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1111 2 3 4 5 THE PERSIANS 6 7 8 9 10111 11 2 3 European history describes the Persian empires mainly through the 4 history of the Greeks and Romans who regarded them as politically, 5 culturally, and socially inferior. In short, to them the Persians were 6 barbarians. Yet this Indo-European civilisation was one of the most 7 highly developed of the ancient world. Its society, with its many 8 different languages, cultures, and religions, had a profound and 9 continuing influence on the West. 20111 This study vividly introduces the reader to the history of Persia 1 in its own right; from the heights of the Achaemenid dynasty 2 (559–330 BC), the first monarchy to create a world empire, to the 3 heterogeneous empire of the Parthians (247 BC–AD 224), and the 4 powerful Sasanian empire (AD 224–651), epitomised in the rule of 5 Khosrow Anushirvan, ‘Of the Immortal Soul’. 6 The only book of its kind to cover both the history of the 7 Achaemenid period and of the thousand years following Alexander’s 8 conquest, and including chapters on a wide range of separate issues 9 such as society, economy, gender, power, and defence, this book is 30111 the essential beginner’s guide to ancient Persia and ideal for students 1 and general readers alike. 2 3 Maria Brosius is a Reader in Ancient History at the University of 4 Newcastle. She has worked and travelled in Iran and has published 5 several books on Persian history, including The Persian Empire from 6 Cyrus II to Artaxerxes I (2000) and Women in Ancient Persia (559– 7 331 BC) (1996, reprinted 1998, 2001). 8 9 folio 1111 2 3 4 51 PEOPLES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 6 7 8 9 10111 11 2 311 This series stands as the first port of call for anyone who wants to 4 know more about the historically important peoples of the ancient 5 world and the early middle ages. 6 Reliable, up-to-date and with special attention paid to the 7 peoples’ enduring legacy and influence, Peoples of the Ancient World 8 will ensure the continuing prominence of these crucial figures in 9 modern-day study and research. 20111 1 THE PERSIANS 2 An Introduction 3 Maria Brosius 4 5 THE TROJANS AND THEIR NEIGHBOURS 6 Trevor Bryce 7 8 MYCENAEANS 9 Rodney Castleden 30111 1 THE EGYPTIANS 2 An Introduction 3 Robert Morkot 4 5 THE BABYLONIANS 6 An Introduction 7 Gwendolyn Leick 8 911 folio 1111 2 3 4 5 THE PERSIANS 6 7 8 An Introduction 9 10111 11 2 3 4 Maria Brosius 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 folio 1111 2 3 4 51 6 7 8 9 10111 11 2 311 First published 2006 4 by Routledge 5 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 6 Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 7 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 8 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group 9 20111 © 2006 Maria Brosius 1 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006. 2 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s 3 collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” 4 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or 5 reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, 6 or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or 7 retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. 8 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data 9 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 30111 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 1 A catalog record for this book has been requested 2 ISBN10: 0–415–32089–5 (hbk) 3 ISBN10: 0–415–32090–9 (pbk) 4 ISBN10: 0–203–06815–7 (ebk) 5 6 ISBN13: 978–0–415–32089–4 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–32090–0 (pbk) 7 ISBN13: 978–0–203–06815–1 (ebk) 8 911 folio 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111 11 2 3 FÜR FINI 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 folio 1111 2 3 4 51 6 7 8 9 10111 11 2 311 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 911 folio 1111 2 3 4 5 CONTENTS 6 7 8 9 10111 11 2 3 List of figures ix 4 List of maps xi 5 Foreword xii 6 Acknowledgements xiii 7 List of abbreviations xiv 8 Month names in the Achaemenid calendar xvii 9 Month names in Parthian and Pahlavi xviii 20111 1 Introduction 1 1 2 2 The Achaemenids 6 3 Historical survey 6 4 King and court 32 5 Organisation and administration of the empire 47 6 Religion 63 7 Art and architecture 72 8 Excursus I: The creation of ‘the Other’: The Persians and 9 the Greek–Persian wars 76 30111 3 The Parthians (Arsacids) 79 1 Preliminary remarks 79 2 Historical survey 81 3 King and court 101 4 Organisation of the empire 113 5 Religion 125 6 Art and architecture 126 7 Excursus II: The Parthians in the eyes of the Romans 136 8 9 folio vii CONTENTS 1111 4 The Sasanians 139 2 Historical survey 139 3 King and court 159 4 Organisation of the empire 179 51 Religion 187 6 Art and architecture 196 7 Appendices 8 The Achaemenid dynasty 201 9 The Arsacid dynasty 201 10111 The Sasanian dynasty 202 11 2 Notes 204 311 Select bibliography 206 4 Index 211 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 911 folio viii 1111 2 3 4 5 LIST OF FIGURES 6 7 8 9 10111 11 2 1 Seal of Cyrus I (PFS 93) 7 3 2 Plan of Pasargadae 10 4 3a Mount Bisitun 18 5 3b The relief and inscription of Darius I at Bisitun 19 6 4 Plan of Persepolis 21 7 5 Seal of Artaxerxes III (The Hermitage Museum, 8 St