sector experts in the E&E Bureau. Information presented here is a synthesis of data and trends for the E&E region as a whole, which represents a number of diverse countries, and so it is a good practice to substantiate any conclusions in the specific country context.

WHY CONSIDER GENDER? income from farming is used for to men’s, varies across the Women make important household purchases. E&E region, and patterns of contributions to agricultural engagement differ from those It is common for women to production through paid in other regions. In only two be extensively involved in employment on commercial countries, Azerbaijan and Bosnia agricultural production, yet lack farms and unpaid work on and Herzegovina, does the ownership of the land they family farms, both for home percentage of the economically work. Women are less likely and market consumption. In active population in agriculture to have access to credit and many countries and societies, consist of over 50 percent lending schemes given their women’s specific role in women (54 percent and 59 lower economic status generally, agriculture is not recognized. percent, respectively). When limited property ownership, Women have less access than looking at the total population and lack of collateral for loans. men to important resources— engaged in agriculture, the share Women’s work on family farms such as land, fertilizers, seed of women ranges from less than is an important contributor varieties, livestock, and farming a quarter (Armenia, Belarus, to food production and family equipment—and services— Russia) to over two-thirds budgets. However, because including extension services, (Albania, Georgia, Montenegro, such work is often considered training in new technologies, and Serbia).1 part of their domestic financial services. responsibilities, women are often The historical context affects Women are also not formally considered to be women’s participation in the underrepresented in decision farmers or businesswomen agricultural sector in the E&E making positions at the political in terms of their inclusion in region. The E&E region as a level with regard to agricultural agricultural development and whole had a higher level of policy, and at the household entrepreneurship programs. female labor force participation level in terms of deciding how Increasing attention has been in agriculture under communism given to the gendered nature than at the present time. of value chains in agricultural According to figures from production—specifically, 1980, of all economically active where women and men are women in the Soviet Union represented along value chains and Socialist Federal Republic from production of agricultural of Yugoslavia, respectively 20 goods to processing, marketing, percent and 32 percent worked delivery, and sale to consumers. in agriculture. In 1980, women Women are less likely to be accounted for 46 percent of the involved in the production of agricultural labor force and 53 high-value commodities.

1. UN Food and Agriculture Organization GENDER ISSUES IN THE (FAO), The State of Food and Agriculture REGION 2010–2011: Women in Agriculture, Closing the Gender Gap for Development (Rome, Women’s participation in Italy: FAO, 2011); this report considers all

MOZAIK FOUNDATION agriculture, as compared of the countries in the E&E region to be developed. percent of the same population were transferred from state- head was formally listed or in the Socialist Federal Republic controlled cooperatives to registered as the landowner. This of Yugoslavia.2 In most countries privately held enterprises or situation is illustrated in Albania, of the E&E region, 10 percent to households. There has been where rural families received or less of economically active limited study of how women a portion of land through women are employed in participated in and ultimately privatization schemes, but only agriculture today. As of 2010, benefited from such land the name of the male head only Albania and Azerbaijan had reform, but it is known that of household appears on the a similarly high representation women were disadvantaged title. Nonetheless, despite this of working women in the in privatization schemes, both lack of formal ownership, it is agricultural sector.3 in terms of job losses and less estimated that women manage access to land and property. approximately half of the family During the communist era, Thus, today, men control more farms in the country.6 women made up a large number assets. For example, experts of collective farm workers, but Conflict in the region and estimate that women in Russia they were not represented to high rates of labor migration obtained only 5–7 percent the same degree as chairpersons (specifically in the Balkans and of all privatized assets, and of state and collective farms. Caucasus) have resulted in women in Moldova gained A great many of the women women playing a greater role in only 1 percent of assets after working in the agricultural sector agricultural work when men are privatization.4 There is some were employed in administrative absent. variation, however, depending and service sector jobs. These on type of asset and country. Women farmers are less likely women did not necessarily gain Compare, for example, the to own land and are overly direct experience in farming situation in Ukraine, where represented in small-scale practices and agricultural women own about 50 percent agricultural work. Women have technology. Research suggests of the private dwellings in cities, the same legal rights to inherit that women who are successful to that in Montenegro, where and own property as men in today in agribusiness were those a countrywide survey found the E&E region, but custom and who held leadership positions that 8 percent of homeowners, tradition play a significant role on state and collective farms. 6 percent of car owners, and in limiting women’s de facto This raises another issue: female 1 percent of business/company ability to own land. Describing farmers today represent an owners are women—accounting the region comprising Eastern elderly population, and few for ownership of only 1 percent Europe and Central Asia, which young women choose to pursue of all private property.5 includes the E&E region, the either higher education or World Bank notes that even careers in agriculture. Privatization and restitution when property is divided of farmland was made to During the transition period, equally among heirs, women families, but the male household land and agricultural production in some ethnic groups are required by tradition to give up their inheritance in favor of 4. Oksana Kissyelova, “Women’s Economic 2. FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture Empowerment and Access to Financing 2010–2011. and Assets in CIS Countries: Issues, Good Practices and Policy Options” (UN 3. Note that the Central Asian Republics Regional Symposium on Mainstreaming accounted for a large portion of the Gender into Economic Policies, United Soviet female labor force working in Nations Economic Commission for agriculture and still demonstrate quite Europe, Geneva, January 28–30, 2004). high levels of women employed in this 6. Catherine Cozzarelli, 2010 Gender sector. These countries, however, are not 5. Kissyelova, “Women’s Economic Assessment for USAID/Albania included in the USAID E&E region. Empowerment.” (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2010).

28 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS male relatives.7 Further, titles value chains in the agricultural in Agriculture Index (WEAI), and deeds to land are often sector, should be analyzed. which was piloted in three only in the name of the head non-E&E countries. The WEAI Access to productive resources and of household, generally a male. is a composite measurement markets differs for women and Because women are less likely to tool that assesses women’s men. In addition to limited access hold titles to private land, they empowerment in five domains: to land, women also have lower may also lack the ability to make agricultural production, resources, access to various productive decisions about land use. income, leadership, and time. It resources, such as fertilizers, may be useful to also review the As a general rule in the pesticides, and improved seed WEAI analysis framework. E&E region, women are varieties. Comparing female- underrepresented in large-scale and male-headed households Sex-disaggregated data commercial agricultural business in Albania and Bulgaria (as well • How many female-owned as either owners or employees; as in other non-E&E countries), and -operated farms exist? they are much more likely to the World Bank found that the How many male-owned and work on small and individual use of fertilizers, mechanization, -operated farms exist? holdings. For most of the region, and access to markets by such small private plots and female-headed households • How many males and females home gardens supply important was lower than for male- are borrowing funds under products for family consumption headed households.8 According agricultural assistance, loan, or and are sources of additional to a survey conducted in microcredit projects? household income. Women Montenegro, 6 percent of males generally have limited decision owned agricultural machinery Background and context making power in terms of how as compared to 1 percent of • Have any surveys been 9 such household income is used. female respondents. Other conducted that describe the As noted above, titles to private resources to consider in a types of farming activities men land are most often held by the gender analysis include livestock, and women engage in, the male head of household, which equipment, business premises, types of production, and the has implications for women’s water/irrigation (including size of the business? ability to make decisions about water management), credit, the land. and agricultural education and • What share of female-headed training. households is engaged in The agricultural sector exhibits agricultural work? clear divisions of labor, with women more likely to provide KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE Gender roles and responsibilities early-stage farm labor and men GENDER ANALYSIS The following are suggestions to • Are there any programs or more likely to be involved in guide gender analysis relevant initiatives to raise women’s transporting goods to market to agriculture in the E&E region. awareness about their equal and sales. Such divisions of Note that USAID has also been rights to own land and labor, and their implications for involved in the development of property? Are there efforts projects that aim to improve the Women’s Empowerment to educate men about the importance of women’s rights to property and inheritance?

7. Victoria Stanley and Samantha Di 8. World Bank, World Development Report Martino, Assessing Land Administration 2012: Gender Equality and Development • In which positions are women Project’s Gender Impacts in the Western (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2011). Balkans—Country Case Studies: Albania, represented in the agricultural Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro 9. Stanley and Di Martino, Assessing Land labor force? Are women (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2011). Administration Project’s Gender Impacts.

GUIDANCE NOTE 1: GENDER & AGRICULTURE 29 active in both subsistence and resources and services staff in key planning bodies cash crop production? relevant to agribusiness? What responsible for agricultural barriers may exist for women reform and policy (ministries, • In what sectors are women in accessing these resources cabinet posts, parliamentary and men represented as and services? committees, etc.)? owners, managers, and employees? (Compare various • Do male and female farmers • Are there women’s groups crops/products, livestock, have equal knowledge of or other NGOs active in the honey production, etc.) agricultural technologies? areas of agricultural reform or Do they have equal access supporting women farmers/ • What are the different to extension and advisory agricultural workers? workloads of men and services? women at various stages of the farming process? How is • Do male and female RESOURCES labor divided between men farmers have equal access A Guide to Integrating Gender into Agricultural Value Chains, WID/ and women? (Examine each to education relevant to USAID (2010). component of production— agriculture, for example e.g., seed selection, land technical and vocational Agriculture for Development: The preparation, planting, education and training (TVET) Gender Dimensions, USAID (2008). weeding, cultivation, storage, or continuing education? processing, transportation, and Agriculture: Gender Makes the marketing.) • Are credit and loan programs Difference, The World Conservation accessible to women engaged Union Fact Sheet (IUCN). • Are there seasonal differences in agricultural production? in when men and women Agricultural value chain development: What barriers may exist for Threat or opportunity for women’s perform agricultural work? women in accessing credit? employment?, Gender and Rural • Where are women and men • Is information available to Employment Policy Brief No. 4, FAO, IFAD, ILO (2010). represented along agricultural ascertain whether women- value chains? What is the owned farms and enterprises Gender Checklist: Agriculture, Asian impact of differences in labor? are actually operated by Development Bank (2006). • Do changes in household women? Gender Integration for Agriculture: (for example, due to labor Patterns of power and decision The Complete Technical Brief Series, migration) change the gender making USAID (2011). division of labor? • Do women and men have Gender in Agriculture Bibliography, Access to and control over assets equal influence over decisions Women Thrive Worldwide (2011). and resources pertaining to the use of farm- The State of Food and Agriculture • What is the proportion of related resources, activities, and 2010–2011: Women in Agriculture, women’s ownership of land profits on jointly owned farms? Closing the Gender Gap for compared to men’s? • To what extent are women Development, FAO (2011). • Are there any legal or represented in farmer’s Tips for Integrating Gender customary barriers to cooperatives, unions, water into USAID Agriculture Sector women’s ownership or users’ associations, or other Solicitations, USAID (2010). inheritance of land? organizations at the local level? Women’s Empowerment in • To what extent do women • To what extent are women Agriculture Index, USAID, IFPRI, and have access to productive represented among senior OPHI (2012).

30 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 2 GENDER & ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

WHY CONSIDER GENDER to affordable energy service have a higher risk of exposure USAID aims to expand access especially important for women. to harmful substances and to modern energy services while pollutants. Therefore, men Although everyone is affected ensuring that natural resources should be engaged with the by environmental changes, remain available. Energy and process of adopting new environmental degradation can environmental programs practices and technologies have distinct effects on men are interconnected, because that will protect their personal and women. For example, small supporting the development health and safety as well as the landowners and subsistence of safe and reliable sources of environment generally. Although farmers, many of whom energy also helps maintain the women are underrepresented are women, are especially environment. in the professional energy vulnerable to declines in crop workforce in all regions, they Although both men and yields brought about by climate are often expected to take on women make use of natural change. Men are more likely responsibilities for safe water resources and are consumers to work in industries that and clean environments at the of energy, gender differences are linked to environmental community level as part of their appear in this sector in several degradation, such as natural traditional domestic and social ways. Due to their different resource extraction, and thus functions. household roles, men and women have different energy needs and consumption patterns. Energy shortages also affect men and women differently. For example, in rural areas, women are generally responsible for gathering fuel and managing water and waste disposal for the household. Men are more likely than women to be employed in large-scale collection, transportation, and management of natural resources and waste. In urban areas, electricity shortages not only complicate household tasks but can compromise women’s safety when street lighting is inadequate or lacking. Women are also more likely to be impoverished, especially female heads of household and single mothers, making access DMITRY FEKLISOV GENDER ISSUES IN THE paying for utilities. As many businesses, especially in rural REGION E&E countries move toward areas. In the E&E region, USAID individual energy metering The differential impact of energy programs focus primarily systems, it will be important to environmental issues and climate on improving the function and engage both with men regarding change on men and women output of energy facilities and affordability of services and requires greater study. USAID energy sector reform, such as billing and with women, as the environmental programs in the utilities regulation. The transition main household consumers of E&E region include, but are not period has shown that power energy, about energy efficiency. supplies in many countries are limited to, waste management inadequate, and infrastructure Women also make up the and recycling (Kosovo, the is outdated and in need of majority of employees in Republic of Macedonia, Ukraine), improvement. In addition to state institutions, such as energy efficiency (Georgia, the experiencing shortages of kindergartens, schools, hospitals, Republic of Macedonia, and clean water, rural areas often and cultural institutions, many Russia), water management lack access to gas pipelines and of which are housed in poorly (South Caucasus), and the sanitation services. Urban areas maintained public buildings. introduction of clean and experience periodic electrical Energy efficiency and biomass renewable energy sources power cuts and problems with projects aiming to enhance (Georgia, Russia). Little if any water cleanliness. Public buildings heating in public buildings and data are available in the region in particular, including schools provide street lighting, for about the gender-related and clinics, may experience example, can bring immediate impacts of energy insufficiencies power insufficiencies in the form and important improvements to and environmental degradation. of interruptions to the electricity women’s lives. The region has a history of active NGOs that address supply or lack of heating. In the E&E region, development environmental and ecological organizations have promoted Women and men have distinct issues, but these organizations women’s microenterprise as energy needs that are related do not necessarily take a gender- a means to earn additional to their specific gender roles. sensitive approach. Understanding the gender household income and a method dimensions of energy reform to empower women and improve Some countries in the E&E projects requires looking at their economic independence. region manifest clear gender how men and women consume However, less consideration divisions of labor, and how energy, their different energy has been given to ensuring the specific actions of men needs, and how insufficiencies that the energy needs of and women may affect the have a differential impact. small entrepreneurs are also environment should be being met. Many women’s considered. For example, For example, women are microbusinesses (e.g., food women may be more involved generally responsible for processing), are home-based in collecting water and fuel for household tasks such as cooking, as well as labor and energy home heating and cooking and cleaning, laundering, and caring intensive. Women’s access disposal of household rubbish, for children. Access to electricity to adequate and affordable while men are more likely to use and clean water at home is thus energy—as well as to energy- and dispose of toxic products especially important for women. efficient equipment—becomes (chemical fertilizers, car fuel). In general, men are considered an important component of Environmental programs should the household head and thus promoting women’s small take such gender roles into are primarily responsible for account, and provide men and

32 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS women with targeted messages institutions are male dominated, “ Evidence from throughout the and education about how to positive measures must be taken developing world suggests that a minimize their impact on the to ensure that women’s needs environment. and priorities are also taken focus on productive, often male- into consideration in reform dominated, energy services has There has been limited programs. assessment of attitudinal neglected the complementarity differences between women Women are well represented of productive and reproductive and men toward environmental in civil society across the E&E activities in rural households. issues, but studies suggest region and have been active in This has led to interventions that that perceptions do differ. For community-level environmental example, a survey in Georgia activities. At the same time, their are not only gender-biased, but related to natural resource use representation in government are also less effective for poverty indicated that women placed positions relevant to the reduction.” priority on issues pertaining environment or the use of to their immediate needs, natural resources is low. Any lorena aguilar, gender makes the in this case clean water for planned environmental and difference: energy, 2004 drinking and irrigation.1 A survey energy projects should take care conducted in Azerbaijan found not to reinforce stereotypes that there were few gender that women are responsible for (e.g., poor air and water differences in perceptions of resolving local problems, such quality, toxic contamination)? critical environmental problems as waste disposal or water use, facing the country, but men but are not involved in making Background and context were considerably more likely high-level policy decisions about • Have any household-level than women to identify the resource management. surveys been conducted that destruction of forests as an provide information about 2 issue. KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE male and female energy Women are underrepresented GENDER ANALYSIS consumption patterns and Sex-disaggregated data in formal policymaking positions needs as well as on household expenditure on utilities? related to energy reform and • How many men and environmental issues. As women serve in top political • Are there any studies of the elsewhere in the world, women positions related to energy gendered impacts of climate are underrepresented in and environmental decision change in the country? energy-related institutions in making (ministries, councils, or the E&E region. This disparity is state agencies)? Gender roles and responsibiilties due in part to the privatization • What is the ratio of females • What is the gender division of process, which saw the transfer labor in urban and rural areas, of energy sector institutions to to males working as activists in environmental NGOs? and how does this implicate private holding. Because energy energy use and environmental • Are data available about the factors (e.g., who collects fuel incidence of health problems for heat and cooking, who 1. Elisabeth Duban, Gender Assessment (e.g., respiratory problems, collects water, who disposes USAID/Georgia (Washington, D.C.: USAID waterborne diseases, or other and DevTech Systems, Inc., 2010). of waste, who maintains cars illnesses) among males and 2. UNDP, Azerbaijan Human Development and equipment, etc.)? In what Report 2007—Gender Attitudes in females that may be related environments do women and Azerbaijan: Trends and Challenges (Baku, Azerbaijan: UNDP, 2007). to environmental degradation men work?

GUIDANCE NOTE 2: GENDER & ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT 33 • What are the energy energy efficiency and of RESOURCES consumption levels of women new technologies that could Energy: Gender Makes the Difference, and men? improve energy efficiency The World Conservation Union both at the workplace and Fact Sheet (IUCN), Chemonics • Could the provision of home? (2004). new energy resources or technology mean longer Patterns of power and decision Fact Sheet: Climate Change and Gender, USAID/Office of Women in working hours for women making Development (2010). (e.g., could electrification lead • Do men and women to extended working hours)? Gender and Energy for Sustainable participate equally in decision Development: A Toolkit and Resource Access to and control over assets making in energy management Guide, UNDP (2004). and resources at the household level? Gender and Environment: A Guide to • How accessible and affordable • To what extent are women the Integration of Gender Aspects in is clean energy to women represented among senior OSCE’s Environmental Projects, OSCE and men? How accessible is it staff in key planning bodies (2009). female-headed households or (ministries, cabinet posts, single mothers? parliamentary committees, Land and Environment: Gendernet etc.) responsible for energy/ Practice Notes, AusAID (1997). • Do women and men have environmental policy? equal knowledge of the links Women and the Environment, UNEP (2004). between environmental • Are there women’s groups or degradation and energy other NGOs active in energy production and consumption? efficiency, environmental education, or conservation? • How aware are men and women of ways to improve

34 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 3 GENDER & POLITICAL PROCESSES

WHY CONSIDER GENDER have the opportunity to is useful to think about these USAID programming aims to choose their representatives two dimensions of gender- strengthen political processes at all levels of governance. To equitable participation in by ensuring that elections are consider gender in programs political processes. Also keep in free and fair and that citizens on political processes means mind that while the immediate keeping in mind that men objective is more balanced and women have differing participation in structures needs and varied views about of governance, this is not governance and politics, as well the ultimate goal. Balanced as distinct interests in political participation is “a means toward processes. Balanced gender improved quality of governance representation and participation [which] should help foster in political processes are closely gender-awareness in political tied to ensuring that men and processes and policy practice.”1 women can exercise choices regarding political, social, and GENDER ISSUES IN THE economic issues. Lack of political REGION representation can lead to Women are underrepresented social and economic exclusion. in political office and lack the Integrating a gender perspective “critical mass” to influence in this sector requires ensuring decision making. A key concern that the interests of both for the E&E region is women’s male and female citizens limited representation at all are addressed equally and levels of government, including adequately. elected office. Women’s political representation in a number of Gender-sensitive projects E&E countries has been steadily or activities in the political decreasing during the transition processes sector address the years. At the highest level— systemic barriers that maintain national legislatures—women women’s low levels of political occupy fewer than 20 percent representation and aim to of the parliamentary seats in increase women’s participation most of the countries in the in public decision making. USAID E&E region. In several nations, projects also build the capacity female members account of political parties and elected for 10 percent or less of the leaders to respond to the parliament. gender-specific interests of all citizens. In conducting gender analysis 1. UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and the CIS, Gender Mainstreaming in Practice: and during project design, it A Toolkit—Part II: Sectoral Briefs (Bratislava, ADAM ADAMUS Slovak Republic, UNDP, 2007). Patterns of women’s political office is the lack of successful Women’s generally lower participation at the local level coalition building among female economic status, and their show considerably more politicians in the region. Partly limited role in lucrative sectors variation than at the national because there are few women such as big business, means level. In several countries, members of parliament, very they lack the financial and social including Russia and Ukraine, few national parliaments have capital needed to run campaigns. women’s representation strong women’s caucuses. It is not uncommon for political decreases as the level of political Where such caucuses do exist, decisions, such as about which office rises. So while women they tend to be controlled candidates a party will put may hold up to half of the by the dominant party and forward, to be made in informal positions on village councils, they thus to vote along party lines settings that are not accessible struggle to obtain a significant rather than showing a broader to women. In Kosovo, female number of parliamentary concern for women’s interests. politicians claim, “the main seats. Among other countries, Women’s rights activists in decisions are systematically including Azerbaijan and Bosnia the region note that female made in settings not accessible and Herzegovina, women are members of parliament do not to women, with meetings underrepresented at the local necessarily support a women’s being held in coffee bars or level, in self-governing authorities, rights agenda because they are restaurants late at night when and at the national level. women. Since gender issues female politicians are at home are closely associated with the A trend apparent in the entire with their families and children.”2 advancement of women in region is the absence of the region, male members of As in most other regions, a women in executive positions parliament are rarely involved political career is demanding and from the municipal (mayor) to in the promotion of gender difficult to reconcile with family the regional (governor) and equality. obligations. In E&E countries, national levels (president). Of women are expected to take course, singular examples exist Women face specific barriers to on a disproportionate share of women holding high-level participating in governance. The of family responsibilities, which office, generally ministerial or lack of political party support puts them at a disadvantage in cabinet posts, but women who for female candidates is a terms of the time needed to be are employed in government critical barrier. As a general rule, politically active. Young women tend to be concentrated in women are represented and are especially likely to be administrative civil service active within political parties responsible for the care of small positions. in the region, but they tend to children, which impinges on their occupy administrative rather The region as a whole lacks the ability to take part in political than leadership roles. For this critical mass of women decision work or civic activism. reason, they are often not makers needed to advance placed sufficiently high on party Gender stereotypes, cultural common policy agendas and lists to be viable candidates. traditions, and patriarchal represent the interests of female Impediments to women’s attitudes—specifically that citizens. Critical mass in this entering local-level politics also regard is considered to be at limit their opportunities to least 30 percent. gain skills in governance (such 2. Ariana Qosaj-Mustafa, Strengthening Lack of coalition building among as leadership, networking, and Women’s Citizenship: Kosovo Security Sector and Decentralisation (Pristina, Kosovo: female politicians. A corollary to coalition building) and slow or KIPRED and FRIDE, 2010). Anecdotal the fact that women have not even halt their progress up the information also exists of decisions being made in other all-male settings such as obtained critical mass in political political ladder. saunas or clubs.

