HUMANITIES

Egypt

The Study of Religion Editor's Note

Looking at Life After Death

Egypt is best known by its enormous temples and pyramid-shaped tombs built to house the remains of the pharaohs. Buried with the dead were ob­ jects of great intrinsic and artistic value and even other human beings who would serve as companions on the fateful journey to the underworld—all evidence that ancient Egyptians believed in a life after death. How did a civi­ lization of this magnitude develop? Who came before the pharaohs? French scientists measuring the Sphinx in a drawing by Vivant Denon, the illustrator "In Search of the First Egyptians," Michael Allen Hoffman begins our ex­ who accompanied Napoleon on his expedition ploration of Egypt before and after the pharaohs. He tells how excavations at to Egypt in 1798. (Library of Congress) Hierakonpolis have unearthed evidence of an earlier Predynastic civilization that set the stage for the pharaonic dynasties that followed. Many of the ob­ jects found at Hierakonpolis are included in the traveling exhibition de­ Humanities scribed by Kristen Hall in "Mystery in Progress." Sponsored by the Univer­ A bimonthly review published by the sity of South Carolina's McKissick Museum, the exhibition uses artifacts and National Endowment for the Humanities satellite photography to document the formation of Egypt's first centralized Chairman: Lynne V. Cheney nation state more than a thousand years before the pharaohs. Robert S. Director of Publications Bianchi of the Brooklyn Museum examines the uniquely Egyptian character­ and Public Affairs: istics of art executed during the Ptolemaic Period in "Cleopatra's Egypt." Fi­ Marguerite Hoxie Sullivan nally, Brian Fagan recounts the 1798 Egyptian campaign of Napoleon Bona­ Assistant Director for Publications parte in "Napoleon in Egypt." Many of the glories of ancient Egypt would and Editor: Caroline Taylor have remained shrouded in mystery were it not for Napoleon's savants, who Assistant Editor: James S. Turner documented and described to an astonished world the ruins and temples Production Editor: Scott Sanborn they found as Napoleon's army marched up and down the Nile. Production Assistant: Susan Querry Editorial Assistant: Kristen Hall From the ancient Egyptians to the modern age, questions about mortality, Research Assistant: Ellen Marsh about the possibility of life after death, continue to fire the imagination. Marketing Director: Joy Evans Many of these questions are explored through the study of religion. In "The Academic Study of Religion," Martin E. Marty considers the issues currently Editorial Board: being debated by scholars of religion on American campuses today. Transla­ John Agresto, Marjorie Berlincourt, tions of ancient and medieval Hebrew texts in the Yale Judaica series are de­ Harold Cannon, Richard Ekman, scribed by Beverly Chico in "Judaic Classics in English." Edwin S. Gaustad Donald Gibson, Guinevere Griest, Jerry Martin traces the growth of religious movements to and through America—a coun­ Design: Hausmann/Krohn, Inc. try firmly on "The Path to Pluralism." And John Buescher in "Religion from a Global Perspective" describes institutes to help teachers teach religious The opinions and conclusions expressed in studies in the humanities. Humanities are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material To help secondary school teachers expand their knowledge of the human­ appearing in this publication, except for that ities, the Endowment is making its first awards this year in the Reader's already copyrighted, may be freely re­ Digest/Teacher-Scholar Program to individual teachers from each of the fifty produced. Please notify the editor in advance so that appropriate credit can be given. The states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Chairman of the Endowment has determined The Humanities Guide offers "Eight Keys to a Successful Teacher-Scholar that the publication of this periodical is neces­ Proposal," to help interested applicants prepare proposals for the 1989 sary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this agency. Use of funds round of awards under this program. for printing this periodical has been approved Archaeologists unearthing the secrets of Predynastic Egypt and scholars of by the director of the Office of Management religion debating the role of religious studies on the university campuses are and Budget through September 1992. Send re­ quests for subscriptions and other communi­ both in the "zone of the humanities" as Martin Marty puts it. They may em­ cations to the editor, Humanities, National En­ ploy different approaches and methods, but both are in search of clues to an dowment for the Humanities, 1100 ageless human concern: the immortality of the soul. Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20506. Telephone 202/786-0435. Annual subscription rate: $9. (USPS 521-090) ISSN —Caroline Taylor 0018-7526.

2 Contents

Egypt Before and After the Pharaohs 4 In Search of the First Egyptians by Michael Allen Hoffman. Excavations at Hierakonpolis reveal evidence of an earlier Predynastic civilization.

8 Mystery in Progress by Kristen Hall. A traveling museum exhibition of artifacts unearthed at Hierakonpolis.

10 A Codex of Coptic Christianity by James S. Turner. The Savery Codex illuminates elements of early Coptic Christianity.

12 Cleopatra's Egypt by Robert S. Bianchi. A museum exhibition examines Egyptian culture of the Ptolemaic Period.

16 The Encyclopedia of Islam by Caroline Taylor. Revising the scholar's source of information about Islamic civilization.

19 Mummies & Magic by Jeanne E. Casey. The cultural and aesthetic influence of Egyptian mummies.

22 Napoleon in Egypt by Brian Fagan. How the French rediscovered the glories of ancient Egypt.

Scholarship on Religion 26 The Academic Study of Religion by Martin E. Marty. What the study of religion has to say about the character of the humanities.

30 Judaic Classics in English by Beverly Chico. Translating ancient and medieval Hebrew texts.

32 The Path to Pluralism by Edwin S. Gaustad. The growth of religious movements in America.

36 Religion from a Global Perspective by John Buescher. Institutes to teach religious studies in the liberal arts.

The Humanities Guide Eight Keys to a Successful Teacher-Scholar Proposal, 39/ Recent NEH Grants by Discipline, 41/ Deadlines, 46

3 In Search of THE FIRST EGYPTIANS

OW AND WHY By developing a new statistical did the world's technique called "sequence dating," first complex soci­ Petrie was able to arrange groups of eties evolve? There grave goods in a chronological se­ were six original quence according to style, extending H independent civi­ back well before the historical First lizations—Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Dynasty of the pharaohs (ca. 3100- Indus valley; China, Mesoamerica, 2900 B.C.) and to define a hitherto and Peru—but Egypt provides the unknown prepharaonic culture, first and only example of a politically which he christened "Predynastic." centralized nation state. When, Despite the discoveries of Petrie where, how, and why did such a so­ and his successors, the idea that the cial transformation occur? impressive achievements of Egyptian In 1894-95 William Matthews Flin­ civilization could have evolved nor­ ders Petrie, the father of modern mally from prehistoric roots without Egyptian archaeology, unearthed a significant foreign intervention had huge cemetery at Naqada containing been difficult for many to accept be­ more than 2,100 simple, rectangular cause of a strong human tendency to tombs. The bodies of the deceased, reject human inventiveness and to buried in a flexed or fetal position, derive all unusual achievements were accompanied by striking black- from some external source. topped red or painted handmade Various theories proposed to ex­ pots, green slate pigment palettes, plain the origins of Egypt have in­ ivory and bone pendants and cluded (I) a superior race that brought civilization with it from the East or West, (2) supernatural inter­ veloped indigenously in the Nile vention, and (3) extraterrestrial vis­ Valley and can all be traced well back itors. The first theory has taken into the Predynastic era. The muse­ many forms, including attempts to um exhibition, "The First Egyp­ transform the legendary "Followers tians," explores these questions vi­ of Horus"—clients of the earliest sually (see "Mystery in Progress," kings—into a foreign conquering page 8) while this article examines elite; efforts to trace the migrating the ongoing search for Egypt's ori­ survivors of fabled Atlantis to Egypt; gins from the Predynastic Period (ca. and reconstructions of fanciful re­ 4000-3100 B.C.) into the first two dy­ ligious movements, which brought nasties of Archaic times. civilization to the Nile Valley. In the last two decades, the focus Predynastic Culture of academic debate has shifted from the armchair back to the field, where Often called the "Naqada Culture," Figure 1. An archaeologist records the there has been a resurgence of new Predynastic culture developed in the positions of a skeleton and grave offerings in a Predynastic tomb. archaeological excavations at sites Nile Valley within a 390-mile stretch like Hierakonpolis, 450 miles south of the river between the city of As- siut in Middle Egypt and the second combs, flint knives, groundstone of Cairo (Figure 2). Excavations in cataract of the Nile in the northern maceheads and vases, terra-cotta fig­ 1985-86 were supported by NEH urines, and a variety of shell and with private matching contributions Sudan (Lower Nubia). Predynastic peoples supported themselves stone beads and pendants (Figure 1). from the Friends of Nekhen. The contributions of this modern through a mixture of herding, farm­ archaeological research reveal that ing, and fishing. They lived in vil­ Michael Allen Hoffman is research pro­ the distinctive aspects of classic lages and towns, some of which fea­ fessor at the Earth Sciences and Resourc­ Egyptian civilization— such as king­ tured monumental buildings. They es Institute of the University of South ship, the royal mortuary cult, and warred with their neighbors; orga­ Carolina and project director of "The true political capitals with temples, nized a sophisticated, semi­ First Egyptians" exhibition. palaces, and royal cemeteries— de­ industrial craft system; engaged in

