Journal of Service Theory and Practice

Journal of Service Theory and Practice

Cyborgs as Front-line Service Employees: A Research Agenda

Journal: Journal of Service Theory and Practice

Manuscript ID JSTP-11-2018-0241.R5

Manuscript Type: Research Paper

Cyborgs, Service and Service Delivery, Emergent Technologies, Front Keywords: Line Service Employees

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1 2 3 Cyborgs as Front-line Service Employees: A Research Agenda 4 5 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 Abstract 8 9 10 Purpose 11 This paper identifies and explores potential applications of cyborgian technologies within 12 service contexts and how service providers may leverage the integration of cyborgian service 13 14 actors into their service proposition. In doing so, the paper proposes a new category of ‘melded’ 15 frontline service employees (FLEs), where advanced technologies become embodied within 16 human actors. The paper presents potential opportunities and challenges that may arise through 17 cyborg technological advancements and proposes a future research agenda related to these. 18 19 20 21 Design/methodology 22 This study draws on literature in the fields of services management, Artificial Intelligence [AI], 23 robotics, Intelligence Augmentation [IA] and Human Intelligence [HIs] to conceptualise 24 potential cyborgian applications. 25 26 27 Findings 28 29 The paper examines how cyborg bio- and psychophysical characteristics may significantly 30 differentiate the nature of service interactions from traditional ‘unenhanced’ service 31 interactions. In doing so, we propose ‘melding’ as a conceptual category of technological 32 impact on FLEs. This category reflects the embodiment of emergent technologies not 33 previously captured within existing literature on cyborgs. We examine how traditional roles 34 of FLEs will be potentially impacted by the integration of emergent cyborg technologies, such 35 as neural interfaces and implants, into service contexts before outlining future research 36 37 directions related to these, specifically highlighting the range of ethical considerations. 38 39 40 Originality/Value 41 Service interactions with cyborg FLEs represent a new context for examining the potential 42 impact of cyborgs. This paper explores how technological advancements will alter the 43 44 individual capacities of humans to enable such employees to intuitively and empathetically 45 create solutions to complex service challenges. In doing so, we augment the extant literature 46 on cyborgs, such as the body hacking movement. The paper also outlines a research agenda to 47 address the potential consequences of cyborgian integration. 48 49 50 Key Words 51 52 Cyborgs, Service and Service Delivery, Emergent Technologies, Front Line Service 53 Employees 54 55 56 Article Classification 57 Conceptual 58 59 60

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1 2 3 Introduction 4 5 Evolving technologies are rapidly transforming the nature of services, service customer 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 experiences and the very essence of relationships between customers and service providers 8 (van Doorn, et al., 2017). In terms of applications, there has been much focus on the ‘infusion’ 9 10 of smart technologies, Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Huang and Rust, 2018) and/or the 11 12 assimilation of robots into service delivery processes (e.g., De Keyser, et al., 2019; Wirtz et 13 14 al., 2018; Galeon and Reedy, 2017). However, the nature of emergent technologies and their 15 application within service delivery systems is increasingly blurring the boundaries between 16 17 ‘physical, digital and biological spheres’ (Huang and Rust, 2018: 155). Drawing on and 18 19 augmenting the robotics and AI literatures, researchers within marketing (e.g., Belk, 2016; 20 21 2017; 2018; Galeon and Reedy, 2017) are predicting the rapid convergence of AI-based 22 systems (robots) and intelligent augmentation (IA) systems (e.g., insideables and 23 24 neuroprosthetics) with humans (biological systems) within the next 10-30 years. Related to 25 26 this, an important but neglected entity in the evolution of service delivery is the role of robot- 27 human hybrids, otherwise known as cyborgs. A cyborg may be defined as a modified 28 29 (augmented) human (Haraway, 1985; Buchanan-Oliver, et al., 2010) that integrates 30 31 technologies within the body by way of mechanical and/or technological ‘insideables’. A recent 32 33 report by the Royal Society (2019) highlights the urgency with which issues related to the 34 adoption and use of such technologies by business should be considered, stating “the 35 36 opportunities are unprecedented and immense – as are the challenges”. Such interfaces offer 37 38 unimaginable benefits but also pose risks, such as privacy and human rights issues, and social 39 40 inequality. There is currently no established infrastructure for their adoption in business, such 41 as a legislative framework, ethical context or industrial best practice in their adoption and use. 42 43 44 45 This paper aims to explore the potential role of cyborgs within service contexts and to further 46 develop existing classifications and the roles of both technology and frontline employees 47 48 (FLEs) so as they encompass the impacts of cyborgs within service contexts. To achieve this, 49 50 we briefly examine extant literature on FLEs and their roles (e.g., Bowen, 2016). Drawing on 51 52 the work of Larivière, et al. (2017), we propose an additional classification that reflects the 53 fusion of emergent technology and humans. We subsequently examine how traditional roles of 54 55 FLEs will be impacted by the integration of cyborgs into service contexts before outlining 56 57 future research directions related to these. In doing so, the paper highlights the need for further 58 research in relation to service contexts and considers the directions in which this might expand 59 60 in future.

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1 2 3 4 5 FLEs and Service Delivery 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 The imperative to create value and enable value exchange manifests itself in the dynamic 8 relationship between FLEs and customers (Subramony and Pugh, 2015; Gabriel, et al., 2016; 9 10 Groth, et al., 2019). There is a plethora of research that demonstrates empirical links between 11 12 employee satisfaction and productivity, service value, customer satisfaction and loyalty, and 13 14 the revenue growth and profitability of the firm associated with these (Heskett, et al., 1997; 15 Anderson, et al., 2004; Wirtz and Jerger, 2017). The role of FLEs as stewards of customer 16 17 contact and relationship management has long been recognised within such research (e.g., 18 19 Schlesinger and Heskett, 1991) to the extent that the very nature and outcome of service 20 21 encounters are significantly shaped by their characteristics (e.g., Bitner 1990; Berry, 1995; 22 Grönroos, 1984; Rust and Oliver, 1994; Homburg and Stock, 2004). In examining FLEs, Singh 23 24 et al. (2017) define the organisational frontline as ‘the study of interactions and interfaces at 25 26 the point of contact between an organisation and its customers that promotes, facilitates, or 27 enables value creation and value exchange’ (Singh, et al., 2017:4). However, value is a 28 29 subjective judgment and based on intangible interpersonal interactions between FLEs and 30 31 customers. As such, these ‘moments of truth’ (Bitner, 1990) are based on the subjective 32 33 perceptions of both FLEs and customers. Hence, understanding and management of these 34 interactions and interfaces, or ‘touch points’, is critical to organisational success. Customer- 35 36 FLE interactions may be characterised by complexity, co-production, co-creation, productivity, 37 38 efficiency, efficacy and problem solving and are increasingly enabled by complex service 39 40 systems that encompass actors, technologies and resources (e.g., Schneider and Bowen, 2019; 41 De Keyser, et al., 2019). Similarly, interfaces are characterised by the extent of automation, 42 43 flexibility, synchronicity/specificity, openness, complexity and the very nature of the 44 45 servicescape. In attempting to comprehend and structuralise interaction and interface 46 characteristics, Bowen (2016) identifies four key roles of FLEs within contemporary service 47 48 contexts: differentiator, enabler, coordinator and innovator. 49 50 51 52 The Role of Differentiator 53 FLEs are instrumental in adapting service to suit individual needs thereby enhancing customer 54 55 experience (Lai, et al., 2014; Motamarri, et al., 2017). However, cost reduction to achieve 56 57 process efficiencies increasingly moves many service firms towards a commoditised model of 58 service provision with associated consequences for customer experience. Within such 59 60 environments, ‘small details’ can have a significant impact (Bolton, et al., 2014): identifying