36 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS politics is a “man’s business” and for political parties to include no significant gender-based not suitable for women—also women. Only Kosovo and the constraints to exercising the come into play. Further, women’s Republic of Macedonia have right to vote in the region. A political voices are generally achieved more than 30 percent key exception is the practice of lacking in the media, which representation of women in family or proxy voting, which has reinforces stereotypes about parliament through the use been documented in Azerbaijan, women in leadership roles. of special measures such as some communities in Georgia, quotas. Initiatives to implement and the Republic of Macedonia. Positive measures targeting quotas under election codes Family voting occurs when the political parties are being have been defeated in several male head of the household developed in the region, but countries. In some countries, decides how the female family further reform is needed. Quotas political parties have voluntarily members will vote. He may referring to the proportion of created women’s factions or accompany female relatives to men and women on political gender equality action plans, the polling booth or may vote party lists are a common which is a positive development. on their behalf. measure used to increase the In addition to the use of number of women in political special measures to improve office. Often, quotas mandate KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE women’s participation in politics, the number of women and men GENDER ANALYSIS further efforts are needed to on political party lists (generally Sex-disaggregated data improve retention of women no less than 30 percent of either in political office. In some • How many women and sex) and define the distribution countries, Armenia for example, men serve at all levels of of party members on party a trend has been observed political office, from local self- lists (generally using a “zebra” in which women who gained governing bodies to national principle requiring that men’s parliamentary seats through parliaments? and women’s names alternate quotas have stepped down on party lists). Quotas have and been replaced by male • How many women and men been adopted in a limited politicians. are members of political number of countries in the E&E parties, and what is their region. Some countries have On the whole, parties remain placement on party lists? established quotas but do not rather weak in terms of use the zebra principle, which advancing political platforms • How many women and men results in women appearing and are not highly responsive are politically appointed to low on party lists and thus not to voters. Few parties have positions in government obtaining parliamentary seats. the capacity to address gender offices (e.g., ministerial issues specifically. Women’s or cabinet posts) or hold Within the region, Albania, NGOs in several countries have prominent ranks in the civil Armenia, Bosnia and also voiced concern over the service? Herzegovina, Georgia, Kosovo, rise of nationalist movements the Republic of Macedonia, Background and context and parties that support and Serbia have adopted conservative and patriarchal • Has the country legislated measures to improve gender views of the role of women in any measures to improve the balance. These measures include society. balance of men and women in legislated quotas referring to political parties, for example, the proportion and placement In some countries, women do in its election code? Are any of women on political party not freely exercise the right such initiatives under way? lists and financial incentives to vote. There appear to be

GUIDANCE NOTE 3: GENDER & POLITICAL PROCESSES 37 • Do any of the majority parties • What positions and roles professional associations and have special factions or do women generally hold in committees, trade unions, divisions devoted to gender political parties? company boards, academic issues, gender equality, or institutions, NGOs, etc.)? • What are the dominant women? gender-based stereotypes • Are women able to vote • Have any of the majority about the abilities of men and freely and independently? parties adopted action women to successfully hold plans on gender equality or political office? RESOURCES undertaken internal gender • How do the media portray Democracy and the Challenge audits? of Change: A Guide to Increasing female and male candidates Women’s Political Participation, • To what extent do political during campaigns as well as National Democratic Institute parties raise or address female and male politicians? (2010). gender or women’s issues Access to and control over assets during campaigns or as part Empowering Women for Stronger and resources of their platform? Political Parties: A Guidebook • To what extent do women to Promote Women’s Political • Are there any caucuses, Participation, UNDP (2012). have access to the financial committees, or working assets needed to run for groups in the national Enhancing Women’s Political political office as compared to parliament devoted to such Participation: A Policy Note for men? Europe and the Commonwealth of topics as women’s rights, Independent States, UNDP and gender equality, or human • To what extent do women National Democratic Institute rights? have access to other physical (2009). assets such as communication • If so, what are the functions of technology or to social Gender Equality in Elected Office: A these bodies? Who are their assets, such as networks, as Six Step Action Plan, OSCE/ODIHR members? How influential compared to men? (2011). or effective have they been regarding policymaking? • To what extent do women Gender Mainstreaming in Practice: A Toolkit, Part II: Sectoral Briefs, have access to leadership • Do similar bodies exist at UNDP (2007). training or skill-building the level of regional or local opportunities as compared to politics? Guidelines for Enhancing Women’s men? Representation and Participation • How are civil society groups in Politics within Members of the Patterns of power and involved in mobilizing women Countries of the International decisionmaking to participate in public Gender Policy Network, (n.d.). decision making and the • How are women represented Handbook for Monitoring Women’s exercise of their rights? in decision making in national, Participation in Elections, OSCE/ regional, and local governance Gender roles and responsibilities ODIHR (2004). and political parties as well • What is the impact of as at the household and The Quota Project, Global Database of Quotas for Women women’s child care and family community levels? responsibilities on access to Women in National Parliaments • Do women generally hold political office? Is the impact (statistics), Inter-Parliamentary leadership roles outside the same for men? Union of governance (e.g., in

38 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 4 GENDER & GOVERNANCE

them. The existence of specific legislation, plans, and strategies, as well as governmental units for coordinating policy on the advancement of women or gender equality (known collectively as “national machinery”) are also indicators of effective democratic governance.

GENDER ISSUES IN THE REGION Women are underrepresented in national-level governance but may have more influence at the local level. A characteristic of the E&E region is the relatively high number of women employed in ZANA BUDIMA civil service and administrative WHY CONSIDER GENDER reform. In fact, laws, policies, positions in government while Essential features of a and regulations that are neutral having a very low representation democratic system of on their face can affect men in high-level decision making governance are effectiveness, and women differently and positions. Many countries also representativeness, inadvertently disadvantage exhibit an informal stratification transparency, accountability, women. Gender expertise is a in which women tend to be and responsiveness to citizens’ term that refers to a process represented in ministries or needs. In the E&E region, USAID of evaluating draft laws, current parliamentary committees focuses on strengthening the national legislation, and other concerned with health care, institutions of government and legal acts to ensure that they social welfare, education, and public sector reform. comply with international human rights standards on gender Men and women have differing Taking gender into consideration equality. Gender-responsive needs, varied perspectives governance includes the routine means understanding that effective about governance, and distinct application of gender expertise interests; thus, both male and governance is responsive to the in parallel with legal and policy female citizens should be distinct interests of men and reform processes. It is critical included in governance and that government officials be women, is accountable to male and oversight processes. aware of gender equality female citizens, and is a system in It is often assumed that women provisions in laws and policies which men and women are equally will benefit equally from and be able to implement represented. culture and underrepresented in while others aim for gender • Gender equality principles the counterpart bodies dealing equality more generally. are not mainstreamed in with issues such as economic governance processes, and There are several good reform, finance, energy, internal government officials often lack examples of action plans affairs, and defense. This knowledge of such policies. that address issues affecting circumstance should be kept in women. Some address issues • Funding and political will are mind in developing any project that disproportionately affect insufficient, and coordination that involves policy reform: if women, such as domestic is lacking between women are not adequately violence or trafficking in persons. government agencies represented, will their views be Sometimes action plans address responsible for implementing included in policy discussions? issues faced by a specific group gender equality mandates. In theory, women have of minority women. Sector- • Several countries have greater opportunities to be specific plans sometimes include created gender focal points, politically active at the local gender-sensitive provisions (e.g., operating in ministries or level, and certainly have distinct on small business development, local government. However, concerns and priorities for agricultural development, or such staff often lack specific local community development employment).. However, there training or clear mandates and projects. However, because are still gaps in which state policy have not been very effective few women are represented in is developed in a gender-neutral in enhancing coordination formal decision making roles at manner. For example, a number around gender issues. the local level—as mayors, for of countries have articulated instance—their influence over national policies on youth On the other hand, there local decisions is limited. that do not necessarily take are examples in several E&E into consideration important countries of good practices Government bodies for the differences between young men ensuring that government promotion of gender equality and women. effectively addresses gender have been established in issues, such as through projects most countries, but policy National machinery on to build capacity in the collection implementation remains a gender equality in the region of sex-disaggregated data and challenge. All countries in the takes varied forms, such as to undertake gender budgeting E&E region recognize the parliamentary or governmental exercises in which state principle of gender equality, committees, ministerial expenditures are analyzed for either in national constitutions departments or divisions, differential impacts on men and or, in many cases, through stand- stand-alone agencies, and women. alone laws on equal rights and governmental focal points for opportunities between men gender equality at the national Attention to the inclusion of and women. A great many and local levels. The effectiveness women in formal decision making countries have also developed of such national machinery and peace processes is a positive national action plans and varies considerably by country development in the region that strategies for the promotion and should be analyzed closely. should be supported. UN Security of gender equality as well as Some common tendencies Council Resolution 1325 (2000) national machinery to carry out have been noted, including the articulates an important role for these tasks and monitor policy following: women in the prevention and implementation. Some state resolution of conflict and calls • Policies exist on paper but programs are oriented toward for their equal participation and have not been fully realized in improving the status of women, involvement in decision making practice.

40 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS at all levels (national, regional, development of national action victims of domestic violence and international institutions) plans and strategies in several report that it is not uncommon and in mechanisms for the countries. However, women’s for law enforcement officers to prevention, management, and civil society groups also point refuse applications and attempt resolution of conflict.1 To date, out that they are included in to persuade victims to return to 34 countries worldwide have policy discussions when the the abuser, in contravention of developed national action plans topic is explicitly about gender police standards. to implement the resolution, or an issue affecting women, Women’s NGOs in the region including two in the E&E region such as domestic violence, tend to remain distinct from (Bosnia and Herzegovina but are seldom invited for those NGOs that deal with and Serbia) and several from discussions of such issues as government oversight or human Western and Eastern Europe. finance reform, post-conflict rights violations. There has Other countries, including reconstruction, or energy been limited success in forming Georgia and the Republic of policy. The limited engagement coalitions or networks to deal Macedonia, are developing such between civil society and with gender inequality in the national action plans. Women’s government is a concern for the application of government representation in formal region overall. Because women policies and practices. peace negotiations and peace- are distinctly underrepresented building institutions remains in government posts, it is low, however, in such countries especially important to KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE as Albania, Armenia, Moldova, empower women in other ways GENDER ANALYSIS Montenegro, and Ukraine.2 so that their views are reflected Sex-disaggregated data Women’s NGOs in Kosovo in policy debates. have been especially active in • How many men and Anticorruption initiatives have not pressuring the government for women are in key bodies integrated gender perspectives women’s inclusion in peace of government (e.g., in civil or involved women’s NGOs in processes. Given the significance service, ministerial and particular. Corruption remains of post-conflict issues for cabinet posts, the judiciary, a serious issue in much of the the E&E region and women’s law enforcement, and local E&E region. Steps have been underrepresentation in political government)? taken to address the problem, office generally, support for including through citizen Background and context the development of further oversight, civil society watchdog measures to realize the aims • What legislation supports the groups, and institutions such as of Security Council Resolution principle of gender equality? human rights commissioners or 1325 could be supported as ombudspersons. While singular • What are the major offices an element of accountable examples certainly exist of that handle gender issues in governance. efforts to address corruption in the executive and legislative Women’s NGOs have limited areas that affect women—such branches of the government? influence on policy setting as illegal payments for prenatal Are there any other offices, and reform. Women’s NGOs health care—by and large, committees, agencies, etc., have been involved in the anticorruption efforts have not responsible for gender issues? integrated a gender perspective. • Assess the national machinery There is considerable evidence that deals with gender issues. 1. UN Security Council, “Resolution 1325” that trafficking in persons, (S/RES/1325) (2000). How large are the offices? for example, is facilitated by 2. OSCE, The Gender Monitor, Issue No. 6 What are their mandates? (Vienna: OSCE, December 2011). government corruption. Further,

GUIDANCE NOTE 4: GENDER & GOVERNANCE 41 Do these offices have enough Access to and control over assets the prevention, management, funding to do their work? and resources and resolution of conflict? How are they staffed and by • Are women involved in • Are civil society groups whom? How do such offices key decisions about how involved in mobilizing women and institutions coordinate government assets and in citizen oversight or their work—among resources will be distributed anticorruption projects and themselves and with other and who will benefit from the campaigns? government agencies? distribution? • Is there a strategy or • Is gender expertise or gender RESOURCES national action plan for analysis used during the A User’s Guide to Measuring gender equality? What are Gender-Sensitive Basic Service legislative drafting process the responsible bodies for Delivery, UNDP and UNIFEM or in budget planning in implementing and monitoring (2009). order to assess the extent to the plan or strategy? How has which law and policy support Budgeting for Women’s Rights: this work been carried out in equal access to assets and Monitoring Government Budgets practice? How is the plan or resources? for Compliance with CEDAW, strategy funded? UNIFEM (2008). Patterns of power and • Is gender incorporated decisionmaking Corruption and Gender in Service into other national-level Delivery: The Unequal Impacts, policies or strategies (on • Are there any special Working Paper No. 2, Transparency youth, employment, rural measures to increase International (2010). development, etc.), or are women’s participation in Corruption and Human these policies and strategies public decision making Trafficking, Working Paper No. 03, gender neutral? (e.g., civil service laws/ Transparency International (2011). regulations, election laws/ • Are government officials procedures, planning and Gender and Corruption: aware of gender-related law budgeting procedures, or Understanding and Undoing the and policy? decentralization law/policy)? Linkages, Working Paper No. 3, • What training do government Have they been effective? Transparency International (2007). officials receive in gender- • In addition to government Gender and Development In Brief, related law and policy? office, are there other Issue 21: Gender and Governance, Gender roles and responsibilities mechanisms through which BRIDGE (2009). women can take part in • Do women leaders in Gender and Governance, BRIDGE public life and influence Cutting Edge Packs, Institute of government take an active decision making? Development Studies (UK) (2009). role in advocating for gender equality and related policies • Is there a national action plan National Mechanisms for Gender and legislation? for the implementation of Equality in South-East and Eastern Security Council Resolution Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia: • Are there any male leaders 1325 or other measures Regional Study, UNECE (2010). who advocate for gender to enhance women’s equality and women’s PeaceWomen Network Resources participation in formal empowerment? on UN Security Council Resolution decision making concerning 1325.

42 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 5 GENDER & CIVIL SOCIETY

WHY CONSIDER GENDER based groups, foundations, gender equality, women’s USAID recognizes the crucial social movements, and cultural rights and the empowerment role that civil society plays in institutions. The missions of of women, or address issues free and democratic countries CSOs therefore vary. They may that are of specific concern to as a third sector distinct from advocate on behalf of particular women through either advocacy the public and private sectors. groups, hold governments or services. There is no universal definition accountable, lobby for change, Taking a gender perspective in of a civil society organization mobilize citizens, conduct civil society support programs (CSO), but commonly used research, or provide direct means ensuring there is a broad definitions focus on one of four services. range of diverse CSOs that have contexts: legal definitions (legal the capacity to represent the registration and tax status), While civil society organization interests of men and women, economic definitions (how is the preferred term as it is the involve both men and women in revenue is used), and purpose most all-encompassing, the term their activities, and work for the definitions and functional “nongovernmental organization” benefit of both sexes. definitions (which broaden the remains in common use as well, concept of civil society to also especially in referring to CSOs It is important that diverse include individual activities and that work on women’s issues CSOs representing both women social movements).1 or gender equality. There is no and men engage in promoting single definition of a women’s gender equality as a common USAID defines a CSO as an NGO, but the description goal. Simply including women’s entity, formal or informal, that used by the United Nations NGOs as partners in projects is not part of the government Population Fund is suitable for or activities does not fulfill apparatus; does not distribute the E&E context: “Women’s gender integration requirements. profits to its directors, operators, NGOs in particular are Women’s organizations are or members; is self-governing; characterized by values-driven, key stakeholders—but they and in which participation is a action-oriented commitments should not be considered 2 matter of free choice. and voluntary work. Through the only partners. Women’s programs, lobbying, research CSOs encompass a number NGOs represent a diversity of and information, initiation and of different organizations, organizations, including many implementation of projects, including schools, social service that do not undertake advocacy women’s NGOs reach out organizations, not-for-profit work. Not all women’s NGOs to socially and economically health providers, professional have the capacity to develop disadvantaged people providing strategies for advancing gender associations, unions, faith- 3 needed services and support.” equality. Gender-responsive This Toolkit uses the term programming in the area of “women’s NGO” to refer to civil civil society development 1. Lester M. Salamon, “Putting the Civil society groups that promote should promote partnerships Society Sector on the Economic Map of the World,” Annals of Public and and alliances among CSOs Cooperative Economics, 81, No. 2 (2010). and between CSOs and other 2. The definition used by USAID was 3. UNFPA, “Capacity Building of NGOs sectors to promote gender developed by the Center for Civil Society in Post-Conflict Countries, Training Kit” at John Hopkins University. (UNFPA, n.d.). equality. YEKATERINA P. LUSHPINA

GENDER ISSUES IN THE Some of the reasons for women’s Women themselves point out REGION engagement in civil society work that they face less discrimination CSOs are important mechanisms are connected to perceptions and competition from men for women’s participation in about gender roles. In many in the civil society sector as public life, but they should not countries, CSO activities are compared to the private sector replace women’s leadership in accepted as part of a woman’s or politics, which makes CSO other sectors. In the E&E region, traditional role—to participate work more appealing. As a women have been very active in socially oriented work. In woman included in a survey and effective in civil society, Azerbaijan, for example, “some in Azerbaijan noted, “Women and women’s NGOs have had men consider NGO activity are not interested in politics success in highlighting issues of suitable for women since it is voluntarily since it is difficult discrimination against women considered ‘a domain of female and time-consuming. To work and equality more generally. activity’, ‘not directly related to in NGOs is relatively easy. Women’s NGOs also continue politics’, ‘including light jobs’ and Politics require cold blood and to provide critical services ‘leaving more time for women’s prudence.”5 A trend observed to victims of gender-based household duties.’”4 in the region is that women civil violence as well as to other society leaders generally do not disadvantaged groups, such as transition to leadership positions women from ethnic minority groups, women with disabilities, 4. UNDP, Azerbaijan Human Development refugees and displaced persons, Report 2007—Gender Attitudes in and single mothers. Azerbaijan: Trends and Challenges (Baku, 5. UNDP, Azerbaijan Human Development Azerbaijan: UNDP, 2007). Report 2007.

44 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS in other sectors, such as politics development, energy, or the collect survey data on issues or the private sector. The environment. A global survey affecting women. Donor and reasons for this phenomenon of women’s organizations, 12 government support to CSOs are not entirely clear, but percent of which are in E&E, for this type of work would stereotypes appear to play a Central Europe, and Central greatly improve the body of role. During gender analysis, Asia, confirmed this trend. data and analysis on gender consideration should be given According to the survey data, issues in the region. to whether these perceptions— 58 percent of organizations Attitudes toward women’s about women being suited focused on women’s rights NGOs, and to CSOs in general, primarily to CSO work—will be and 41 percent on violence vary across the region. In the reinforced through the project. against women, as compared Republic of Macedonia, it is Efforts are needed to assist to 10 percent that worked on reported that in an environment women’s career advancement economic rights, 16 percent of low citizen participation in from the third sector into on education, and 17 percent civil society activities, the highest decision making positions in on development or poverty rates of participation are in other sectors. issues.6 women’s organizations, and “the Women’s CSOs face challenges • Activities. Women’s NGOs empowerment of women is in terms of capacity, effectiveness, mainly undertake service perceived as one of the areas in and visibility. There are numerous provision, awareness raising, which civil society organizations women’s NGOs across the or training and capacity- have achieved the most.”7 In E&E region representing building activities. There contrast, in Armenia, “women diverse missions. Many such are also organizations that human rights defenders are organizations have close to two represent distinct groups of scrutinized by the media and decades’ work experience and professional women, such as public opinion and frequently are well recognized for their female journalists, farmers, receive no support from their expertise in their given field. scientists, or businesswomen. families.”8 In Moldova, women’s Such organizations provide groups lack credibility and There is little comparative data support and resources for visibility with both the public and about CSOs, including women’s their members but generally the media.9 organizations, for the region, are not advocacy oriented. but consultations with individual In a number of countries women’s groups in a number • Limited support for research in the region, human rights of countries revealed common and analysis. While there defenders, which often include characteristics and concerns. are women’s organizations NGO activists, face hostility with strengths in research • Focus areas. The most active and analysis, overall women’s CSOs on gender issues NGOs receive limited 7. Hina Jilani, “Promotion and Protection of or women’s rights in the All Human Rights, Civil, Political, Economic, support for in-depth study of region tend to focus on Social and Cultural Rights, Including the gender disparities and may Right to Development: Mission to the areas that are traditionally Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” not have the institutional (New York: United Nations General associated with women (e.g., or technical capacity to Assembly, 2008). violence against women, 8. Margaret Sekaggya, “Report of the Special reproductive health, HIV/ Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders: Mission to Armenia” AIDS, women in politics). (New York: United Nations General Assembly, 2010). Far fewer women’s CSOs 6. Association for Women’s Rights in take on such “hard” topics Development (AWID), “Where Is the 9. Catherine Cozzarelli, Gender Assessment Money for Women’s Rights: Survey USAID/Moldova (Washington, D.C.: as gender and economic Results” (AWID, 2008). USAID, 2011).

GUIDANCE NOTE 5: GENDER & CIVIL SOCIETY 45 and repression. Women work in this area, especially Analysis carried out by AWID have been included among from local sources. Bilateral and found that, although resources such human rights defenders multilateral grants accounted available to women’s groups (e.g., female activists working for close to 30 percent of the appear to have increased on human rights issues in combined income of women’s worldwide, there are many the North Caucasus), and organizations participating in challenges in accessing such harassment directed toward an Association for Women’s funds. Namely, “the size of Lesbian Gay Bisexual and Rights in Development (AWID) this funding, and the fact 11 Transgender (LGBT) activists worldwide survey. In the E&E that grants disbursed are is a particular concern in the region, women’s NGOs also often very large (hundreds region. Notifications concerning remain reliant on foreign funding of thousands of USD at a human rights defenders working in the form of donor-provided minimum, necessitating rigorous on women’s rights or gender grants. Analysis conducted in ﬁnancial and administrative issues sent to the UN Special Russia found that from 2004 to procedures) means that only Rapporteur on the Situation 2005, on average, 0.53 percent a limited number of women’s of Human Rights Defenders of funds invested by both organizations—the largest—are from the Europe and Central Russian and foreign donors generally able to access this Asia region mainly concerned was spent on women’s and/or funding.”14 Women’s NGOs “alleged violations against gender projects. Foreign donors express frustration over LGBT activists in this region spent 0.48 percent of their total restrictions on funding and lack generally related to freedom of funding on such projects, but of multiyear funding that would assembly or association, such as Russian donors spent as little allow them to focus on their denial of permits for peaceful as 0.05 percent. For Russian core missions or to pursue rallies or refusal to register an donors, women’s rights and a greater variety of activities. organization” (Moldova, Russia, gender equality appeared A global survey of women’s and Serbia) or “reported to be “the most unpopular organizations, 12 percent of 12 violations against women’s rights subjects” to fund. NGOs from which were in E&E, Central defenders [that were] largely Azerbaijan reported that very Europe, and Central Asia, judicial by nature, including few organizations that work found that 56 percent had no arrests, detentions, judicial on gender equality or women’s multiyear grants.15 Assessments harassment, and conviction empowerment have received in Albania, Kosovo, the Republic 10 (Belarus).” funding through the state-run of Macedonia, and Moldova have NGO Government Support Funding for civil society work raised issues of decreasing funds Council.13 on women’s rights and gender for women’s NGOs, the closure equality is limited and is primarily of NGOs due to financial provided by international donors. difficulties, overreliance on 11. Lydia Alpízar, Cindy Clark, Alexandra Despite important articulations Pittman, Sarah Rosenhek, and Verónica donor grants, and the tendency of gender as a crosscutting issue Vidal, “2009–2010 FundHer Research for the choice of projects to be Update Brief 1: Trends in Bilateral and 16 and policy support for gender Multilateral Funding” (Mexico City: AWID, donor driven. mainstreaming, CSOs in most 2010). of the E&E region struggle to 12. International Gender Policy Network, Development Cooperation and Gender, 14. Sekaggya, “Report of the Special find financial support for their Regional Advocacy Report for Central, Rapporteur.” Eastern and Southeastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (Prague, Czech Republic: 15. Alpízar, Clark, Pittman, Rosenhek, Verónica International Gender Policy Network, Vidal, “2009–2010 FundHer Research 2008). Update Brief 1.” 10. Sekaggya, “Report of the Special 13. International Gender Policy Network, 16. Cozzarelli, Gender Assessment USAID/ Rapporteur.” Development Cooperation and Gender. Moldova; Catherine Cozzarelli, 2010

46 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS A related issue is the but observers in several directly on gender equality development of legal countries have noted that it is projects. Notwithstanding, mechanisms through which difficult to identify a women’s young people are an important governments can directly movement led by CSOs. Limited resource in promoting more fund women’s NGOs that unrestricted funding, and in gender-equitable attitudes provide services. In several E&E particular the continued reliance in society and countering countries, mechanisms exist or on donor support, makes it entrenched stereotypes and regulations are being formulated difficult for women’s NGOs in rigid gender norms. that allow governments to different regions or countries to Positive examples of essentially purchase NGO network, collaborate, and share cooperation between women’s services (e.g., the system of good practices. Also, CSOs that NGOs and public institutions “social orders” in Ukraine), but do not position themselves as exist, but the extent to which there is considerable variation directly addressing gender tend such organizations influence between the national and local to take a neutral approach to policymaking varies. Numerous levels in terms of access to such gender. For example, CSOs that positive examples exist of funds. NGOs may have to bid address disability issues, child cooperation between civil or compete for funds, and there welfare, or the environment society groups and government. may be limitations on the extent rarely integrate a gender For example, during a two-year to which NGOs themselves perspective into their work. process of drafting the law on participate in priority setting At the same time, women’s gender equality in Bosnia and and the identification of needed NGOs do not usually undertake Herzegovina, a coalition of services. watchdog or advocacy work, almost 200 NGOs collaborated Development of coalitions and and therefore do not necessarily closely with the government. other forms of collaboration collaborate with more The resulting law integrated among women’s CSOs is traditional human rights or civil about 85 percent of NGO limited. Given the diversity of rights organizations. Traditional proposals.17 In other countries, women’s NGOs in the region, women’s NGOs, human rights women’s NGOs report that it is somewhat surprising that organizations, citizen activist they are marginalized or only there has been limited success groups, and research-focused included in policy discussions in in developing networks and or think tank organizations do a formal manner and when the coalitions around gender not necessarily collaborate on a topic explicitly concerns women. equality issues. Women’s NGOs gender equality agenda. Women’s NGOs in Georgia have certainly come together at expressed the opinion that the Among well-established the local or national level around inclusion of NGOs in policy women’s NGOs, it is not key actions (adopting quotas) discussions was undertaken uncommon to hear leaders or related to specific issues at the request of international note that few young women are (domestic violence, trafficking donors and often performed a engaged in civil society work. in persons, peace building), “box-checking” function rather Such perceptions may well be than real engagement with civil related to the fact that women’s NGOs and youth organizations Gender Assessment for USAID/Albania (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2010); do not often collaborate. Catherine Cozzarelli, Gender Assessment Although there are examples USAID/Macedonia (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2010); Ariana Qosaj-Mustafa, of joint efforts—for example, Strengthening Women’s Citizenship: Kosovo 17. Elisabeth Duban, From Cairo to Beijing and Security Sector and Decentralisation awareness-raising campaigns— Beyond: An Overview of Trends in the Region, (Pristina, Kosovo: KIPRED and FRIDE, few youth groups are working background paper (Istanbul: UNFPA, 2010). 2010).