4 BY MICHAEL ALLEN HOFFMAN

long-distance trade; buried their Badarian showed a tendency toward icons of royal power. This represen­ dead amidst great display; devel­ ornamentation and an emphasis on tation can be traced to Gerzean times oped a strikingly original art; and the burial of rich grave goods in sim­ and was still used by the early Ro­ evolved a complex religious, social, ple oval tombs. Excavations show man rulers of Egypt and the kings and political organization. that countless necklaces and belts of and queens of Nubia down to the Although some popularizers per­ shell, ivory, carnelian, glazed steat­ fifth century A.D. The earliest docu­ sist in their theories of invading ite, jasper, and occasionally copper mented occurrence of a macehead, super cultures or extraterrestrials, were buried with the dead. dated to ca. 5000-4500 B.C., was in a the informed consensus is that Pre­ Badarian pottery was thin and Nubian grave. That macehead is one dynastic culture represents an amal­ well-made, typified by a refined rip­ of the few tangible pieces of evi­ gamation of desert herding and hor­ ple and black-topped, plum red or dence that can be linked to the an­ ticultural peoples with Nilotic fish­ brown burnished surface finish. Ex­ cient Egyptian concept of kingship ing, hunting, and gathering folk. cavations in desert cemeteries where and traced back archaeologically into Modernized versions of Petrie's se­ preservation is unusually good show Predynastic times. quence dating method, supplement­ that the Badarians made clothing New evidence from ongoing set­ ed by cross-dating, stratigraphy, and from both tanned leather and linen. tlement research at Hierakonpolis radiocarbon analysis, mark the be­ ginning of the Predynastic Period at sometime before 4000 B.C. and the The Amratian Period end at about 3100 B.C. with political Between about 3800 and 3700 B.C., unification under the first kings of there was still sufficient summer the First Dynasty. The Predynastic rainfall in Upper Egypt to allow lim­ Period is usually divided into the ited dry farming and herding on the Badarian, Amratian, Gerzean, and desert borderlands. This was en­ Protodynastic periods. (See table be­ couraged by the fairly high Nile low for dates.) floods prevailing at the time. River transport was common and pro­ moted trade. The Badarian Period Probably the most important sin­ Sometime before 4000 B.C., rainfall gle factor in pulling Predynastic peo­ in Saharan north Africa grew more ples together at this time was the erratic, and lakes and streams dried mortuary cult, the basis of which up. The increased need for food was the strong belief in life after Figure 3. An expedition artist makes a forced Neolithic peoples north and death and the corollary that the dead latex mold of a Gerzean petroglyph found on a hill near Hierakonpolis. east, and some eventually settled in could take their possessions with the central and southern Egyptian them. It followed that the wealthier Nile Valley. an individual, the more goods that has shown that the production of Because of the comparative rich­ were buried with the corpse. items buried with the dead, such as ness of its tombs and because ar­ Large tombs, clustered in an elite maceheads, fancy pottery, slate pal­ chaeologists have concentrated on quarter of a desert cemetery at Hier­ ettes, stone vases, flint knives and cemetery excavations, most of our akonpolis, often held a variety of ceremonial objects, and ornamental knowledge of the Badarian material goods, including twenty or thirty beads, was organized on a proto­ culture is derived from graves. Like pots, lozenge-shaped slate palettes, industrial scale by Amratian times. It later Predynastic cultures, the painted reed arrows with tiny flint seems likely that these items were heads, wooden beds, and beautifully parts of "mortuary kits" produced at ground and polished green and a few major centers and then ex­ Predynastic Chronology of Ancient Egypt white porphyry disc-shaped ported up and down the Nile, help­ Date (B .C .) Upper Egypt Lower Egypt maceheads. ing to spread and unify Predynastic 3100 Protodynastic Protodynastic Maceheads are the first identifi­ culture. The elite that organized and 330Q Late Gerzean Late Gerzean/ (Naqada 0) Maadian able physical symbols of power. controlled this religiously sanctioned 3500 Early Gerzean Omari B? Throughout pharaonic times the im­ production and trade network laid (Naqada D) 4000 Amratian (Naqada I) Omari A? age of a pharaoh, raised mace in the foundation of pharaonic power. 5000 Badarian Merimden/Fayum A hand ready to smite his hapless, (5500 ?) Explorations in the settlements of bound enemies, was one of the stock Hierakonpolis have also revealed the

5 size, variety, and extent of Amratian attractive materials villages and towns. Two centers such as serpentine, dominated the landscape from about marble, porphyry, 3800 to 3500 B.C. Surrounding these amethyst, breccia, centers were smaller farming ham­ alabaster, schist, and lets, herders' camps, cemeteries and diorite; animal effigy slate holy places, such as hills covered palettes; incomparable "ripple-flaked with elaborate graffiti and rock draw­ flint knives with gold or ivory han­ Figure 5. ings (Figure 3). The more than 100- dles; cast copper tools and weapons; Line drawing acre area covered by these settle­ gold and silver jewelry and jar fit­ from the cere­ ments suggests a population of be­ tings; elaborate bone and ivory figu­ monial macehead of King Scorpion, tween 2,300 and 10,500—huge by rines and hair combs; and jewelry of showing the ruler the standards of the day. Such cen­ imported semi-precious stones such wearing the crown of ters provided the most critical ingre­ as lapis lazuli and turquoise. Upper Egypt. dient of statehood: manpower. Big, elite tombs were built near important centers and set apart from slate palettes. A scene from the first humbler graves, a pattern first seen known boat battle in Egypt was in late Amratian Hierakonpolis. The carved on the ivory handle of a knife most striking example of a royal from Gebel el Arak. Cryptic pictures Gerzean grave is the so-called painted on pots from Qustul in Painted Tomb, which was found at southern Egypt suggest warfare be­ the end of the nineteenth century by tween Nubia and Hierakonpolis. a British expedition to Hierakonpolis Craft production, already a highly (Figure 4). organized industry in the Gerzean Along with strong evidence for period, must have grown even more the formation of larger regional dependent on the great centers of states, there are traces of another power and on rulers anxious to legit­ universal harbinger of the state for­ imate their status and reward their mation process: warfare. At Naqada, clients with fancy funerary goods. Petrie discovered a large Gerzean Such changes would only have en­ walled enclosure. Another, appar­ Figure 4. The Painted Tomb, a royal couraged increased productivity and ently with a corner bastion, has re­ Gerzean grave, was found at the end of the reinforced older trends toward cen­ cently been recognized at Hierakon­ nineteenth century by a British expedition. tralized control by powerful elites. polis. Copper weapons first appear To this era belong two striking ar­ at this time, and the iconography of tifacts that illustrate many of the The Gerzean Period the era clearly depicts battles. trends toward political and economic By the Gerzean period, there can be centralization. The two pieces in no doubt that chiefdoms were devel­ question were found in the nine­ oping into regional kingdoms di­ The Protodynastic Period teenth century in the ruins of the rectly foreshadowing pharaonic civi­ The century or so before the first temple of Horus of Nekhen at Hier­ lization. The evidence for Gerzean pharaohs was a time of ferment. akonpolis. The first object is a giant states includes both representations Powerful regional kings contended ceremonial macehead of King Scor­ of kings and the presence at sites for dominance of the Nile Valley. pion (Figure 5), showing the ruler like Hierakonpolis of the three crit­ Competition between regional elites wearing the crown of Upper Egypt ical elements of later Egyptian politi­ sparked an increased demand for and opening a canal. The second cal capitals— a royal necropolis, pal­ imported foreign status symbols, piece is a beautifully carved slate pal­ ace, and large temple compound— leading to growing contacts with ette (Figure 6) portraying King Nar- and a huge dependent craft complex. Middle Eastern cultures. mer wearing separately the crowns The growth of a ruling elite is no­ By the end of the Gerzean period, of Upper and Lower Egypt and sym­ where better seen than in the elabor­ trends toward political unification bolically uniting Egypt. ation of tombs and tomb contents. and competition between large re­ Scorpion is widely recognized as Artifacts included pear-shaped mace- gional states had reached a critical one of the last Predynastic kings of heads; beautifully worked stone vases point. Scenes of warfare were com­ Upper Egypt, while Narmer is often in a variety of shapes and made from monly portrayed on great ceremonial associated with the legendary

6 "Menes," Egypt's first pharaoh. Tak­ as far away as the great city of foodstuffs such as grain and cattle en together, the presence of such rep­ Teotihuacan in the valley of Mexico. and desirable mortuary goods to resentations at Hierakonpolis does Such concentrations provided the their cronies. When Egypt entered much to support Egyptian legends demographic raw material for the the Pyramid Age or Old Kingdom that the site was the home of the an­ state. Once Egypt became a unified (ca. 2700-2230 B.C.), royal power cient ancestors of the first pharaohs. nation under the First Dynasty, how­ reached unprecedented heights as Modern excavations in the ceme­ ever, the older, more dispersed pat­ pyramids rose toward the sky and teries and settlements of Hierakon- tern of settlement returned, except at pcHs reinforce the impression of political capitals like Memphis. growing royal power seen in icono- graphic documents like the Scorpion Macehead and the Narmer Palette. A The Archaic Period planned royal cemetery discovered About 3100 B.C., Egypt was united at that site clearly foreshadows the under the kings of the First Dynasty. great funeral complexes of Archaic According to Egyptian legends and and Old Kingdom times at Abydos, the ancient king lists, the first king Saqqara, and Giza. was "Menes," who may have been The need for defense and an easily Narmer or his successor Aha. The mobilized labor force encouraged the "First Egyptians" exhibition features development of fortified centers. a number of objects displaying the Fortified towns are clearly depicted names of First Dynasty kings. One, on great ceremonial palettes of.the from the Detroit Institute of Art, is a time. Work at Hierakonpolis has magnificent alabaster vase bearing Figure 7. A model of a First Dynasty pal­ shown that previously dispersed set­ the royal name of Hor-Aha. Aha's ace at Hierakonpolis. The king was closely tlements now clustered tightly vase shows the king's name written identified with his palace. around the fortified center of beneath the hawk Horus and above Nekhen. Such nucleation was clearly a stylized, niched palace facade, artisans churned out some of the the result of cultural rather than en­ called a "serekh" facade. Another greatest masterpieces of Egyptian art vironmental factors because the re­ object with the king's "horus name," for their royal masters. turn of rainy conditions in the Pro- from the Royal Ontario Museum, is Nevertheless, the material culture todynastic period did not result in a golden-handled flint knife em­ and subsistence economy of phar­ the dispersal of regional population bossed with the serekh of King Djer. aonic Egypt remained one grounded to exploit new ecological niches, as it When Archaic Egyptians wrote solidly on Predynastic antecedents. had in earlier Amratian times. the king's name like this, they were In contrast to the rich cemeteries of The tendency for populations to making a statement about the ruler's the Predynastic, by Old Kingdom cluster in times of early state devel­ relation to his palace and to the na­ times the tombs of the average Egyp­ opment due to factors like warfare, tion as a whole— "the Horus (king) tians— the backbone of the economy trade, and centralized craft produc­ Aha reigns in his palace." Because —were impoverished hovels. Hero­ tion is widespread and can be seen Egyptians were quite literal minded, dotus was right. The pyramids rose the palace facade written below the literally on the backs of pharaoh's king's Horus name was based on real peasants. Civilization, it seems, had palace facades, as can be seen in the its price. reconstruction of a First Dynasty pal­ ace discovered at Hierakonpolis (Fig­ In 1985, the Earth Sciences and Resourc­ ure 7). Much later, from Eighteenth- es Institute received $10,000 in outright Dynasty times (ca. 1550-1320 B.C.), funds and $76,000 in gift and matching the word for the ruler was pharaoh or funds from the Interpretive Research cat­ "great house." egory of the Division of Research Pro­ Pharaonic control over foreign grams for excavations at Hierakonpolis. trade in luxury goods and expansion In 1986, the institute received an addi­ of royal estates and workshops en­ tional $ 6 ,0 0 0 in outright funds from the Figure 6. The palette of King Narmer shows the king wearing the abled Egypt's new rulers to cement Interpretive Research category for pre­ crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. their authority by controlling the publication analysis of the results of these production and distribution of excavations.