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1 2 3 and evaluating touch points such as emotional engagement and authenticity through intimacy 4 5 and passion have been demonstrated to enhance customer loyalty (Yim, et al., 2008). A non- 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 substitutable personal touch can mitigate customer perceived commoditization (Motamarri, et 8 al., 2017). 9 10 11 12 In relation to this, services research has long recognised the ways in which human service 13 14 providers may be perceived as demonstrating emotion, empathy and understanding and hence 15 the potential to evoke positive affect and user feelings of attachment (e.g., Sierra and McQuitty, 16 17 2005). Empathetic intelligence is the ability to recognize, understand and influence other 18 19 peoples’ emotions (Goleman, 1996) and to learn and adapt emphatically based on experience. 20 21 Drawing on previous research in this area (e.g., Gardner 1983; Johnson 2014), Huang and Rust 22 (2018) identify empathetic intelligence as encompassing interpersonal, social and people skills 23 24 that help humans to be sensitive to others’ feelings, albeit some have highlighted this as 25 26 potential exploitation of employee emotions (see e.g., Grandey, Fisk and Steiner, 2005; Hartley, 27 2018). The ability of FLEs to ‘infect’ and sense emotions (Pugh, 2001; Hennig-Thurau, et al., 28 29 2006) has been shown to have a significant role in perceptions of service quality and, 30 31 ultimately, customer satisfaction (Hunt, 1993). As such, service organisations frequently 32 33 require FLEs to display positive emotions during service encounters and/or to suppress 34 negative emotions (Groth, et al., 2019). FLEs’ observable emotional displays such as facial 35 36 expressions, gestures and tone of voice, are required to be authentic displays of emotions and 37 38 adhere to those expected. The skillset associated with empathetic emotions typically includes 39 40 negotiating, advocating, leadership, relationship building and communication (Caprino, 2012). 41 42 43 The Role of Enabler 44 45 The customer’s role as co-producer of a service has expanded (e.g., De Keyser, et al., 2019). 46 As such, FLEs are increasingly responsible for assessing customers as ‘human resources’ 47 48 (Bowen, 2016) whose skills and competencies are leveraged to optimise service experience. 49 50 This may entail ‘socialising and training’ customers about their role in the co-production 51 52 process (Guo, et al., 2013). The heterogeneous nature of customers in terms of their savviness 53 (Macdonald and Uncles, 2007) and sophistication (Garry and Harwood, 2009) will determine 54 55 the nature and extent of enabling necessary. Such roles frequently require not only technical 56 57 competencies but also interpersonal skills (Larivière, 2014) that require varying degrees of 58 ‘rapport-building behaviour’ with customers (Geibelhausen et al., 2014; Bowen, 2016). 59 60

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1 2 3 The Role of Coordinator 4 5 As early as the 1980s, Lovelock (1981) identified service employees acting as a ‘service trinity’ 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 that encompassed helping to run service operations, marketing the service and being the visible 8 customer-facing facet of the firm. Subsequently, Zeithaml, et al. (1985) define FLEs as ‘those 9 10 at the boundary of a firm, interacting with customers on behalf of and representing the firm’. 11 12 This unique position in the organisation places FLEs as ‘boundary spanners’ (Wirtz and Jerger, 13 14 2016). FLEs are the interface between the inside and outside of the firm, operating at the 15 boundary of the organisation communicating both the voice of the firm externally and the voice 16 17 of the customer internally (Bettencourt, et al., 2005). FLEs are also key components of service 18 19 delivery, informing customer needs and requirements internally to different parts of the 20 21 organisation (Wirtz and Jerger, 2016). 22 23 24 The Role of Innovator 25 26 Interactions with customers help identify and generate service improvement processes through 27 FLEs’ ability to read customers’ needs (Lagas and Piercy, 2012). Therefore, the ability to 28 29 identify customer needs for innovative and creative idea generation of service process 30 31 improvements and as part of the value creation process for customers becomes an integral role 32 33 of many FLE positions. 34 35 36 FLEs and service technologies 37 38 Advances in technologies are profoundly disrupting interactions between FLEs and customers, 39 40 particularly in ways that create and exchange value (Huang and Rust, 2018). These 41 technologies render new types of services to end users together with a range of accompanying 42 43 interactions that are increasingly complex and diverse in their nature. Whilst some of these, 44 45 such as the Internet of Things (IoT), are both ubiquitously and inconspicuously consumed 46 within their environment (e.g., Harwood and Garry, 2017), others are made visible through 47 48 more innovative interfaces and touchpoints (e.g., van Doorn, et al., 2017; Belk, 2016). 49 50 51 52 In examining the impact of emerging technologies on service encounters, Larivière, et al. 53 (2017) posit that firms infuse technologies into service encounters through adoption in one of 54 55 three categories: substitution, augmentation and network facilitation. To fully comprehend how 56 57 cyborgs will warrant their own category, it is necessary to examine these existing categories in 58 more detail. 59 60

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1 2 3 Substitution 4 5 Within certain service contexts, advances in smart devices, automation, robotics, sensor fusion 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 and learning algorithms are replacing FLEs. This is particularly the case within services where 8 mechanical intelligence dominates. Mechanical intelligence refers to the ability to perform 9 10 routine and repeated tasks: with the repetitive nature of such tasks, mechanical intelligence has 11 12 a relative advantage over humans insofar as these tasks can be done more rapidly, accurately 13 14 and efficiently without the onset of fatigue or boredom (Marinova, et al., 2017). This reflects 15 evolving managerial focus on developing lean and efficient interfaces with an emphasis on cost 16 17 saving (Singh, et al., 2017). Current prototype applications of robotic technologies already 18 19 encompass waiters in restaurants, caregivers for the elderly and hotel concierges. From a 20 21 service perspective, mechanical intelligence may be optimised where problem solving is 22 relatively simple (Singh, et al., 2017) and the extent of human social presence necessary to 23 24 perform the task is low (van Doorn, et al., 2017). Mechanical intelligence within such contexts 25 26 is likely to manifest itself in what Dabholkar (1996) refers to as technology-based self-service 27 tools. These will include interactive voice responses (chatbots), often based within machine- 28 29 to-machine (M2M) contexts, and encompass robotic and automated systems. 30 31 32 33 Service robots that are autonomous devices have been imbued with machine learning (ML) and 34 AI and have the ability to process natural language. Whilst the potential and reality of industrial 35 36 robots to replace humans within manufacturing contexts is being realised, such replacement is 37 38 increasingly occurring within a more diverse range of contexts including progressively more 39 40 complex service provision (e.g., Ford, 2017). These technologies render new types of service 41 experience for customers through changing the nature of both interaction and interface with 42 43 organisations (Wirtz, et al., 2018). For example, remote caregivers give advice to assisted 44 45 persons through a mobilized robot called ROBIN (Cortellessa, et al., 2018); dancing robots 46 provide support for rehabilitating patients with Parkinson’s disease (Chen, et al., 2015) and 47 48 EVA provides photography at events to engage with clients and attendees (see 49 50 servicerobots.com). Hence, within some service contexts, an embodied humanoid presence 51 52 through some form of service robot is already provided (van Doorn, et al., 2017; Wirtz, et al., 53 2018). 54 55 56 57 Augmentation 58 Larivière, et al. (2017) identify how certain technologies will assist and complement FLEs in 59 60 the service encounter (Marinova, et al., 2017), where neural interfaces will enable brain signals