GUIDANCE NOTE 5: GENDER & CIVIL SOCIETY 47 “ In order to be truly democratic, seen as activist. Women’s NGOs Respondents were generally civil society organizations should in Serbia have described a unable to identify such groups “marked tendency to marginalize in their country. Gender equality be capable of representing the and ignore independent women is still very much considered needs and interests of both their NGOs” with a preference for the responsibility of women’s male and female members.” cooperation with non-activist organizations in the region and women’s groups, perceived has not become a broader canadian international to be more “constructive movement. development agency, gender [and] cooperation-oriented.”20 equality and support to civil Given women’s low level of KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE representation in political office society: in brief, 1999, p. 1 GENDER ANALYSIS (women occupy fewer than Sex-disaggregated data 20 percent of the parliamentary seats in most of the countries in • How many CSOs are run society.18 Women’s NGOs in the E&E region), it is especially by men and women? How other countries report that important to support greater many have missions relevant coordination between the state collaboration among civil society to gender equality? How and civil society is weak, resulting groups that represent women’s many organizations focus on in the government transferring interests and government. Efforts women’s rights or issues of responsibility for implementing are needed to ensure that particular concern for women national strategy to the third women’s NGOs are included in or for men? sector. In Ukraine, women’s legislative review, parliamentary groups noted that regional Background and context and budget hearings, policy programs on ensuring gender debates, and other reform • How have local women’s equality “are implemented processes. NGOs been evaluated mostly by NGOs with partial in terms of mission, financing from the state budget. Male participation in civil society programming, staff size, The main financing comes not efforts around gender equality financial support, stability, from the budget, but from other is very limited. The E&E region membership in networks and resources—from international lacks examples of men engaged coalitions, etc.? technical assistance (grants), in civil society efforts to advance charitable assistance and from gender equality. There are a few • Are there networks of diverse entrepreneurs.”19 women’s NGOs that include CSOs (e.g., working on a male perspective in their women’s issues, youth issues, In a few countries, there is work or engage actively with human rights, citizen advocacy, considerable hostility and men, but there far fewer CSOs justice and anticorruption, suspicion toward women’s established by men to address the environment, research, NGOs, including those that are gender issues. During recent etc.) that support a gender gender analyses conducted equality agenda? How do they for USAID, respondents were function and collaborate? 18. Elisabeth Duban, Gender Assessment USAID/Georgia (Washington, D.C.: USAID asked about the existence of Gender roles and responsibilities and DevTech Systems, Inc., 2010). men’s groups engaged in gender 19. Women’s Consortium of Ukraine, Alternative Report on the equality work or on issues • What are the predominant Implementation of the UN Convention that specifically affect men. expectations about women’s on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination in Ukraine (Kyiv, Ukraine: role in socially oriented work? International Renaissance Foundation, Would a project on CSO Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, UNICEF, and UN Office in Ukraine, 2008. 20. Duban, From Cairo to Beijing and Beyond. development reinforce any

48 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS stereotypes about the role of • For organizations that engage on gender issues in order to women or men in civil society communities and individuals mainstream gender equality? efforts? If there are commonly in specific initiatives, how How is this dialog sustained held gender stereotypes do they ensure that both (e.g., places reserved for about civil society work, how women and men are able NGOs on committees, could they be mitigated? to participate? What special steering groups, governmental mechanisms do they employ? bodies that include CSOs as • Do CSOs generally recognize members, etc.)? that their male and female • Concerning the capacity of members have different CSOs that promote gender • Are organizations with an needs and interests? Do equality specifically, do they explicit equality mandate they address the issues have access to adequate able to influence decision of both women and men financial resources—through making? Are they drawn on and incorporate them into funding (donor, government, as resources and brought into their policies, priorities, and or private donations) and policy discussions with the programs? technical assistance? If not, government? If so, are they what measures could be compensated for their time • Do CSOs with an explicit taken to work toward their and involvement? gender equality mandate financial sustainability? engage men in their activities? • Is there support for CSOs What special mechanisms do • Do women’s NGOs have to conduct research and they employ? sufficient discretionary funds analysis for submission to UN to support networking agencies—specifically the • Are there any examples of activities, both regionally CEDAW Committee? men mobilizing around issues and internationally, and to of inequality that affect boys exchange information? and men (e.g., in the context RESOURCES of HIV/AIDS prevention, • Are financial or other Gender Equality & Support to Civil Society: In Brief, CIDA (1999). sexual health and sexual resources made available by orientation, parental leave, government and international Karat Coalition (website), a coalition military service, etc.)? donors for CSOs representing of organizations and individuals sectors where both men and in 25 countries that focuses Access to and control over assets women are active? on women’s human rights and and resources gendered economic and social Patterns of power and decision • Do CSOs reach out to justice in Central Europe, the E&E making region, and Central Asia both women and men and encourage them to become • Is women’s participation The 2009 NGO Sustainability Index involved—as members, restricted to women’s for Central and Eastern Europe and as volunteers, or in other CSOs only, or do they also Eurasia, 13th Edition, USAID (2010). capacities? Do women participate in mainstream The 2010 NGO Sustainability Index and men have access to political or decision making for Central and Eastern Europe and organizations that represent processes? Eurasia,14th Edition USAID, Bureau their interests? • Is there a dialog between for Europe and Eurasia, Office of government and civil society Democracy, Governance and Social Transition (2010).

GUIDANCE NOTE 5: GENDER & CIVIL SOCIETY 49

GUIDANCE NOTE 6 GENDER & MEDIA

WHY CONSIDER GENDER USAID promotes free and independent media as a vital component of democratic societies. Media content is shaped by those who create and deliver it. Therefore, women and men should be equally represented among media professionals. As in other sectors, gender analysis includes an assessment of who is responsible for making decisions about media content and how much it reflects diverse views. Mass media can play a role in raising the issue of gender equality in public debate, which in turn can shape societal opinions and values. Media outlets also MARINA MODEBADZE have considerable influence in age, location, employment, and is near gender parity in terms perpetuating stereotypes about time commitments, among of representation of women the roles and responsibilities of others. and men in the newsroom. men and women; alternatively, Nevertheless, gendered they can counter gender-based patterns can be seen.1 In these stereotypes. GENDER ISSUES IN THE REGION countries, women are well Specialized training on ethical Gender imbalances regarding represented among managerial and gender-sensitive reporting access to employment in the and senior positions, but not and the development of media exist in the region. In in the technical and creative codes of ethics are important terms of the representation of sectors. Women’s participation measures of how responsive the men and women in the media, is highest in support roles media sector is to gender. Media journalism was traditionally such as sales, finance, and outlets are not limited to print, viewed as a female profession administration. According to radio, and television, but also in the E&E region. A recent data from UNDP on several include the Internet, which is study of the status of women E&E and Central Asian less regulated than other media in the news industry in eight outlets. Men and women access E&E countries, two of which various media outlets differently (Russia and Ukraine) are in the 1. Carolyn Byerly, “Global Report on the Status of Women in the News Media,” depending on such factors as E&E region, found that there (Washington, D.C.: International Women’s Media Foundation, 2011). countries, women are among since they are often employed digital divide exists not only the majority of news presenters as drivers. In Azerbaijan, between women and men but (up to 90 percent) but less there is almost parity, with a also across generations, and represented among reporters very slightly higher number of has important implications for (from 20 to 70 percent).2 women receiving information USAID activities that promote Gender analyses conducted in from television as compared the use of the Internet and Serbia and Moldova indicate to men (less than a 2 percent other new media—for example, that women make up the difference).4 Further attention to in developing e-governance majority of journalists but this subject could be useful both websites or online information are underrepresented as top to media programs and others portals for citizens. editors or managers of media that include media activities Women’s voices receive less companies.3 This pattern is for advocacy and informational coverage, and gender-based similar to that observed in other purposes. stereotypes persist in the media. professional fields. With fewer With the development of NGOs have conducted media women occupying decision- new media, attention has also monitoring that reveal gender making roles such as editors, been devoted to how men biases and stereotypes in several producers, or reporters, they and women access such media countries. It is generally the case have less influence over what outlets as the Internet or use in the E&E region that women’s media content will be published technology. Projects that focus expert opinions are much less or broadcast. on the “gender digital divide” often reported. When women’s There may be gender-based in the E&E region have noted views are covered, they tend to differences in terms of men’s that further efforts are needed be on topics related to family and women’s access to various to increase women’s access and children, social services, media sources. Little study has to computers, train women in education, fashion, food, culture, been conducted of gender basic computer skills, strengthen art, and entertainment rather differences in access to media women’s motivation to use than domestic policy, economic content in the region, but information and communication affairs, and crime. In Moldova, anecdotal observations suggest technologies, and develop for example, media monitoring that in some countries, men greater content produced by revealed that women were and women may have distinct and for women.5 Country- less likely to be depicted in patterns in media use due specific surveys conducted in serious roles, and diminutive to differing roles and time the Republic of Macedonia terms were more often used commitments. For instance, it showed that males, in every to describe women.7 Further, has been suggested in Armenia age group, were more likely women’s issues are most that men more frequently to use computers and access frequently depicted in the press listen to the radio for news the Internet than females.6 The during specific times of year—in connection with International Women’s Day, Mother’s Day, or 4. UNDP, Azerbaijan Human Development events organized by women’s 2. UNDP, “Gender Equality in Europe and Report 2007—Gender Attitudes in Commonwealth of Independent States” Azerbaijan: Trends and Challenges (Baku, civil society organizations. (compilation of indicators); note that this Azerbaijan: UNDP, 2007). donor uses the geographical categories of Central and Eastern Europe and the 5. UNDP/UNIFEM, Bridging the Gender Commonwealth of Independent States. Digital Divide—A Report on Gender and ICT in Central and Eastern Europe and 3. Catherine Cozzarelli, Gender Assessment the Commonwealth of Independent States USAID/Moldova (Washington, D.C.: (Bratislava, Slovak Republic: UNDP, 2004). USAID, 2010). USAID, 2011); Catherine Cozzarelli, 2010 Gender Assessment for USAID/Serbia 6. Catherine Cozzarelli, Gender Assessment 7. Cozzarelli, Gender Assessment USAID/ (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2010). USAID/Macedonia (Washington, D.C.: Moldova.

52 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS The 2010 Global Media that boys, who are more likely KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE Monitoring Project found to take part in online gaming GENDER ANALYSIS that journalistic practices for and forums, are at particular Sex-disaggregated data 10 the European region as a risk for Internet recruitment. • How many men and women whole have little impact on Further efforts are needed are employed in media transforming gender stereotypes. to enforce legal provisions on outlets, and what are their Most media stories either discriminatory images used roles? reinforce gender stereotypes in advertising, develop codes or are neutral on them. Only a of ethics for media outlets, Background and context small number actually challenge investigate and prosecute the • Do any civil society stereotypes. An equally small types of Internet-based crimes organizations, watchdog number of stories highlight described above, and encourage groups, or other NGOs 8 gender equality as a topic. self-regulation. Parallel efforts conduct gender-sensitive are also needed to encourage Government monitoring and media monitoring? What are positive and nonstereotypic sanctioning of media outlets for the results and major findings depictions of both women stereotyping, sexism, or hate of such projects? and men, for example, women speech has been weak, despite as political leaders or men as • How do the media deal the existence of legal provisions responsible fathers. with sensitive subjects of that provide standards in public concern to women (e.g., HIV/ broadcasting or advertising in Unethical reporting of gender- AIDS, gender-based violence, several countries. Civil society sensitive issues. Women’s groups pregnancy and childbirth, and organizations have been that address sensitive issues— women’s rights)? more vigilant about media especially such topics as violence monitoring, and there have against women, trafficking in • Is there any specific legislation been some successful attempts persons, commercial sex work, on standards in media and to address particularly harmful or sexual harassment—note advertising, including the use gender-based stereotypes that the media not infrequently of gender-based stereotypes? (e.g., homophobic rhetoric in report on such topics in a How is such legislation Armenia and sexist advertising sensationalized manner or do enforced? in Russia).9 A related issue for not adhere to ethical practices Gender roles and responsibilities the region is the use of the (e.g., by using non-neutral Internet in trafficking schemes, language or including the names • Do media outlets reinforce both as a recruitment tool and of victims in news reports). In a or refute gender-based to distribute sexually exploitative number of countries, women’s stereotypes (consider images of victims. Information NGOs, in particular unions programming, news stories, about this subject is very limited, of female journalists, have and advertising)? but there is some suggestion carried out training projects • Are there differences in the on gender-sensitive reporting. types of stories written or Such efforts have generally not broadcast about women and 8. UNDP, “Gender Equality in Europe and been formalized nor led to men? Are the differences Commonwealth of Independent States.” the development of industry 9. Elisabeth Duban, Gender Assessment based on gender stereotypes? USAID/Armenia (Washington, D.C.: standards. USAID and DevTech Systems, Inc., • Are male and female 2010); American Bar Association Central European and Eurasian Law Initiative, reporters assigned to cover “CEDAW Assessment Tool Report for different stories? Are the story the Russian Federation” (Washington, 10. See Guidance Note 14: Gender & Child D.C.: USAID, 2006). Welfare. types equally prestigious?

GUIDANCE NOTE 6: GENDER & MEDIA 53 supporting as well in decisionmaking roles? • Do any formal or informal barriers restrict women’s participation in media leadership and decisionmaking positions? • How are women represented in unions and other associations of media professionals? • Are there professional BASA PRESS organizations for women in the media (e.g., unions of Access to and control over assets professionals have equal female journalists)? and resources access to training in gender- sensitive and/or ethical RESOURCES • To what extent do women reporting practices? Bridging the Gender Digital Divide—A have access to new media? Report on Gender and ICT in Central and How does access differ for • How do media outlets Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth women of different ages and collaborate with women’s of Independent States, UNDP/UNIFEM living in different locations NGOs (e.g., providing (2004). (urban or rural areas, e.g.)? resources to promote gender Getting the Balance Right: Gender issues, advocate for gender • To what extent are the Equality in Journalism, International equality, or support specific opinions of women and men Federation of Journalists/UNESCO public service announcements reported equally through the (2009). directed to women or men)? media? In what contexts are Global Report on the Status of the opinions of women and Patterns of power and decision Women in the News Media, men cited? making International Women’s Media Foundation (2011). • How are issues of specific • Considering the major media concern to women or to men outlets in the country (print, Who Makes the News: Global depicted in the media? television, radio, Internet), Media Monitoring Project. what is the pattern of male • Do male and female and female participation, in Women and the Media (overview journalists or other media for Europe and the CIS for Beijing Platform for Action +15), UNDP.

54 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 7 GENDER & RULE OF LAW

WHY CONSIDER GENDER Equality and nondiscrimination are core principles of a human rights–based approach to development. Respect for the rule of law in democratic societies means that human rights standards are respected, and the law is applied fairly to all citizens. Applying gender analysis in the context of the rule of law, it is important to consider • the laws themselves, • the capacity of the system and legal professionals to enforce gender equitable laws, and • whether women and men

have equal access to the USAID/VALENTIN BOZU, BIZPRO/MOLDOVA justice system. Legislation should be subjected legislation addressing issues that Ensuring fairness in the to gender expertise, which disproportionally affect women, application of the law has a refers to a process of reviewing such as domestic violence, is also particular gender component. and evaluating draft laws, current necessary to promote gender The law should be applied national legislation, and other equity. equally to all, and both men and women should have equal legal acts to ensure that they The capacity of the legal access to justice in the case comply with international human profession to support gender of violations of their rights. rights standards on gender equality principles in its work is Persistent gender inequalities are equality. Gender-neutral (or an important consideration in violations of human rights, but “gender blind”) legislation has integrating gender in rule of law they can often be overlooked, proven ineffective in promoting programs—as well as how men considered the “norm,” or gender equality and eliminating and women are represented in justified as an artifact of tradition discrimination, and therefore legal offices (including among or culture. stand-alone laws that promote attorneys, prosecutors, the equal opportunities or prohibit judiciary, etc.). The term “gender justice” is gender-based discrimination often used to refer to the 1 are equally important. Specific inclusion of gender equality issues within rule of law programs. 1. UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and A Toolkit—Part II: Sectoral Briefs (Bratislava, the CIS, Gender Mainstreaming in Practice: Slovak Republic, UNDP, 2007). GENDER ISSUES IN THE training, or continuing legal forthrightly discriminatory. In REGION education. The establishment of fact, the law and legal practice Legal protections of equal rights human rights commissioners and in many countries are gender are strong, but implementation ombudsperson’s offices in the blind to issues that have a of such principles is often weak. region are important institutions distinct impact on women— In terms of de jure gender for considering cases of gender for example, in cases that equality, legal protection for discrimination. Such agencies are implicate the private sphere, equal rights is strong in the limited to reviewing state actions such as domestic violence or E&E region. All countries have or inactions, and because they reproductive health. Progress has ratified the UN Convention serve a nonjudicial function, they been uneven in the adoption on the Elimination of All Forms cannot issue binding decisions. of stand-alone laws to address of Discrimination against various forms of gender-based There has been limited use of Women (CEDAW), and many violence (domestic violence, “positive discrimination” to have introduced stand-alone sexual harassment, marital rape). improve the status of women. legislation on equal rights and Broad state programs or laws on There are few examples in the opportunities between men and other issues, such as HIV/AIDS, E&E region of the law being women or antidiscrimination/ pensions and social benefits, used as a form of positive equal protection clauses in their or post-conflict reconstruction, discrimination—for example, constitutions. Achieving de facto do not always clearly articulate to advance affirmative action equality, however, remains a specific vulnerabilities. Legal for women or enact temporary challenge. reform in the region would special measures. Only a benefit from greater gender Despite the existence of few countries have adopted sensitivity. equality laws on the books, provisions in national electoral implementation of such laws codes that would improve Gender segregation exists in has been quite limited in the the representation of women the legal profession. As in other region. Effective mechanisms in political party lists (e.g., fields, the legal profession shows to investigate and redress quotas). Significantly, a number some patterns of occupational rights violations have not been of countries have not repealed segregation. Women are developed, and evidentiary protective but discriminatory generally well represented in burdens (such as the need to legislation, namely in the area law institutes across the region, prove discrimination) are high.2 of labor law, that arguably but as graduates tend to work Thus, few cases of discrimination disempowers women and in specific legal fields—for on the basis of sex have been reinforces negative stereotypes.3 example, as notaries but not successfully tried in court, and prosecutors. Women are Neutral laws can be precedent is limited. underrepresented in high-level “gender blind” to issues that and leadership posts, such as Legal understanding of how disproportionately affect women. chairing chambers of advocates to try cases of gender-based There are few cases in the or serving as chief judges. discrimination is also lacking, as E&E region in which laws are the topic is not a regular part Women have less access to the of law school curricula, legal “justice chain.” UN Women’s 2011 Progress of the World’s 3. Labor law provisions limit, for example, Women report identifies several women’s access to specific jobs 2. Rangita de Silva de Alwis, Advancing Equal considered dangerous and place barriers that women face in Rights for Women and Girls: The Status of restrictions on women’s ability to work CEDAW Legislative Compliance in Eastern at night or to travel for work.; de Silva de accessing justice that are also Europe and Central Asia (New York: Alwis, Advancing Equal Rights for Women relevant to the E&E region. First, UNFPA, 2009). and Girls.

56 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS women’s ability to access the Legal training on the issues of • Does the country have a law to obtain justice depends gender equality or women’s policy, plan of action, or on their knowledge of the rights is very limited, either as strategy for the protection legal protections available to part of law school curricula or of human rights, including the them. In the case of gender- under continuing legal education rights of women? based discrimination—such programs. Legal professionals • Does the constitution as discriminatory inheritance lack the knowledge (of best contain provisions on gender or property laws, domestic practices, e.g.) and skills to discrimination and/or prohibit violence, or sexual harassment— represent women adequately in discrimination on the grounds such acts are often tolerated cases concerning discrimination, of sex? How many cases of and accepted by society, and by domestic violence, or sexual sex-based discrimination women themselves, as “normal” harassment, among others. The have been taken to the and inevitable. Women’s legal underrepresentation of women constitutional court? What literacy is thus critical. NGOs in such institutions as the police was the outcome? that work with women point and prosecutor’s office may out that many, especially those also deter women from seeking • Is there any specific from rural areas or members justice, especially in sensitive antidiscrimination or equal of minority groups, are not cases. opportunities legislation? aware of their legal rights or the process for applying to the legal • Are there specific laws KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE that address problems that system for protection of those GENDER ANALYSIS disproportionally affect rights. Sex-disaggregated data women (e.g., domestic The cost of legal representation • How many and what types violence or sexual can be prohibitive to women, of relevant legal cases exist harassment)? whose economic status is on (disaggregated by sex of • How are the laws being average lower than men’s. the parties and type of implemented (e.g., how many Particularly in cases of domestic discrimination claim)? violence or disputes arising cases are brought annually, during divorce, women typically • What is the ratio of women what are the most common represent themselves or may to men in the legal profession judgments, etc.)? generally (compare figures have the assistance of non- Gender roles and responsibilities lawyer advocates working for law professors, practicing through women’s NGOs. Other attorneys, ministry of justice • What is men’s and women’s barriers, especially relevant to staff, police, prosecutors, and level of awareness of the laws cases of gender-based violence, judges)? that protect their rights and prohibit discrimination on the include logistical difficulties in Background and context visiting various agencies and basis of sex? services (police, forensic experts, • What commitments has the • Are there differences in health services, court) and fees government undertaken awareness of human rights associated with bringing a case concerning international among minority male and to justice. human rights principles female populations? (e.g., implementing In addition, there is a low level recommendations from • Are there any customary of awareness among legal the CEDAW Committee, norms or traditional practices professionals of the barriers implementation of the Beijing that contravene domestic women face in accessing justice. Platform for Action)? law and result in violations

GUIDANCE NOTE 7: GENDER & RULE OF LAW 57 of women’s rights? Such in gender-specific cases (e.g., • Does the country have a practices could include cases of domestic violence)? policy, plan of action, or informal justice systems, What kind of assistance is strategy to ensure women’s religious laws, or community provided to women and men? equal access to justice and dispute resolution. reparations in post-conflict • Are there specialized legal contexts? Access to and control over assets services (such as one-stop and resources shops) that reduce the Patterns of power and decision number of steps women must making • What barriers may prevent take to access justice? women from accessing the • What formal or informal justice chain? • What kind of training do legal barriers limit women’s professionals receive, either participation in certain legal • Are there any legal literacy as part of the law school professions and in the highest programs to educate women curriculum, as in-service levels of the legal field? and men about their specific training, or under continuing legal rights? Who conducts legal education programs, these programs? RESOURCES about legal protections against Advancing Equal Rights for Women • Are women and men discrimination and for equal and Girls: The Status of CEDAW educated on how to protect opportunities and in terms of Legislative Compliance in Eastern their human rights through practical recommendations Europe and Central Asia, UNFPA the legal system? for bringing cases under such (2009). laws? • When women and men use GENDERNET Practice Notes: Human the legal system, are they • What extra-judicial national Rights, OECD/AusAID. institutions exist to help generally represented by Justice Reform and Gender, Tool 4 attorneys? How does this women and men protect of the Gender and Security Sector vary by type of case (e.g., their rights (e.g., office of the Reform Toolkit. DCAF/OSCE- divorce or other family law ombudsperson for human ODIHR/UN-INSTRAW (2008). cases, domestic violence cases, rights, NGOs that offer legal commercial cases, etc.)? assistance, trade unions, etc.)? Committee on the Elimination of Do they offer assistance in Discrimination against Women: • Is there a system of free legal gender-specific cases (e.g., States reports; Concluding observations; NGO alternative/ aid in the country? How cases of domestic violence, shadow reports by country. is it provided and funded? sexual harassment, etc.)? What kinds of legal issues are Gender Mainstreaming in Practice: covered? Is assistance offered A Toolkit, Part II, UNDP (2007).