7 MYSTERY IN PROGRESS

ORE THAN FIVE thousand temples and imposing tombs that M years ago in the Nile Valley of dot the desert landscape. But before Egypt, an artist found a rocky out­ the pharaohs, there lived an even crop that rose ten to twelve feet earlier society whose way of life saw above the gravel desert. On its sand­ the emergence of a division of labor, stone surface, he painted a boat with advances in early hieroglyphs, the oarsmen. Beneath the boat he added development of native architecture, a few bold strokes suggesting the and the rise of a regional elite and outlines of a bull. Although the their subsequent mortuary cult. painting's purpose remains shroud­ Michael Allen Hoffman, director ed in mystery, its artistry is as mod­ of the Hierakonpolis excavation and ern as a Picasso. The painting is only project director for the exhibition, the latest of a number of exciting dis­ cites several important finds at Hier­ coveries made by an NEH-supported akonpolis as the basis for mounting

excavation in the Predynastic settle­ the exhibition. These include the Courtesy of Egyptian Studies Association, University of South Carolina ment of Nekhen, known today as oldest urban complex (ca. 4000 B.C.), Archaeologists study pottery sherds in order Hierakonpolis (see "In Search of the the oldest substantial house (ca. 3600 to estimate the age and significance of a pre­ historic site. First Egyptians," page 4). B.C.), the earliest known temple (ca. 3350-3200 B.C.), an early Archaic royal palace (ca. 3100-2900 B.C.), and Hierakonpolis and traces the history numerous artifacts of value in under­ of the expedition from its beginnings standing ancient Egyptian culture. in 1897 to the present interdisciplin­ According to cocurator Karin ary project. The "dig" is organized Willoughby, curator of natural sci­ so that visitors obtain information ences at the McKissick Museum, much as they would in a detective "The exhibition establishes that Dy­ story by observing how archae­ nastic culture represented a logical ologists "read the dirt" for clues, culmination of a thousand years of finding in subtle stains in the earth Predynastic development." evidence of Egypt's first architecture. The exhibition traces the develop­ Also explained are the important ment of Predynastic Egypt through roles played by natural scientists and four modules. The first, "The World artists in reconstructing ancient of Ancient Egypt," transports the cultures. "We show the stages of the visitor back through time beyond the excavation process," Willoughby more familiar world of pharaonic monuments to the earliest Pre­ Depiction of a rock painting of a boat and a dynastic settlements. The museum bull, discovered in the Predynastic settlement visitor walks among familiar images of Hierakonpolis. "The First Egyptians" premiered at of the later dynasties—Cleopatra VII, South Carolina's McKissick Museum Photographs of the painting will Rameses II, and King Thutmose III— in the spring of 1988, traveled to the be on display with early Egyptian ar­ along a time-line that ends at 3100 Milwaukee Public Museum in the summer of 1988, and is currently at tifacts from Hierakonpolis in "The B.C., the beginning of historic times. Here, a full-sized cast of the Narmer the Denver Museum of Natural His­ First Egyptians," a traveling exhibi­ tory, where it opened in late October tion sponsored by the McKissick Palette (3100 B.C.) is accompanied 1988 and will close in March 1989. Museum and the Earth Sciences and by an explanation of the political and From April to mid-July 1989, the ex­ Resources Institute of the University symbolic significance of the events hibition will be at the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History; of South Carolina with NEH support depicted through hieroglyphs and pictographs describing King from mid-August to mid-October (see opposite). 1989, at the Witte Museum in San An­ For many people, the mystery of Narmer's unification of Upper and tonio; and from early December 1989 ancient Egypt lies in the impressive Lower Egypt into a centrally orga­ to early March 1990, at the Smithson­ nized nation-state. ian's National Museum of Natural In the second module, "The History in Washington, D.C. Kristen Hall is an editorial assistant for Search for Hierakonpolis," the vis­ Humanities. itor steps into a modern-day dig at

8 BY KRISTEN HALL

chaeological methods and recreates the technique of sequence dating, first developed by W.M.F. Petrie, ca. 1899. Using a group of fifteen pots ranging from Badarian to Protody­ nastic, the visitor learns how relative dates can be established by noting the stylistic and technological char­ acteristics of ancient surroundings. Educational materials accompany­ Above: An exhibition case contains a Gerzean pot. Right: A detail from the pot shows its ing the exhibition include an exhibi­ boat design, a common image in ancient tion catalogue with original essays Egyptian art. Boats were important as trans­ on Predynastic culture and pottery, portation and as the sacred vessels of the gods. an eight-minute videotape introduc­ tion to the show, a slide show and script geared to three age groups from elementary to high school lev­ els, and a set of resource materials with projects ranging from a puzzle that reconstructs Predynastic pots to possible essay topics based on read­ of the excavation there of a First Dy­ ings from a suggested bibliography. nasty palace (ca. 3100-2900 B.C.). Based on the exhibition's reception The final module, "Capitals of the to date, Willoughby is excited about Two Lands," summarizes the emer­ its future venues. Visitation at the gence of a unified Upper and Lower McKissick Museum in South Car­ Egypt as a centralized nation-state by olina more than doubled when the exploring the interrelationship of exhibition premiered there, and in A reconstruction of houses and temples of several Predynastic and early Dynas­ Milwaukee attendance figures ex­ Nekhen during the time of Narmer (3100 B.C.) tic centers in Upper and Lower ceeded 1,000 people per week. Egypt, including Fayum, Naqada, By the time the exhibition reaches Abydos, Saqqara, and Qustul. Washington, D.C., in December says. “Work that begins with a More than 130 artifacts, maps, 1989, archaeologists at Hierakonpolis paintbrush in the field ends with models, murals, and farming imple­ will have unearthed more clues specific knowledge gained about ments have been assembled for the about the early Egyptians and possi­ Predynastic Egyptian civilization." exhibition. An alabaster vase belong­ bly more mysteries like the recently Topographical maps, color- ing to King Hor-Aha (ca. 3100 B.C.) discovered rock painting at Nekhen. enhanced infrared Landsat II im­ recalls the pharaonic practice of "Nothing like this has ever been ages, and black and white photos using rich gifts inscribed with the seen before," said Hoffman when from the space shuttle fix the loca­ king's name to reward loyal fol­ announcing the painting's discovery. tion of Hierakonpolis and trace the lowers. The show features a number "It's telling us something we've nev­ course of the Nile River, which in of such pieces from First Dynasty er suspected before. We are now Predynastic times flowed next to the kings and even includes two rare al­ searching for an explanation of the town of Nekhen. abaster bowls bearing inscriptions of meaning of the painting and why it's The third module, "From Chiefs to the late Predynastic rulers Scorpion there. It's a mystery in progress." Kings," delineates the transition and Irj Hor. Charts, maps, and iso­ from a society of self-sufficient metric drawings, complemented by For the exhibition "The First Egyptians: hunter-gatherers to a stratified, self- architectural scale models, illustrate The Origins of Civilizations in Pre­ governing sociopolitical entity. Ex­ the urban growth of Hierakonpolis dynastic Egypt," the Earth Sciences and hibited is a model of an Amratian and the relationship between popu­ Resources Institute received $299,384 in village, a display discussing the lation expansion and the origins of 1987 from the Humanities Projects in oldest Egyptian rectangular house social complexity. Museums and Historical Organizations discovered at Hierakonpolis (ca. The exhibition also explores the in­ Program of the Division of General 3600-3500 B.C.), and a scale model terdisciplinary nature of modern ar­ Programs. 9 A CODEX o f COPTIC CHRISTIANITY Gift Gift of Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Harvard University Art Museum (Arthur M. Sackler M useum ): BY JAMES S. TURNER A sixth-century Coptic wool and linen textile fragment depicting St. Theodore.

OR WESTERNERS, Egyptian from Jerusalem across Asia Minor to who had placed it in Robinson's care F Christianity, which has its own Rome. While it is certain that Chris­ for purposes of restoration, research, patriarch, is an anomaly. Tradition tianity arrived in Egypt very early, and publication. Robinson recruited holds that St. Mark brought Chris­ the New Testament offers no clear Goehring to be general editor of a tianity to Egypt in the first century. evidence of its movement toward Al­ projected critical edition of the cod­ There it spread first among the exandria, the second principal city of ex, which is called the Savery Codex Greek population and eventually the Roman Empire. after its current owner. Supported among the Copts, a segment of the The historical evidence for the by an NEH travel grant, Goehring indigenous population that claims later era of the Coptic church is ex­ spent the summer of 1986 studying descent from the ancient Egyptians. tensive. Through the good fortune the text at the institute. Despite tradition, the precise origin of a hot, dry climate conducive to While much is known about the of Coptic Christianity remains ob­ preserving papyri, many Coptic codex, much is still ambiguous. Of scure. The New Testament traces Christian texts have been recovered the 136 original pages, 22 are miss­ Paul's transmission of the faith from the Egyptian desert, including ing from the beginning of the codex around the northern Mediterranean, major discoveries in Upper Egypt in and 10 from the end. Some of the the vicinities of Nag Hammadi and fifty fragments that survive have Dishna during the 1940s. Most of been recognized and placed as por­ these texts have been translated, tions of six of the lost pages from the published, and mined by scholars codex's beginning. In addition, some for information about early Christian text loss has occurred because of de­ history. terioration and damage along the When one unpublished codex, or edges of the first few extant pages. book, of fourth-century Coptic pa­ The codex was part of the Upper pyri that had never been fully stud­ Egyptian manuscript discovery near ied became temporarily available in Dishna, Egypt, about 300 miles 1986, James E. Goehring's scholarly south of Cairo, or 40 miles north of interest was piqued. An assistant the Valley of the Kings. Before it was professor of religion at Mary Wash­ hidden in the desert, the codex may ington College in Fredericksburg, have formed part of the library of Virginia, Goehring aimed to place the Egyptian monasteries founded in the codex in the public domain in the area by St. Pachomius in the order to secure its future use among fourth century. scholars of the Coptic language and Equipped only with this informa­ students of early Christianity. tion about the codex's original con­ Goehring became involved with text, scholars familiar with the text the codex through James M. Robin­ have speculated about the reasons son, director of the Institute for An­ for the selection of particular texts tiquity and Christianity at Clare­ for inclusion in the codex and about mont, California. Robinson had the codex's function in the life of its acquired the volume on a two-year original community. The codex con­ loan from its private owner, Winsor sists of five tractates written in Cop­ T. Savery of The Woodlands, Texas, tic: the Paschal Homily by Melito of Sardis, a famous second-century ser­ mon; an excerpt from the Second This sixth-century Egyptian tapestry of linen James S. Turner is assistant editor of Book of Maccabees; the First Epistle and wool with Latin cross was used as a pall. Humanities. of Peter; the Book of Jonah; and the