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1 2 3 and ultimately thoughts to be detectable through a range of technologies such as vestibular and 4 5 retinal implants (e.g., Royal Society, 2019). Referred to as Intelligent Augmentation (IA) 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 (Larivière, et al., 2017), technology is used to support human thinking, analysis and behaviour. 8 Analytical intelligence encompasses the ability to process information for problem-solving and 9 10 to learn from it (Sternberg, 2005), constituting various forms of knowledge management. 11 12 Analytical intelligence maybe used for performing ‘complex, systematic consistent and 13 14 predictable’ tasks (Huang and Rust, 2018). Such problem-solving involves expertise and 15 judgment that draws on tacit knowledge and frequently requires a deviation from service scripts 16 17 to generate innovative solutions (e.g., Coelho and Augusto, 2010; Kiffin-Peterson, et al., 2012). 18 19 Individual experiences are effectively and efficiently transformed into experiential knowledge. 20 21 Related to this, intuitive intelligence is the ability to learn and adapt intuitively by drawing on 22 a range of higher-level skills and cognitions to understand and diagnose a challenge, and 23 24 identify solutions to address and learn from it (Huang and Rust, 2018). Intuition is generally 25 26 distinguished as a process of management cognition incorporating intuitive insight and 27 intuitive judgment (Argyris and Schon, 1978; Davenport and Prusak, 2000) and based on levels 28 29 of expertise and familiarity with problem domains such as medicine and law (e.g., Dorfler and 30 31 Ackermann, 2012). 32 33 34 Experiential knowledge is converted into processed data through machine learning algorithms 35 36 responding to, and anticipating the demands of, individual customers (Jayanti and Singh, 37 38 2010). Such technologies complement human interaction and enhance problem-solving 39 40 efficiencies. Indeed, van Doorn, et al. (2017) identify a scenario where a customer co-produces 41 a service with both a human employee and an automated agent. As such, higher levels of 42 43 applications of knowledge are targets for emergent machine learning algorithms. For example, 44 45 IBM's Watson supercomputer is in training to support diagnoses of a range of human medical 46 conditions (see Muller, 2018) and complex data visualisations are increasingly using virtual 47 48 and augmented reality technologies such as head-mounted computers (e.g., Magic Leap, 49 50 Hololens, Oculus Rift) to support decision-making processes of agents. 51 52 53 Network Facilitation 54 55 Larivière, et al. (2017) identify a third role of technology as that of network facilitation. 56 57 Network facilitation encompasses the enabling of connections and relationships of multiple 58 actors (machine and human) in service encounters. Analytical intelligence increasingly relies 59 60 on a move away from standalone technologies to networked technologies that are capable of

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1 2 3 processing massive amounts of data. Smart technologies capable of real-time processing are 4 5 increasingly being used. 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 8 Cyborgs: Technology Melding with FLEs 9 10 Cyborg technology has increasingly received attention in technology, science and medical 11 12 research fields (see Table 1). Whereas humans have had integrated technologies as a form of 13 14 medical cybernetic augmentation for a number of years (see for example Adams, 2017; Royal 15 Society, 2019), contemporary applications involve human bio-enhancements, prosthetics and 16 17 implanted medical devices such as limbs, pacemakers and restorative devices for eyesight, 18 19 hearing, etc. (Sparrow, et al., 2011). High profile cases include filmmaker Rob Spence’s 20 21 ‘eyeborg’, a video camera implanted into his eye socket that enables him to capture a first- 22 person perspective of a scene. Another case is Neil Harbisson, whose ‘antenna’ (which has 23 24 been surgically affixed to his brain) enables him to detect ultraviolent and infrared light and 25 26 replaces his lost sense of colour spectrum with an altered sensory perspective (Adams, 2017). 27 More recently the capability of operating mechanical devices through thoughts has enabled the 28 29 connecting of individuals’ brains with mechanical devices (Winkler, 2017). Extrapolating these 30 31 developments further, however, suggests such devices will not simply replace or correct 32 33 psychophysiological functions like-for-like, but increasingly enhance capability. For example, 34 a limb that responds more quickly than a natural limb increasing ambulatory speed or offering 35 36 extended function; eyesight that provides augmented content direct to the brain; a brain 37 38 deficiency treatment that enhances cognitive function to a supra-natural level (see e.g., 39 40 Warwick, 2003; Herr, 2014; Tzafestas, 2018). Researchers have recently demonstrated the 41 feasibility of brain-computer interfaces with accompanying predictions that this may be a 42 43 precursor to embodying AI networks and notions of ‘collective intelligence’ being posited 44 45 (Royal Society, 2019; Huang and Rust 2018; Ascott, 2013). 46 47 48 Larivière, et al. (2017) draw a clear distinction between technology per se and FLEs as humans. 49 50 Technology may be used to substitute or augment FLE roles. However, we propose a fourth 51 52 category to Lariviere et al.’s whereby technology is ‘melded’ with humans to form cyborgs. 53 We see this as distinct from Larivière, et al.’s (2017) augmentation category described above 54 55 which primarily reflects an externalized use of technologies as tools that augment human 56 57 action. Instead, we suggest melding reflects a growing movement towards the ‘embodied’ use 58 of technologies that fundamentally alters human capabilities at both the psychophysical and 59 60 biological levels. Melding draws on the concept of ‘cyborg’, where extant literature in business

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1 2 3 and services, defines cyborg as an overarching term that describes a modified human (Haraway, 4 5 1985; Buchanan-Oliver, et al., 2010), reflecting a transhumanist ideal of ‘self-transformation’ 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 and ‘self-overcoming’ (More, 2010) in which technologies become alterations of the self in 8 ways that enhance and improve performance (e.g., Blackford, 2013) and encompasses 9 10 ‘everyday technologies’ such as eyeglasses, etc. 11 12 13 14 [Insert Table 1 about here] 15 16 17 Such alterations encompass the integration of technologies within the body by way of 18 19 mechanical and/or technological implants or ‘insideables’. This term was coined by Mouthuy 20 21 and Carr (2017) as a comparator to the commonly-used term ‘wearables’. In the near future, it 22 is likely that enhanced psychophysiological capability through melding with technologies such 23 24 as neuroprosthetics (see Table 1) will ultimately result in higher levels of productivity, together 25 26 with lowered levels of personal stress and increased health and longevity (e.g., Blackford, 27 2013). However, technological advancements are difficult to predict, frequently involve 28 29 compromise and trade-off and have disadvantages as well as advantages (e.g., Ihde, 2008). 30 31 Evolutionary ethicists remain highly critical of such technological melding (or medling) (e.g., 32 33 Peters, 2008; Dupuy, 2011). Nonetheless, advancements are plausible and likely to lead to a 34 number of potential cyborg FLE applications within service industries (e.g., Lovelock, 2019, 35 36 discusses the ‘Nanocene’ – a posthuman world in which cyborgs are hyperintelligent electronic 37 38 beings). In examining these, we initially explore how melding of technology and human may 39 40 manifest itself before specifically examining how cyborgs may impact service roles. 41 42 43 Cyborgs as FLEs 44 45 Within FLE service contexts, such applications not only relate to manual work where metabolic 46 47 strength and endurance is required, but also intelligence-based tasks where neuroplasticity, say, 48 49 for data processing capability is beneficial. However, it is particularly emotionally-based tasks, 50 where increased emotional intelligence is significant that we envisage cyborgian technology 51 52 will be particularly impactful. In examining this, we once again draw on the notion of Bowen’s 53 54 (2016) ‘transformed roles’ as a basis for discussion with Table 2 summarising the potential 55 transformation of FLE roles by Cyborgs. 56 57 58 59 [Insert Table 2 about here] 60