58 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 8 GENDER & THE LABOR MARKET

WHY CONSIDER GENDER gender empowerment may “ Low gender diversity is seen by USAID programming aims not be one key characteristic many as undermining a company’s only to improve economic of well-managed, forward- growth at a macro level but thinking companies that are potential value and growth.” also to increase economic capable of creating sustainable world bank, world development opportunities for both men shareholder value over the report 2012, 2011 and women. While the Agency long run… There seems to be may not have direct programs a positive correlation between economically active, with on labor market reform, job gender practices and stock considerable variation by creation and employment performance.”1 Gender diversity country. In several countries opportunities are important in the workplace should be (including Armenia, Azerbaijan, goals of USAID-funded work. considered a means to ensure Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, To ensure that men and women’s equal access to Russia, and Ukraine), from 50 to women have equal access to employment opportunities and 60 percent of adult women are employment opportunities, a critical element of enterprise economically active.2 In other gender analysis should examine growth and competitiveness. countries (Albania, the Republic the gender aspects of the labor of Macedonia, Moldova, and market and any gender-based GENDER ISSUES IN THE Serbia), fewer than half of the discrimination in the field. REGION adult women are economically Women’s position in the labor Women’s and men’s employment active. Men’s economic activity market determines the extent to patterns differ. One characteristic rates across the region show less which they benefit from projects of the E&E region, as compared variation, and are generally 65 that increase employment to other developing regions, percent and higher. opportunities as well as overall is the high level of women’s Another characteristic of the economic improvements on participation in the labor force. region is that while there are equal terms with men. Women are active in the labor fewer women than men in market—in part, as a result of Barriers to women’s formal employment, women Soviet policy that encouraged advancement in the workplace, are more likely to work part women to work in formal as well as persistent gender pay time, work in the informal employment and provided the gaps, are signs that inequalities sector, or be self-employed, means for them to balance work exist. Such inequalities not only especially in home-based and family life (free child care, have a detrimental effect on production. Such forms of for instance). individual women, but they affect work leave women vulnerable, the ability of private enterprises Yet, as compared to men in since informal work is not to grow and compete in the region, women are less subject to regulation. Women the labor market. Emerging in such forms of employment research suggests that there have little protection in terms are important links between women’s empowerment 1. Katherine Miles and Carmen Niethammer, Embedding Gender in Sustainability and corporate achievement. Reporting: A Practitioners Guide 2. UNDP, “Gender Equality in Europe and “Some investors believe that (International Finance Corporation and Commonwealth of Independent States” Global Reporting Initiative, 2009). (compilation of indicators). the Eastern European and Central Asian region, which includes E&E countries, that the existence of gender gaps in labor market participation is common and, on its own, not a cause for concern. However, the fact that the gender gap has remained stable for more than a decade in the region is troubling, especially considering the overall high economic growth over this period.4

PRO BUSINESS NORD Occupational segregation of the labor market affects women’s economic status. Occupational of salary, pension, workplace for E&E region rose between (or horizontal) segregation conditions, maternity and sick 2007 and 2009 from 8.3 is a term used to describe leave, or regulation of workplace percent to 10.3 percent overall. differences in the distribution conditions. Unemployment for women of salaried workers across rose from 6.0 percent to 8.5 Unemployment patterns also industries and occupations.5 As percent.3 It appears that the differ between men and women in other regions, women and crisis has had significant impacts and by age group. Generally, men occupy distinct sectors on both sexes. Men have faced there are more women among of the labor market in Europe job losses in the private sector. those formally registered as and Eurasia, but the degree Male labor migration appears to unemployed; however, because of stratification and lack of have slowed in the region, but men choose not to register, the initiatives to encourage women it may be the case that migrant male unemployment rate could or men to enter nontraditional labor has been pushed to the be higher. Youth unemployment sectors are distinct. Across informal sector. Budget cuts in is high across the region, and the region, women are the public sector seem to have female youth unemployment overrepresented as employees had a greater impact on female rates are slightly higher than in education, health care, social employment, and female-headed those for young men. Patterns of services, and cultural fields. Men, households have been especially male and female unemployment on the other hand, make up the hard hit. at the country level, looking at majority of employees in such such gendered issues as job loss Even though the region’s sectors as industry, construction, by sector, length of time out of economy has grown during the communications and transport, work, age-based discrimination, transition to a market economy, natural resource extraction, and and opportunities for retraining, women’s position in terms of energy. is perhaps more useful than data employment has changed little. on unemployment rates. The World Bank notes about

The full impact of the global 4. Sarosh Sattar, Opportunities for Men and Women: Emerging Europe and Central Asia financial crisis on employment (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2011). 3. Ewa Charkiewicz, The Impact of the Crisis in the region has not been fully on Women in Eastern Europe (Toronto: 5. World Bank, World Development Report studied, but unemployment rates Association for Women’s Rights in 2012 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Development, 2010). 2011).

60 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS In many countries, the gender and “heavy” jobs (construction, just under three-quarters gaps in the above fields are industry, engineering, and law to just over a third of male acute. Notably, there is greater enforcement) identified with salaries.10 Such pay gaps are also gender balance in fields relating male work.8 attributable to women’s shorter to the financial sector, hospitality working hours and time taken The lack of women in (hotels, restaurants), and away from work to manage management and decision- technical and computing fields, family responsibilities, a lack of making positions—known but variation across countries support for male employees as vertical segregation—is also exists. Occupational taking family care leave, and a a particular concern for the segregation is directly related lack of women in leadership E&E region. In Central Europe, to educational choices, but it positions in the business sphere. the E&E region, and Central is also influenced by gender Asia, one in every six male Women in the region face stereotypes about what are full-time workers holds a difficulties reconciling family “traditional” fields for women senior management position. obligations with career ambitions. and men. Protectionist laws in In contrast, only 1 in every 42 Because women take on most the labor sphere, for example, full-time female workers is in of the responsibilities for child those that limit women’s ability senior management.9 In much rearing in the home, women’s to work in certain jobs or for the same way that stereotypes ability to take maternity specific hours when pregnant, and cultural attitudes dictate and child care leave are have been addressed as that politics and leadership are important factors in whether discriminatory in some countries. more suitable for men, norms they can access employment Yet norms continue to exist that women are best suited to opportunities. Maternity benefits around protecting women from administrative and not to top across the region remain very working in fields considered management roles operate in generous (in terms of time dangerous to their health. For the labor market. allowed for leave, job security, instance, in Moldova, the Labor and accommodations for child Code was recently amended Segregation in the labor market care), and private employers to allow women who had given contributes directly to gender often find the provision of such birth within the last three years wage gaps that are evident benefits onerous. The perceived to work overtime or night across the region. The most burden of such benefits leads to shifts.6 However, it could not feminized employment sectors reluctance to hire women and a be determined to what extent are those that are typically paid preference for male employees. prohibitions on women working through state budgets and have Further, in many countries, the specific technical jobs were also the lowest salaries. In contrast, process of hiring temporary or repealed.7 In Azerbaijan, men sectors such as oil and gas, part-time workers, which could and women hold common construction, and transport ease the burden of covering perceptions about “light” are among the most profitable. maternity leave, is complex or professions (teaching and health Women’s salaries range from has not been well established in care) as suitable for women, labor law.

6. Catherine Cozzarelli, Gender Assessment 8. UNDP, Azerbaijan Human Development USAID/Moldova (Washington, D.C.: Report 2007—Gender Attitudes in USAID, 2011). Azerbaijan: Trends and Challenges (Baku, Azerbaijan: UNDP, 2007). 7. Rangita de Silva de Alwis, Advancing Equal Rights for Women and Girls: The Status of 9. Jamila Seftaoui, ed., Women’s Economic 10. Elisabeth Duban, From Cairo to Beijing and CEDAW Legislative Compliance in Eastern Empowerment: Trends & Good Practices on Beyond: An Overview of Trends in the Region, Europe and Central Asia (New York: Women’s Entrepreneurship in the OSCE background paper (Istanbul: UNFPA, UNFPA, 2009). Region (Vienna: OSCE, 2010). 2010).

GUIDANCE NOTE 8: GENDER & THE LABOR MARKET 61 During the transition period, the gender-neutral jobs (such as they report the situation or turn free child care that was once cooks, receptionists), based to the courts. The promotion associated with the workplace on personal preference. of equal rights policies and was largely disbanded. Free Despite clear laws prohibiting standards in the workplace and or even affordable child labor discrimination in all should be considered an aspect care is very limited across the E&E countries, such practices of promoting the growth of region, which means that some continue as industry norms. competitive enterprises. women are unable to reenter Retirement ages for men and Workforce development the labor market after having women generally differ, with programs should take gender children. Men taking time out of women retiring up to five into consideration. USAID employment to care for children years before men. There have has emphasized workforce is very rare and has not been been efforts to harmonize the development programs in encouraged through incentives retirement age, but it is still several countries in the region. or campaigns. important to consider how such Such projects are important Gender-based discrimination in a difference could affect elderly tools in helping specific employment remains a common women who have shorter work populations enter or reenter problem, but employers have histories and lower earnings. the labor market. They can be been slow to address it. Women especially useful for women Women’s NGOs in the region face distinct forms of gender- who, after taking time off from have drawn attention to a based discrimination, not only employment to raise children, particular form of workplace related to pay disparities but may lack the skills that are discrimination—sexual also in the context of hiring now in demand. Women from harassment. Most countries and promotion. Young women minority groups, for example, do not keep official statistics in particular are likely to the Roma or women with on the incidence of sexual encounter such gender-based disabilities, can also benefit from harassment, but unofficial discrimination. Young women inclusion in such programs. reports in Azerbaijan, Bosnia are often asked questions by and Herzegovina, Moldova, Technical and vocational potential employers about their and Serbia confirm that the education and training (TVET) marital status, whether they have problem affects many working in the context of workforce children, plan to have children, women. In most countries, development is considered and the age of any children they sexual harassment is addressed a lifelong program, and is might have. These questions in some form through legislation, distinct from TVET at the are related to concerns but it is very rare for private general education stage. One (noted above) about providing enterprises or even state characteristic of TVET programs maternity and child care benefits. employers to have specific in general—especially in the There are also cases of women policies or procedures for context of training and retraining who have taken maternity leave dealing with sexual harassment for adults—is the reliance on being encouraged to resign as an issue of employee safety stereotyped notions of the despite legal protection of their or labor rights. There has been kind of work appropriate for job, when there is a preference limited awareness raising on women and men, which mirrors to retain a different employee. the topic of prohibitions against segregation in the labor market. While the practice appears to sexual harassment, so many Training programs for women be decreasing in the region, it is women consider such acts to have often focused on skills and still not uncommon to specify be a “normal” aspect of working sectors that are not particularly male or female candidates for life and fear losing their jobs if profitable or in demand, such as

62 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS sewing, hairdressing, handicrafts, • What are the general entrepreneurship, vocational and care professions, rather patterns of male and female training, job creation, etc.? than technical fields. The employment, in terms of • Do any stereotypes exist training aspect of workforce economic activity and type of about men as the primary development programs should employment? breadwinner? How do not reinforce stereotypes. This • Have any studies been carried such notions affect career requires evaluating curricula out that suggest reasons for choices of men and as well as recruitment and differences in male and female women, opportunities for career guidance practices and employment patterns? advancement, salary, and sensitizing TVET instructors to retirement age? Does such a gender issues. And, if women • Do women experience stereotype reflect the reality and men are to be trained discrimination based on in the particular country? and then find employment in gender in the workplace? nontraditional fields, efforts What form does this • Are there any measures that must be made to engage discrimination take? (Sources would ease the burden of employers and work with of information could include maternity leave on employers, employment agencies to counter NGOs that work with such as facilitating the hiring of discrimination in the hiring women, legal counseling temporary staff? process.11 services, courts, office of the • Is parental leave permitted for ombudsperson for human fathers as well as mothers? rights, etc.) KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE What is the practice of GENDER ANALYSIS • How is labor discrimination fathers taking parental leave? Sex-disaggregated data addressed in the law? • In what sectors is technical • What is the labor market • How is labor discrimination and vocational training profile? generally addressed in human offered? Are these sectors • What are men’s and women’s resource policies? characterized by gender wages, by sector? balance, or are they sectors • How is sexual harassment where either men or women • How are men and women addressed in private dominate? represented in the labor enterprises under human market by sector? Are there resource policies? • What measures do these any sectors that show greater programs use to ensure • Do technical assistance gender balance that could that women and men and training efforts include be targeted for programs or can find employment in the topics of developing activities? nontraditional fields (e.g., nondiscriminatory and counseling, assistance with job • What are levels of enrollment transparent hiring and placement)? in workforce development promotion practices and and TVET programs by sex diversity in the workplace? Access to and control over assets and type of program? and resources Gender roles and responsibilities Background and context • What do wage statistics • Are men or women more reveal about the position likely to participate in the of women in the economy informal economy, and relative to men? How large is 11. See generally, Marianne Braig, Gender how would that affect their Sensitive Vocational Education and Training the gender pay gap? (Eschborn, Germany: GTZ 1997). participation in a project on

GUIDANCE NOTE 8: GENDER & THE LABOR MARKET 63 • How do men and women promote women’s rights Gender Sensitive Vocational understand the principle in employment and can Education and Training, Deutsche of equal employment influence policy setting? Gesellschaft fur Technische opportunity? Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH • Do such organizations (1997). • Do women and men have address a range of issues equal access to technical and concerning women’s position Gender Equality in Europe and vocational education and in the labor market, such Commonwealth of Independent States, compilation of indicators, training? Do women and men as income parity, access to UNDP. have equal access to business promotions, employment education (e.g., MBA and discrimination, and sexual The Impact of the Crisis on Women business programs)? harassment? in Eastern Europe, Association for Women’s Rights in Development • What are some of the (AWID) (2010). barriers that may be RESOURCES preventing women from ILO Database of Conditions of Work Women’s Economic Empowerment: and Employment Laws (TRAVAIL). accessing such educational Trends & Good Practices on Women’s Country-specific information programs, for example, Entrepreneurship in the OSCE Region, on work and family, maternity OSCE (2010). cultural or financial issues, protection, domestic workers. marketing, etc.? From Cairo to Beijing and Beyond: ILO Gender Bureau. An Overview of Trends in the • Are there any projects or Region, Background paper for programs that work with Resource Guide on Gender Equality EECA Regional Technical Meeting, in the World of Work, ILO. female youth to help them UNFPA (2010). access specific sectors of the Economic Growth and Decent labor market where women Work: Recent Trends in Eastern are underrepresented? Europe and Central Asia, ILO Patterns of power and decision (2008). making Some Aspects of Youth Education, Gender Equality and Employment • What is the representation in the Caucasus and Central Asia, of men and women International Labor Organization among management in the (ILO) (2007). private sector? What is the representation in the public Opportunities for Men and Women: sector? Emerging Europe and Central Asia, World Bank (2012). • What are some of the key barriers preventing Women’s Economic Opportunity, women from moving into Economist Intelligence Unit (2010). management positions, and Transitions Towards an Inclusive Future: how can they be overcome? Vocational Skills Development and Employment Options for Persons • Are there advocacy groups, with Disabilities in Europe & Eurasia among civil society or (USAID/E&E/DGST) (2009). other organizations, that

64 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 9 GENDER & ENTREPRENEURSHIP

WHY CONSIDER GENDER USAID supports programming to increase and improve opportunities for entrepreneurship as a tool for economic growth. Its programs support the development of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and also aim to improve the business-enabling environment. Small business development can incorporate a number of dimensions, such as helping SME owners establish and grow their businesses, and access markets and value chains, as well as expanding financial and technical assistance services to this sector. Promoting a business-enabling environment entails improving FORECAST/MATTY THIMM commercial, legal, and regulatory systems; improving the business tax or accounting regulations women own 24 percent of climate for entrepreneurs; and owing to the size of their firms in the Eastern Europe specifically empowering women enterprise. and Central Asia. About business leaders. Integrating 14 percent of those firms are gender equality in the business GENDER ISSUES IN THE microbusinesses; 6 percent are development sector requires REGION small businesses; and 4 percent assessing the constraints male Women’s businesses differ are medium, large, and very and female entrepreneurs from men’s in scale and type large businesses.2 face when doing business in a as do women’s motivations Definitions of what constitutes particular country. Even gender- for pursuing entrepreneurial a SME vary by country as does neutral laws and regulations may opportunities. In the larger whether self-employment have distinctly different impacts Eastern European and is considered a form of on men and women that can be Central Asian region (which entrepreneurship. The process overlooked when gender issues includes E&E), one in three of determining the level of are not taken into consideration. entrepreneurs is a woman.1 For example, as a general rule, According to the World Bank, women are much more likely to operate small family and home- 2. Sevi Simavi, Clare Manuel, Mark Backden, Gender Dimensions of Investment Climate based businesses and therefore 1. Sarosh Sattar, Opportunities for Men and Reform: A Guide for Policy Makers and may feel a greater impact of new Women: Emerging Europe and Central Asia Practitioners Washington D.C.: World (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2011). Bank, 2010). women’s participation in firm Republic of Macedonia, these findings were confirmed ownership in the region is Montenegro, and Russia—the by a separate study of female complicated. Although it is only countries in the E&E entrepreneurs which found that not uncommon for private region included in the report most women were motivated enterprises to be formally that currently have a USAID not by “entrepreneurial drive or registered in a woman’s name presence—are classified as interest,” but rather by the need or for women to be joint efficiency driven.4 to provide for their families, stockholders in an enterprise, in many cases as the sole The research found that of the they are not necessarily involved breadwinner.6 efficiency-driven economies, in the operation of the business. the lowest proportion of Women’s businesses differ from In some countries, businesses women entrepreneurs are men’s in scale and type. When are registered in the name of a found in the current and formal enterprises are run female family member in order former USAID-presence E&E by women in the E&E region, to shield male business owners region countries as compared they tend to perform less well from exposure and liability; in to other world regions. When than firms owned by men and reality, the male owners remain looking at women’s motivation are less likely to grow.7 In the the primary decision makers. for becoming entrepreneurs, aggregate, women-run SMEs Women are more likely to be the report notes that while are significantly smaller in scale, sole owners of microenterprises necessity has declined over time as measured by sales revenues or self-employed in entrepre- as a motivating factor, more (the total amount of money neurial activities rather than own women continue to report that comes into a business) an SME. Women also participate pursuing entrepreneurship and number of employees, at a higher rate than men in the because of necessity rather than businesses run by men.8 informal economy. than opportunity.5 In Armenia, When comparing female and Women have different male owned firms in order motivations for starting to determine why, Sabarwal businesses. In 2010, the Global Innovation-driven economies ensure higher and Terrell (2008) looked at wages and the associated standard Entrepreneurship Monitor of living through the development of a number of factors, such as project reviewed enterprises new and unique products in a more the use of inputs. They found sophisticated manner. World Economic in 59 countries. This report Forum, The Global Competitiveness that women’s firms in the E&E grouped and compared Report 2010–2011 (Geneva: The World region use inputs (including women’s entrepreneurship Economic Forum, 2010). labor, raw materials, technology, in terms of countries’ levels 4. Other economies classified by the report and investment) less efficiently, as efficiency driven include China, Croatia, of economic development— Hungary, Romania, South Africa, and “but the average gap is small.” whether they are factor driven, Taiwan, as well as several Latin American Also, despite differences in and Caribbean countries, including Brazil. efficiency driven, or innovation revenue, the gap in profits 5. Necessity-driven entrepreneurs became driven.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina, entrepreneurs because they had no (the money a business retains other options for work. Opportunity- driven entrepreneurs are driven by opportunity rather than not having 3. Factor-driven economies compete based another choice for work. Donna Kelly, on their endowments of unskilled labor Candida Brush, Patricia Greene, and 6. Elisabeth Duban, Gender Assessment and natural resources. Companies sell Yana Litovsky, Global Entrepreneurship USAID/Armenia (Washington, D.C.: USAID basic products or commodities and Monitor: 2010 Women’s Report (United and DevTech Systems, Inc., 2010). support low wages. Efficiency-driven Kingdom: Babson College and the Global economies must develop more efficient Entrepreneurship Research Association, 7. Sattar, Opportunities for Men and Women. production processes and increase 2010). Note that men and women in 8. Shwetlana Sabarwal and Katherine Terrell, quality. Competitiveness is driven by the Republic of Macedonia report higher Does Gender Matter for Firm Performance? higher education and training, efficient rates of necessity-driven and lower rates Evidence from Eastern Europe and Central goods markets, well-functioning labor of opportunity-driven entrepreneurship Asia, Policy Research Working Paper No. markets, the ability to harness technology, than are found in efficiency-driven and 4705 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, and a large domestic or foreign market. factordriven economies. 2008).

66 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS (hairdressing, child care, tailoring, men, namely the longer period pharmacies, notary services) or of time needed to register a trade sector (textiles, consumer business (Georgia), inspections goods, handicrafts).10 (Ukraine), and the need to make unofficial payments (Belarus).11 Women are affected by gender- based constraints to doing Corruption also plays a role in business. In the E&E region, the hampering business growth in practice of entrepreneurship has the region. Some studies have developed during the transition found that women are more to a free market economy. risk averse than men, although Starting a business there is not more research is needed to a simple process for either men determine the extent to which or women because of numerous this may explain differences in constraints implicit in the the industry location, growth, business environment that affect borrowing behavior, and other everyone regardless of sex. characteristics of women-owned firms. One study in Armenia, for Because women’s businesses example, found that women are are smaller in scale and women less likely to engage in business face greater time constraints when corruption appears to be LARISSA PISKUNOVA related to domestic obligations, a real risk.12 businesswomen presumably face after all expenses have been increased difficulties in terms of Research and studies of paid) between male- and access to the resources, time, the experiences of women female-owned firms is small and knowledge needed to entrepreneurs indicate that and disappears when analysis navigate complex bureaucratic women who wish to start or controls for country, industry, procedures. Unfortunately, grow a business face many 9 and size of firm. For example, current assessments of business specific barriers, including the when comparing small firms regulations that affect the ease following: in a particular industry in one of compliance with necessary • Women have less access to country, male and female owned processes (registering a business, start-up capital because of businesses turn a similar profit. obtaining with licenses and their lower economic status permits, registering property, The small scale of women’s and lower earning power. businesses was found to be the hiring and firing workers, etc.) main driver of performance. They rarely examine the differential • Women face difficulties in tend to operate at an inefficiently impacts on men and women. accessing credit, primarily because they do not own the small scale because their access However, studies of women who type of collateral needed to to capital is constrained, they head businesses in the region secure loans (e.g., real estate, are more likely to work part confirm that some seemingly equipment, and land).13 time, and they are much more gender-neutral issues are more likely to be located in traditional problematic for them than for and lower revenue industries that support smaller firm sizes, 11. Sattar, Opportunities for Men and Women. primarily in the service sector 12. Duban, Gender Assessment USAID/Armenia. 10. Sabarwal and Terrel, Does Gender Matter?; 13. A. Muravyev, D. Schafer, and O. Talavera, Jamila Seftaoui, ed., Women’s Economic “Entrepreneurs' Gender and Financial Empowerment: Trends & Good Practices Constraints: Evidence from International on Women’s Entrepreneurship in the Data,” Discussion Paper (Berlin, German 9. Sabarwal and Terrel, Does Gender Matter? OSCE Region (Vienna: OSCE, 2010). Institute of Economic Research, 2007).

GUIDANCE NOTE 9: GENDER & ENTREPRENEURSHIP 67 • Women lack ties to and Resources for women women interested in business information on business entrepreneurs exist but need opportunities. networks and contacts. strengthening. The region • The E&E region is home to offers resources for women • Women lack prior experience, many active microfinance entrepreneurs, including which means that they have providers. These formal, associations of businesswomen, less knowledge of how to semiformal, and informal micro- and SME financing, manage a business successfully institutions such as banks, and knowledge and skills in or how to deal with financial NGOs, credit unions, and technology. institutions. savings and credit associations • Business associations provide help microentreprenuers by • Cultural norms hold women such resources as educational providing small loans and back. Women often lack events, advice, training, simple payment services as the confidence to expand a and networking, as well as well as by accepting small business because of prevalent opportunities to expand savings deposits.16 Given the negative views about the enterprises (such as trade concentration of women acceptability of business as a fairs). However, the women’s entrepreneurs in micro- and career choice and stereotypes business associations in the home-based businesses as that undervalue women’s E&E region are generally well as the issues they face, managerial abilities and weak and lack professional the targeting of women by business skills. Young women and organizational capacity. such microfinance service in particular do not view For example, they tend to providers is needed to entrepreneurial activity as a operate with small budgets, help them develop, sustain, career path, preferring public provide limited services, rarely and grow their businesses. sector jobs.14 work with local governments However, microcredit is not • Women’s child-rearing and or public administrators, and appropriate for SMEs or fast- other family obligations, do not advocate for gender- growing businesses. These combined with the high cost sensitive reform of business businesses need to build and limited availability of child regulations. Also, because equity as well as take on and care, are included among women’s business associations manage relatively larger loans the primary limits on their were largely initiated and (i.e., debt). Small companies entrepreneurship. Women’s supported by international with female leadership often motivation to enter business organizations, questions exist do not access larger loans is often linked to a desire to about their sustainability.15 provided by equity investors provide for the family rather Capacity building and support or formal banks because than a desire to become a for women’s business they have an insufficient businessperson. As compared associations would help understanding of finance, lack to men, they may be less them develop such activities knowledge about available prepared, lack confidence in as mentoring programs financial services, or lack their abilities, or be less willing for female entrepreneurs, awareness of organizations to take risks. dissemination of success or programs that could stories, and outreach to help them access resources minority and marginalized

14. Cornelia Rotaru, Women’s Business 15. Eric Hontz, ed., Women’s Business Associations, Experiences from Around Associations, Experiences from Around 16. USAID, “ADS Chapter 219 the World: Central and Eastern Europe the World: Central and Eastern Europe Microenterprise Development” (Washington D.C.: CIPE, 2010). (Washington D.C.: CIPE, 2010). (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2011).