Petersburg 19499) 30 9 6 Audience relief of Persepolis 35 20111 7 Shield of a Persian soldier on the Alexander 1 sarcophagus 36 2 8 North staircase of the Apadana, Persepolis 38 3 9 Seal of a female audience scene (PFS 77*) 42 4 10 Seal of Darius I from Egypt (BM 89132) 44 5 11 Persian seal depicting an ostrich hunt (Louvre 6 AO20115) 45 7 12 Persian banquet scene on an ivory from Demetrias, 8 Greece (Athens 27993) 46 9 13 The royal hero on a doorway at Persepolis 61 30111 14 Seal from Persepolis (PFS 75) 64 1 15 The royal khvarrah in the winged disc, Persepolis 67 2 16 The tomb of Cyrus II at Pasargadae 72 3 17 Achaemenid royal tomb at Naqsh-i Rustam 73 4 18 Persian nobles on the staircase, Persepolis 75 5 19 Tetradrachme of Mithridates I, Seleucia (Bibliothèque 6 Nationale de France, Paris) 87 7 20 Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta (Vatican 8 Museum, Braccio Nuovo, Rome, Inv.2290) 98 9 21 Denarius of Augustus depicting a kneeling Parthian 98 folio ix LIST OF FIGURES 1111 22 Drachme of Arsaces I (Bibliothèque Nationale de 2 France, Paris) 102 3 23 Rhython from Nisa 105 4 24a Women in Parthian dress from Hatra 109 51 24b Statue of a princess in Parthian dress from Hatra 109 6 25 Plan of Old Nisa 112 7 26 Graffito of a cataphractus from Dura-Europos 121 8 27 Parthian horseman (Pergamonmuseum, no. I.3684) 121 9 28 Parthian relief at Bisitun 130 10111 29 Parthian relief at Khung-e Nouruzi 131 11 30 Chivalrous combat at Tang-e Sarvak 132 2 31 Statue of a Parthian nobleman from Shami (Muzeh 311 Melli, Tehran 2401) 133 4 32 Statue of the Hatran king Sanatruq 135 5 33 Sestertius of Trajan commemorating his Parthian 6 victory (Ashmolean Museum) 137 7 34 The Sasanian relief at Tang-e Ab, Firuzabad 141 8 35 Relief at Bishapur of Shapur II’s victory over the 9 Roman emperors 146 20111 36 Kirdir’s relief at Naqsh-i Rajab 147 1 37a Investiture relief of Ardashir I at Tang-e Ab, Firuzabad 161 2 37b Investiture relief of Ardashir I at Tang-e Ab, 3 Firuzabad – close-up 161 4 38 Investiture relief of Ardashir I at Naqsh-i Rustam 162 5 39 Sasanian silver plate depicting a royal banquet 6 (Walters Art Museum, Baltimore 57.709) 165 7 40 Sasanian gold and silver plate depicting a hunt of 8 Shapur II (The Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, inv. S-253) 166 9 41 Relief of Khosrow II at Taq-e Bostan 166 30111 42 Sasanian relief of a chivalrous combat at Naqsh-i Rustam 167 1 43 Aerial photograph of Ardashir Khvarrah (Firuzabad) 2 (Gerster) 169 3 44 Aerial view of Bishapur (Gerster) 171 4 45a Sasanian seal depicting a royal woman 175 5 45b Seal of Denak (The Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg) 175 6 46 The royal family of Narseh, Naqsh-i Rustam 176 7 47 Sasanian relief of Khosrow II at Taq-e Bostan 177 8 48 Aerial view of Adur Gushnasp (Takht-e Suleiman) 911 (Gerster) 190 folio x 1111 2 3 4 5 LIST OF MAPS 6 7 8 9 10111 11 2 3 1 The Achaemenid empire 14 4 2 The Royal Roads of Achaemenid Persia 54 5 3 The Parthian empire at the time of Mithridates I 88 6 4 The Parthian empire 93 7 5 The Silk Road 124 8 6 The Sasanian empire 143 9 20111 All maps were redrawn for this volume.
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  • Journal of Archaeology and Ancient History 2020 Number 27 Editor: Karl-Johan Lindholm Editorial Board: Assyriology: Olof Pedersén

    Journal of Archaeology and Ancient History 2020 Number 27 Editor: Karl-Johan Lindholm Editorial Board: Assyriology: Olof Pedersén

    JAAH Journal of Archaeology and Ancient History 2020 Number 27 Editor: Karl-Johan Lindholm Editorial Board: Assyriology: Olof Pedersén. Archaeology: Anders Kaliff, Neil Price. Classical Archaeology and Ancient History: Gunnel Ekroth, Lars Karlsson. Egyptology: Andreas Dorn. Editorial history: www.arkeologi.uu.se/Journal/ ISSN: 2001-1199 Published: 2020-10-09 at http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-420702 The Bīsotūn Inscription - A Jeopardy of Achaemenid History Amir Ahmadi1 1Amir Ahmadi, School of Philosophical, Historical and International Studies, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. [email protected] Department of Archaeology and Ancient History Uppsala University, Sweden 1 ABSTRACT According to the currently favoured view among historians of the Persian Empire, the Bīsotūn Inscription is a deceitful piece of propaganda whose purpose was to resolve Darius’s legitimacy problem. To this effect, Darius cobbles a family relation with Cyrus and fabricates the story of a magus who impersonates Smerdis, son of Cyrus, and usurps the throne. This view, however, contradicts not only the Bīsotūn Inscription but also the ancient Greek testimonies. This article examines the arguments historians have given for their position. Since all views of the two issues in question are necessarily interpretations of the relevant sources that rely on argumentation, reasons and inferences must stand up to critical scrutiny. Keywords Achaemenid history; Bīsotūn Inscription; Persian Empire; Darius; Cyrus; Herodotus. 2 AMIR AHMADI The Bīsotūn Inscription - A Jeopardy of Achaemenid History Introduction The prevalent view of the Bīsotūn Inscription in contemporary histories of the Achaemenid Empire has two striking characteristics. The first one is that it contradicts the Bīsotūn Inscription and the classical sources regarding the rise of Darius on key points.