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1 2 3 4 5 Cyborg as Differentiator 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 Huang and Rust (2018) propose a division between AI and intuitive and emphatic workers 8 where by analytical AI does the ‘heavy-duty’ data and information processing in terms of 9 10 preparation, calculation and analysis. Consequently, FLEs are left to make and communicate 11 12 ‘wise decisions’ based on intuitive and emphatic intelligence. Related to this, Marinova et al. 13 14 (2017) discuss the role of collaborative robots working alongside FLEs and leveraging smart 15 technologies to co-create value with customers. However, with enhanced capability that 16 17 effectively and efficiently processes big data, melded with human centred intuitive and 18 19 emphatic intelligence, cyborgs will have ‘rapid, on-the-spot access to processed, readily 20 21 available, accurate, customer specific insights derived from the customer’s evolving 22 behaviours and experiences’ (Marinova, et al., 2017:33). It is this integration of ‘big’ and 23 24 ‘small’ data coupled with intuitive and emphatic intelligence that offers the potential for 25 26 significant advantages in the marketplace (Lam, et al., 2017). 27 28 29 With organisations such as IBM estimating global production of data to be 2.3 trillion gigabytes 30 31 each day and that the world will have created 40 zettabytes of data by 2020 (270 bytes) (Lam, 32 33 et al., 2017), the volume of data globally available continues to increase exponentially. 34 Availability of such data refers to what McAfee and Brynjolfsson (2012) refer to as the 3V 35 36 components of big data: volume (the amount of data), velocity (the speed of data) and variety 37 38 (sources of data). However, such data needs to be converted so it provides ‘useful, actionable 39 40 information about customers, competition and the market’ (Lam, et al., 2017:13). To achieve 41 this, the ability to acquire, assimilate, transform and apply big data to create marketing 42 43 capability (Lam, et al., 2017) is necessary. Lam, et al. (2017) identify three key areas by which 44 45 big data may be generated within a service context: passive learning; comprehensive customer 46 tracking and business data augmentation with non-business data: 47 48 • Passive learning encompasses gathering customer data outside interactions with FLEs 49 50 (using in-store cameras, cell phone signals and Wi-Fi etc.) to track in-store behaviours and 51 52 visiting patterns (Brynjolfsson, Hu and Rahman, 2013). 53 • Comprehensive customer tracking refers to service providers tracking customers outside 54 55 their physical location (eg., data collected from social networks such as Facebook). 56 57 • Business data augmentation with non-business data refers to the integration of business 58 59 data with data from non-business sources such as face-to-face interaction (eg., voice 60

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1 2 3 intonations and facial expressions), contextual and situational data (eg., whether customers 4 5 are in a hurry, whose opinions are sought, etc.) and emotional interpretations. 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 8 Small data refers to data collected by FLEs through interactions and relationships with 9 10 customers (Lam, et al., 2017) and provides deep, rich insights (such as intuition and emotional 11 12 information) that may be used in a given context. In contrast to big data, small data is generated 13 14 about specific customers. It is usually characterised as being tacit and unarticulated. Such 15 information is generated through interpersonal interactions in real-time with customers. 16 17 Marinova, et al. (2017) succinctly capture the characteristics of such interactions insofar as 18 19 they generate ‘rich, unique data that gives rise to FLE know-how… that cannot be possessed 20 21 readily as a set of hard facts… [and are] characterised by complexity, fragility and tacitness 22 because it is unprocessed, variable, unclear (ambiguous action-outcome links) and thus 23 24 unscable in its original form’ (Marinova, et al., 2017:33). 25 26 27 Cyborgs will have the ability to identify, acquire and assimilate big data provided through 28 29 passive learning sources, customer tacking and data augmentation integrated with their own 30 31 intrinsic and tacit knowledge, or small data, acquired through their experiences as FLEs. In 32 33 other words, they will have both the know what and the know how to utilise in their 34 relationships with customers. They will be able to identify customers along with their 35 36 preferences, habits and even their current emotional state effectively constructing a ‘360 degree 37 38 view of the customer’ (Grewal and Iyer, 2017). Crucially, and in contrast to Larivière, et al.’s 39 40 substitution and augmentation technology categories, cyborgs will be able to leverage their 41 intuitive and emphatic intelligence as well as big data analytics to optimise what Bolton, et al. 42 43 (2014) refer to as the small details of emotional engagement and authenticity through the 44 45 demonstration of intimacy and passion. 46 47 48 AIs are unlikely to be imbued with emphatic intelligence as a capability in the near future, 49 50 albeit an area of developing interest (see e.g., Williams, 2018). In contrast to human FLEs, with 51 52 enhanced levels of intuitive and emphatic intelligence, cyborgs may be able to potentially 53 manipulate elements of their dyadic interaction style to enhance relational satisfaction, 54 55 encompassing data and decision with humanistic insight. For example, increased rapport may 56 57 lead to enhanced customer perceptions of ‘having enjoyable interaction with a service 58 employee, characterised by a personal connection between the two interactants’ (Gremler, 59 60 2017:93). Gabriel, et al. (2015) suggest FLEs may leverage emotional displays as part of their

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1 2 3 self-presentation or impression management behaviour. Such displays send signals to potential 4 5 customers about the FLE’s intended behaviours (e.g., to cooperate). Hence, cyborgs may also 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 be capable of leveraging intuitive and emotional intelligence with facial coding technologies 8 to read a customer’s emotional state which is then combined with real-time access to 9 10 background information such as past shopping behaviours and experiences together with in- 11 12 store, service experiences (Lam, et al., 2018) and thereby optimise the moment of truth by 13 14 utilising deep insight. 15 16 17 Cyborgs as Coordinators and Network Facilitator 18 19 FLEs will increasingly operate within service ecosystems comprising ‘configurations of 20 21 people, technologies, organisations and shared information able to create and deliver value’ 22 (Maglio and Spohrer, 2008:18). The services such systems enable will increasingly involve 23 24 relationships between a diversity of internal and external actors (Gummesson and Grönroos, 25 26 2012). For this reason, we see Larivière, et al.’s (2017) categories fusing into a single role 27 whereby cyborg FLEs will act as both coordinator and network facilitator with the blurring of 28 29 boundaries between firms and markets. Actors will collectively coordinate their behaviour as 30 31 a complex adaptive system (e.g., Mele and Polese, 2011; Chandler and Lusch, 2015; Engen, et 32 33 al., 2016) where new entities (human and non-human actors) will be continually joining and 34 leaving a network to ensure service and experiential optimisation (Ng and Wakenshaw, 2017). 35 36 As such, the role of coordinator becomes more significant and more complicated as FLEs 37 38 coordinate multiple touch points within the ecosystem. Inherent within this is the ability to 39 40 identify the interaction actor as human, machine or cyborg and leverage an appropriate blend 41 of intelligence (mechanical, analytical, intuitive or empathetic) to ensure system cohesion 42 43 (Larivière, et al., 2017), facilitation of the network and the optimisation of the customer 44 45 experience. 46 47 48 Cyborgs as Enablers 49 50 Using big data analytics and small data, cyborgs will be able to audit customer skills, 51 52 competencies and resources in real time to ascertain the nature and extent of enabling required 53 for a particular service. In contrast to contexts where technology has substituted FLEs, cyborgs 54 55 will be able to draw on intuitive and emphatic intelligence to leverage their rapport-building 56 57 behaviour (Geibelhausen, et al., 2014; Bowen, 2016) to socialise and train customers to 58 optimise co-production (Guo, et al., 2013). Hence, cyborgs will circumvent inherent tensions 59 60