68 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS such as venture capital.17 women’s businesses beyond type of business reveal about Initiatives to support women small-scale enterprises. enterprise owners? entrepreneurs tend to include Background and context women-only microcredit KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE GENDER ANALYSIS programs rather than address • Is there a formal definition of The following are suggested the barriers that prevent “women’s entrepreneurship” questions to guide women from accessing other in the law or a common gender analysis regarding financial services. Help in understanding of what entrepreneurship in the E&E making use of traditional loans constitutes a “woman’s region. Note that the USAID- would support the growth of business”? supported Business Climate women’s businesses beyond Legal & Institutional Reform small-scale enterprises. • In what sectors are most Project (BIZCLIR) has also businesswomen working? • Entrepreneurship often created a diagnostic tool, How are these sectors requires knowledge of and GenderCLIR Indicators, to help evaluated in terms of skills in specifictechnologies . identify and analyze the legal and profitability and potential for Women in the region are institutional challenges specific growth? less likely than men to have to women entrepreneurs.19 business-related education, The GenderCLIR Indicators • Is gender analysis applied and therefore have less are useful because they cover a when new laws or regulations training in the skills and wide range of topics, including are adopted that would affect technologies needed to women’s role in society, women the business sector? run a successful business. in the private sector, women • What are the primary Government support and the labor market, women’s constraints to doing business for business incubators, access to credit and property, in the country (e.g., tax laws, technology parks, university and women in trade. customs regulations, business programs, and research Sex-disaggregated data registration and inspection centers that address procedures, corruption, the needs of high-tech • What is the proportion of infrastructure issues)? How enterprises is an important women among business might these constraints affect trend in the region. Such owners? Are they sole owners men and women differently? initiatives, especially business or shareholders? incubators, offer opportunities Gender roles and responsibilities to use information and • What is the proportion of • If women have greater communication technology women managers of private responsibilities for child care (for e-commerce) that enterprises? and housework, do they have could help women expand • Does female ownership or enough time to also engage in their businesses. Efforts are management of enterprises entrepreneurship? needed to ensure women’s correlate with the proportion participation in these of women among employees? • Do gender stereotypes help programs.18 Help in making or hinder entrepreneurial use of traditional loans • What do data disaggregated opportunities? For example, would support the growth of by sex, size of business, and are there views about the size of businesses or types of business that are considered more appropriate for women 17. Seftaoui, Women’s Economic Empowerment. 19. BizClir, “Empowering Women in Business (Gender CLIR)” (Washington, D.C.: 18. Sattar, Opportunities for Men and Women. USAID, 2009).

GUIDANCE NOTE 9: GENDER & ENTREPRENEURSHIP 69 or men? Do such stereotypes successful entrepreneurship? If development committees, contribute to women opening yes, in what areas? business associations, businesses in sectors that are chambers of commerce)? • Do women and men have less likely to be profitable or equal access to technologies • Do the banks and financial sustainable? and services that support institutions operating in the • Do men or women’s self‐ entrepreneurship, including country employ women as perceptions or levels of training and other loan officers? Are women self‐confidence help or opportunities for skills represented at the managerial hinder them in the area of development? level? entrepreneurship? • Do women and men have Access to and control over assets equal access to business RESOURCES and resources incubator programs and 2007 Report on Women and Entrepreneurship. United Kingdom: similar initiatives? Are such • Is information available to Global Entrepreneurship Research programs responsive to ascertain whether “woman- Association (2008). the technological needs of owned” enterprises are women entrepreneurs? Country Notes and Profiles, actually operated by women? include some gender-disaggregated • To what extent do women’s • Do women and men have information. business associations conduct equal access to the resources activities and offer the types Enterprise Development: Micro-Credit. required to start and run a of services (such as advocacy GenderNet Practice Notes, SIDA business, including start-up and mentoring programs) (1998). capital, credit, property, etc.? that would improve women’s Enterprise Surveys: What Businesses • Are women and men equally access to the resources Experience, International Finance likely to be owners of needed to run a successful Corporation (2007–2009). property that might serve as business? GenderCLIR indicators, USAID collateral for a business loan Patterns of power and decision (e.g., land, car, equipment, making Gender Dimensions of Investment etc.)? Climate Reform: A Guide for Policy • Do women have control over Makers and Practitioners, World • Do any of the banks and benefit from the funds Bank (2010). or financial institutions and assets they may accrue operating in the country Opportunities for Men and Women: from their enterprise? have specialized lending Emerging Europe and Central Asia, programs targeting women • Do women and men World Bank (2012). entrepreneurs? have equal influence over Women’s Business Associations, decisions pertaining to the • Do women and men have Experiences from Around the use of resources, activities, equal access to formal or World: Central and Eastern Europe, and profits on jointly CIPE (2010). informal communication owned enterprises or family networks that share businesses? Women’s Economic Empowerment: entrepreneurial information, Trends & Good Practices on Women’s including social (networking) • Do women actively Entrepreneurship in the OSCE Region, settings? participate in formal decision OSCE (2010). making structures/bodies • Do women and men have Women’s Empowerment Principles: that address business-related equal education or knowledge Equality Means Business, UNIFEM issues (local economic in areas that are important for (2010).

70 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 10 GENDER & EDUCATION

• Equality of external results—which examines the status of men and women after leaving full-time education and their ability to access varied resources This guidance note focuses on the first three dimensions in the E&E context. The final dimension, outcomes, can be assessed using other guidance notes, especially those concerned with employment and the labor market and political representation.

GENDER ISSUES IN THE REGION

USAID/JAY SORENSEN There is near gender parity in enrollment rates for boys WHY CONSIDER GENDER Several dimensions of education and girls at the primary and Education is an essential should be examined in secondary education levels, but component of development conducting gender analysis: greater differences in enrollment programs—both as a tool to in technical and vocational provide people with specific • Equality of access to education and training. Looking knowledge and skills and as a education—examining at enrollment rates (but noting stand-alone sector for reform. all levels of education and that enrollment differs from Equality in education is an whether gender parity is part attendance), the E&E region essential building block for of educational policy exhibits close to gender parity equality in other aspects of the • Equality in the learning in compulsory education. In lives of boys and girls, men and process—which can fact, across the E&E region, women. The USAID Education encompass issues of teacher Millennium Development Goal Strategy (2011) explains that and staff capacity, gender- educational programs “should sensitive curriculum design, promote gender parity, gender and gender bias in curricula “ …do additional gender assessment equity, and focus on improving and textbooks if necessary to ensure that education quality for both boys and girls.”1 • Equality in educational education interventions take local outcomes—including equal gender dynamics into account and completion rates promote gender equality.” 1. USAID, USAID Education Strategy, (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2011). usaid education strategy, 2011 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATION (ISCED) traditional notions of “male” ISCED 0 Preprimary education (first stage of organized instruction) and “female” jobs, and training ISCED 1 Primary education (first stage of basic education, generally opportunities for girls are often starts at ages 5–7) oriented toward feminized ISCED 2 Lower secondary education (second stage of basic education) sectors that do not lead to system ISCED 3 Upper secondary education (more specialized, generally starts profitable work in today’s labor educational Compulsory at ages 15–16) markets. Further analysis of ISCED 4 Postsecondary nontertiary education (includes preuniversity barriers that girls may be facing and some vocational programs) in TVET should be supported. ISCED 5 First stage of tertiary education (advanced education) ISCED 6 Second stage of tertiary education (programs leading to an Also of note is a downward advanced research qualification) trend in girls’ secondary Source: UNESCO, International Standard Classification of Education ISCED 1997, 1997 enrollment in some E&E countries as compared to Note: The ISCED was designed by UNESCO and approved in 1975 “to serve as an instrument suitable for assembling, compiling and presenting statistics of education both within individual countries and levels in high-income European internationally,” by the International Conference on Education. The current version, ISCED 1997, was countries. Although the approved by the UNESCO General Conference in 1997. enrollment gaps are not large, they have “accumulated over (MDG) 3 concerning gender education and training (TVET). time rather than reversed.”3 parity in education has been According to 2011TransMonEE/ Female enrollment rates “nominally achieved,” and, female UNICEF data, enrollment are higher than male at the enrollment rates have remained rates for girls outnumber tertiary level. At higher levels high, despite the economic those for boys at ISCED 3 of education, enrollment recession.”2 There are no legal in all E&E countries except rates for women are higher barriers that would prevent Albania, Azerbaijan, Georgia, than those for men. Women’s boys and girls from accessing and Kosovo. In contrast, male representation at ISCED 5 is education on equal terms, and enrollment specifically in TVET higher than men’s in all E&E formally there is free access to at this level is 10–15 percent countries except Azerbaijan. basic schooling as well as to higher than female enrollment higher education. in all countries except Albania. The pattern of feminization of Thus, more girls are enrolled in enrollment at the tertiary level At the primary level (ISCED general study, and more boys warrants closer examination. 1 and 2), there is near gender are in courses oriented toward Factors that could explain why parity in all E&E countries. technical trades. more young women pursue The gender gap in primary higher education than young completion rates is also very The above data raise several men include men’s required small. issues that should be given military service and the fact greater consideration in At the secondary education that young men have more educational programming in level, there is close to gender opportunities to find work the E&E region. First, the links parity, with some variations in with lower qualifications than between the lower participation enrollment in general education are required for young women. of girls in TVET and higher and technical and vocational On the other hand, young men unemployment rates for young women are not adequately understood. Additionally, there

2. UNECE, The MDGs in Europe and Central is still a tendency for such 3. Sarosh Sattar, Opportunities for Men and Asia: Achievements, Challenges and the Way vocational training to rely on Women: Emerging Europe and Central Asia Forward (Geneva: UNECE, 2010). (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2011).

72 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS may also feel pressure to find leave to assist with unpaid work related issues. Distinct patterns employment or to migrate in the home. In other countries, of gender inequality can be seen for work immediately after Armenia and Georgia, for in the educational process. compulsory schooling in order example, the dropout rate is Insufficient attention has been to support their families. Note higher for boys, which is linked given to eliminating gender that despite the high level of to the need for young males to bias in the educational process. educational attainment among find paid employment. Curricula and teaching materials, women in the E&E region, these While the educational system even ones developed during achievements do not correlate remains ostensibly free in the transition period, have not with similar gains in the labor the E&E region, specific fees always benefited from of gender market or in access to decision- associated with education are expertise. Many educational making positions. Again, further increasing. Economic constraints materials continue to reinforce analysis of the gender differences force some families to choose gender stereotypes, especially in tertiary education would be which children to educate, and about what are considered useful. gender stereotypes could play a “male” and “female” roles. Despite gender parity in role in such decisions. Economic Teaching staff may also enrollment rates, there are gender- factors are mainly relevant to perpetuate gender stereotypes based reasons for early school post-primary education (ISCED through their own biases, leaving. In several countries, a 3 and 4). In some countries, attitudes, and practices. For distinct trend in children leaving including Azerbaijan, and in example, it is often the case compulsory education early can rural regions, girls complete that girls are encouraged to be seen. For example, in Albania, compulsory education but do explore courses in areas such Azerbaijan, and Serbia, specific not pursue higher education. as cooking and sewing, while populations of girls—some Access to education is a minimal “traditionally male” subjects such belonging to ethnic minorities— concern in the region, but as woodwork and car repair are do not complete their basic assessing the quality of such promoted among boys. education. Some drop out in education raises several gender- order to marry, while others A positive development in the region is the inclusion of general human rights topics in curricula at the compulsory education level, and in most countries there are examples of women’s NGOs working with schools and teachers to provide such instruction. However, there are few cases in which the subject of gender equality is an official part of the basic educational program. Even at the tertiary level, only a small number of universities offer degrees in gender studies. Gender has not been adequately addressed as part of pre- or

OSCE/HAYK BADALYAN /PHOTOLURE/ in-service teacher training. In

GUIDANCE NOTE 10: GENDER & EDUCATION 73 fact, educational reform efforts authoritative and decision- boys seems to have a negative have not focused on enhancing making positions (school impact on their academic the capacity of staff to teach in directors, university deans and performance and is associated a gender-sensitive manner—or rectors, or ministry of education with higher dropout rates. In even to assess the gender bias staff). In tertiary education, most Armenia and Azerbaijan, the lack inherent in the educational assistant professors, professors, of male teaching staff has been system. department heads, and deans raised as a particular concern, are male. For example, in and experts have called for “ Gender segregation in the Albania, 69 percent of assistant men to become involved in educational choices risks professors and 81 percent of promoting gender equality in reinforcing occupational full professors are male.5 In educational institutions.8 the Republic of Macedonia, segregation in the labor market There are distinct gender 70 percent of the professors are differences in the fields of study and thereby the gender pay gap.” men.6 In Georgia, women are pursued by women and men. unece, the mdgs in europe and underrepresented in professorial As noted above, the existence posts, even in departments central asia: achievements, of gender stereotypes in the where most of the student educational system means that challenges and the way forward, population is female, such as the girls and boys are more likely 2010 humanities.7 to be encouraged to study The teaching profession, especially Globally, the proportion of “traditional” subjects at the at the primary and secondary female teachers is high in compulsory education level. levels, is highly feminized. E&E countries where teacher salaries Such practices have an impact countries exhibit marked gender are low. The E&E region exhibits on the educational subjects girls imbalances in teaching staff, the same pattern, and the and boys chose when entering especially at the primary and teaching profession—especially higher education. This, in turn, secondary levels. In Armenia, at the compulsory education is reflected in later career Belarus, Moldova, Russia, and level—is not well compensated. opportunities. Ukraine, women account for Teacher salaries are often below Higher education enrollment almost 100 percent of the the national average salaries. shows clear gender patterns, teachers in primary schools and, Concerning gender equality in with young women dominating on average, about 70 percent of the educational process, the in “female” areas of study such teachers at the secondary level. lack of male role models in as business administration, In contrast, across the region, educational institutions affects law, social sciences, journalism, half or less of tertiary-level both boys and girls, but has a humanities, and the arts. Young teaching staff are women.4 particular impact on boys. The men are concentrated in science, Such gender imbalances have lack of male role models for mathematics, and computing several implications. Despite programs. The technical fields the predominance of women generally correlate to jobs in in the teaching profession, they are concentrated at specific 5. Catherine Cozzarelli, 2010 Gender Assessment for USAID/Albania levels, and their representation (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2010). is considerably lower in 6. Catherine Cozzarelli, Gender Assessment 8. Elisabeth Duban, Gender Assessment USAID/Macedonia (Washington, D.C.: USAID/Armenia (Washington, D.C.: USAID USAID, 2010). and DevTech Systems, Inc., 2010); UNDPI Azerbaijan, “Honoring and Praising 7. Elisabeth Duban, Gender Assessment Teachers While Calling for Gender USAID/Georgia (Washington, D.C.: USAID Equality” (UNDPI Azerbaijan, website, 4. Sattar, Opportunities for Men and Women. and DevTech Systems, Inc., 2010). accessed April 17, 2012).

74 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS higher-paying sectors. Study Women’s NGOs have drawn home. Further information on in the humanities and social attention to the fact that some these topics can be found in sciences often leads to work female students experience Guidance Note 8: Gender & in the lower-paid social service sexual harassment in educational the Labor Market, and Guidance sector. Youth unemployment in institutions, particularity at the Note 13: Gender & Disability. the E&E region is high overall, tertiary level. Sexual harassment which correlates to the fact can take the form of sexual KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE that the education system exploitation by teachers and GENDER ANALYSIS has not adjusted to current professors10 or sexual violence Sex-disaggregated data labor market needs. Among between students. In either youth, unemployment rates case, sexual harassment can • What are male and female are generally higher for young cause physical and psychological compulsory and higher women, but the full reasons harm that ultimately impedes education enrollment rates? for this difference are not clear. educational achievement. Are there regional variations It is possible that the fields in in these rates? Do enrollment Lack of preschool and child care which young women study, as rates among minority groups facilities limits the economic well as a mismatch between differ from those reported for opportunities of women who care educational outcomes and skills the general population? for children. In the E&E region, demanded by the market, make preschool facilities (ISCED 0) are • What are TVET enrollment it particularly difficult for women generally considered part of the rates for male and female to compete for jobs. educational system and within youth? Gender-based issues may affect the purview of the ministry of • What are the male and educational outcomes and the education. During the transition female dropout rates for quality of educational results. period, the number of free or children and youth? It has been observed in the affordable preschool programs region that school-age boys are has decreased dramatically. • What are the literacy rates, more likely to be economically participation rates, retention The limited availability of active than girls of the same age. rates, and levels of educational inclusive educational programs Official data on working minors achievement for boys and girls for children with disabilities is a are limited, but Albania, Georgia, and men and women? related problem. Although boys the Republic of Macedonia, and girls are equally affected • What are the male-to-female and Ukraine all have relatively when preschools and specialized ratios of teaching staff and high proportions of working schools are not available or directors, deans, ministerial minors, the vast majority of sufficient, such inadequacies staff, etc.? whom are also enrolled in have a clear gender dimension. school.9 It would be useful to Background and context Due to women’s primary role study the consequences for in caring for children, lack of • Is there a gender policy at the these children and the extent educational facilities presents national level on education? to which balancing school and critical barriers to women’s Are there any national- work affects the ability of boys ability to work outside the level initiatives on gender to achieve high educational mainstreaming in education? outcomes. Gender roles and responsibilities 10. Transparency International, Corruption in the Education Sector, Working Paper • Has the ministry of education, No. 04/2007; 04/2009 (Berlin, Germany: NGOs, or other institutions 9. Sattar, Opportunities for Men and Women. Transparency International, 2009).

GUIDANCE NOTE 10: GENDER & EDUCATION 75 analyzed the educational prestige associated with RESOURCES curricula and materials for teaching? UNESCO Institute for Statistics gender-based stereotypes? Data Centre. Access to and control over assets What were the findings of and resources Gender and Education webpage, such studies? UNESCO. • Are there any constraints • Has there been any analysis that prevent males and Education from a Gender Equality of whether practices in the females from continuing Perspective, USAID/Office of educational system are based Gender Equality and Women’s their education (e.g., gender on gender stereotypes (e.g., Empowerment/EQUATE (2008). division of labor, fees gender streaming, which is the for education, access to sex stereotyping of subjects Tips for Integrating Gender into transportation, etc.)? USAID Education Sector Solicitations, and courses and career USAID (2010). guidance, counseling advice)? • Is information readily available What were the findings of to both males and females Education: Gender Equality Tip such studies? about a variety of educational Sheets, Canadian International opportunities? Development Agency (CIDA) • What kind of teacher training (2010). exists to address gender • Are there any constraints stereotypes in instruction? that prevent females from The MDGs in Europe and Central accessing TVET in particular? Asia: Achievements, Challenges and • Have efforts been made by the Way Forward, UNECE (2010). the ministry of education, • What scholarships or other Corruption in the Education Sector, NGOs, or other organizations incentives are offered to Working Paper No. 4, Transparency to support male and female males and females in various International (2009). role models to challenge subjects of study, especially at gender stereotypes? the tertiary level? Are such Opportunities for Men and Women: programs equally accessible to Emerging Europe and Central Asia, • Has there been any targeted both males and females? World Bank (2012). recruitment of men into primary education? Patterns of power and decision TransMonEE/UNICEF (Monitoring making the Situation of Women and • Is there any analysis of gender Children in Central and Eastern norms or stereotypes in • How are men and women Europe and the Commonwealth of relation to dropout rates? represented at all levels of the Independent States) for 2009/2010 teaching profession as well as school year. • What is the impact on boys in decision making positions of the overrepresentation of Gender Assessment for USAID/ in the sector, including in the female primary teachers? Albania (2010). ministry of education? • What efforts are being Gender Assessment for USAID/ • Do curricula reinforce or undertaken to counter Georgia, USAID and DevTech challenge gender-based norms that teaching at Systems, Inc. (2010). stereotypes about women in the primary is a “female leadership roles? Honoring and Praising Teachers While profession” and to diversify Calling for Gender Equality, UN the workforce? Do such • Are female education staff Department of Public Information efforts include introducing supported as decisionmakers? Azerbaijan (2011). men to nontraditional fields or increasing the pay and

76 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 11 GENDER & HIV/AIDS

WHY CONSIDER GENDER with HIV.1 It largely affects the “ Gender-related factors shape the Gender roles, as well as how young, and shows distinct gender extent to which men, women, gender equality is observed patterns in the region. While in a country, affect HIV/AIDS young men are more likely boys and girls are vulnerable to prevalence and its impact on to become infected through HIV infection, the ways in which individual men and women. injecting drug use, sexual AIDS affects them, and the kinds Understanding gender contact is the more likely route of responses that are feasible differences helps to better of infection for young women. identify the factors (biological HIV is concentrated among in different communities and and social) that make men the most-at-risk populations societies.” and women vulnerable to (MARPs): injecting drug users unaids, fact sheet: gender and HIV infection, plan prevention (primarily males but also and control efforts that females) and their partners, sex hiv/aids, 2001 include both women and workers (primarily females), their female partners are often men, and address their risk labor migrants (primarily males) unable to negotiate safe sex factors. A gender-sensitive and men who have sex with or to refuse sexual relations approach includes gender- men (MSM). “A quarter of with them because of gender specific testing, counseling, and people who inject drugs are divisions of power.3 Gender- treatment processes as well living with HIV… There is also based violence is also linked as understanding the deeper increasing overlap between to women’s decreased ability impact of the pandemic on injecting drug use, sex work to negotiate sexual relations, specific groups of women and and heterosexual transmission which results in higher rates of men. of HIV. The number of women sexually transmitted infections 2 living with HIV is increasing.” among victims of domestic GENDER ISSUES IN THE Gender norms in the region violence. Gender norms are REGION contribute to vulnerabilities implicated in men’s behavior HIV is a serious concern in the to HIV/AIDS. Gender norms and their engagement in risky region, primarily affecting distinct around sexual practices are and unhealthy practices, some of at-risk populations. The HIV/ important considerations in which (unsafe sex and injecting AIDS pandemic is one of the HIV/AIDS programming. For drug use) put them at risk for most acute health and social example, studies have shown HIV infection. problems facing the region, that Armenian male labor where it is a concentrated While the MSM population migrants are exposed to HIV epidemic. Eastern Europe and is identified as a risk group, in other countries and that Central Asia (including E&E) the stigma surrounding have experienced the fastest- homosexuality means that growing HIV epidemic in the 1. Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis world, and in 2009 an estimated and Malaria, Making a Difference: Eastern 1.4 million people were living Europe and Central Asia Results Report 2011 (Geneva: Global Fund to Fight 3. Arusyak Sevoyan and Victor Agadjanian, AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, 2011). “Male Migration, Women Left Behind and Sexually Transmitted Diseases in 2. Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis Armenia,” International Migration Review and Malaria, Making a Difference. 44, No. 2 (2010). MSM communities are often isolated and that few specialized health care services exist for this group. MSM also report discrimination from general providers. The stigmatization of MSM derives from gender-based norms regarding acceptable male behavior. Notions of taboo arguably have hindered the development of policies to address the needs of the MSM population in the region. Limited knowledge of the MSM population has complicated data-gathering initiatives and outreach to this group. “Partly because of the high levels of stigma, discriminatory practices and social exclusion they contend with, many of these men have female sexual partners as well, and these partners are also at high risk of HIV infection.”4

Women generally take on USAID caregiving responsibilities for people living with HIV/AIDS. As in men exhibit less health-seeking HIV-positive pregnant women other regions, women in Europe behavior than women, and the (under Prevention of Mother- and Eurasia are more likely to lack of medical professionals to-Child Transmission [PMTCT] take on the primary burden of in the field of male sexual and programs), and sex workers. care for family members with reproductive health in the However, work to address HIV/AIDS. Caution should be E&E region is likely to inhibit underlying gender disparities, exercised so that new projects men further. This is a particular social norms about male and or activities do not increase concern for men and boys who female behavior, and stereotypes this burden and encourage engage in risky sexual behavior connected to gender-based men to share responsibility. The and who may also worry about risk factors have been given dominance of women working a lack of confidentiality. less attention. Medical services in the health care sector and the associated with HIV testing Attention to gender-based lack of specialists in male health and treatment are not always vulnerabilities to HIV and to may impede men’s access to coordinated with projects that gender-specific interventions specialized testing, counseling, address issues such as women’s has been limited. USAID has care, and treatment. In general, economic vulnerabilities, supported specific interventions domestic violence, trafficking in for injecting drug users, men persons, cultural perceptions of who self-identify as MSM, 4. Sevoyan and Agadjanian, “Male Migration.” masculinity, or substance abuse.

