Journal of Service Theory and Practice Journal of Service Theory and Practice Cyborgs as Front-line Service Employees: A Research Agenda Journal: Journal of Service Theory and Practice Manuscript ID JSTP-11-2018-0241.R5 Manuscript Type: Research Paper Cyborgs, Service and Service Delivery, Emergent Technologies, Front Keywords: Line Service Employees Page 1 of 31 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 1 2 3 Cyborgs as Front-line Service Employees: A Research Agenda 4 5 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 Abstract 8 9 10 Purpose 11 This paper identifies and explores potential applications of cyborgian technologies within 12 service contexts and how service providers may leverage the integration of cyborgian service 13 14 actors into their service proposition. In doing so, the paper proposes a new category of ‘melded’ 15 frontline service employees (FLEs), where advanced technologies become embodied within 16 human actors. The paper presents potential opportunities and challenges that may arise through 17 cyborg technological advancements and proposes a future research agenda related to these. 18 19 20 21 Design/methodology 22 This study draws on literature in the fields of services management, Artificial Intelligence [AI], 23 robotics, Intelligence Augmentation [IA] and Human Intelligence [HIs] to conceptualise 24 potential cyborgian applications. 25 26 27 Findings 28 29 The paper examines how cyborg bio- and psychophysical characteristics may significantly 30 differentiate the nature of service interactions from traditional ‘unenhanced’ service 31 interactions. In doing so, we propose ‘melding’ as a conceptual category of technological 32 impact on FLEs. This category reflects the embodiment of emergent technologies not 33 previously captured within existing literature on cyborgs. We examine how traditional roles 34 of FLEs will be potentially impacted by the integration of emergent cyborg technologies, such 35 as neural interfaces and implants, into service contexts before outlining future research 36 37 directions related to these, specifically highlighting the range of ethical considerations. 38 39 40 Originality/Value 41 Service interactions with cyborg FLEs represent a new context for examining the potential 42 impact of cyborgs. This paper explores how technological advancements will alter the 43 44 individual capacities of humans to enable such employees to intuitively and empathetically 45 create solutions to complex service challenges. In doing so, we augment the extant literature 46 on cyborgs, such as the body hacking movement. The paper also outlines a research agenda to 47 address the potential consequences of cyborgian integration. 48 49 50 Key Words 51 52 Cyborgs, Service and Service Delivery, Emergent Technologies, Front Line Service 53 Employees 54 55 56 Article Classification 57 Conceptual 58 59 60 1 Journal of Service Theory and Practice Page 2 of 31 1 2 3 Introduction 4 5 Evolving technologies are rapidly transforming the nature of services, service customer 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 experiences and the very essence of relationships between customers and service providers 8 (van Doorn, et al., 2017). In terms of applications, there has been much focus on the ‘infusion’ 9 10 of smart technologies, Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Huang and Rust, 2018) and/or the 11 12 assimilation of robots into service delivery processes (e.g., De Keyser, et al., 2019; Wirtz et 13 14 al., 2018; Galeon and Reedy, 2017). However, the nature of emergent technologies and their 15 application within service delivery systems is increasingly blurring the boundaries between 16 17 ‘physical, digital and biological spheres’ (Huang and Rust, 2018: 155). Drawing on and 18 19 augmenting the robotics and AI literatures, researchers within marketing (e.g., Belk, 2016; 20 21 2017; 2018; Galeon and Reedy, 2017) are predicting the rapid convergence of AI-based 22 systems (robots) and intelligent augmentation (IA) systems (e.g., insideables and 23 24 neuroprosthetics) with humans (biological systems) within the next 10-30 years. Related to 25 26 this, an important but neglected entity in the evolution of service delivery is the role of robot- 27 human hybrids, otherwise known as cyborgs. A cyborg may be defined as a modified 28 29 (augmented) human (Haraway, 1985; Buchanan-Oliver, et al., 2010) that integrates 30 31 technologies within the body by way of mechanical and/or technological ‘insideables’. A recent 32 33 report by the Royal Society (2019) highlights the urgency with which issues related to the 34 adoption and use of such technologies by business should be considered, stating “the 35 36 opportunities are unprecedented and immense – as are the challenges”. Such interfaces offer 37 38 