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1 2 3 of initiatives designed to encourage employee customer rapport with technology substitution 4 5 at the frontline service boundary (Geibelhausen, et al., 2014). 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 8 Cyborgs as Innovators 9 10 Technology cannot substitute human creativity as a source of innovative ideas in either services 11 12 or their delivery (Motamarri, et al., 2017), albeit AIs are increasingly being used to ‘creatively’ 13 14 explore datasets (see e.g., Boden, 2016; du Sautoy, 2019). Interactions with customers help 15 generate service improvement processes through an FLE’s ability to ‘read’ customers’ needs 16 17 (Lages and Piercy, 2012). Therefore, the opportunity for innovation and creative idea 18 19 generation for service process improvements becomes an integral role of many FLE positions. 20 21 With cyborgs, these opportunities will be exponentially enhanced through the melding of 22 analytical capabilities, creative insight and human perspective. 23 24 25 26 Reflecting the themes identified for the melded cyborg, we next examine the research issues 27 that cyborgs as FLEs present within an organisational and service marketing context. 28 29 30 31 Cyborg as FLEs: A research agenda 32 33 It is evident that cyborg FLEs potentially represent a unique and distinct context for exploring 34 35 the impact of cyborgs within business contexts. As highlighted above, extant service theory 36 does not adequately capture the essence of how cyborgs may impact service encounters. In 37 38 proposing a research agenda, we extrapolate on the preceding discussion to reflect key issues 39 40 related to the nature and roles of cyborgs as FLEs. Specifically, the issues we identify relate to 41 42 a range of ethical considerations presented by the melded cyborg category of FLE, such as 43 visibility and embeddedness of the technology in use; the roles of transparency and disclosure; 44 45 use and acceptance of cyborg actors within a firm context; FLE and customer power 46 47 imbalances; and, privacy and security. We attempt to link emerging research questions in 48 49 relation to Bowen’s (2016) categories, albeit many of the issues proposed transcend all the 50 categories identified at this stage of the research development (see Table 3). 51 52 53 54 [Insert Table 3 about here] 55 56 57 Visibility-invisibility (perceptibility-imperceptibility) of alteration 58 59 60

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1 2 3 Unlike Larivière, et al.’s augmentation category, melded technologies will be increasingly 4 5 invisible and imperceptible to another human actor – they operate at a bio- or psychophysical 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 level. Hence, status signification of enhancement or ‘super-intelligence’ to others (see e.g., 8 Campbell, 2015; Bostrom, 2017) is likely to be a key challenge raising important issues for the 9 10 firm and their customers in relation to their moral and ethical stance. Whilst technology is used 11 12 for legitimate purposes, as for example when it replaces a natural organ or supplements the 13 14 faulty use of a natural organ, the issue of visibility/perceptibility is likely to be of less 15 importance to a firm and customers. However, when alteration in some way enhances natural 16 17 performance, it is unclear what may be acceptable at firm level or acceptable to customers as 18 19 an appropriate level of influence. There will be impacts for the firm in areas such as recruitment 20 21 and training, strategic management and deployment, as well as policy and operations related to 22 FLE activities in areas such as sales and marketing, customer interaction including relationship 23 24 management, data protection and decision-support – and all these issues must be considered 25 26 from an ethical/moral and legal standpoint. In all areas of application, the role of the 27 performance-enhanced cyborg FLE is likely to add differentiating value (Bowen’s 28 29 Differentiator category) to the firm through interactions and interpersonal relationships. With 30 31 enhanced interactions between cyborg FLEs and customers, firms are likely to have enhanced 32 33 expectations of relational outcomes that include soft (e.g., satisfaction and trust) and financial 34 benefits, leading to longevity and competitive advantage through continuous improvement 35 36 (enabling and facilitation) and innovation. It is when the enhancement becomes a required 37 38 competency or skill necessary for the fulfilment of FLE roles that ethical issues are likely to 39 40 become particularly pertinent for all stakeholders. For example, in effectively managing data 41 that may facilitate or enable interactions, or lead to new innovations which may also involve 42 43 third party suppliers to cyborgs (Bowen’s Coordinator/Networker, Enabler and Innovator 44 45 categories). Moreover, when presented with superintelligence, and the enhancement is 46 invisible or imperceptible, then the uncanny valley effect appears to be an irrelevant theoretical 47 48 construction in such contexts (Bostrom, 2016). 49 50 51 52 Disclosure and transparency of alteration to others 53 Related to the above are ethical issues around appropriate levels of alteration transparency and 54 55 how these are signified to both customers and other FLEs (related to Bowen’s categories). 56 57 Since scientific developments of biowearables have been fundamentally driven by the impetus 58 to improve quality of life for humans with life-limiting problems for restorative purposes, a 59 60 starting point for this is to reflect upon the disability/ability management literature. At a firm

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1 2 3 level, literature tends to emphasise equality and diversity relating to Human Rights Principles 4 5 in the integration of impaired (disabled) employees into the workforce (eg., Usdiken and 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 Leblebici, 2001). Williams and Mavin (2012) argue that disability is a constructed difference 8 that categorises people into social hierarchies (e.g., West and Fenstermaker, 2002). It is the 9 10 normalisation of these hierarchies within a firm that influences how people relate to others – a 11 12 disabled person being 'other'. Disability is therefore often framed against normalcy and 13 14 normality (eg., Oliver 2009; Williams and Mavin, 2012) whereas medicalised discourse 15 relating to the use of technologies for repair typically relates to adaptation and rehabilitation at 16 17 work (French 2001). In inversing this argument with a requirement for a declarative statement 18 19 of alteration and enhancement, necessitated by, for example, demands for transparency in how 20 21 data is managed, cyborgs also become a social category of 'other'. Their identity therefore 22 becomes value-laden and subject to some process of organisation within a firm, in much the 23 24 same way as management literature integrates structures for disability. Ultimately, this has 25 26 implications for how cyborgs view themselves and their social context as well as how others 27 (employees and customers) view them. 28 29 30 31 Whilst a long-range view may consider that all humans will become cyborg in some way (and 32 33 indeed, we probably already are, see e.g., Clarke, 2003), this point hints that there is clearly a 34 need for conceptualising the cyborg as an employee/FLE at interim stages of technological 35 36 advancement, or embodied nature of technological alteration and its capabilities. One 37 38 argument for this relates to the current use of drugs for recreational, body building, quality of 39 40 life management and disease control. Such transformations that drugs render are often seen by 41 users and others as beneficial and are contextualised in terms of functional health and wellbeing 42 43 (Blackford, 2013). At what point therefore does the alteration by contemporary technology 44 45 exceed ‘appropriate’ or ‘exceptional’? Moreover, in whose interest is declaration of alteration 46 required? In the drug example, the point at which firms may become involved with the use of 47 48 steroid drugs to enhance muscle mass is often a matter of apparent or declared abuse which 49 50 typically manifests as mental health concerns. In contrast, medical drugs to control disease 51 52 manifests itself through abstention from work as a consequence of illness. Declaration 53 therefore benefits both the employer and employee in different ways at varying points in times. 54 55 The use or abuse of contemporary technologies may well differ from these scenarios. For 56 57 example, the misuse of emphatic knowledge. Furthermore, since alterations that incorporate 58 contemporary technologies are likely to come at a considerable cost (time and financial) to the 59 60 user (at the moment, cyborgs are made rather than born) and benefit to both employer and