78 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE Gender roles and responsibilities Access to and control over assets GENDER ANALYSIS and resources When conducting gender • How do expectations of analysis in the context of HIV/ women’s and men’s behaviors • To what extent are HIV AIDS programming, be sure to alter their vulnerability to HIV testing programs accessible to look beyond quantitative data and/or the stigma associated both male and female most- (such as the number of women with being HIV-positive? at-risk populations? or men seeking treatment) to • Regarding the content of • Are there gender disparities examine gender implications general HIV/AIDS awareness between men and women at the institutional and policy materials, are they reinforcing seeking or receiving health levels (e.g., how women’s lack of gender stereotypes about care and treatment services? economic independence could women or men? Do they take If so, what are the barriers for 5 affect women living with HIV). a gender-specific and gender- men or women to accessing The following are suggestions to sensitive approach? such services? guide gender analysis relevant to • Regarding outreach materials • Do civil society organizations HIV/AIDS in the E&E region. The for most-at-risk populations, have adequate resources and USAID publication Integrating how do they address the freedom to effectively Gender into Health Programs: underlying gender issues and address the needs of both A Guide to Implementing ADS values, in particular male risk- male and female MARPs? Requirements provides many taking behaviors? Where are there gaps in sample gender analysis questions, terms of access to resources • Do mandatory partner of which some are included and services for at-risk notification policies as part below. populations? of HIV testing increase or Sex-disaggregated data mitigate women’s risk of • How do women’s crisis • What are the rates of HIV gender-based violence? centers and shelters that assist female victims of infection by gender, age, etc.? • What are the gender domestic violence cooperate differences in caring for the • What are the numbers of with local AIDS centers and sick? Do men or women take men and women seeking medical facilities? treatment? on the burden of caring for family members living with • How do women’s crisis Background and context HIV/AIDS? centers and shelters that assist female victims of human • Are official data gathered and • How can women be trafficking, as well as sex monitored about specific at- supported in their role of workers, cooperate with local risk populations, including sex providing health care to AIDS centers and medical workers and MSM? household members? facilities? • Have sex-disaggregated data • Do organizations that work been collected on preferences with potential labor migrants for male versus female health cooperate with local AIDS workers? centers and medical facilities? 5. For more guidance, see Interagency Gender Working Group, Gender and Health Toolkit—Integrating Gender into Health Programs: A Guide to Implementing ADS Requirements (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2010).

GUIDANCE NOTE 11: GENDER & HIV/AIDS 79 Patterns of power and decision RESOURCES Men Having Sex with Men in Eastern making The Interagency Gender Working Europe: Implications of a Hidden Group (IGWG) Gender and Health Epidemic, AIDSTAR-Two/USAID • Are there differences in the Toolkit. 2012. (2010). ability of women and men to negotiate the terms of their Gender Analysis Tools. Men Matter! AIDS, Gender and Masculinities, SIDA (2007). sexual relations? Integrating Gender into Health • Do health education Programs: A Guide to Implementing Women, Harm Reduction and ADS Requirements, IGWG (2012). programs on such topics as HIV. Key Findings from Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and reproductive health and safe HIV/AIDS Health Profile for Europe Ukraine, International Drug Policy sex practices include men as and Eurasia Region, USAID (2011). Consortium (2009). well as distinct male at-risk groups? Technical Issue Brief: Gender Gender and HIV & AIDS, BRIDGE and HIV/AIDS, USAID/GenDEV Cutting Edge Packs (2009). • Are there any mechanisms website. (2009) for men and women from at- Fact Sheet: Gender and HIV/AIDS, How to Integrate Gender into HIV/ risk populations (or for those UNAIDS (2001). AIDS Programs, Gender and HIV/ living with HIV/AIDS) to be AIDS Task Force/IGWG/USAID Making a Difference: Eastern Europe involved in policy discussions (2004). and Central Asia Results Report around HIV/AIDS programs, 2011, Global Fund to Fight AIDS, testing, and treatment HIV/AIDS and Gender: Fact Sheet Tuberculosis and Malaria (2011). guidelines (e.g., testimony Overview, UNFPA. (2004) during parliamentary hearings, Sevoyan, Arusyak and Agadjanian, Gender Equality and HIV/AIDS— Victor, Male Migration, Women Left expert working groups, NGO portal. (2011) advocacy campaigns)? Behind and Sexually Transmitted The Global Coalition on Women Diseases in Armenia, International and AIDS. (2012) Migration Review, Volume 44 Number 2, (Summer 2010). Integrating gender into HIV/AIDS programmes in the health sector: Tool to improve responsiveness to women’s needs, WHO (2009).

80 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 12 GENDER & TUBERCULOSIS

WHY CONSIDER GENDER USAID has played a very active role in the control and spread of tuberculosis (TB) worldwide. Globally, more men are diagnosed with and die from TB than women. Still, TB is a leading infectious cause of death for women, accounting for a greater number of deaths than maternal causes or breast cancer. TB generally affects men and women in their most economically and reproductively active years (between ages 15 GEORGE TSERETELI and 44). In this age range, men are typically responsible for account for underdiagnosis of who bears the burden of economically supporting their TB. Globally, the feminization of caring for family members families and women usually have the HIV epidemic has resulted with TB. Generally, women child care responsibilities as well in a greater burden of TB are responsible for caring as formal work, which means among women,2 and so it can for ill family members. TB that the impact of the disease is be assumed that in regions with programming should take into also felt strongly by the children growing rates of HIV infection consideration both the impact and families of TB patients.1 among women, TB rates may also any interventions could have Some of the reasons for increase. on women, as well as the role the higher TB rates among women play in limiting the To address and control the males are related to gender spread of infection and ensuring infection effectively, clear data differences, such as men’s that patients follow proper care about infection rates for men specific vulnerabilities to HIV/ and treatment protocols. In and women must be established. AIDS, differences in exposure to many countries, women have Additionally, gender-sensitive the infection—for example, in been specially trained to serve interventions will take into military or prison settings—and as educators on TB care. consideration differences in behavioral patterns such as high exposure, diagnosis, and care for rates of smoking. Socioeconomic male and female TB patients. GENDER ISSUES IN THE factors may also limit women’s REGION access to health care and thus Another important gender TB is a serious health concern consideration is to determine for the region with clear gender dimensions. According to recent

1. Daryl Somma, Christian Auer, Abdallah World Health Organization Abouihia, and Mitchell G. Weiss, “Gender 2. WHO, “Tuberculosis: Women and TB,” estimates, the countries with the in Tuberculosis Research” (Geneva: WHO, Tuberculosis, last modified December 2004). 2009. highest infection rates in the E&E region are the Russia, Ukraine, The disproportionate rate of is especially a concern for men Azerbaijan, Belarus, and Moldova, infection reflects “the fact that and boys in high-risk groups who in order of severity. At present, many at-risk populations for may already face constraints USAID provides support for TB TB (including migrant workers, accessing health information and control and prevention in four prisoners and people living with care. E&E countries with high burdens HIV) are disproportionately Attention to gender-based of tuberculosis—Azerbaijan, male.”6 Men and boys are vulnerabilities to TB and gender- Georgia, Russia, and Ukraine. overrepresented in other risk specific interventions has been According to regional data, the groups for TB infection, such as limited. While interventions on E&E and Central Asia accounted the homeless, street children, TB in the region are targeting for approximately 4 percent of and people who inject drugs. the needs of the most-at- all TB cases reported worldwide Other risk groups include the risk populations, the deeper in 2009. Roma and refugees. High relapse gender issues that stem from The E&E region is also facing rates among men also suggest socialization and gender acute problems with multi-drug- that the gender dimensions norms are given little attention. resistant TB. In 2008, the region of such issues as men’s access Providers or social services that accounted for 51 percent of all to health services, ability to work with male populations, confirmed cases of multi-drug- follow treatment protocols, and especially vulnerable groups resistant TB worldwide; Russia behavioral differences should be such as people living with HIV, alone accounted for the third studied further. prisoners, and the homeless largest number of estimated are not always coordinated Women generally take on cases worldwide.3 with medical services that caregiving responsibilities for provide treatment. Furthermore, Throughout the region, more family members with TB. As is outreach projects that do focus men than women were true in other regions, women in on risky behaviors seldom diagnosed with TB in 2008; in Europe and Eurasia are more address the underlying gender several E&E countries (Albania, likely to take on the primary norms that lead to risk taking. Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, burden of care for family Finally, concrete data are Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine), members with TB. lacking on the specific gender the number of males reported Caution should be exercised so dimensions of the TB epidemic among TB cases was more than that new projects or activities in the region. twice that of females.4 In 2010, do not increase this burden, there were 80 percent more and men should be encouraged males than females among new KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE to share responsibility. The GENDER ANALYSIS TB cases and notified relapses.5 dominance of women employed When conducting gender in the health care sector, as well analysis in the context of TB as a lack of specialists in male programming, be sure to look 3. Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, Making a Difference: Eastern health concerns, has implications beyond the individual level Europe and Central Asia Results Report for men’s access to specialized (such as the number of men or 2011 (Geneva: Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, 2011). testing, care, and treatment. This women seeking treatment) to 4. European Centre for Disease Prevention examine gender implications and Control/WHO Regional Office for at the institutional and policy Europe, “Tuberculosis Surveillance and Monitoring in Europe 2012” (Stockholm: levels (e.g., how male gender European Centre for Disease Prevention Europe, “Tuberculosis Surveillance and norms could lead to greater risk and Control, 2012). Monitoring.” taking and limited health-seeking 5. European Centre for Disease Prevention 6. Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Control/WHO Regional Office for and Malaria, Making a Difference. behavior, or how women’s lack

82 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS of economic independence (e.g., injecting drug use, • Does the health care system could affect diagnosis and smoking)? adequately respond to the treatment). specific health needs of men, • How do gender norms including by addressing risk The following suggested affect treatment adherence factors for TB? questions and documents (e.g., losing paid income are valuable resources when could deter men, household • Do civil society organizations conducting gender analysis responsibilities could deter that address such issues as relevant to TB in the E&E women, from completing HIV/AIDS, labor migration, region. The USAID publication treatment)? homelessness, drug addiction, Integrating Gender into smoking cessation, and healthy • What are the gender Health Programs: A Guide to lifestyles coordinate with differences in caring for the Implementing ADS Requirements medical services around TB sick? Do men or women take also provides sample gender prevention and control? on the burden of caring for analysis questions as does the family members with TB? • Could such civil society internal USAID document, organizations be mobilized Gender Analysis in the Context • How can women be to address TB in distinct male of Tuberculosis Programs. This supported in their role of and female populations? document follows the Six providing heath care to Domains of Gender Analysis, household members? Patterns of power and decision and some of the questions are making included below. • Has the risk of household exposure to TB for women • Do women, particularly from Sex-disaggregated data in caregiving roles been taken minority groups, have control into consideration? over the money needed to • How many men and women seek health care (including are diagnosed with TB, Access to and control over assets travel expenses, clinic fees, living with TB, and receiving and resources etc.) for themselves and their treatment for TB? • Do men and women have children? Background and context equal access to TB diagnosis/ • Are there any mechanisms detection and treatment • Have any studies been carried for men and women from services? out that identify the risk at-risk populations (or those factors for TB that are specific • Are there gender disparities with TB) to be involved to men and women? between men and women in policy discussions on seeking or receiving health TB testing and treatment Gender roles and responsibilities care and treatment services? guidelines (e.g., testimony • What are the specific male If so, what are the barriers during parliamentary hearings, and female most-at-risk (formal or informal) for men expert working groups, NGO populations? What are the or women to accessing such advocacy campaigns)? risk factors? services? • What targeted and distinct • Is TB screening, treatment, RESOURCES The Interagency Gender Working interventions exist for male and education integrated into Group (IGWG) Gender and Health and female most-at-risk health services specifically Toolkit. populations? Are these directed to women (antenatal interventions addressing care, family planning, etc.)? Gender Analysis Tools. gender-specific risk factors

GUIDANCE NOTE 12: GENDER & TUBERCULOSIS 83 Integrating Gender into Health Making a Difference: Eastern Europe Fact Sheet: Women and TB, World Programs: A Guide to Implementing and Central Asia Results Report Health Organization (2009). ADS Requirements, IGWG (2010). 2011, Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (2011). Tackling TB and HIV in Women: An “Gender Analysis in the Context of Urgent Agenda, The Global Coalition Tuberculosis Programs,” available from Tuberculosis and Gender webpage: on Women and AIDS (2010). USAID’s Global Health Bureau. World Health Organization.

84 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 13 GENDER & DISABILITY

WHY CONSIDER GENDER conditions, lack of access to USAID policy states that the quality health care, gender-based Agency does not discriminate violence, and, in old age, because against people with disabilities of their generally longer life and works to include expectancies. While both men people with disabilities in its and women with disabilities programming and activities. face distinct challenges, women Consequently, gender analysis often encounter specific forms should be conducted taking of discrimination, and in many into consideration the distinct countries they are a “hidden” experiences of women and men group. with disabilities. The topic of WORLD VISION disability should be approached Data and research on the as crosscutting and integrated subject of disabilities are often are not made for people with into the gender analysis process lacking. Without specific analysis, disabilities—for example, if for any sector being addressed. it is very difficult to determine urban planning does not take to what extent men and women into consideration access for According to the most recent with disabilities could participate people with disabilities, or World Health Organization in or may be affected by a educational programs are not estimates, based on a survey program or activity. inclusive—women in caregiving of 59 countries, the disability roles will also be burdened. prevalence rate among adults Post-conflict countries generally worldwide is 15.6 percent of the have a higher number of people GENDER ISSUES IN THE 1 with disabilities in the population, population aged 18 and over. REGION but their specialized needs are The same survey indicates that Comprehensive statistics and not always given consideration in disability rates are slightly higher information about gender post-conflict recovery programs. among adult women than men differences and disability are (19 percent as compared with A final issue concerns women’s limited. Although the countries 12 percent). Globally, women role in caring for and assisting of the E&E region collect some with disabilities comprise three- people with disabilities. Because official data about persons quarters of all people with women take on the greater with disabilities and these are disabilities in low- and middle- burden of domestic and child sometimes disaggregated by income countries.2 Women care, they are more likely to sex, data are generally limited are more likely to become care for children or other family to people who are officially disabled due to poor working members with disabilities. This registered as disabled and means that any projects that eligible for social benefits. aim to improve the lives of Because of the stigma associated 1. WHO and World Bank, World Report on people with disabilities could with disability, many people Disability (Geneva: WHO, 2011). also have a positive impact are reluctant to self-identify 2. USAID Office of Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment, “Women on the women who care for as disabled. Also, certain types with Disabilities, General Statistics” them. And when specialized of disability (developmental (Washington, D.C.: USAID last updated January 27, 2012). services and accommodations or psychosocial) are “hidden,” “ …there are no statistics for women new development in the region, men and women with disabilities. with disabilities in areas such and consequently, issues such People with disabilities face as the intersections of various prejudice and discrimination if as: employment, education and forms of discrimination (on the they are considered unable to vocational training, inclusion in basis of sex and ability, e.g.) have meet traditional expectations community and services. National not been the subject of much about gender roles (e.g., study and are generally not financially supporting a family or statistics are fragmented…thus included in policy discussions or marrying and having children). not permitting [judgments] about strategic planning. Gender-based stereotypes the total number of girls and associated with disability also Negative stereotypes about have an impact on the family. women with disabilities, their disabled persons continue to For example, in some countries, limit the extent to which the current status, and needs.” women report that the stigma intersections of gender and albanian disability rights around disability extends to disability are understood. In the mothers who are viewed as foundation, women with E&E region, important work responsible when a child is born disabilities in albania: included or has been done by disabled with a disability. Families of girls persons organizations (DPOs) neglected?, 2009 with disabilities may be less likely to advance the disability to invest in their education if rights movement. Still, the they expect that they will not Soviet legacy—under which meaning they cannot be readily marry or leave the family home. people with disabilities were identified without diagnostic frequently institutionalized Strong DPOs exist, but they testing.3 Data collection or and isolated from mainstream rarely network with women’s census-taking processes, society—continues to have organizations. The E&E region therefore, do not necessarily an impact. DPOs have been has seen the development identify all people with active in working to change of successful DPOs as well disabilities. public attitudes, but negative as women’s NGOs and Surveys and other forms of stereotypes persist around organizations that promote data collection on issues of disability. This stereotyping is gender equality. However, few particular concern to women especially prevalent concerning links among such organizations or men (e.g., domestic violence unseen disabilities, such as have been established. DPOs or reproductive health) do not developmental, mental health, or tend to address the rights necessarily include persons psychosocial issues. of disabled persons from a with disabilities. This means gender-neutral standpoint, Awareness-raising efforts tend that qualitative information while women’s NGOs generally to focus on removing the stigma about distinct gender issues for advocate for gender equality of disability and addressing persons with disabilities is lacking without specifically focusing on discrimination against people in the region. disabled women. with disabilities in a gender- Protecting the rights of people neutral manner. They generally The lack of accessible buildings with disabilities is a relatively do not address the gender- and transport affects people with based stereotypes associated disabilities and their caregivers. with disability or the double Much of the infrastructure discrimination that women with in E&E countries dates from 3. USAID, “How to Integrate Disability into Gender Assessments and disabilities face. Gender norms the Soviet era—a time when Analysis”(Washington, D.C.: USAID, affect how society perceives people with disabilities’ needs 2010).

86 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS to access public spaces were but this is still not the norm. “ Girls and women of all ages not accommodated. While When children with disabilities with any form of disability are there has been a general cannot be accommodated in recognition that public buildings local educational facilities, this among the more vulnerable and and transportation must be situation also affects women’s marginalized of society. There accessible, providing such access ability to work outside the is therefore need to take into has not always been a priority home, as they are the parent account and to address their for municipal governments. most likely to care for the child. Retrofitting older buildings can concerns in all policymaking and Men and women with disabilities be costly, and funds are often programming.” have distinct health needs that are not sufficient for these projects. not always adequately addressed united nations general assembly Perhaps more significantly, by the mainstream system. The resolution s-23/3, june 10, 2000 initiatives to increase civic issue of access to sexual and participation in public discussions reproductive health services is of such issues as urban planning relevant to all disabled persons, and women face additional and budget allocations have not but in the E&E region it is a forms of discrimination. Several necessarily included people with particular concern for women countries in the region have disabilities. The same barriers with disabilities. Issues raised legislation that supports the that prevent women from by advocates for women with delineation of special workplaces influencing policymaking also disabilities in the region include for people with disabilities affect women with disabilities. physical barriers, inaccessible or quota systems. In reality, equipment for examinations, Women in the E&E region both men and women with medical personnel’s inadequate are more frequent users of disabilities have trouble finding skill and knowledge when public services and spaces employment. Globally, “men examining women with (e.g., public transportation, with disabilities are almost disabilities, exclusion from clinics for women and children, twice as likely to have jobs as informational and educational administrative offices for receipt women with disabilities.”4 This programs, and commonly held of child benefits, and schools). pattern is apparent in the E&E attitudes about disability that Thus the extent to which any region as well. For example, preclude discussions about such services are inaccessible a study conducted in the contraception and pregnancy to disabled persons has a Republic of Macedonia of 100 with disabled women. Research greater impact on women with firms that employ physically suggests that men and women disabilities. Because women disabled people found that with disabilities are at greater undertake the greater burden men accounted for over three- risk for HIV infection than the of care for children and other quarters of the employees mainstream population, and family members with disabilities with disabilities.5 The primary that each sex has distinct risk in the E&E region, lack of access barriers to employment women factors. HIV/AIDS programs in for people with disabilities affects the region have not generally them as well. addressed disabled persons, 4. Çani Drenofci, Kalemi, Xheka, Zyba, Lack of access to education for and prevention and educational “Women with Disabilities in Albania.” disabled children also affects programs have tended to focus 5. Vesna Jovanova, Sunchica Dimitrijoska, Steven Tomovski, and Miodrag Ignjatovik. women who provide care. Several on nondisabled risk groups. “The Position of the Physically Disabled countries in the region have Persons on the Labor Market,” People with disabilities face Association of Physically Disabled made progress in introducing Persons in Macedonia, United Nations difficulties in finding employment, models of inclusive education, Development Fund for Women.

GUIDANCE NOTE 13: GENDER & DISABILITY 87 with disabilities identified were Sex-disaggregated data for women and men with demand for “male” occupations, disabilities? • How many men and women traditional family roles, and lack with disabilities are in the • Are there distinct stereotypes of support from the family.6 country overall? or expectations about women Women and girls with disabilities with disabilities compared to • How many men and women/ are particularly vulnerable to men with disabilities? boys and girls with disabilities violence and abuse. Studies are there among the potential • Is the division of have indicated that people beneficiaries of the project? responsibilities related to with disabilities are generally child care and housework at greater risk for violence and Background and context for men and women with sexual abuse. Women and girls disabilities consistent with the are especially vulnerable to • Has the country signed or gender divisions for people gender-based violence. Programs ratified the UN Convention without disabilities? Would in the E&E region that address on the Rights of Persons with these responsibilities preclude gender-based violence—both Disabilities? men and/or women with domestic violence and trafficking • Are there domestic laws disabilities from participating in persons—have generally not that promote the rights and in development projects? included specialized services equality of men and women for women with disabilities. For with disabilities? • In families where there is a example, telephone hotlines may child with a disability, is there be inaccessible to women with • Are women with disabilities a difference in child care and hearing impairments. specifically mentioned in housework responsibilities domestic laws on gender for men and women in the equality or national policy KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE house compared to families GENDER ANALYSIS documents designed to that do not have children with The following are suggestions to increase gender equality disabilities? Also, are there guide gender analysis relevant to and empower women (e.g., additional responsibilities disability in the E&E region. Note national action plans or related to the disability that the USAID publication strategies)? that may differentially affect How to Integrate Disability into • Are there formal DPOs or a parent’s or caregiver’s Gender Assessments and Analysis disability associations within willingness or availability suggests that the Six Domains of the country? How are women to participate in program Gender Analysis can be modified involved and represented in activities? slightly to ensure that questions these organizations? Is there • Do parents have different are included that relate to separate representation for expectations for their children men, women, and children with women with disabilities? with disabilities based on disabilities. It is recommended whether the child is male or that How to Integrate Disability Gender roles and responsibilities female? into Gender Assessments and • How is disability viewed Analysis be consulted when within the country? Are there Access to and control over assets conducting any gender analysis. specific cultural beliefs or and resources stereotypes toward disability • Do people with disabilities that might affect access have equal access to 6. Jovanova, Dimitrijoska, Tomovski, and to programs and services government and/or USAID- Ignjatovik, “The Position of the Physically Disabled Persons.” sponsored programs? Is the

88 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS location/mechanism of service within a community, or are Women with Disabilities, USAID provision equally physically they encouraged to live Office of Gender Equality & accessible to both women with family members or in Women’s Empowerment website. and men with disabilities? institutions? How to Integrate Disability into • Do females and males with • Are there differences in Gender Assessments and Analysis, disabilities have equal access the extent to which men USAID Office of Gender Equality & to assets and resources, such and women with disabilities Women’s Empowerment (2010). as education and training, participate in formal decision- Best Practices in Inclusive Education employment opportunities, making structures (local for Children with Disabilities: health services, property or government, community Application for Program Design in the land, bank accounts, credit or groups, associations, etc.)? Europe & Eurasia Region (USAID/ financial services, etc.? E&E/DGST) (2010). • Are there specific laws, • Do women and men with regulations, or customary Women with Disabilities in Albania: disabilities have equal access practices that impact the Included or Neglected?, Albanian to information sources rights of either women or Disability Rights Foundation (2009). (such as telephones and the men with disabilities to The Position of the Physically Internet) or to disability aids make independent decisions Disabled Persons on the Labor (e.g., education in Braille or regarding marriage and Market, Study of the Conducted sign language) that facilitate starting a family? Research, Association of Physically access to information? Disabled Persons in Macedonia (STILM) (2010). • Do women and men with RESOURCES disabilities have different The Prevalence of Disability in Europe and Eurasia, (USAID/E&E/DGST) public transport needs? Does (2009). the current transport system provide men and women Consolidated Disability Findings from with disabilities equal access the 2010 U.S. State Department to educational opportunities Country Reports on Human Rights, and to engage in economic Europe and Eurasia Region, United activities? States International Council on Disabilities. Patterns of power and decision making International Disability Rights Monitor: Regional Report of Europe, • Do people with disabilities— International Disability Network specifically women—have the (2007). power to make their own Children and Disability in Transition in decisions about issues related CEE/CIS and Baltic States, UNICEF to the intended programming, Innocenti Research Center (2005). such as employment, housing, education, health care, civic Transitions Towards an Inclusive Future: participation, etc.? Vocational Skills Development and Employment Options for Persons • Are there any gender with Disabilities in Europe & Eurasia differences in the extent to (USAID/E&E/DGST) (2009). which men and women with disabilities live independently

GUIDANCE NOTE 13: GENDER & DISABILITY 89

GUIDANCE NOTE 14 GENDER & CHILD WELFARE

WHY CONSIDER GENDER Child welfare programs are primarily concerned with ensuring that vulnerable children are provided with the opportunities, support, and services they need for their full and healthy development. In USAID programming, vulnerable children include orphans and other children living in institutions, such as children with disabilities, children living on the street, child victims of trafficking, as well as children at risk for and experiencing violence. USAID also focuses on improving support structures, such as the social work profession, which are responsible for child protection and welfare.