unimaginable benefits but also pose risks, such as privacy and human rights issues, and social 39 40 inequality. There is currently no established infrastructure for their adoption in business, such 41 as a legislative framework, ethical context or industrial best practice in their adoption and use. 42 43 44 45 This paper aims to explore the potential role of cyborgs within service contexts and to further 46 develop existing classifications and the roles of both technology and frontline employees 47 48 (FLEs) so as they encompass the impacts of cyborgs within service contexts. To achieve this, 49 50 we briefly examine extant literature on FLEs and their roles (e.g., Bowen, 2016). Drawing on 51 52 the work of Larivière, et al. (2017), we propose an additional classification that reflects the 53 fusion of emergent technology and humans. We subsequently examine how traditional roles of 54 55 FLEs will be impacted by the integration of cyborgs into service contexts before outlining 56 57 future research directions related to these. In doing so, the paper highlights the need for further 58 research in relation to service contexts and considers the directions in which this might expand 59 60 in future. 2 Page 3 of 31 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 1 2 3 4 5 FLEs and Service Delivery 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 The imperative to create value and enable value exchange manifests itself in the dynamic 8 relationship between FLEs and customers (Subramony and Pugh, 2015; Gabriel, et al., 2016; 9 10 Groth, et al., 2019). There is a plethora of research that demonstrates empirical links between 11 12 employee satisfaction and productivity, service value, customer satisfaction and loyalty, and 13 14 the revenue growth and profitability of the firm associated with these (Heskett, et al., 1997; 15 Anderson, et al., 2004; Wirtz and Jerger, 2017). The role of FLEs as stewards of customer 16 17 contact and relationship management has long been recognised within such research (e.g., 18 19 Schlesinger and Heskett, 1991) to the extent that the very nature and outcome of service 20 21 encounters are significantly shaped by their characteristics (e.g., Bitner 1990; Berry, 1995; 22 Grönroos, 1984; Rust and Oliver, 1994; Homburg and Stock, 2004). In examining FLEs, Singh 23 24 et al. (2017) define the organisational frontline as ‘the study of interactions and interfaces at 25 26 the point of contact between an organisation and its customers that promotes, facilitates, or 27 enables value creation and value exchange’ (Singh, et al., 2017:4). However, value is a 28 29 subjective judgment and based on intangible interpersonal interactions between FLEs and 30 31 customers. As such, these ‘moments of truth’ (Bitner, 1990) are based on the subjective 32 33 perceptions of both FLEs and customers. Hence, understanding and management of these 34 interactions and interfaces, or ‘touch points’, is critical to organisational success. Customer- 35 36 FLE interactions may be characterised by complexity, co-production, co-creation, productivity, 37 38 efficiency, efficacy and problem solving and are increasingly enabled by complex service 39 40 systems that encompass actors, technologies and resources (e.g., Schneider and Bowen, 2019; 41 De Keyser, et al., 2019). Similarly, interfaces are characterised by the extent of automation, 42 43 flexibility, synchronicity/specificity, openness, complexity and the very nature of the 44 45 servicescape. In attempting to comprehend and structuralise interaction and interface 46 characteristics, Bowen (2016) identifies four key roles of FLEs within contemporary service 47 48 contexts: differentiator, enabler, coordinator and innovator. 49 50 51 52 The Role of Differentiator 53 FLEs are instrumental in adapting service to suit individual needs thereby enhancing customer 54 55 experience (Lai, et al., 2014; Motamarri, et al., 2017). However, cost reduction to achieve 56 57 process efficiencies increasingly moves many service firms towards a commoditised model of 58 service provision with associated consequences for customer experience. Within such 59 60 environments, ‘small details’ can have a significant impact (Bolton, et al., 2014): identifying 3 Journal of Service Theory and Practice Page 4 of 31 1 2 3 and evaluating touch points such as emotional engagement and authenticity through intimacy 4 5 and passion have been demonstrated to enhance customer loyalty (Yim, et al., 2008). A non- 6 Journal of Service Theory and Practice 7 substitutable personal touch can mitigate customer perceived commoditization (Motamarri, et 8 al., 2017). 9 10 11 12 In relation to this, services research has long recognised the ways in which human service 13 14 providers may be perceived as demonstrating emotion, empathy and understanding