10 U 5

Above: Pages from the Savery Codex. Right: Codices similar to the Savery Codex. opening two pages of an early iden­ ing his transcription against the orig­ peculiarities in Coptic are still under tified Christian homily. Given the inal. "The most damaged portion of study, so every text that becomes themes of these texts, scholars be­ the codex is the initial text, Melito's available is a welcome contribution lieve that they were originally Paschal Homily, which is one of my in Coptic language studies." brought together in a single volume two text assignments in the critical The critical edition, scheduled to for use as a liturgical book during edition," Goehring says. "It was par­ be published by Belgian publisher the Easter season. ticularly important for me, not only Peeters in 1990, will be a volume in Before traveling to Claremont, as general editor of the volume but the Corpus Scriptorum Christianor- Goehring completed a transcription also as editor of Melito's text in par­ um Orientalium series. The edition of the codex from available sources. ticular, to consult the original will include an introduction by He examined a preliminary tran­ manuscript." James Robinson, an essay on the scription of the codex made by Wil­ The Coptic texts in the codex are codex's Coptic language by Goeh­ liam W. Willis of Duke University, translations based on Greek- ring, a critical Coptic text and En­ who announced the text's existence language versions of the same texts glish translation for each of the five to the world in 1958 at the Ninth In­ that were in circulation at the time. individual tractates, and Coptic and ternational Congress of Papyrology "However," says Goehring, "the Greek work indices. The team of in Oslo, and a second transcription Coptic texts reveal enough substan­ scholars involved in this work under and translation of Melito's Paschal tive differences from the known Goehring's general editorship in­ Homily made by Birger Pearson and Greek versions of the same texts to cludes Edmund Meltzer of Clare­ Ruth Majercik of the University of raise the question of whether they mont Graduate School, Charles California, Santa Barbara. represent translations based on even Hedrick of Southwest Missouri State Goehring also examined two series earlier Greek versions that no longer University, Clayton Jefford of the In­ of photographs of the codex's pages. exist." He notes that, while further stitute for Antiquity and Christiani­ "The photographs show well research is required in this matter, ty, and H.G. Bethge of Humboldt enough the manuscript's better pre­ the implication of such evidence is University in East Berlin, as well as served pages," he points out, "but potentially far-reaching. "A Coptic Goehring and Willis. less clear are the torn edges and translation can never supplant the Although much is known about holes of the more poorly preserved earliest surviving Greek version," he the Coptic church, some gaps re­ pages and instances where the scribe says, "but evidence that the transla­ main. "Of course, we will never wrote one letter and changed it to tion was based on an earlier, no-longer- have all the pieces," says Goehring. another. From a photograph, it's extant Greek version can be used to "But the more we can know about often difficult to tell which letter he improve the critical Greek text." early elements of Coptic Christianity, wrote first and which he corrected it In addition to the codex's impor­ the more we can appreciate that to, which stroke underlies which tance in the study of early Coptic Christianity's success depended other stroke." While the photo­ Christianity, Goehring points to its from the start on its ability to adapt graphs are sufficient for decipher­ value for study of the Coptic lan­ to diverse cultures." vs* ment in most cases, adds Goehring, guage. The text, which contains nu­ a careful comparison of his transcrip­ merous dialectical variations and In 1986, James Goehring received $500 tion to the original papyrus manu­ grammatical peculiarities, provides a in outright funds from the Travel to Col­ script was necessary to ensure large body of early Coptic for study lections category of the Division of Fel­ accuracy. by Coptologists. "Coptic is not as lowships and Seminars for preparation of At the institute, Goehring exam­ well understood as Latin or Greek," a critical edition of a fourth-century Cop­ ined each page of the codex, collat­ Goehring points out. "Many of the tic manuscript.

11

A museum exhibition explores Egypt during the age of the Ptolemies CLEOPATRA'S

EGYPTBY ROBERT S. BIANCHI

N LATE NOVEMBER or December of 332 B.C., the Macedonian Greek I general Alexander the Great conquered Egypt so that he could deprive his Persian rival King Darius III Codomannos of direct access to all Mediterra­ nean ports. Alexander was able to add Egypt to his ever-growing empire without recourse to battle. Although accounts are sketchy as to the reasons for his ease of conquest, it appears that Alexander offered favorable terms to the high-ranking native Egyptian officials who were administering Egypt on behalf of Darius III. Re­ alizing their military vulnerability, these officials accepted Alexander's offer of continuance in office accompanied by personal advantages, both political and economic, in exchange for their capitulation and demonstrations of fealty. As a result, the Egyptians themselves depicted Alexander the Great as a pharaoh of Egypt. The depiction was symbolic. Less than a year after his conquest of Egypt, Alexander died on the banks of the Euphrates. Ptolemy, a Macedonian Greek who had been a member of the general's inner council, escorted Alexander's body to Egypt and interred it with great ceremony at Memphis before its exhumation and final burial in Alexandria. Ptolemy manipulated the funeral to his political advantage by using the occasion to secure the frontiers of Egypt against his rivals, those generals who had served Alexander the Great. Alexander's policy of enlisting the aid of high-ranking members of the native Egyptian bureaucracy benefited Ptolemy and his descendants, for Ptolemy continued to enlist the support of the leading native Egyptian fami­ lies in his administration. So successful was this policy and so entrenched did it become that members of an Egyptian family of high priests of the creator god Ptah in the religious capital of Memphis, who were in office dur-

Robert S. Bianchi is associate curator of Egyptian, classical, and ancient Middle Eastern art at the Brooklyn Museum and curator of the exhibition.

Figure 1. Funerary stela of Pakhaas. Limestone, painted and gilded, 2nd to 1st century B.C. Assigned to Thebes. Beneath a curved band representing the vault of heaven, supported at the right and left by so-called was-scepters, is deployed a winged sun disk from which are suspended two sacred cobras, each confronting a jackal, the symbol of Anubis, god of the necropolis and embalming. A second, horizontal sky sign separates those elements from the main scene. The central figure is the deceased, Pakhaas, holding a bolt of cloth and a staff. An ointment cone rests on his closely cropped head. Behind him to the left stands his mother,

raising one hand in adoration and shaking a sistrum or rattle. The two are attended by the son

of Pakhaas, who stands in front of a heavily ladened offering table, presenting the gifts of incense and cool water to his father. Figure 2. Statue of Pakhom, governor of Dendera. Black diorite. Ca. 50 B.C. From Dendera. Pakhom's ensemble consists of a round-neck, short-sleeved T-shirt, similar to those worn today, over which is wrapped a skirt, to which is added a shawl, asymmetrically draped around the torso and held in place by the left hand. The elements of this costume gained currency in relief William William H. Murphy Fund Founders Society Purchase, decorations in tombs during Dynasty XXVI about 650 B.C. but were given sculptural The Detroit Institute of Arts, expression in statues for the first time during the Ptolemaic Period.

13 Exhibition Schedule October 7, 1988-January 2, 1989 The Brooklyn Museum Brooklyn, New York February 14-April 30, 1989 The Detroit Institute of Arts Detroit, Michigan June 8-September 10, 1989 Kunsthalle der Hypo-Kulturstiftung Munich, West Germany

ing the time of Ptolemy, were able to bequeath their positions to their de­ scendants in an unbroken sequence until the late first century B.C. By 305 B.C., Ptolemy had secured his position as undisputed ruler of Egypt. He took the unprecedented step of declaring himself pharaoh, there-' by inaugurating the Ptolemaic dynasty whose members were to rule Egypt until 30 B.C. Ptolemy named Alexandria, the city earlier founded by Alex­ ander, as his capital. With a handful of Greek ministers and the continuing compliance of the native Egyptian aristocracy, he ruled a largely illiterate, agrarian population that was numerically far greater than the aristocracy. The culture of Ptolemaic Egypt was undeniably divided into two separate and unequal spheres. Figure 3. The Berlin Green Head. Schist. 1st Traditionally, most scholars of the ancient Mediterranean basin have re­ century B.C. Provenance not known. In garded this disparity from the vantage point of their own Hellenocentric typically pharaonic fashion, the craftsman has bias. Such scholars have argued for the primacy of Hellenistic Greek cultural modeled the skull as a series of gently norms over the Egyptian. To exponents of this school, "separate and un­ undulating planes and has then added the equal" connote all of the negative cultural implications inherent in contem­ characteristic features of age as deeply incised linear adjuncts. Notice the lines intersecting porary societies so structured. As a result, pharaonic art, the visual expres­ on the preserved part of the bridge of the nose. sion of a politically and economically disadvantaged majority, has been The upper eyelids are creased, and crows' feet assessed in terms of the prevailing criteria established for Hellenistic Greek line the outer corners of the eyes. The naso­ art. In such an intellectual climate, few have challenged the traditional labial furrow in this view is heart-shaped and wisdom and fewer still have attempted to gauge pharaonic Egyptian culture curls up to touch the outer corner of the mouth. The treatment of the ear with its of the Ptolemaic Period on its own terms. wrinkles and nicked lobe are noteworthy. The museum exhibition, "Cleopatra's Egypt: Age of the Ptolemies," which Although uninscribed, the individual opened on October 7 at the Brooklyn Museum, takes a revisionist approach represented is perhaps to be identified as a to these issues by examining the Ptolemaic Period from the perspective of high official whose head is shaved. He wears the native Egyptians. The exhibition, supported in part by NEH, presents jewelry, perhaps to be regarded as a torque, around his neck. 165 works of art from 40 collections, public and private, in North America and Europe. Its purpose is to describe and illustrate the aesthetic triumph and creative genius of the native Egyptians, who were ruled by the Macedo­ nian Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies. The accommodation between the Ptolemaic court and the privileged Egyp­ tian aristocracy fostered intense nationalism on the part of some Egyptian of­ ficials. So adamant were they that in the late third century B.C., the region around Thebes seceded. Two native kings in succession proclaimed them­ selves the legitimate rulers of the land. In fact, the decree inscribed on the Rosetta Stone discovered by Champollion in 1799 is an official concession by Ptolemy V Epiphanes to the native priesthoods in 196 B.C., and is aimed at ending the hostilities. Although the Ptolemies could parade about as pharaohs, the political sta­ bility of the land and its economic resources remained in the hands of the native Egyptian aristocracy. The Ptolemaic court was often obliged to accom­ modate itself to the demands of the ruled. The art of this native Egyptian so­ ciety forms the basis of "Cleopatra's Egypt." Each object was selected so that its inherent aesthetic quality could present the very best of that visual legacy to a large audience for the first time.