Gender is implicated in child SUSAN SOMACH welfare programs in terms of the common trends in child welfare factors—including single specific risks and vulnerabilities in the region: parenthood, migration, and of boys and girls as well as disability of the child, among the need for gender-specific • Each year, more children are others—also play a role. social services. The gendered separated from their families, aspects of poverty, violence, which indicates that family • Children with disabilities and even substance abuse are vulnerability is still an issue. account for a large also connected with parents’ proportion of children in • The rate of children in formal abilities to care for their children care.1 properly, and are important care is increasing. Generally, factors to consider in addressing such children are “social • The development of the risks for child abandonment. orphans,” meaning they have family-based alternative living parents who are unable care models, such as foster to care for them or who GENDER ISSUES IN THE have had their parental rights REGION terminated. 1. UNICEF Regional Office for Central and According to UNICEF and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CEE/CIS), “At Council of Europe studies of • Poverty is an important factor Home or in a Home? Formal Care and child welfare there are several in children being separated Adoption of Children in Eastern Europe and Central Asia” (Bratislava, Slovak from their parents, but other Republic: UNICEF, 2010). care, has been slow. Some most street children are male.5 were more likely to be involved countries (Moldova, Russia, Further research is needed in the distribution of drugs.7 and Ukraine) have shown to understand the underlying Girls appear to be at greater some success in increasing causes of this disparity. As has risk for child trafficking linked the numbers of citizens who been pointed out in other to prostitution and child adopt children from local countries with populations sex tourism. In Moldova, 80 orphanages.2 of street children, “street girls percent of minor victims of can remain largely invisible to While child welfare is generally trafficking are girls.8 Boys too services in countries where approached inclusively, referring may be trafficked, especially gender discrimination is deeply to both boys and girls, there are into child labor, but most victim entrenched.”6 The specific gender dimensions to the issue. identification services that work vulnerabilities of boys to with male victims are set up Limited data on the numbers abandonment or homelessness to work with adults. Because of vulnerable girls and boys need to be clearly identified sexual abuse of boys is a latent complicate the process of so that social services can be crime, and gender norms around identifying gender-based patterns more responsive to the needs masculinity make it an especially in child welfare. The availability of boys. At the same time, social taboo subject, data on male of age- and sex-disaggregated services should continue to take victims may be underreported. data and research pertaining into consideration girls and their A regional review conducted to child welfare is very limited. specific experiences. in Belarus, Moldova, Russia, and Most studies refer to children Boys and girls without parental Ukraine indicated that boys collectively. National-level care face distinct risks and and girls were equally at risk estimates from Eastern Europe consequences. Children without of sexual exploitation in the and Central Asia (including parental care and those living production of abusive images, E&E) indicate that boys account in institutions are vulnerable to generally through trafficking for more than half of all exploitation and abuse. Both situations.9 Services for child children registered as without boys and girls living on the street victims of sexual exploitation parental care, and rates in are exposed to violence and remain underdeveloped in the some countries are almost 60 drug use. In Russia, it was found region, but those that exist are percent.3 that among street children, by and large oriented toward Most street children are 88 percent of those involved assisting women and girls. male. Studies in Albania and in prostitution were girls; boys Domestic violence, as well as Russia found that 75 percent child abuse, is a critical problem of working street children in the region and is often a are boys.4 Information from Georgia also indicates that

ILO International Programme on the 7. Martin, “Child Labour in Europe.” Elimination of Child Labour, 2003). 2. Nigel Cantwell, “Adoption and Children: A 8. Tatiana Fomina and Rusu Viorela, Human Rights Perspective, Commissioner 5. UNICEF, “Innocenti Social Monitor “Overview of the Child Trafficking for Human Rights,” Council of Europe 2009—Child Well-being at a Crossroads: Phenomenon in the Republic of Moldova Commissioner for Human Rights, last Evolving Challenges in Central and 2010” (Chisinau, Moldova: International modified April 28, 2011. Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth Center for Women Rights Protection and of Independent States” (Florence: Promotion, 2010). 3. UNICEF Regional Office for CEE/CIS, “At UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre., Home or in a Home?” 2009). 9. ECPAT International, “Regional Overview of Child Sexual Abuse Images through the 4. James Martin, “Child Labour in Europe 6. “Street Children: A Mapping & Gapping Use of Information and Communication and Central Asia: Problem and Review of the Literature 2000 to 2010,” Technologies in Belarus, Moldova, Response,: An Overview of Selected (London: AVIVA and Consortium for Russia and Ukraine” (Bangkok: ECPAT Countries—A Working Paper” (Geneva: Street Children, 2011). International, 2008).

92 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS further risk for impoverishment and abandonment. For example, according to recent estimates, over 10 million Russian women are raising children alone.11 Also, 40 percent of female-headed households (including single mothers) are below the poverty line in Russia.12 The number of women living with HIV in the region is increasing, and there is a correlation between HIV-positive status and child abandonment. Services and programs for

USAID/JAY SORENSEN children should take gender differences into consideration. reason for the termination them in mixed institutions.10 Outreach and services provided of parental rights. Domestic Gender stereotypes about boys to vulnerable children should violence has a deep and exhibiting more difficult behavior be tailored to the specific rights, gendered impact on children, than girls or being better able needs, and vulnerabilities of even on those who do not to fend for themselves may also boys and girls. Boys outnumber directly experience physical play a role. Adoptive and foster girls among children without abuse. There are correlations parents appear less interested in parental care and may be in between boys’ experience and adopting boys, perhaps also due institutions longer than girls. witnessing of family violence and to prevailing notions that girls Specific measures may be called later delinquency and criminal are easier to raise. Also, boys for in promoting adoption, foster behavior. Boys may repeat the may be more likely than girls to care, and family reunification to cycle of violence in their own leave their families if they are counteract negative stereotypes relationships, while girls are at experiencing violence or other about boys. Greater attention to risk for becoming victims of social problems at home. boys’ socialization and provision gender-based violence later in of life skills could be part of such There are important gender life. efforts, and providers should dimensions behind some of the ensure that boys benefit from Some of the factors that lead to reasons that parents cannot programming and social services child abandonment are gender- properly care for their children. equally with girls. based. One possible reason that Women and children in the more than half of the children E&E region are more likely to without parental care are be living in poverty. A large boys is the lack of institutions number of children in the region specifically for girls, which are also being raised by single 11. Nadezhda Popova, “The number of single mothers in Russia has exceeded 10 deters parents from placing mothers, which puts them at million” (Russian), Arguments of the Week, No. 14 (255), last modified April 13, 2011, 12. Ewa Charkiewicz, The Impact of the Crisis on Women in Eastern Europe (Toronto: 10. UNICEF Regional Office for CEE/CIS, “At Association for Women’s Rights in Home or in a Home?” Development, 2010).

GUIDANCE NOTE 14: GENDER & CHILD WELFARE 93 The majority of caretakers in KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE families, in the case of street orphanages are female, so it is GENDER ANALYSIS children? important to ensure that boys Sex-disaggregated data • Do programs that aim to are acquainted with positive • How many children are prevent child abandonment male role models whom they without parental care, living in work with both mothers and can emulate. Among street institutions or on the street, fathers at risk? children, girls and boys use by age and disability status? different survival strategies; • What is the generally different approaches are thus • How many children are being accepted view of the role needed in service and assistance raised by single female and of fathers in raising children? programs. male parents? How is this implicated in cases of child abandonment? Prevention of child Background and context abandonment should address • Have any national- or • What is the impact of the the issues that put mothers and regional-level studies been overrepresentation of women fathers at risk for abandoning undertaken to study gender- among social workers on boys their children from a gender related differences relevant to at risk for child abandonment perspective, taking into children without parental care (e.g., in terms of identification consideration women’s lower (e.g., time living in institutions, and providing referrals to economic status, vulnerabilities rates of adoption, inclusion in appropriate services)? to HIV/AIDS, and the lack foster care programs, or family of preventative work with • What efforts are being reunification)? men who use violence or are undertaken to counter norms substance abusers. • What are the commonly that social work is a “female identified risk factors for profession” and to diversify A final important element to child abandonment? Do they the workforce? Do such consider is the weakness of the include factors that may differ efforts include introducing social work profession in the by sex of the parents or their men to nontraditional fields region. Social workers could abandoned children? or increasing the pay and play an important role in early prestige associated with social identification of families at risk. • How is gender addressed in work? The profession is relatively programs to prevent child new but also highly feminized abandonment? Access to and control over assets throughout the region. Gender and resources Gender roles and responsibilities norms of women as helpers • Do boys and girls living in and caregivers contribute to this • Are there any stereotypes institutions have equal access gender imbalance. Although seen about boys that lead to to same-sex role models? as socially important, social work greater abandonment and is afforded little prestige and is decreased likelihood of • What male role models are characterized by low salaries and adoption of male children? there specifically for boys? heavy and complex workloads. • Are boys and girls benefiting Limited efforts have been made • Are such stereotypes being equally from programs to encourage men to enter this addressed by child welfare designed to reintegrate them field. programs? with their families, or place • What distinct factors lead them in foster care or for boys and girls to leave their adoption?

94 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS • Do boys and girls who are issues (e.g., meeting with Child Well-Being at a Crossroads: living in violent families have parliamentarians, working Evolving challenges in Central equal access to shelters and with NGOs on advocacy and Eastern Europe and the other services for domestic campaigns)? Commonwealth of Independent violence victims? States, UNICEF/ Innocenti Social Monitor 2009. • Do NGOs and other groups RESOURCES that address prevention of The Job that Remains: An Overview of Child Labour in Europe and Central USAID Child Welfare Reform Efforts Asia: Problem and Response, ILO trafficking in persons work in Europe and Eurasia (USAID/E&E/ International Programme on the with risk groups among DGST) (2009). Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) street children and children (2003). in institutions? Are such At home or in a home? Formal programs accessible and Care and Adoption of Children in Don’t Call Me a Street Child: tailored to both girls and Eastern Europe and Central Asia, Estimation and Characteristics of boys? UNICEF Regional Office for Central Urban Street Children in Georgia, and Eastern Europe and the UNICEF, (2009). • Are there substance abuse Commonwealth of Independent programs tailored to the States (CEE/CIS) (2010). The Impact of the Crisis on Women needs of men and women? in Eastern Europe, Association for Children and Disability in Transition in Women’s Rights in Development Do such programs coordinate CEE/CIS and Baltic States, UNICEF (AWID) (2010). with social workers or other Innocenti Research Center (2005). specialists on the prevention The number of single mothers in of child abandonment? State Reports to the UN Russia has exceeded 10 million, Committee on the Rights of the Gender Informational Network of • Are there programs for Child. the South Caucasus (GINSC), 15 men who use violence in April, 2011. (Russian) relationships? Child Protection Resource Package, UNICEF CEE/CIS website. Street Children: A Mapping & • Do single mothers have Gapping Review of the Literature access to monetary and other Best Practices in Inclusive Education 2000 to 2010, Consortium for social benefits? for Children with Disabilities: Street Children (2011). Application for Program Design Patterns of power and decision in the Europe & Eurasia Region Overview of the Child Trafficking making (USAID/E&E/DGST) (2010). Phenomenon in the Republic of Moldova, La Strada/Moldova (2010). • Are there organizations that Social Work Education and Practice advocate for gender-specific Environment in Europe and Eurasia programs to address the TransMONEE Info: A searchable vulnerabilities of boys and girls database of information from 2010 within formal decision making on indicators of child welfare for processes on child welfare the CEE/CIS region, created by issues? UNICEF.

• Are there mechanisms by Adoption and Children: A Human which the voices of boys and Rights Perspective, Commissioner girls/young men and women for Human Rights. Council of can be included in policy Europe (2011). discussions on child welfare

GUIDANCE NOTE 14: GENDER & CHILD WELFARE 95

GUIDANCE NOTE 15 GENDER & DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

WHY CONSIDER GENDER abuse (e.g., verbal aggression, “ Domestic violence needs to be Domestic violence is one of threats, intimidation) or sexual understood in a wider social the most widespread and abuse (e.g., coerced sex), as well devastating forms of gender- as manipulation and isolation of context which permits the based violence. Domestic the victim. Economic abuse is perpetrators to assume the violence is considered gender a typical element of domestic right to use violence as a means based because it is a type of violence and includes limiting the of exercising dominance and abuse that is perpetrated against victim’s financial independence, a person (female or male) controlling economic decisions, control.” as a result of unequal power and controlling access to Council of Europe, Council relations that are themselves employment. Domestic violence of Europe Domestic violence based on gender roles. Gender- is a series of abusive behaviors, based violence is caused by and beginning with intimidation campaign. reinforces inequalities between and control and building to women and men. physical violence, but victims “poverty reduction, access may experience several forms Because gender discrimination to safe migration, peace and of abuse throughout/during the leads to women’s reconciliation processes, safe and relationship. In extreme cases, disempowerment, females supportive education systems, domestic violence results in are more at risk for gender- the provision of appropriate death. based violence than men. The health services, and promotion of the rule of law as well as Council of Europe elaborates, Domestic violence is often equal rights and economic “domestic violence is most accepted as a “normal” part of and political opportunities for often perpetrated by men the private relations between women.”2 against former or current men and women. This means intimate partners, although it that victims may be reluctant to A useful framework for is recognized that violence is speak openly about the problem designing projects that also perpetrated by women and that professional groups comprehensively address and occurs in same-sex (law enforcement or health domestic violence is through the relationships.”1 “Family violence” care providers, for instance) “three P’s”—preventing domestic and “intimate-partner violence” are often unwilling to become violence from occurring or are other terms used to involved. Combating domestic escalating, providing protection describe this type of violence violence requires overcoming to survivors of domestic that occurs in the private sphere. the view that domestic violence violence and their children, and is a private affair and addressing Domestic violence may be prosecuting perpetrators of the accepted roles of men and manifested in physical abuse (e.g., domestic violence. women. slapping, beating), psychological USAID recognizes the impact of domestic violence across the 2. Elisabeth Duban, Toolkit for Integrating 1. Council of Europe, “The Council of various sectors of development Domestic Violence Activities into Europe Campaign to Combat Violence Programming in Europe & Eurasia against Women, including Domestic work, including the areas of (Washington, D.C.: USAID, JBS Violence,” last modified September 2008. International, Inc., 2009). GENDER ISSUES IN THE domestic violence in the E&E violence, and the need to take REGION region, and most perpetrators preventive action. Gaps still Domestic violence is a serious are male. For example, official remain, and societal tolerance problem in the E&E region for statistics in Georgia confirm and acceptance of domestic the individual victims and their that 87 percent of victims in violence as an inevitable part families as well as in terms reported cases of domestic of family life persists. Many of impeding progress toward violence from 2007 to 2008 victims and family members, development goals, such as were women.5 as well as professionals in the women’s equal participation in law enforcement and health NGOs that work on the issue political, economic, and social care systems, continue to view of domestic violence generally activities. domestic violence as a private have considerable anecdotal matter or a taboo subject. Such Domestic violence is a widespread information on the problem but attitudes mean that victims problem for the region, but lack the technical capacity and feel shame or are considered comprehensive statistics, data, and funding to carry out large-scale responsible for the abuse and research are limited. An issue for studies and surveys. Official data thus are reluctant to make the E&E region as a whole is the are usually collected through use of formal channels to limited amount of official data law enforcement bodies when seek help. Victims themselves on the incidence of domestic victims make official complaints, are influenced by prevailing violence and lack of information but other data sources—such as societal attitudes that domestic about the true prevalence of the hospital records or emergency violence is a private matter or problem. National-level studies room visits—are unavailable or that violence is justified under suggest that 20–30 percent of not cross-referenced. It is also certain conditions (infidelity women and their children are known that a large number of or failing to perform domestic affected by domestic violence; victims do not report violence duties, e.g.). Victims may blame this is comparable to other through official channels, and this themselves for abuse. Even in world regions.3 A Council of may result in underestimation countries that have adopted Europe survey of member of the extent of the problem or laws that allow law enforcement states, which includes Western obscure some manifestations of to temporarily remove abusers European countries as well as domestic violence. countries of the E&E region, from the home or that provide found that from one-fifth to Domestic violence is recognized shelter for victims, many women one-quarter of all women in its as a problem, but it is generally still do not report violence member countries have suffered considered a private matter and or seek help through official physical violence at least once in victims may be stigmatized. A channels. However, while victims their adult lives. In the majority key positive development in may be reluctant to approach of cases, the perpetrator is a the region is an overall increase officials about domestic violence, partner or ex-partner.4 in attention given to the issue the overwhelming majority is of domestic violence, both likely to inform family members. As is true worldwide, females from the state and civil society. A national study in Georgia are the primary victims of This has resulted in greater confirmed such trends. Eighty comprehension of the dynamics percent of respondents stated of abuse, the forms of domestic that domestic violence should 3. Ruth Rosenberg, Domestic Violence in only be discussed within the Europe and Eurasia (Washington, D.C.: family. Only 2 percent of victims USAID, JBS International, Inc., Creative Associates International, 2006). confirmed they approached 5. Elisabeth Duban, Gender Assessment 4. Council of Europe, “Campaign to Combat USAID/Georgia (Washington, D.C.: USAID police, medical professionals, Violence against Women.” and DevTech Systems, Inc., 2010).

98 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS or NGOS for help, while 70 percent of victims stated they told family members about the violence.6 The most widespread and positive developments in the region concern measures aimed at prevention of domestic violence. Most state-level efforts to address domestic violence in the region concern violence prevention and take the form of awareness raising. In several countries, governments have supported annual campaigns conducted in cooperation with NGOs and international organizations. Such efforts are UFO STUDIOS very important, but consistent public education on the nature Domestic violence has been An area of increasing prevention of domestic violence and the largely treated as a law work in the region is the use services that exist for victims is enforcement concern and of anti–domestic violence needed. not an issue of public health messages that target men—not or one related to corruption. as potential perpetrators of Outreach efforts have mostly Consequently, prevention efforts violence but as role models to targeted the mainstream are focused on crime prevention promote equal and nonviolent population and focused on and educating women about personal relationships. In the married women or women their rights. Such an approach E&E region, as is true worldwide, in long-term relationships. may actually discourage women most men do not use violence Outreach should be extended from seeking help if they are nor are they tolerant of abuse to minority women, which reluctant to involve the police. directed at women. However, can include ethnic minority they do not always take action At the practical level, the links groups, women with disabilities, to express such views because between domestic violence and or sexual minorities. Further, “men may fear others’ reactions sexual and reproductive health specialized messages could to attempts at intervention, problems—including poor birth be developed to target young have negative views of violence outcomes and vulnerability to women on the issues of prevention itself, lack knowledge HIV—have been documented relationship abuse (controlling of or skills in intervention, or and are understood. However, behavior, verbal abuse, or lack opportunities or invitations health care reform has not dating violence), which is now to play a role.”7 Initiatives reflected an overall policy to recognized as part of the cycle to engage men in domestic prevent and respond to cases of of domestic violence. violence prevention work in domestic violence.

7. Jamila Seftaoui, ed., Mending Inequalities: Men and Gender Equality in the OSCE 6. Duban, Gender Assessment USAID/Georgia. Region (Vienna: OSCE, 2011).

GUIDANCE NOTE 15: GENDER & DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 99 the region (for instance, White Several good examples assistance from international Ribbon campaigns in Belarus, the of cooperation between donors. South Caucuses, and Moldova) government and civil society Legal protections for victims have demonstrated that men groups to provide services and prosecution efforts vary can be influential in shaping for victims exist, as well as of across the region, but could be public opinion about domestic government financing for the strengthened in all countries. How violence. Male public figures work of NGOs. State funding domestic violence cases are and men in leadership positions, for services nonetheless remains treated in the legal system varies including politicians, athletes, inadequate to meet the needs by country in the E&E region. and entertainers, have particular of all victims. Some countries have adopted influence in promoting anti- According to a survey covering stand-alone laws that address violence messages. Domestic all E&E countries except Kosovo domestic violence. Some have violence projects that include and Moldova conducted by amended their criminal codes to the participation of men are still the Women Against Violence provide a specific definition of relatively nascent in the region Europe (WAVE) network, the problem, while others have but should be encouraged as a several countries have no no legal definition of domestic good practice. national-level telephone violence, instead relying on Protection efforts have been helplines for women.8 Even in general criminal law (e.g., articles expanded but are still inadequate those countries with helplines, on physical harm) to prosecute to meet demand, and state not all are free of charge or cases, or administrative law (e.g., support is insufficient.Given operate on a 24-hour basis. disruptions of public order) the gender-based nature of With the exception of Belarus, to sanction perpetrators of domestic violence, most services all countries have at least two violence.10 and responses have been shelters.9 Although the European A small number of countries organized around the typical Parliament recommends that have adopted national action victim—a woman—and thus one family place in a women’s plans or strategies on combating the protection efforts described shelter be provided per domestic violence, which is below focus on services for 100,000 inhabitants, no state an important indicator of women and the children in their in the E&E region is meeting progress. The existence of a legal care. With greater understanding this requirement. Even in those definition of domestic violence of other groups who may be countries where shelters are facilitates greater education and at risk for domestic violence, a fully funded by the government, training of legal professionals greater range of services may several thousand places for on the subject. Elsewhere, need to be developed. women are still considered the legal understanding of “missing.” NGOs continue to Progress has been made in the domestic violence is low, and play a critical role in filling the E&E region to expand services professionals involved in such gaps where state services and for victims of domestic violence funding are insufficient, relying as well as their children. Many on their own fundraising and services now offered, including 10. As of this writing, the following countries telephone helplines, shelter, crisis have either specific laws or criminal code provisions that refer to domestic violence: assistance, psychological support, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, 8. Deniz Kemik, “Country Report 2010: Kosovo (UNMIK regulation), the Republic counseling, and legal assistance, Reality Check on European Services for of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Women and Children Victims of Violence, Serbia and Ukraine. Azerbaijan, Belarus, were unavailable just a decade A Right for Protection and Support?” and Russia have not adopted legislation (Vienna: Women Against Violence Europe, ago. specifically on domestic violence, but 2010). draft laws have been circulated in some 9. Kemik, “Country Report 2010.” countries.