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1 2 3 employee, there are likely to be ethical considerations around affordability and instrumentality 4 5 that extend the definitions of equality and diversity to include cyborg FLEs. In so doing, it 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 implies a necessary level of transparency and declaration of cyborg status. This raises 8 questions about the types of declaration clauses that firms and employees may be required to 9 10 use and how, in turn, equality and diversity in this evolving framework is operationalized and 11 12 impacts stakeholders – we list research questions that may be appropriate for consideration in 13 14 each of Bowen’s categories in Table 3. 15 16 17 Customer acceptance of cyborgs as FLEs 18 19 When considering cyborg FLEs, there is a need to step beyond the current rhetoric of 20 21 technology acceptance and adoption. Contemporary models such as Technology Acceptance 22 Model (TAM, see Davis, et al., 1989) and its extensions that reflect the usefulness and 23 24 accessibility of technologies as tools that may augment (such as UTAUT/2, see Venkatesh, et 25 26 al., 2003; 2016), they do not adequately reflect or capture cyborg status or how it potentially 27 influences interactions and relationships with others (Bowen, 2016; Shaw, et al., 2018). Given 28 29 the embodied nature and increasingly performance-enhancing capability of technological 30 31 advancements highlighted, it is the advantages afforded by these technologies and the influence 32 33 these will exert that will be significant from an acceptance perspective. Within the service 34 literature, preliminary research suggests there is general customer fear of human-robot 35 36 hybridity. Bhattacharyya and Kedzior (2012) found that technology users believed they may 37 38 lose their humanness in becoming cyborg, despite overcoming perceived natural flaws and 39 40 potentially being transcended to a ‘godlike’ status that fuses mind, body and spirit with 41 technology (Belk, 2016; Galeon and Reedy, 2017). This could well be reflected in customer 42 43 attitudes towards cyborg FLEs. 44 45 46 From the perspective of a customer or colleague, the ‘uncanny valley’ theory of revulsion and 47 48 ‘decent into eeriness’ (eg., Mori, 1970) is a variable that is largely unexplored in the domain 49 50 of cyborgs. Extant literature highlights that feelings of unease are evoked as a consequence of 51 52 form and unnatural interaction, say where speed or process of some motor action is unusual, 53 rather than a function per se. This is clearly associated with the visibility of technological 54 55 enhancement, and often contextualised to robots and autonomous devices. In service contexts, 56 57 human interaction (face-to-face) is a preferred because synthetic devices are perceived to be 58 inadequate communication devices in situations where highly personalised service is desired. 59 60 With cyborgs, alteration increases autonomy and quality of service experience, however,

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1 2 3 biomechanical movement and interaction performance are changed in ways that will possibly 4 5 be perceptible to others as the capabilities increase with technological advancements. It is 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 unclear to what extent this will impede FLE-customer interactions. Suffice to say it is likely to 8 be a function of the levels of cyborg integration within service contexts more broadly, the 9 10 general use and acceptability of technologies by customers (Harwood and Garry, 2017) and the 11 12 extent to which alterations and cyborgism becomes a natural human state. Hence, there are 13 14 three different perspectives from which researchers need to conceptualise and explore 15 acceptance and tolerance-in-use: the firm, the customer and the cyborg FLE, as well as 16 17 reflecting the broader views of society at large. Fundamentally, in extrapolating FLE roles, 18 19 acceptance of technological embodiment, interpersonal trust, use of information and 20 21 management of super intelligent service actors are areas for exploration related to Bowen’s 22 categories (Table 3). 23 24 25 26 FLE-customer power balances 27 This paper has focussed on the role of FLEs as cyborg whilst ignoring any reference to cyborg 28 29 customers. Cyborgs may of course also be customers as well as FLEs, with different levels of 30 31 alteration providing either or both FLE and customer with potentially more capability to exploit 32 33 competence, knowledge and/or resources. This may be particularly the case with interactions 34 that lead to ongoing relationships (e.g., Wirtz, et al., 2018). The trajectory of technological 35 36 advancement and cyborg evolution is likely to lead to situations where, at least in the early 37 38 stages of development, there is an imbalance in the nature of the relationship and modes of 39 40 interaction as a consequence of cognitive and emphatic capacities and biophysical properties. 41 As Blackford (2013) argues, alongside the obvious advantages of superior intelligence 42 43 demonstrated through the ability to rapidly and accurately respond to complex or difficult 44 45 circumstances, health and wellbeing that leads to personal longevity is also a form of power 46 that may be exploited. 47 48 49 50 It is only when the balance of alteration is on a par that any interaction is likely to be synergistic 51 52 or interdependent. However, given the points highlighted in the previous paragraphs, it is most 53 likely there will always be power imbalance that must be managed through a moral and ethical 54 55 lens at both firm and individual levels (see Table 3, Bowen’s categories). FLEs are likely to 56 57 be employed as enhanced actors in order to provide improved and exploitable competitive 58 advantages for the firm/brand in domain specific contexts (e.g., Nyholm, 2018). In such 59 60 circumstances, new classes of inter-relational capacities will need to be understood. For

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1 2 3 example, although customer perceptions will be strongly linked to firm/brand values, customer 4 5 perceived levels of transparency in cyborg behaviour and data management will be needed to 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 signify customers are being treated fairly and reasonably. The context of data use by the cyborg 8 FLE and firm/brand must be clearly understandable. This may require permissive use of 9 10 different types of data to maintain trust albeit that where knowledge is similarly attainable by 11 12 the both the cyborg FLE and the customer then trust, at least in its traditional social relational 13 14 form, potentially becomes irrelevant – because knowledge is exploitable equally by each. Thus, 15 at the interaction level, there will be a need to critically re-evaluate the parameters of relational 16 17 influence to assess the appropriateness of cyborg FLE behaviour and customer perceptions. 18 19 20 21 Furthermore, a number of interrelated questions arise that transcend Bowen’s categories (Table 22 3) and require future investigation in each transformational role as well as from the different 23 24 perspectives of firm, customer and employee that impact policy and operational aspects of their 25 26 use in business: 27 28 • Operational considerations – 29 What are the perceived balance of power issues in engaging with cyborg FLEs as brand 30 31 ‘custodians’? 32 33 What are the [de-]motivations for engaging with an enhanced performance cyborg FLE? 34 What makes cyborg FLEs trustworthy, or indeed trust irrelevant within such contexts (trust 35 36 being a form of personal power)? 37 38 • Policy considerations – 39 40 How will power interdependencies be leveraged or indeed, potentially exploited? 41 How will cyborg FLE alterations be made understandable and be understood by customers? 42 43 How will moral/ethical judgment in cyborg FLE interaction be identified and demonstrated 44 45 to deliver fair and equitable experiences? 46 47 48 Privacy and security 49 50 The potential for cyborg FLEs to access big and small data simultaneously in real-time and 51 52 render it so as to exert influence (over humans, cyborgs, robots) within service contexts has 53 received little attention in the literature to date. Consequently, ethical questions arise about 54 55 how firms/brands may integrate cyborg FLEs into propositions (see Table 3 for examples of 56 57 issues highlighted within Bowen’s categories). The issues of privacy and security pertain, 58 59 primarily, to the significance of the types of data and data access/usage (Quigley and 60