14 Among the objects in the exhibition is a limestone stela in the collection of the Brooklyn Museum (Figure 1). In this highly imaginative scene, the crafts­ men employed an ancient Egyptian religious motif whereby the deceased might become Osiris, the lord of the West, in the hereafter. A tiny effigy of that god rests symbolically on the knees of Pakhaas as an artistic convention to indicate that Pakhaas and Osiris are one. The conceit is expanded to in­ clude Pakhaas's mother, who is suggestive of Isis, the wife of Osiris, by vir­ tue of the sistrum, the ritual musical instrument symbolizing that goddess. The divine triad is completed by the son who, dutifully ministering to the needs of his deceased father, assumes the role of Horus, the son of Osiris. The unique figural decoration on this stela has no parallels among the hundreds of others preserved from the Ptolemaic Period. On no other pri­ vate funerary monument is the association of the deceased so visually con­ nected with Osiris. It testifies to the creative impulses of the native crafts­ men, who might tailor a well-known religious conceit in a novel way for an otherwise unknown Egyptian official from Thebes whose only preserved ti­ tle is "gateman of the treasury of Amun." A typically incorrect assessment of pharaonic Egyptian art during the Ptolemaic Period involves a common misinterpretation of the statue of Pakhom, a governor of the Upper Egyptian city of Dendera during the time of Cleopatra the Great in the first century B.C. (Figure 2). Once described as a feeble approximation of Hellenistic Greek sculptural concerns for the inter­ play of the forms of the body emerging from beneath the folds of the drap­ ery, the statue is one of more than 150 of a type now known to depict high officials in an elaborate tripartite costume. The eyes of Pakhom were once in­ laid, and he sports the diadem of his office in his hair. The somewhat promi­ Figure 4. Portrait of Cleopatra VII. Marble. nent pectoral muscles are an Egyptian artistic convention denoting rank. 30-11 B.C. Provenance not known. Although the identification is assured by coin portraits, the This non-occidental cultural characteristic is typical of most ancient oriental soft quality of the modeling indicates that the societies, which equate physical corpulence with political authority. portrait is posthumous. Perhaps it was erected in Of all the works of art created for the native Egyptian aristocracy during Cleopatra's memory by her daughter Cleopatra the Ptolemaic Period, none is more riveting than the array of images repre­ Selene, who survived her mother and became senting older clerics and officials into whose skin the signs of age are etched. queen of Mauritania by virtue of her marriage to King Juba II. The exhibition displays the famous Green Head, so named from the color of the Egyptian schist stone from which it is sculpted (Figure 3). Such images are often erroneously termed "portraits." In fact, they are simply generic representations of aged officials that incorporate an array of stock features for rendering age onto heads that fit into specific typologies. Among the indica­ tors that one is dealing with a repertoire of stock forms are the treatment of the eyes with their hard, linear, nonnaturalistic rims and the tendency to group the signs of aging in threes—three so-called crowsfeet at the outer corners of the eyes, three wrinkles at the roof of the nose, and three creases on the lip. No member of the Ptolemaic dynasty was as attuned to the value of an­ cient Egyptian traditions for their propagandists value than Cleopatra VII, shown in Figure 4 in a Hellenistic Greek marble and in Figure 5 in pharaonic garb offering to the deities of the temple at Dendera where Pakhom was once governor. Cleopatra was possessed of a magnetic personality from which few could escape. Of all the Ptolemies, she alone could understand the Egyptian language and hieroglyphs. The career of Cleopatra the Great, the seventh of the dynasty to bear that name, marks the culmination of the policy inaugurated by Alexander the Great. With the native Egyptians as her allies and armed with Egyptian propaganda that a woman could be pharaoh, Cleopatra bolstered her claim to world domination. At Actium in 31 B.C., she lost the last naval encounter of antiquity against the forces of Octavian, later named Augustus. Had she won, the fate of the West might have been fundamentally altered, and our traditions would be indebted to Graeco-Egyptian, rather than Graeco-Roman culture. Figure 5. Rear Wall of the Temple of the Goddess Hathor at Dendera. Cleopatra VII and Caesarion. 43-30 B.C. Preceded by her child For the exhibition "Cleopatra's Egypt: Art and Culture in the Ptolemaic Period," in Caesarion, Cleopatra offers two different sistra. 1986 the Brooklyn Museum received $100,000 in outright funds and $400,000 in The tiny image between them represents the ka, gift and matching funds from the Humanities Projects for Museums and Historical or spirit, of Caesarion. Organizations Program of the Division of General Programs.

15 The Encyclopedia of Islam BY CAROLINE TAYLOR

HE CRITICAL IMPORTANCE of nasties and sects, art, archaeology, methodologies, particularly social understanding the Islamic music, folklore, theology, philoso­ science methods which are almost world is no more evident than in phy, ethics, law, history of science, totally missing from the earlier vol­ daily news accounts of events in the literature, and languages of all coun­ umes of the first edition." Middle East—from the Persian Gulf tries in which Islam is or has been Wolfhart Heinrichs, professor of to Lebanon to the West Bank of the present either as a major or an im­ Arabic in the Department of Near Jordan River. Islamic scholars have portant way of life. Eastern Languages and Civilizations long had access to the Encyclopaedia The first edition was begun in 1908 at Harvard University and current of Islam, which is widely recognized and completed in 1938. Ten years project director for the encyclopedia, as the major research tool for the later, the Twenty-first International notes that the revised edition will field with articles on topics relating Congress of Orientalists resolved also include numerous articles writ­ to history, geography, aspects of that a new edition of the encyclope­ ten by scholars from the Middle East public and private life, peoples, dy­ dia was required to take account of and India. "That's a change vis-a-vis advances in knowledge and to in­ the first edition, which was very clude subjects not covered previous­ much a European-American ly. It asked the International Union enterprise." of Academies to undertake a revi­ The first edition was published in sion. With NEH support since 1979, French, English, and German. The an editorial committee under the second is published in French and auspices of the International Union English, using roman transliteration of Academies has been engaged in of words in Arabic script. Transla­ preparing a revised edition that will tions are being published in Arabic, provide more comprehensive and Persian, Turkish, and Urdu. current information about the Islam­ Unlike the Jewish or Catholic en­ ic world in a form accessible to the cyclopedias, the Islamic encyclope­ general reader. dia is not written as a guide for According to Bernard Lewis, those who profess Islam as a re­ Cleveland E. Dodge Emeritus Pro­ ligion, although religious topics are fessor of Near Eastern Studies at included. "We are not producing an Princeton University and director of Islamic encyclopedia in that sense," the NEH project until 1988, "much Lewis explains. "That is something had happened in the world, particu­ which, of course, only the Muslims larly in the Islamic world, since 1938. can do. Our aim is a work of inde­ We needed a new start that would pendent scholarship. Some of our take account, first, of the changed authors are Muslims; some are not. condition of the Islamic world, sec­ They are not chosen by faith or ond, of the vast amount of new in­ creed but by their qualifications." formation—new topics, new books, But there remains the small defini­ new problems—which had been tional problem with respect to the brought to light, and third, new meaning of the word Islam. Lewis points to the encyclopedia's use of Shops in Cairo from Edward Lane's An Ac­ count of the Manners and Customs of the word in at least two different the Modern Egyptians (1836). The entry Caroline Taylor is the editor of senses, "first, to mean the religion it­ for Kahira (Cairo) covers the city's history. Humanities. self and its subsequent develop-

16 ment; and second, as the equivalent That is not the case in most fields of of Christendom, not Christianity." Islamic studies. These are young dis­ Although in the Western world, ciplines, relatively undeveloped." Christianity is the name of a religion Normally, an encyclopedia article and Christendom is the name of the is a summary of what is known. civilization that arose under the aegis Where a subject is important and ei­ of that religion, there is no such dif­ ther very little or no work has been ferentiation in the Islamic world. done before, the encyclopedia article "Unfortunately," he says, "we use can itself become a piece of original the word Islam—and so do the Mus­ research. Many articles in the new lims—to mean these two different edition are, in themselves, major things. works of scholarship covering such "If, for example you say Christian topics as irrigation, agriculture, war­ art, it will be assumed that you mean fare, art, languages and literatures, religious art," he explains. "You taxation, Islamic law, and marriage wouldn't call a Rembrandt or a Pi­ and divorce. casso Christian art although both The entry for kissa (in modern Rembrandt and Picasso were Chris­ Arabic, used to designate the novel), tians. On the other hand, if you say for example, provides a 22-page ex­ Islamic art, you are understood to ploration of the genre that begins mean any kind of art that was pro­ with a discussion of modern Arabic duced in the Islamic civilization even literature and includes information if it is in no sense religious." about Turkish, Persian, Urdu, Malay­ Studying Islam in the same way sian, Indonesian, Swahili, and Judeo- that one studies Greek or Roman or Arabic and Judeo-Berber forms of European history is comparatively the short story and novel. Pointing recent, says Lewis. Therefore, the out the European origins of the amount of accepted or agreed novel in Arabic and that, indeed, the knowledge—which is what encyclo­ first one was written in Paris by an pedias are supposed to contain—is Egyptian in 1914 (Zaynab, by Haykal), Above: Art Iranian carved wooden comparatively small. "If you want to the article goes on to explain that Koran stand, 1360. Below: Exam­ write something on a period of throughout its sixty-year existence ples of nineteenth-century Egyptian American history," he explains, "you Arabic fiction has had to cope with attire from Lane's Modem Egyp­ tians. The entry for libas (clothing) have a vast pool of secondary litera­ two basic problems: the first, runs to tiventy pages. ture on which to draw, and a fair whether to use a dialect or fusha, the amount of it is generally agreed. "pure" written form of Arabic; the Dover Publications Inc.