100 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS cases (attorneys representing this field of programs for abusive sanctions, such as a temporary victims, prosecutors, and judges) men is not yet well developed in protection order? are unlikely to receive specific the E&E region. • Do media outlets support training on the issue. anti–domestic violence In several E&E countries, the KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE campaigns on a regular basis? introduction of noncriminal GENDER ANALYSIS Sex-disaggregated data • Do relevant professionals (law remedies that allow for the enforcement, medical and temporary removal of the • What do official statistics nursing staff, social workers, perpetrator of violence from reveal about the sex of judges, etc.) receive specific the home is a very important victims and perpetrators of training in risk assessment, development. Unfortunately, it domestic violence? (Sources and in how to identify and is reported that the use of such for this information include respond to cases of domestic provisions, and of the law in law enforcement records, calls violence? Who is conducting general, remains low. Attrition to telephone helplines, client such training, how often, and is also a common problem, intake forms at shelters, and what is the content? meaning that the number patient and emergency room of domestic violence cases records.) • Are there any formal decreases as cases progress instructions or procedures Background and context through the legal system, for relevant professionals on often the result of the victim • Have any surveys been how to respond to cases of withdrawing the complaint conducted that could suggest domestic violence? or cases being dropped for the prevalence of domestic Gender roles and responsibilities procedural reasons. Further violence in a given country work should be done to identify and the characteristics of the • Assuming the gender patterns barriers to women’s accessing problem? typical in domestic violence the legal process in cases of cases, do domestic violence • How is domestic violence domestic violence and measures campaigns target women addressed in the law, both in to improve access to justice. (e.g., with messages to terms of providing protection overcome secrecy and stigma; In all countries, persistent issues for victims and prosecuting information about services) such as lack of awareness of perpetrators? legal protections, a widely held and men (e.g., condemnation belief among legal and other • Are statistics available to on the use of violence; calls professionals that domestic track how domestic violence for greater activism)? cases are managed by the violence is a private matter, • Are men as well as women legal system (e.g., comparing staff turnover among police involved in anti–domestic numbers of hotline calls, and the consequent need for violence campaigns, from the complaints made to police, continuous training, and limited planning stage to running the prosecutors’ records, cases resources for victims who seek campaign? legal remedies all contribute to brought to court, and judicial the low level of cases that are decisions)? At what stage(s) is • Does the government actually brought to justice. attrition occurring, and how support awareness-raising could it be addressed? campaigns on the topic of While there have been some domestic violence? How often • Do the legal provisions that limited efforts to address are such campaigns run, for apply to domestic violence perpetrators of violence through how long, and where? counseling or other programs, provide for noncriminal

GUIDANCE NOTE 15: GENDER & DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 101 • What activities do NGOs • Do victims of domestic UN Secretary-General’s Database carry out in connection with violence have access to free, on Violence Against Women, raising awareness? or affordable, legal services? Country Pages. What organizations are Access to and control over assets Reality Check on European Services providing such services? and resources for Women and Children Victims of Patterns of power and decision Violence, A Right for Protection and • Are outreach materials in a making Support?, Women Against Violence format/tone that would reach Europe (WAVE) (2010). men and women, as well as • Do victims of domestic Promoting Gender Equality to Prevent women belonging to minority violence, particularly young Violence Against Women, World groups? Are they distributed women or women in rural Health Organization briefing in in locations accessible to areas, have the right to make violence prevention (2009). and frequented by men and decisions about leaving the women equally? family home and living in a Partnering with Men to End Gender- temporary shelter? Based Violence: Practices that work • Do victims of domestic from Eastern Europe and Central violence have access to • Are there any mechanisms Asia, United Nations Population protective services? for domestic violence victims Fund (UNFP) (2009). to be involved in policy • What services currently discussions on responses The Crucial Role of Health Services in exist in the country for the Responding to Gender-Based Violence to domestic violence protection of victims of (2010). (e.g., testimony during domestic violence and/or parliamentary hearings, Toolkit for Integrating Domestic their children or other family expert working groups, NGO Violence Activities Into Programming in members (e.g., telephone advocacy campaigns)? Europe & Eurasia. USAID (2009). helplines, crisis centers, shelters, psychological and • Is there evidence that Methods and Models for Mixing legal counseling, temporary programs that seek to Services for Victims of Domestic protection orders, etc.)? How empower women (e.g., Violence and Trafficking in Persons in many such services exist? through legal literacy, Europe and Eurasia, USAID (2008). For each service, what is its economic independence) lead Domestic Violence in Europe and capacity, hours of operation, to a decrease in incidents of Eurasia, USAID (2006). average length of stay, etc.? domestic violence? Is there evidence that they might lead Council of Europe Stop Domestic • Who provides these to an increase in domestic Violence Against Women Campaign. services—NGOs, state violence? 2008. agencies, or both? From Cairo to Beijing and Beyond: • How are such services RESOURCES the Unfinished Agenda on Gender funded? Council of Europe Stop Domestic Equality in Eastern Europe and Violence Against Women Campaign Central Asia. Elisabeth Duban, • Are there programs for site: UNFPA (2009). men who use violence in relationships? Obtain details Virtual Knowledge Centre to End about these programs. Violence Against Women and Girls, UN Women.

102 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS GUIDANCE NOTE 16 GENDER & TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

WHY CONSIDER GENDER deception for the purpose of recognized as a distinct crime Trafficking in persons (TIP) exploitation. TIP is closely linked and a serious human rights refers to the recruitment, to other forms of illicit activity, abuse. transportation, or transfer of such as illegal migration and The gender dimensions of TIP people using force, fraud, or smuggling of migrants, and is other forms of coercion and are related primarily to the different forms of exploitation that impact females versus males in the region as well as the distinct factors that make each sex vulnerable to trafficking. Considerable international attention has been devoted to better understanding and responding to TIP for the purposes of sexual exploitation, which primarily affects women and adolescent girls. Overall, women may be more vulnerable than men to being trafficked because they are more likely to face discrimination, poverty, and limited economic opportunities—and they become even more vulnerable as a result of natural disasters, wars, and political crisis and conflict. Men are also vulnerable to trafficking, most often into situations involving labor exploitation. Economic downturns or lack of economic opportunities, coupled with male gender role norms that emphasize responsibility for financially supporting their families often lead to increased pressure to migrate, which places men at risk. Gender is thus an important consideration in planning USAID/UKRAINSKA REKLAMA prevention efforts for TIP and economic inactivity rates are victims who are detected by a critical factor in designing higher for women than for men authorities and later involved services to assist victims. in many countries across the in criminal cases are adult USAID’s work in human region, and women often face women targeted for sexual trafficking complements that higher levels of discrimination exploitation.1 The majority of of the U.S. State Department’s in the labor market. Men who men who receive assistance Office to Monitor and Combat work in specific sectors such are trafficked for forced labor.2 Trafficking in Persons, and is as construction or the mining Cases have also been uncovered primarily focused on supporting industry and unskilled laborers in which women were trafficked efforts to prevent TIP as well have also faced job losses in for labor purposes, and so it is as on protecting and assisting many E&E countries. important not to rely too heavily victims of trafficking (VoTs). on characterizations of “typical” Statistics, data, and research on A useful framework for VoTs. Proper identification of TIP are limited and focus on thinking about projects that trafficking victims, women and a narrow victim profile.While comprehensively address men as well as girls and boys, is data collection on TIP has TIP is to examine the “four crucial both for the provision of improved in the E&E region, P’s”: prevention, protection, assistance and for prosecution. such information is generally prosecution, and partnership. limited to statistics from criminal Among children and youth, prosecutions and information girls seem to be at greater risk GENDER ISSUES IN THE gathered by NGOs either from for trafficking linked to sexual REGION calls to telephone hotlines or exploitation or child sex tourism. TIP has been especially acute trafficked persons they have For example, in Moldova, 80 in the E&E region, which is assisted. In the case of criminal percent of minor VoTs are girls.3 characterized by economic justice data, information about Information on the trafficking disparities within and among victims and perpetrators is of male children and young countries, relative ease in not always sex-disaggregated. men for sexual exploitation crossing many borders, Data collected by NGOs are is incomplete, but research proximity to the European generally based on information suggests that such incidents do Union, a relatively well-educated from shelters and crisis centers take place in the region.4 Boys population facing high levels of that are oriented toward unemployment resulting from assisting female victims, and so the privatization and closure of information about male victims state-run enterprises (among is more limited. Profiles of 1. UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in other factors), economic Persons (Vienna: UNODC, 2009). victims and traffickers based on downturns; and, in some 2. See, e.g., International Organization for actual cases are rarely compiled countries, armed conflict. Many Migration (IOM), “Trafficking of Men—A or analyzed systematically, which Trend Less Considered: The Case of E&E countries contend with Belarus and Ukraine,” IOM Research complicates the identification Series No. 36 (Geneva: IOM, 2008). organized crime, corruption, of risk groups and trafficking 3. Viorelia Rusu and Tatiana Fomina, weak legal systems, and lack of mechanisms. “Overview of the Child Trafficking expertise among government Phenomenon in the Republic of Moldova” (Chisinau, Moldova: International Center officials, all of which leave Understanding of the trafficking for Women Rights Protection and their citizens vulnerable to TIP. problem in the E&E region is Promotion, 2010). Some of the factors described based on a common victim 4. OSCE/Office of the Special Representative and Co-ordinator for above have distinct gender profile that is itself reflective of Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Combating Trafficking as Modern Day dimensions. For example, prevalent gender expectations. Slavery: A Matter of Rights, Freedoms and official unemployment and The majority of trafficking Security, 2010 Annual Report (Vienna: OSCE, 2010).

104 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS may also be trafficked into child dependent children. A significant liberation, and perceptions of labor or begging. difference has also been women as commodities.7 Studies observed in recruiting practices, suggest that awareness raising The gender dimensions of and men are much more likely among men about the realities trafficking have not been well to be recruited as part of a of women being trafficked into integrated into anti-trafficking group of workers, often by prostitution is insufficient to interventions. The role played by an intermediary with whom decrease demand for sexual gender in trafficking in persons the victim is not familiar. The services, but punishing those has not been well articulated recruitment process for men who procure the services of in the region, and information frequently mimics legal migration, prostitutes rather than the on trafficked men and boys and in some cases, men pay for prostitutes themselves has been in particular is very limited.5 their own travel. In contrast, shown to have a greater impact. Gender-sensitive approaches are female victims are frequently Demand for exploitable and/ needed to better understand subjected to debt bondage in or migrant labor often leads the vulnerabilities of men and which the trafficker advances to increases in trafficked labor, women to trafficking, to identify payment for travel and then even though there is rarely a their post-trafficking needs extracts payment for the “loan.” demand for trafficked labor per in terms of protection and There have also been fewer se. Whether men’s or women’s assistance, and to better counter cases of men being directly sold labor is in demand depends the demand for trafficked labor to traffickers, as often happens greatly on the sector—for and services. in cases of female sexual instance, whether labor is The few studies of trafficking of exploitation. In most cases needed in construction (offering men suggest that many elements involving men, the victims were more jobs for men) or domestic of the trafficking scenario are transported to the destination and service work (offering similar for men and women country as promised and often greater jobs for women). The (demographic characteristics and were treated fairly well at first. recent economic downturn educational background of VoTs, Over time, however, abuses and increasing need for care forms of abuse and control), but increased, including reduction services, especially in Western some characteristics of male of payment, restrictions on Europe where the population victims differ from those of the freedom, and violence. Known is aging, may mean that the typical female VoT. For the most cases of trafficking in women demand for women as care part, male trafficking victims are often are characterized by more providers may continue to adults (ranging in age from 20 immediate exploitation and early increase, with attendant risks to over 60),6 whereas identified use of violence and threats to for women who migrate for this female victims generally fall in control victims. purpose. Increased activity in a narrower and younger age the construction sector as the Demand reduction is a critical range. In contrast to female economic downtown eases in factor in combating trafficking victims, there are few single Eurasia may herald an increase in persons, but the gender fathers among trafficked men, in the number of men being dimensions of reducing demand but a significant number do have trafficked to that region. Overall, for trafficked services and labor it is important to support have received little attention. further study of the gender- Demand for prostitution is

5. IOM, “Trafficking of Men.” closely linked to societal norms 6. IOM, “Trafficking of Men”; Ruth and gender roles, particularly Rosenberg, “Trafficking of Adult Men around acceptable masculine 7. Ruth Rosenberg, “Tackling the Demand in the Europe and Eurasia Region” That Fosters Human Trafficking” (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2010). behavior, notions of sexual (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 2011).

GUIDANCE NOTE 16: GENDER & TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 105 based patterns of demand men are at risk for trafficking, critical services for people at for specific types of labor in and this may require adopting risk for being trafficked and for order to anticipate shifts in the approaches and messages that VoTs, such as predeparture populations that could be at risk appeal to and reach men directly. assistance for migrants, and help for labor exploitation and/or before repatriation and after Considerable prevention efforts trafficking. return to the country of origin have been aimed at women for VoTs.10 Specialized services Activities aimed at TIP prevention and girls who are considering for male trafficking victims in have yielded some positive work abroad and who are particular, and for victims of developments, but efforts could thus potential VoTs for sexual labor exploitation generally, are be expanded to more risk and labor exploitation. Several underdeveloped in the region. groups. In terms of prevention programs specifically target For example, current shelter activities, most efforts have male and female residents of programs that focus on female focused on awareness raising orphanages to raise awareness VoTs are not easily adapted to (for the general population as about trafficking risks. Other mixed-sex accommodations, well as for at-risk groups and programs encourage safe and medical assistance currently professionals likely to encounter migration overall and are gender tends to focus on sexual and VoTs), employment (job skills neutral in their approach. Still, reproductive health issues, training, small business support), at-risk groups such as members which are not the most pressing and empowerment activities of minorities (especially needs for men who have been for women.8 While it is difficult those in rural areas), children trafficked and who often suffer to prove that the risk factors whose parents have migrated, from severe physical health for trafficking have decreased, people with disabilities, and problems as a result. Specific there are indications that some the homeless (all of whom are forms of psychological assistance potential victims have gained particularly at risk for internal may be needed for men who greater understanding of risky trafficking) have not been have different experiences of situations and may take steps reached to the same extent. exploitation and may be more to protect themselves. Overall, Less attention has been devoted likely to view their situation societal knowledge of the to other aspects of prevention as failed migration rather than existence of human trafficking such as reducing demand, trafficking.11 Additional efforts has improved in the region,9 combating corruption, or to make sure that services and awareness levels of TIP are understanding the links between reach men may also be needed generally high. Research has also TIP and gender-based violence. because anecdotal reports suggested, however, that while Protection for TIP victims varies from NGOs suggest that men many understand the issue, by country, and key groups have are often more reluctant than few see themselves as a likely limited access to support services. women to seek services due in victims and believe that TIP will Provision of direct assistance to large part to dominant gender happen to someone else. There VoTs varies across the region. norms that depict men as also exists a need to improve In many countries, shelters and strong, able to resolve their own awareness of the fact that crisis centers for victims of problems, and not requiring domestic violence also assist help from others. Reintegration female TIP victims, and some assistance should also take into 8. Steven Warnath, Best Practices in Trafficking Prevention in Europe & countries also support shelters Eurasia—Final Report (Washington, D.C.: USAID, JBS International, Inc., Creative especially for VoTs. NGOs, Associates International, 2009). with support from donors, 10. Warnath, Best Practices in Trafficking Prevention. 9. Warnath, Best Practices in Trafficking generally still provide most Prevention. 11. IOM, “Trafficking of Men.”

106 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS consideration the influence of KEY QUESTIONS TO GUIDE to identify VoTs for both gender norms, for example, the GENDER ANALYSIS sexual and labor exploitation? notion of men as the traditional Sex-disaggregated data Gender roles and responsibilities heads of household or the • How many VoTs have been stigma that attaches to women identified (by sex and age)? • Are there different “push who have been engaged in sex What percentage are female factors” that may result work. (or male)? in men and women being trafficked? Do any of Positive developments have taken • What percentage of these factors relate to place in facilitating prosecution prosecuted trafficking cases gender stereotypes? (E.g., of TIP, but cases are limited and involve labor exploitation? a stereotype that men difficulties in applying the law What is the percentage of are supposed to be the are common in many countries. prosecuted trafficking cases breadwinners of the family Perhaps the most significant for sexual exploitation? How may result in men being areas of progress in the many cases of both types especially willing to migrate if region are in prosecution and resulted in convictions? they are unemployed.) criminalization. The majority of countries have introduced Background and context • Have there been studies of a specific offense on TIP in • Have any surveys been the demand side of trafficking legislation, and the number conducted that describe that include analysis of gender of trafficking convictions has the characteristics of human issues? increased annually. There is trafficking in the given also increased training for law • Are men and women country? enforcement officials to detect vulnerable to different types and respond to trafficking • Are there laws, action plans, of trafficking (men for labor, cases.12 Despite developments or coordination mechanisms women for sex, etc.), or in legislation, practitioners in the outlining the government’s are both men and women region identify several issues response to TIP? Do they deal vulnerable to some forms of that complicate prosecutions, with both trafficking for labor trafficking (e.g., labor)? for example, evidentiary issues and for sexual exploitation? • Are males and females equally (such as difficulties proving • Does the particular country aware of the dangers of “exploitation”), reliance on trafficking? victim/witness testimony, the have a National Referral lack of support for victims/ Mechanism (NRM) or • Do current awareness witnesses, staff turnover in law participate in a Transnational campaigns in the country enforcement posts (combined Referral Mechanism (TRM)? target both trafficking with a need for constant Does the NRM support the for labor and for sexual training), and complications in provision of services to meet exploitation and address both national and cross-border the needs of female and male gender norms that may cooperation. As noted above, VoTs? affect how men and women prosecutions of labor trafficking • Do relevant professionals perceive risk? cases and protection of the (law enforcement, medical • Have prior awareness rights of male VoTs are very and nursing staff, social campaigns been shown to limited. workers, judges, etc.) have the be effective in changing the knowledge, skills, and capacity perceptions of both men

12. UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking.

GUIDANCE NOTE 16: GENDER & TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 107 and women who may be victims currently have equal transition.usaid.gov/what-we-do/ vulnerable to trafficking? access to such services? gender-equality-and-womens- empowerment/countering- • Do male and female VoTs • Are there sufficient spaces in trafficking-persons need different assistance shelters to provide assistance services, or can one assistance to both women and men? Corruption and Human Trafficking, program effectively serve Working Paper No. 3/2011, Patterns of power and decision all victims? What about Transparency International (2011). making victims who are children or Global Report on Trafficking in adolescents? • Are there NGOs experienced Persons, UNODC (2009) in working with both male • Are there gender stereotypes Methods and Models for Mixing and female VoTs? Are any of that may work against Services for Victims of Domestic these NGOs run by men? acceptance of assistance on Violence and Trafficking in Persons the part of male or female • Are there any mechanisms in Europe and Eurasia, Surtees, R., & VoTs? (E.g., men may believe for VoTs—female and male— Somach, S. (2008). that they are supposed to be to be involved in policy Stop Violence Against Women “strong” and that to ask for discussions around responses website (section on Trafficking in or receive assistance may be to trafficking (testimony Women), Advocates for Human seen as a sign of weakness.) during parliamentary hearings, Rights. expert working groups, NGO Access to and control over assets advocacy campaigns, etc.)? Tackling the Demand That Fosters and resources Human Trafficking, USAID (2011).

• What types of awareness RESOURCES Trafficking in Persons (TIP) campaigns exist in the Best Practices for Programming Report, Office to Monitor and country? Who is being to Protect and Assist Victims of Combat Trafficking in Persons, reached by these campaigns, Trafficking in Europe and Eurasia, U.S. Department of State (annual and who is left out? Are men USAID (2008). publication). and women equally likely to Best Practices in Trafficking Trafficking in Persons, USAID have access to the content of Prevention in Europe and Eurasia, (website). these campaigns? Do men or USAID (2009). women have more access to Trafficking of Adult Men in the some of the types of media Combating Traffickers as Modern Europe and Eurasia Region, USAID that are being used in these Day Slavery: A Matter of Rights, (2010). Freedoms and Security—2010 campaigns (e.g., the Internet)? Trafficking of Men—A Trend Less Annual Report of the Special Considered: The Case of Belarus • Does the law provide for Representative and Co-ordinator and Ukraine, IOM Research Series specific social services and for Trafficking in Human Beings, No. 36, International Organization witness/victim protection for OSCE (2010). Countering for Migration (2009). VoTs? Do male and female Trafficking in Persons, USAIDhttp:// UNODC Russian Federation (website).

UNODC South Eastern Europe (website).

108 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS APPENDIX 1 OVERVIEW OF GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS

In addition to USAID’s Six Domains Frameworks, described in section 3 of this Toolkit, other organizations have developed methodologies for gender analysis. The following briefly summarizes some of the major gender analysis frameworks.

HARVARD ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK (GENDER ROLES FRAMEWORK) • One of the earliest efforts to systematize attention to both women and men and their different positions in society, it was developed by the Harvard Institute for International Development with the USAID WID Office. • Aims to demonstrate the economic rationale for investing in women and to assist in the design of more efficient projects. • Consists of checklists and key questions to ask at each stage of the project cycle: identification, design, implementation, and evaluation. • Organizes data collected in a matrix consisting of four components: –– Activity profile (who does what?) –– Access and control profile (who has access to and control over resources used in activities?) –– Analysis of factors that influence gender differences –– Project cycle analysis (reflection on the effectiveness of the project in light of gender-disaggregated information)

THE MOSER GENDER PLANNING FRAMEWORK • Has the goal of freeing women from subordination and allowing them to achieve equality, equity, and empowerment. • Links the examination of women’s roles to the development planning process. • Based on concepts of gender roles and gender needs. It distinguishes between women’s practical and strategic gender needs. Meeting practical gender needs helpswomen in their current and immediate situation. Strategic gender needs, if met, would lead to transformations in gender power relations and imbalances. • Examines women’s “three roles”—productive, reproductive, and community management—and how they influence women’s participation in development projects.

109 • Consists of six tools and aims to provide guidance on gender planning as a policy approach in its own right.

GENDER ANALYSIS MATRIX (GAM) • Developed to determine how a particular development activity could affect women or men. • Uses a participatory approach in which community stakeholders define and analyze gender differences. • Intended to be used by the community for self-identification of gender issues. • Analyzes project objectives at four levels of society: women, men, household, and community.

WOMEN’S EQUALITY AND EMPOWERMENT (LONGWE) FRAMEWORK (WEP) • Argues that poverty reduction requires the empowerment of women. • Defines women’s empowerment as “enabling women to take an equal place with men, and to participate equally with men in the development process in order to achieve control over the factors of production on an equal basis with men.’’1 • Envisions five progressive levels of equality, from lowest to highest welfare (equal access to material welfare), access (addressing discriminatory practices), “conscientisation” (equal understanding of gender roles), participation (equal participation in decision making), and control (equal control over decision making). • Helps “planners to identify what women’s equality and empowerment would mean in practice, and to determine to what extent a development intervention supports greater empowerment.”2 • Employs a concept of three levels of recognition of women’s issues in project design: negative (no recognition), neutral (women’s issues are recognized but specific actions are not taken), and positive (women’s issues are recognized, and the project aims to positively change women’s status relative to men’s).

SOCIAL RELATIONS APPROACH • More broadly oriented than the Moser approach because it includes an analysis of how gender roles and inequalities are created and reproduced within various structures and institutions (namely, the state, the market, the community, and the family). • Asserts that key institutions have rules, resources, people, power, and activities. These institutions operate according to their own “gender policies.” • Requires that analysis for planning examine which immediate, underlying, and structural factors led to inequalities and how these affect the men and women involved. • Facilitates the design of policies and projects that enable women to work within these structures and institutions and also to change them.

1. UNDP Learning Resources Centre OHR/BOM, “Gender Mainstreaming Learning Manual and Information Pack” (New York: UNDP, 2001). 2. DevTech, Inc., “Gender Analysis Frameworks” (Washington, D.C.: USAID).

110 TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY IN EUROPE AND EURASIA: A TOOLKIT FOR ANALYSIS APPENDIX 2 GENERAL RESOURCES

USAID Mission Gender Analysis Gender Equality & Women’s Empowerment

Statistics and Databases Data Catalog, World Bank Enterprise Surveys, International Finance Corporation and World Bank Financial Inclusion Data, World Bank Gender Equality in Europe and Commonwealth of Independent States (compilation of indicators), UNDP GenderStats, World Bank Social Institutions and & Gender Index, OECD Transmonee Database, UNICEF Regional Office for CEECIS United Nations Statistics Division: Statistics and indicators on women and men The World Factbook, CIA The World’s Women 2010: Trends and Statistics, UN Department on Economic and Social Affairs (2010)

Information and News Websites E&E Intranet (USAID-only access) Social Transitions website Wikigender site (OECD) Gender Informational Network of the South Caucasus Open Women Line

Global and Regional Overviews World Development Report for 2012: Gender Equality and Development, World Bank (2011) The Global Gender Gap Report, World Economic Forum (2011) The MDGs in Europe and Central Asia: Achievements, Challenges and the Way Forward, UNECE (2010) UNDP Development & Transition Series Articles on Gender and Transition

111 From Cairo to Beijing and Beyond: The Unfinished Agenda on Gender Equality in EECA Regional Technical Meeting Background paper UN Economic Commission for Europe: Review of progress for the Beijing +15 Regional Review Meeting from Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia and South-East Europe Gender Issues in Europe & Eurasia: An Overview of the Literature, (2006) USAID

United Nations Human Rights Review Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women countfy-specific materials Human Rights Council/Universal Periodic Review Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights country-specific materials Committee on the Rights of the Child Committee on the Rights of the Child country-specific materials

Gender Analysis Tools and Guidance from Other Organizations A Guide to Gender Analysis Frameworks OECD Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment resources GENDERNET Practice Notes Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) Gender Tool Kit—instruments for gender mainstreaming BRIDGE Development-Gender Cutting Edge Packs Gender Mainstreaming Tools Marketplace: An Annotated Resource Guide, UNDP Gender Manual: A Practical Guide for Development Policy Makers and Practitioners, Department for International Development, DFID (2002) Gender Matters in the OSCE: Toolkit for Gender Mainstreaming, Department for International Development, OSCE (2010) Guide to Gender and Development, AusAID Navigating Gender: A framework and a Tool for Participatory Development, Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, Department for International Development Cooperation (2001) Online Training on Gender Learning and Information Module, Unit 1 “A conceptual framework for gender analysis and planning,” International Labour Organization (ILO)

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