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1 2 3 Ayihongbe, 2018). With technological advancements enabling increasingly complex tasks to 4 5 be performed, such as those highlighted in Tables 1 and 2, privacy relates differentially to 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 device/system software (programmes and instructions on how the device is to work), 8 connectivity to other devices; modes of storage, transmission and usage, the identity and status 9 10 of the human, and functionality of the device itself (see e.g., Burri and Senouf, 2009). Access 11 12 to device-related data may well be appropriate to monitor safety and tolerance levels but the 13 14 boundaries of personal data in the context of cyborg FLEs is difficult to determine: what data 15 relates to personal performance (e.g., health status) and who has access in managing that 16 17 information effectively is far from clear in a firm/brand context employing cyborg FLEs. 18 19 20 21 With regard to security, hacking and modification of technologies has become commonplace 22 and cybersecurity in particular is now a major concern for firms. Where technologies have 23 24 been used to alter the capacities of an individual by that individual, and there is no requirement 25 26 for declarative interest as an employee, then there are likely to be significant concerns over 27 malicious attacks against individuals to interrupt or influence their performance (e.g., anon 28 29 BBC, 2017). Moreover, at least in the near future, enhancements and improvements are being 30 31 undertaken at a personal rather than an employer level. Yet where the target of an attack is the 32 33 firm or their customers and suppliers accessed through a cyborg FLE it is unclear who may be 34 responsible or how consequential action or remedy may be apportioned. It is therefore 35 36 appropriate to reflect categories such as Bowen’s (2016) in order to classify the impacts of 37 38 consequences on those affected. 39 40 41 Conclusion 42 43 With a number of researchers (e.g., Blackford, 2013; Galeon and Reedy, 2017) predicting 44 45 cyborgs will become the dominant form of service provider in the near future, this paper aimed 46 to draw attention to the most pertinent issues faced by the employment of cyborgs as FLEs. 47 48 Recent research has tended to concentrate on classifications of technology ‘infusions’ 49 50 (automated social presence actors) without recognizing human-machine hybrids (van Doorn, 51 52 et al., 2017; Wirtz, et al., 2018). Extending Larivière, et al.’s (2017) categories of technology 53 infusions in service encounters, this paper has conceptualized a new category of cyborg FLE, 54 55 melding, and highlighted how emergent technological advancements will alter humans’ bio- 56 57 and psycho-physical properties. In turn, these technological alterations may influence the 58 nature of service interactions and the transformational roles categorised by Bowen (2016) in 59 60 profound ways: we explore issues related to service complexity, co-production and co-creation,

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1 2 3 productivity, efficiency, efficacy and problem solving as well as inter-relational outcomes (e.g., 4 5 Huang and Rust, 2018; Wirtz, et al., 2018). 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 8 Technological advancements resulting in changes to form and behaviour will raise important 9 10 questions for the firms/brands that will be the first to employ cyborg FLEs to support service 11 12 delivery. This is not least because of the significant potential benefits to firm operations through 13 14 the customer insights they may gain by the employment of cyborg FLEs (e.g., van Doorn, et 15 al., 2017; Belk, 2016). In this paper, we have outlined how such technologies may initially 16 17 impact on common methods of technology application related to forms of mechanical and 18 19 analytical intelligence, where processing data to increase productivity is a focus (Huang and 20 21 Rust, 2018). However, such technologies as those presented in Table 1 will ultimately become 22 entwined with the unique skillsets of humans to intuitively and empathetically address complex 23 24 socio-relational problems (Table 2). 25 26 27 Implications for Theory 28 29 Whilst the adoption of automated robots with high levels of anthropomorphic reasoning can 30 31 result in uneasiness (the 'uncanny' effect), the increasingly fuzzy distinction between human 32 33 and machine as cyborg may, at least initially, reduce feelings of uncanniness (e.g., Herr, 2014; 34 Gibson, 2017) – cyborgs are not robots, and as we have highlighted it will be increasingly 35 36 difficult to differentiate the melded human cyborg from the unenhanced human. Our review 37 38 has highlighted how cyborgs potentially sidestep the many and various issues that the use of 39 40 robots in FLE contexts present. We also identify a number of key areas which present 41 significant ethical and moral dilemmas, set out as a research agenda. These require further 42 43 conceptualisation and investigation and we acknowledge this is by no means a fully 44 45 comprehensive exploration of issues. In this paper we have attempted to highlight the ways in 46 which the cyborg FLE is likely to differ from unenhanced human actors and in so doing draw 47 48 attention primarily to theories that relate to interpersonal interaction in business-to-customer 49 50 contexts: trust, relational exchange, roles of actors. It is clear, however, that there is much 51 52 work required to develop relevant theories which incorporate technological advancements that 53 assimilate superintelligence with business processes in service market contexts. 54 55 56 57 Implications for Practice 58 Our review has focussed on the nature of interactions including the implications of visibility- 59 60 invisibility of cyborg alteration; the need for disclosure and transparency of cyborg FLE status

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1 2 3 to others; how acceptance of cyborg FLE actors may be explored; issues of privacy and security 4 5 raised by the embodied nature of the technologies and likely implications for firms in their 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 employment in FLE contexts, customers in their interactions with cyborg FLEs and employees 8 as cyborg FLEs. With technologies advancing beyond the scope of societal and government 9 10 intervention, it is likely that it will fall to businesses to make decisions in the first instance on 11 12 key issues such as how, when and where such technologically advanced cyborgs will be 13 14 employed. Body hacking and modification has already become a social phenomenon that is 15 attracting a growing following of people who are willing, and have the resources, to actively 16 17 participate in this emergent digital cultural practice, despite a lack of regulation and good 18 19 practice in interventions (see, for example, Royal Society, 2019). Thus, consumers will derive 20 21 demand for technological alterations, but businesses must be aware of the possible 22 consequences, both positive and negative, that will arise from their integration into operations, 23 24 particularly where they are employed as FLEs and thus have potential to acquire and utilize 25 26 unique insight into customers. 27 28 29 30 References 31 32 Adams, T. (2017), “When man meets metal: rise of the transhumans”, The Guardian, 29 Oct, 33 available at https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/oct/29/transhuman- 34 bodyhacking-transspecies-cyborg (accessed 12 Sept). 35 Anderson, C., Keltner, D., and John, O.P. (2003), “Emotional convergence between people 36 over time”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 84 No. 5, pp. 1054- 37 38 1068. 39 Anon BBC (2017), “Cyber-flaw Affects 745,000 Pacemakers”, BBC News, 30 Aug 2017, 40 available online at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-41099867 [accessed 25 Oct 41 2018]. 42 Argyris, C. and Schön, D.A. (1978), Organizational Learning. Reading, MA: Addison- 43 Wesley. 44 Ascott, R. (2013), “Back to Nature II: Art and technology in the 21st Century”, in More, M 45 46 and Vita-More, N., The Transhumanist Reader, pp. 438-448, Chichester: Wiley- 47 Blackwell. 48 Batchelar, D.A. (2018), "Welcome to the Singularity, who can say no to the hive mind’s 49 promise of cybernetic immortality, for free?", Communications of the ACM, Vol. 61 No 50 2, pp. 104-105. 51 Belk, R. (2016), “Understanding the Robot: Comments on Goudey and Bonnin”, Recherche 52 et Applications en Marketing, Vol. 31 No. 2. 53 54 Belk R. (2017), “Consumers in an Age of Autonomous and Semi-Autonomous Machines”, in 55 Sherry, J. Jr. and Fischer, E. eds., Currents in Consumer Culture Theory, pp. 5-32, 56 London: Routledge. 57 Belk, R. (2018), “Robots, Cyborgs, and Consumption”, in Lewis, A. ed., Cambridge 58 Handbook of Psychology and Economic Behaviour, pp. 741-758, Cambridge: 59 Cambridge University Press. 60