17 second, how to treat a central theme various European imperial regimes. of classical antiquity. In addition to in many of the novels, which is the Now there are more than forty inde­ articles about subjects that were not relationship of the Arabic novel to pendent Muslim states, most of included in the first edition, the Europe, "the master, in both senses which have constitutions. A compre­ second edition contains articles on of the word, pedagogic and hensive article on constitution mak­ topics that have been previously ex­ colonialist." ing and constitutional law in the Is­ plored but that are still hotly disput­ The first edition of the encyclope­ lamic world is something new." ed. "Where there are disputes," says dia was much more literary, philo­ Some articles are almost entirely Lewis, "we ask our authors to make sophical, and religious in its scope, original, particularly those dealing a judicious presentation of the differ­ says Lewis, and although the edi­ with social and economic history, be­ ent points of view. torial committee has not abandoned cause not very much was covered on "The only way we have been able any of these subjects, many others these topics in the past. Also, certain to accommodate the nonspecialist is have been added. An article on con­ ideas were not examined. The re­ to include large numbers of cross- stitutions is one example. "There vised edition, for example, includes references," he adds. To research a was no article on constitutions in the an article on freedom. "In 1908 peo­ specific topic, the general reader can earlier edition because there were no ple just didn't think of that as a sub­ look up the English word and find a constitutions, except perhaps in two ject for an encyclopedia article," cross-reference to the word in its states," says Lewis. "At the time of Lewis points out. Arabic form. For example, the entry the first edition, there were the Ot­ Agriculture is also discussed for for slavery refers the reader to 'abd. toman Empire and Iran with most of the first time in the revised edition. For commerce, the cross-reference is the rest of the Muslim world under "Obviously agriculture existed at the tijara. "This makes it difficult for the time of the first edition," nonspecialist," he explains, "but as explains Lewis, "but long as we're doing the edition in agriculture as a theme more than one language, we have no of scholarly inquiry alternative." did not." A look at Volume 5 (KHE-MAHI) The second edition is reveals no entry for the Ayatollah an attempt to replicate Khomeini. As a general editorial for the Islamic world principle, says Lewis, the encyclope­ the scope of material dia does not contain biographical ar­ included in Pauly Wis- ticles on living persons, although sowa, the multivolume their names may be mentioned in German encyclopedia other articles on places or topics. Since 1954 when work was begun The mosque of Sulyemaniye on the revised edition, the editorial Camii (The Blue Mosque), committee has produced five vol­ Constantinople (1550-1557). umes, two double fascicles of sup­ The influence of Hagia Soph­ ia is clear in this building plements to Volumes 1-3, and an in­ constructed for Suleyman the dex to the first three volumes. An Magnificent. index for Volumes 4-6 is in the works, and eventually the two in­ dexes will be combined into one. The supplementary fascicles have been necessary, first, as new mate­ rial comes to light and, second, be­ cause some authors could not meet their original deadlines. "We don't try to keep up to date," says Lewis. "We're producing a work of reference that we hope will stay on the shelf in the reference room for at least a half century and perhaps longer. For that reason, con­ tributors are asked to write in such a way that their articles will shed light on, rather than be outdated by, the events recounted in tomorrow's newspaper."

In 1982, Princeton University received $28,729 in outright funds from the Ref­ erence Materials category of the Division of Research Programs for work on the Encyclopaedia of Islam.

18 M u m m ies & m a g ic

BY JEANNE E. CASEY

N ANCIENT EGYPTIAN mythology, the deceased led a con­ I tinued existence in an afterlife. To ensure a comfortable after­ life, their bodies were carefully preserved at their death. But an­ cient embalmers could not foresee the worldly uses to which their handiwork would be put in recent centuries. By the sixteenth cen­ tury, powdered mummy was routinely prescribed in Europe as a panacea for physical ailments. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Europeans brought back mummies from their Egyptian travels to perform autopsies on them as parlor entertainment. During the nineteenth century, an American paper manufacturer imported mummies for use in making brown wrapping paper, and the Egyptians themselves used mummies to fuel locomotives. Such destruction of ancient mummies makes a contemporary assemblage of mummies and funerary artifacts spanning 4,000 years all the more rare and valuable. But just such an exhibition, "Mummies & Magic: The Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt," oc­ curred at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts from September to De­ cember 1988 with NEH support. "There are very few collections from which the whole chro­ nology of mummification can be reproduced," says Peter Lacovara, assistant curator in the museum's Department of Egyp­ tian and Ancient Near Eastern Art and coordinator of the exhibi­ tion. The Museum of Fine Arts' collection is exceptional, he says. In 1872, C. Granville Way contributed a collection of Third Inter­ mediate Period (1075-685 B.C.) and Late Dynastic (525-332 B.C.) mummies and coffins, funerary figurines, animal mummies, and canopic jars, which form the core of the museum's Egyptian col­ lection. Later excavations conducted in Egypt between 1905 and 1942 by George A. Reisner, head of the Harvard University- Museum of Fine Arts Expedition, enabled the museum to acquire mummies and funerary artifacts from Predynastic (4800-3100 B.C.), Old Kingdom (2630-2250 B.C.), First Intermediate Period (2250-2061 B.C.), Middle Kingdom (2061-1784 B.C.), and Late Pe­ riod (525-343 B.C.) burial sites, covering the period from the fifth millennium to the first millennium B.C. Through Reisner, the mu­ seum possesses the finest collection of Old Kingdom art outside | of Cairo. 0 * To convey the cultural and aesthetic significance of ancient ^ Egyptian mortuary artifacts in their original context, mummies £ and funerary objects representing every major period, from the 1 Old Kingdom to the advent of Christianity, were displayed chron- | ologically. The mummies, all from nonroyal burials, were ar- ^ ranged in tomb groups including models, jewelry, amulets, and magical texts, and accompanied by excavation photographs and | tomb reconstructions.

^ Jeanne E. Casey is a freelance writer in Washington, D.C.

19 The exhibition addressed the sci­ them with artifacts from the muse­ entific examination of the mummies um's permanent Egyptian collection through a display of X-rays and CAT- to create the special exhibition. scans. A short videotape explained "Many dilapidated objects brought the use of these techniques to exam­ back by Reisner just sat in the base­ ine mummies. The techniques pro­ ment," says Catharine Roehrig, re­ vide information about mummifica­ search assistant for the exhibition. tion, such as the intricacies of "There were enough pieces to put multiple layering of linen, and about them back together, if anyone took physical ailments suffered by the an­ the tim e." cients, such as dental disease, Some of the restoration work actu­ broken bones, and arthritis. ally advanced modern knowledge of Mummification, which involved Egyptian culture and funerary art. the removal of viscera and the chem­ For example, a bead-net dress from ical treatment and wrapping of the the Old Kingdom, reconstructed for body to preserve it, began in the Old the exhibition, proved to be the only Kingdom during Dynasty 4 (2630- complete one ever found. A volun­ 2524 B.C.), as documented by sev­ teer at the museum restrung the eral mummies and funerary artifacts dress from 6,000 ceramic beads, from the period. Archaeologists on most of which were no longer con­ Reisner's team were so intrigued to nected by threads. The dress's pat­ find a mummy from this period thdt tern was deduced from an excavation they unwrapped it to try to deter­ photograph showing the beads, mine how the anonymous woman some still preserved in their original had been preserved for 4,500 years. pattern, strewn around a woman's Unfortunately, the mummy, one of skeleton, and from Old Kingdom two from this period ever found, did statues and reliefs decorated with a not survive their scrutiny. But be­ lozenge pattern thought to imitate cause Reisner took photographs and the bead work. The reconstruction kept extensive excavation diaries, a indicates that such a dress could be life-size copy of the original mummy made in ancient times entirely sepa­ could be made for the exhibition. rate from any cloth garment, because Displayed with the facsimile was the the only other pieces of cloth pre­ unadorned cedar coffin in which the served in the burial were the frag­ original mummy was buried. mentary wrappings adhering to the A set of canopic jars coeval with bones and the separate linen breast the original mummy was included in covers. the display to show that embalmers Also restored were numerous had already begun to remove viscera wooden models of granary workers, and preserve them separately. Also brickmakers, weavers, and other ser­ displayed were miniature vessels vants believed to provide for the de­ found in tombs of the period. Ac­ ceased in the afterlife. They form the cording to ancient Egyptian religious largest store of wooden models ever belief in an afterlife, relatives collected from a tomb of the early thought that these containers would Middle Kingdom. Excavated from magically become filled with food Top: This First Intermediate Period stela, typ­ the Deir el-Bersha tomb of the local and drink to sustain the deceased in ical of the provincial style of the times, was governor Djehuty-nakht, most were the underworld. found in the ruins of a brick tomb chapel. Be­ in pieces as a result of ancient grave Whether for lack of space or need low: In later Egyptian history, mummified robbers' violence. for restoration, about half of the 350 animals, such as this kitten, were left by pil­ A comparison of these and other grims as votive gifts at sacred sites. objects assembled for the exhibition objects from tombs of different eras had never been displayed before. provides clues to events in ancient NEH support enabled the museum Egyptian history. For example, histo­ to refurbish many of the artifacts rians believe that the relative crude­ that had long languished in the mu­ ness of objects from the First Inter­ seum's storage and to incorporate mediate Period (2250-2061 B.C.),

20 which immediately preceded the centuries indicates the fragility of the Middle Kingdom, suggests the embalmers' work. The special exhibi­ breakdown of central authority. Arti­ tion at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts facts in the exhibition from this peri­ demonstrated that mummies can be od—a stone relief, or stela, from the studied and appreciated in future site of Mesheikh and the coffin of millennia. In that prospect, perhaps, Menkabu, painted red to imitate lies some magic. ^ cedar and decorated with a pair of eyes on one side—are not as well For the exhibition "Mummies and Mag­ crafted as the pieces from other peri­ ic: The Funerary Arts of Ancient ods, when stable political conditions Egypt," in 1987 the Museum of Fine were perhaps more conducive to Arts in Boston received $215,000 in out­ careful artistry. right funds and $170,000 in gift and Historians speculate that out of the matching funds from the Humanities political strife of the First Intermedi­ Projects in Museums and Historical Or­ ate Period came the idea that the ganizations Program of the Division of pharaoh himself could not ensure General Programs. his subjects a happy life. Therefore, less exalted people began to identify directly with Osiris, god of the after­ life, and to preserve their bodies for existence in the underworld. The re­ sult was a democratization of mummification. A variety of interpretive materials for the general public and visiting scholars accompanied the exhibition. A richly illustrated, 272-page exhibi­ tion catalogue includes essays on mummification, funerary architec­ ture, funerary mythology, and fu­ nerary texts, as well as archaeologi­ cal data on objects in the special exhibition and the permanent collec­ tion. A children's catalogue intro­ duces the subjects of hieroglyphic language, Egyptian religion, and burial customs. In addition, a three-lecture series, addressing topics such as "Osiris of Abydos, God of the Dead" and "The Survivors: Mourning and Other Re­ actions to Death in Ancient Egypt," provided expansive treatment of the religion and magic relating to the ex­ hibited objects. A film series con­ trasted Hollywood portrayals of mummies, such as the "mummy's curse," with accurate information. Ancient embalmers practiced their most advanced science to preserve the bodies of the deceased for the af­ terlife. In the process, they suc­ Top to bottom: In the Ptolemaic and early Roman periods gilded masks were placed over the heads ceeded in preserving many of these of mummies. Eyes were painted on the sides of coffins so the deceased could see into this world. bodies for thousands of years. Yet Beginning in the Old Kingdom, the internal organs were removed from the body and placed in destruction of mummies in recent sets of four canopic jars.