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1 2 3 Table 1: Contemporary technological advancements for human enhancement 4 5 Category of 6 JournalTechnological of Service TheoryDescription and PracticeSource 7 Advancement 8 Biowearables Digital tattoos embedded with RFID technology that collects Firger (2016) 9 biometric data and sends it to smartphone apps. Altered 10 behaviour. 11 12 Inserted subdermally (under the skin) and used as information Eveleth (2016) RFID carrying devices for eg., opening doors, capturing biomet data 13 etc. Altered behaviour. 14 15 Internal compasses Inserted subdermally. Altered behaviour. Monks (2014) 16 17 Implantable micro- Inserted subdermally, Altered behaviour. Monks (2014) 18 computers 19 Internal headphones Inserted subdermally. Altered behaviour. Monks (2014) 20 Smart glasses (aka digital Wearable devices that display images to the visual field of a user. Hofman, et al. (2016) 21 eye glass, eye glass display, Do not significantly distort vision for the wearer, an illusion of 22 personal imaging systems) coalescence between actual and virtual elements is achieved - 23 augmented reality. Technology includes processing capacity. 24 Smart contact lenses (e.g. Display information and use of a sensor(s) to track, analyse, 25 Sony device uses blinks to distribute, and store data about the surrounding environment as record video) well as the user (e.g., accelerometers, magnetometers, GPS, 26 microphones, touchpads, eye-tracking cameras etc.). Designed 27 for continuous wearing by consumers: Google Glass, Recon Jet, 28 Microsoft HoloLens, or CastAR; for professionals e.g., 29 firefighting in reduced visual fields Epson Moverio series, Vuzix 30 M100, Kopin Golden-i, or ODG R7. Altered behaviour. 31 32 Neuroprosthetics and Biological, mechanical, or biomechanical objects such as Hofman, et al. (2016) Human-brain interface surrogate bodies, vehicles, and other machines, controlled by Royal Society (2019) 33 (brain-machine interface, human nervous systems. Increasingly sophisticated and difficult 34 BMIs) to discern from original body parts. Altered bio- and 35 physiological property. 36 37 Cyborg tissue Nanobeing; Nanodevices that use tissue scaffolds with cell Zhang and Lieber (2016) 38 cultures and measurement techniques to monitor tissue implants; imperceptible in use. Altered biological property. 39 40 Neural enhancement and Nootropic drugs - mind altering, expand intelligence, Hofman, et al. (2016) 41 psychoneural evolution imperceptible in use. Altered biological property. 42 43 Pseudogenetics Avatar definition data - may be spliced with other avatars data. Batchelar (2018) 44 Collective intelligence. 45 46 Microfluidic logic Fluid transports autonomously drive the catalytic decomposition Batchelar (2018) of a hydrogen peroxide fuel to produce water and oxygen gas and 47 the volume expansion that drives movement in a 'soft' robot. This 48 enables the ‘bot’ to produce mechanical movement without any 49 solid parts or external energy supply. Excess oxygen gas is 50 vented through microscopic pores. Altered physiological 51 behaviour. 52 Self-directed evolution Postbiology; autoevolution. Genetic and biological level altered Lem, (1977) 53 behaviour. Cirkovic, (2017) 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

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1 2 3 Table 2: Potential transformation of FLE roles by cyborgs 4 5 Key Potential Cyborg Analytically-led transformation Emotional Intelligence-led 6 JournalAttribute / of Service Theory andtransformation Practice 7 FLE Role Melding of ‘heavy duty’ big data 8 9 analytics with an FLE cyborg’s Melding of intuitive, emphatic, 10 tacit knowledge in real-time analytical and mechanical 11 intelligences with technologies 12 such as facial coding 13 14 Differentiator Leveraging customer specific data Ability to leverage dyadic 15 to construct ‘360 degree profile of interaction style through adaptation 16 customer’ and communicate on the of emotional displays to optimise 17 spot ‘wise decisions’ based on this appeal to customer and enhance 18 both episodic and relational 19 satisfaction 20 21 Coordinator and Ability to co-ordinate actors Ability to identify interaction actor 22 Networker (machine, cyborg and human) and as human, machine or cyborg and 23 their interactions (H2H, H2M, leverage appropriate blend of 24 M2M, C2H, C2M, C2C)* within a intelligence to ensure cohesion, 25 complex service eco-system facilitation of network and 26 27 optimise customer service 28 experience 29 30 Enabler Ability to audit customer skills, Ability to leverage rapport- 31 competencies and experience in building to socialise and educate 32 real time to ascertain extent of customers to optimise co- 33 enabling required production resources 34 35 Innovator Ability to fuse the auditing of Ability to leverage human 36 service eco-system with the creativity and other intelligences to 37 intuitive ability to ‘read customers generate creative and innovative 38 minds’ in real-time to identify customer-focused service 39 efficiencies and opportunities for improvements 40 competitor differentiation 41 42 43 *H2H (human-to-human), H2M (human-to-machine), M2M (machine-to-machine), C2H (cyborg-to-human), 44 C2M (cyborg-to-machine), C2C (cyborg-to-cyborg) 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

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1 2 3 Table 3: Cyborg FLEs: a research agenda 4 5 Research Area Examples of research questions (cross-cutting themes) 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 Differentiator Coordinator / Networker Enabler Innovator 8 9 Visibility- • What are acceptable • What level of • How relevant is the • How does (in)visibility invisibility of levels of (in)visibility of (in)visibility of ‘uncanny valley’ theory influence perceived role 10 technological technological alteration alteration is necessary to in cyborg FLE contexts, of cyborg FLE as 11 alteration and how is it signified for fulfil cyborg FLE role/s particularly where the innovator? 12 differentiation to of coordination and role is one of enabling • If third parties are 13 stakeholders? networking? interactions and involved in delivering • How does (in)visibility of relationships between technological alteration, 14 technological alteration firms and customers? how is ownership of 15 differentiate perceived innovation managed 16 value of cyborg FLE (who owns, etc.)? role? 17 18 Disclosure / • Should technological • What types of • How is equality to be • What categories, 19 transparency of alteration always be declaration clauses are extended for cyborg characteristics and 20 technological signalled to: customers, required in employment FLEs as employees levels of technological alteration to others other FLEs (incl cyborg contracts for cyborg when enabling becomes enhancement become 21 FLEs), employers? FLEs when data is fundamentally about sought after by service 22 • Should only certain collected from optimizing relationships firms – and how will the 23 categories, characteristics coordinator/networked between firms and differential advantage and levels of interactions? customers? generated be 24 technological incorporated into 25 enhancement be signalled innovation strategies? 26 to: customers, other FLEs • How will firms manage 27 (incl cyborg FLEs), employees with employers? technological alterations 28 in roles where their 29 insight adds value 30 through innovation, especially if the 31 alteration is supported 32 by third parties? 33 Customer • To what extent are • As coordinators/ • Is trust defacto • How should 34 acceptance of current models of networkers, to what irrelevant in contexts of superintelligence of cyborgs as FLEs technology acceptance extent are current ‘perfect’ information cyborg FLEs be 35 relevant in the adoption models of interpersonal between cyborg FLEs managed for innovation 36 and deployment of trust relevant for and customers (where in service contexts? 37 cyborg FLEs? relationship the cyborg FLE is able • How are cyborg FLEs development and to read the mind and 38 perceived differently by management for cyborg behaviour of the 39 customers? FLEs? customer)? 40 41 Cyborg FLE- • How should competitive • What are acceptable • What are acceptable • What is the boundary customer power advantage over non- or levels of power levels of cyborg FLE between acceptable 42 balances less- technologically imbalance and influence as enabler in influencing and 43 altered others to be circumstances of its use relationships with manipulation when 44 managed? where the cyborg FLE is customers when cyborg FLEs are service technologically technological alterations intermediaries resulting 45 advanced? (by firm, say are leveraged? in innovations? 46 depending on criticality 47 of interaction determined by socio- 48 cultural preferences e.g., 49 doctor, politician versus 50 customer service 51 provider) 52 Privacy and • How is data acquired and • How is privacy and • How is data ported to • In a data economy, how 53 Security related to managed by the cyborg security of data new cyborg FLE actors, will embodied 54 cyborg FLEs FLE through sensing then maintained; lifecycle of or transferred when knowledge that is tacit, managed by the firm? data managed/protected/ cyborg FLEs provide implicit and explicit and 55 • What are appropriate updated to reflect services to competitor is differentiated by 56 ethical issues in relation current business firms, or they simply enhanced senses, lead to 57 to privacy and security practices or cyborg FLE change jobs? new insights and 58 under conditions of status changes within provide new types of acquisition through the firm? data for exploitation by 59 technological alteration? the firm? 60

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