21 N MAY 19, 1798, twenty-nine- turned to the east, to Egypt, a little- and 127 technicians, including anti­ O year-old General Napoleon Bo­ known country astride the route to quarians, architects, and astrono­ naparte watched his Egypt-bound vital British possessions in India. mers. There were some genuinely fleet glide from Toulon harbor. It was Dreaming of far more than mere distinguished scholars among them: a magnificent sight: 13 ships of the conquest, the young general's mind zoologist Etienne Geoffroy Saint- line, 42 frigates and smaller war­ formed grandiose images of a pros­ Hilaire's work foreshadowed that of ships, and 150 transports carrying perous colony on the Nile. From vi­ Charles Darwin. Nicolas-Jacques 17,000 soldiers. Napoleon watched sion to reality was a matter of effi­ Conte invented the graphite pencil quietly, a calm, sallow man with hat cient organization. In ten short and was the first person to appreci­ and boots that seemed too big for his weeks, Napoleon assembled not ate the military uses of balloons. small frame. But behind the un­ only an army of conquest but a Sci­ Gaspard Monge, fifty-two-year-old prepossessing facade was the cal­ entific and Artistic Commission to republican, mathematician, chemist, culating, calm mind of an ambitious accompany it. and pioneer of descriptive geometry, visionary. The idea of a scientific commission was already a grand acquisitor. He Napoleon Bonaparte was a dream­ not only imitated Alexander, who had served as an influential member er who claimed that he "measured collected specimens for Aristotle, but of the "Governmental Commission his dreams with calipers of reason." also reflected Napoleon's genius for for the Research of Artistic and Sci­ He had conquered Italy and now self-aggrandizement, combined with entific Objects in Conquered Coun­ dreamt of further glory. strict practicality. Science, he was tries," which had gutted Italian li­ The obvious move was an invasion well aware, leaves more lasting braries, museums, and private of England, but the military cost was legacies than mere military con­ collections, quietly appropriating too high. So Napoleon's fertile mind quest. The commission would en­ masterpieces like the Mona Lisa for sure him more than a footnote in the Louvre. Brian Fagan is professor of anthropology history; it would explore every as­ Artists were to play an important at the University of California, Santa pect of a little known country, devel­ role in the commission's work, espe­ Barbara, and the author of The Rape of op blueprints for future Egyptian ag­ cially the socially adept and charm­ the Nile (Scribners, 1975). riculture, and plan the foundations ing Vivant Denon, pornographer, of the new colony. courtier, and diplomat. Reduced to Serving on the Scientific and Ar­ penury by the Revolution but later tistic Commission were 40 scientists rehabilitated, Denon was a superb il­ Lord Nelson destroyed the French The scientists were delighted to lustrator whose talents were ideal for fleet and stranded the invading settle down to work. Their leaders accurate, fast recording in the field. army. Apparently unconcerned, had, they knew, a grandiose image He was a romantic too, capable of Napoleon settled into Cairo for a of the new Egypt that the research­ describing ancient Egypt in lyrical long stay. ers would help to create. But the terms. Of the pyramids he wrote, Cairo had a great reputation as an commission members themselves "The great distance from which they exotic metropolis, but the French were tired of military campaigning, can be perceived makes them appear were disappointed. The streets were poor rations, and disrespectful treat­ diaphanous, tinted with the bluish narrow, filthy, and crowded with a ment. They were more interested in tone of the sky, and renders to them polyglot citizenry. No person of any studying Egypt as a country—for the the perfection and purity of the an­ consequence passed through the city benefit of its own people. gles which the centuries have without an armed guard and The institute was housed in a req­ marred." torchbearers. Foreigners lived in uisitioned palace in the suburbs. The Napoleon had little time for his their own guarded, walled quarter. harem became the main salon where commission in the early months of The soldiers found few entertain­ the scientists met. There was a the Egyptian campaign. The scien­ ments other than snake charmers chemical laboratory, a library, an ob­ tists, treated with disdain by the sol­ and belly dancers, who "conveyed servatory, and collections of minerals diers, who called them "donkeys," nothing but the gross and indecent and antiquities. In addition to reg­ suffered alongside the troops as the expression of sexual intoxication." ular lectures and seminars, there army landed at Abukir Bay near Al­ Cairo was in decline, its medieval were many more informal evening exandria on July 1, 1798, captured traditions of scholarship in eclipse. gatherings where forty or fifty peo­ the city the next day, and fought the Napoleon swept into the city like a ple would gather to talk about their warrior Mamelukes at the Battle of whirlwind, appointing French offi­ discoveries. This stimulating atmo­ the Pyramids three weeks later. A cials to soak the wealthy with bur­ sphere of research and constant dis­ month after the landing, Admiral densome taxes and levies. On Au­ cussion created a unique milieu for gust 22 he issued an order setting up intellectual pursuits. The evening the Institute of Egypt as a base for meetings became the catalyst for re­ the scientific commission. It was a search of every kind. The members select research organization with heard papers on native agriculture four sections: literature and art, and irrigation, on Nile fish, and on mathematics, physics, and political Islamic literature. They also learned economy. Napoleon himself took about the ancient Egyptians, and it part in its meetings from the start. was in this remarkable environment that Egyptology was born.

Napoleon's army in the desert, from Descrip­ tion de l'Egypte, Denon's monumental se­ ries documenting his observations while ac­ companying Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. Left: T/ie temples and monuments on the island ofPhilae, now flooded by the Aswan Dam. Right: Ruins of a mosque near Cairo. Napoleon's military adventure in Egypt was a failure, but the scholarship that coexisted with the campaign was historic—and successful.

Napoleon himself did not care Denon spent nine months with Gen­ and presented arms to the accom­ about ancient Egypt. He confined eral Belliard's Twenty-first Half Bri­ paniment of the drums and bands." his field experience to a cursory visit gade, marching up and down the Denon was deluged with helpers. to the pyramids. Even then, he re­ Nile, seizing every moment to Soldiers volunteered their knees as fused to enter the Great Pyramid on sketch and describe temples, ruins, his drawing board and surrounded the grounds that he would have to and tombs. him to protect the artist from the walk on all fours. Instead, he made Denon was the ideal man for the blinding sun. Monge and other savants climb to job. His enthusiasm and eye for de­ Month after month, Denon per­ the top in the hot sun. Fortunately, tail served him, and Egyptology, sisted, surviving sandstorms, unre­ Monge had the foresight to bring a brilliantly. He sketched and lenting heat, mosquitoes, and con­ flask of brandy with him. sketched. When pencils ran out, he stant skirmishes with the enemy. He On July 19, 1799, the members of melted down lead bullets as tempo­ would draw for an hour, gallop on, the institute were electrified by a let­ rary substitutes. Sometimes he had sketch again, sometimes riding away ter announcing "the discovery at but a few minutes to draw a temple to safety as bullets buzzed around Rosetta of some inscriptions that or copy hieroglyphs. His eyes were his head. He entered pharaohs' may offer much interest." The in­ inflamed with opthalmia, yet he tombs in the Valley of Kings and re­ scriptions had been chiseled into the sketched on, relieving the symptoms corded new hieroglyphic symbols polished surface of a large basalt with Egyptian steam baths to which every time he passed through block, in Greek, ancient Egyptian he became addicted. Thebes. Never were nine months on hieroglyphs, and an unknown The headlong chase after Murad the march better spent. Denon's script, now known as demotic, a took the army past Abydos, Den­ sketches and lectures galvanized the form of cursive hieroglyphs. A hum­ dera, Thebes, and upstream to assembled savants at the institute, ble captain of engineers named Aswan. The troops usually stopped and his writings and sketches even­ Bouchard had seen other hiero­ just long enough to frustrate Denon, tually conquered Europe. glyphs and in an inspired moment never long enough to satisfy him. Meanwhile, the Egyptian cam­ realized that the stone might provide But there was a glorious day at Den­ paign was in trouble. Napoleon con­ the key to ancient Egyptian writing. dera, where the entire army rushed trolled Cairo, but the countryside Napoleon's savants agreed. The gen­ to admire the nearby temple. Denon was far from peaceful. Free move­ eral himself ordered plaster copies of sketched feverishly as the shadows ment for foreigners was nearly im­ the Rosetta Stone to be sent to scien­ lengthened until only he and Gener­ possible. Isolated from the realities tists throughout Europe, including al Belliard remained. They galloped of the outside world, Napoleon em­ the British. back to camp in the twilight, their barked on a disastrous expedition Because the country was unsettled appetites whetted for more. : into Syria and returned to find a and only marginally under French Then followed one of the supreme i Turkish army about to land at control, only a handful of the insti­ moments of Egyptology, the day i Abukir. He defeated the invaders tute scientists journeyed far from when the army first saw the great ; soundly but realized that the game Cairo. Fieldworkers in Upper Egypt temples of Luxor and Karnak. The ; was up. On August 22, 1800, the traveled with the armies sent to pur­ entire division came to a spon­ j general and his suite took ship se- sue the elusive Mameluke warrior taneous halt, and the soldiers Murad Bey. The indefatigable Vivant clapped their hands. "Without an order being given," wrote a young officer, "the men formed their ranks ^Description de l'Egypte engendered a passion in Europe for Egyptian anticjuities and la fascination with an exotic culture.

cretly for France, leaving the army on a hitherto unknown behind. Denon and his precious land, an exotic civilization drawings were safely aboard. of unimagined antiquity. General Menou and the weakened By the time the last vol­ army held out for another year in the ume appeared in 1822, an­ face of overwhelming British and cient Egypt had become Turkish opposition and then surren­ fashionable and the acqui­ dered. After lengthy wrangles with sition of Egyptian antiquit­ the British, the savants and their ies a universal passion. And, as the of fostering nationalistic sentiment. precious crates were permitted to re­ savants put down their pens for the Napoleon's scientists not only turn to France. In the end, the last time, the young Jean Francois founded Egyptology, but started a French kept all the antiquities except Champollion used their finds to de­ tradition of French archaeological re­ the Rosetta Stone. "You can have it cipher ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, search in the Near East that con­ since you are the stronger of the unlocking the secrets of the pha- tinued to flourish for generations. two," Menou wrote pettishly to his raohs for the first time. Napoleon was no archaeologist, but British counterpart, and that is why he believed that his commission's the Rosetta Stone is now the pride of apoleon Bonaparte came to work was a direct reflection of na­ the British Museum, not the Louvre. Egypt with an image not only tional prestige, of France's preemi­ Nearly two centuries were to pass of heroic conquest but of a Nile cast nence as an intellectual force in the before the historic block crossed the in his own mold. He did not stay world. So were the sumptuous folios Channel on temporary loan. long enough to leave a physical im­ that revealed ancient Egypt to an as­ By any military standards, Napo­ print on the country. Today, Cairo is tonished world. These close links be­ leon's Egyptian campaign was a cost­ a bustling, modern city with chronic tween science and nationalism per­ ly shambles, a futile exercise in colo­ traffic jams and no traces of Napole­ sisted in the intense competition that nial adventure. Not that Napoleon on's stay. His legacies were more developed between the British Mu­ suffered. He soon became the mas­ subtle. The French retained a strong seum and the Louvre for Near East­ ter of France. As for Denon, he be­ diplomatic and colonial interest in ern antiquities throughout the nine­ came the first director of the Louvre. Egypt throughout the nineteenth teenth century. The great tradition of His Voyages dans la Basse et la Haute century. Realizing one of Napoleon's the Description de l'Egypte was to be Egypte, published in 1807, became an dreams, French engineer Ferdinand repeated in Mesopotamia in the instant bestseller. But the most im­ de Lesseps built the Suez Canal. For 1840s, when the French government portant legacy of Napoleon's ill- years, French capital helped support supported Emile Botta's spectacular conceived adventure appeared two successive Egyptian pashas. When excavations in the palace of the As­ years later, long after the last veteran the situation got out of hand in the syrian King Sargon at Khorsabad by had returned from the Nile. Ten lav­ 1880s, the French government the Tigris. It is an irony of history ish folio volumes of text, fourteen of shared the governance of Egypt with that Napoleon Bonaparte's most last­ meticulous illustrations, chronicled the British at the height of the impe­ ing Egyptian legacy was an uninten­ ancient and modem Egypt in stun­ rial era. tional one, a science that interested ning and astonishing detail. Descrip­ But Napoleon was right. Science him but little—the science of tion de l'Egypte drew back the curtain was more durable than conquest. In Egyptology. a sense, he fostered the idea of gov­ ernment-supported science as a way The Academic Study of Religion

BY MARTIN E. MARTY

EARS AGO, WHEN the study of Page one of the newspapers every ditions in systematic ways. Thou­ Y religion was reestablishing itself day tells of people killing each other sands do. among the humanities, some of the over religion. Prime-time television The issue today is not whether the pioneers were self-conscious about every week carries stories of people study of religion belongs in the hu­ their place. The public did not know healing, or arguing over means of manities but how such study can be what to think of the academic study healing, in the paths of religion. De­ or become or remain good. One rea­ of religion. Even though today there bates over religious texts have be­ son for concern over its quality has are departments of religion in hun­ come urgent themes in American to do with the spillover effect in dreds of tax-supported schools, back politics. Someone had better repre­ other humanistic disciplines or with then it often seemed necessary to sent the study of such texts and tra­ the tentacular reach of such disci­ make a point about scholars being plines into the study of religion. distant from religious practice. They are difficult to keep apart, and Those battles for reestablishment, the humanities subjects tend to or establishment, of religious studies share common fates and fortunes. If, in the humanities are past, except in as Ernest Gellner says, "humanist a few pockets where some academi­ culture" is "culture based on liter­ cians still try to make great leaps for­ acy," there is no way to disentangle ward in cultural lag. Back when Con­ historical, literary, philosophical, gress established the NEH, the and other approaches. subject was treated gingerly. The safe In peculiar ways, these come to­ word was "comparative religion" or gether in the study of religion. Pro­ "the comparative study of religion." fessor Everett Hughes once observed (William Temple used to say that that "nearly everything sociologically there was no such thing although speaking has happened in and to the there were people who were com­ Roman Catholic Church," even by paratively religious.) now, one supposes, the Protestant Today, simply, "the study of re­ Ethic. So one can also say that ligion" has made its way. Religion "nearly everything humanistically has turned out to be too vast and speaking has happened in and to the deep an element in human cultures, study of religion." From the begin­ past and present, to be slighted in ning, even in the term humanities, American universities. The Gallup there was a fateful entanglement. Poll this year, as always before, can­ Gellner went on to say that the term not find more than 4 percent of U.S. humanist derived from a time when citizens able or willing to speak of "human" literature was distin­ themselves as non- or anti-religious. guished from "theological, divine concerns." No more. Humanist con­ Bodhisattva, China, Wei period, ca. A .D . 530, gray limestone, from the Pai-ma-ssu cerns now embrace the divine. Both Martin E. Marty, the Fairfax M. Cone (White Horse Monastery), Honan Province. speak the same language. Distinguished Service Professor of the Somewhere between the Renais­ History of Modern Christianity at the sance and now, with the rise of the University of Chicago, is currently presi­ modern academy, there occurred a dent of the American Academy of shift in the culture's and the univer­ Religion. sity's way of thinking about the sub-

26 ject. Theologian John Hick, para­ to the subject in the minds of some each others' commitments, if they phrasing philosopher John Herman taxpayers, parents, and—the reports even know about them, at least as Randall, said that "this way of think­ come in now and then from "the much as they do in other social sci­ ing is epitomized in the way in provinces," which can be in any of entific or humanistic classrooms. which the word religion (or faith used the fifty states— from occasional stu­ From these decades we have virtually as a synonym) has largely dents who might have liked to hear learned, or relearned, that it is possi­ come to replace the word God." their faith presented as the true one. ble to study the texts, indeed to Whereas God was the head of a cer­ For the most part, however, the is­ teach the "theology" of Maimonides tain group of words and locutions, sues of "equal time" for the various or al-Ghazzali or Augustine with the term religion is the new head of religions, of fairness and objectivity, both passion and fairness, at least as the same linguistic family. come up very rarely. readily as one can probe other kinds This shift in terms and concerns This loss of old concerns about of history, be they Marxist, feminist, had to happen if scholars were to do how to handle religion did not come or positivist. Zeal for the subject, en­ some justice to the subject. Many of about because teachers and students joyment of the issues, has not gone the millions of words in the new six­ have lost passion for their subjects. away but has been redirected. For teen-volume Macmillan Encyclopedia Scores of years ago, the study of re­ better or for worse, but inevitably, of Religion have to do with phenome­ ligion, in more sheltered environ­ scholars do not direct this passion to na that everyone calls religious ments, may have been used for apol­ God (whatever they do about God ("Zen Buddhism," etc.) but that have ogetic reasons or to evangelize or outside the classroom) but to the nothing to do with "God." Of moralize. Passion then went into the study of religion. course, "God" is the focus in the debates of the old Enlightenment The study of religion would be on practice and piety of most Western style, to the tune of "my religion (or shaky and sentimental grounds if people. And theologians in.their tra­ nonreligion) is better than your re­ the classroom covenant were based ditions necessarily and with relish ligion." Paradoxically, America had only on sensitivity to the pluralism talk about "God." But they know, to become both more secular and of the culture, also as embodied in with Hick and Randall, that "for aca­ more pluralistic to allow and to force the class of students. Scholars spend demic study, God is . . . conceived professors and students to develop much of their time seeking handles, as a subtopic within the larger sub­ the academic study of religion. To­ methods, for doing justice to topics ject of religion." day a kind of covenant exists in as elusive and controversial as those That shift may seem to do violence which people in a classroom honor connected with religion. On days Los Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Left to right: A 1611 edition of the New Testament, King James version. Code of Jewish Law (Mishneh Torah) of Moses Maimonides, printed in Constantinople, 1509. The Appearance of Sakyamuni to the People after His Death, Iran, ca. 1425.

27 when they do not worry about get­ delimit are inevitable and promi: ting typed as obsolete or narrow, as but those who seek consensus a if they belonged to a formal school, probably foredoomed to have to set­ many might settle for the label "phe­ tle for vagueness and use methods nomenological." they share with other humanistic The shape and fate of the study of disciplines. religion connects with the rest of the Scholars of religion sometimes humanities in a particularly vivid take their inherited liability as an as­ and intense way. This asset of the set and call into question how neat study of religion is a corollary of its anyone should be about specifying liability or what many within and any discipline. I like to think of the without consider to be a handicap: study occurring instead in zones. A The scholars of religion, after a cen­ map draws a sharp line between a tury of effort in Europe and Amer­ temperate and a torrid zone, but the ica, were never able to gain consen­ sailor goes through many tempera­ sus about a definition of their subject tures and seas on the way from one or to develop a consistent set of zone to another. It is not hard to tell, methods for pursuing it. however, when "torrid" has taken Neither of these onuses seems as over, when the traveler has arrived heavy as they once did, not because in its zone. scholars of religion have lifted them So with the student of religion to­ but because they have looked day. The late William Clebsch of around and have seen people in the Stanford was not even sure on which other humanistic disciplines ac­ academic continent—humanities or knowledging that they have similar social sciences—to locate this study. encumbrances. You can tie up a After all, sociologists like Durkheim Modern Language Association meet­ and Weber had much to do with set­ ing by asking "What Is Literature?" ting the terms for modern studies of and mess up its cocktail parties by religion, and today's scholars of the trying to claim a monopoly for one subject draw readily on anthropolo­ or another method of study. Try gists like Victor Turner or Clifford Frontispiece to the folio of the Decretum of Gratian (fl. "Poststructuralism" or "Decon­ Geertz and Mary Douglas. Most so­ 1140), published in Lyons, France, in 1506. Gratian is pic­ struction" these years. You can di­ cial sciences include someone—say, tured writing his Decretum (a summary of church law), as vide the membership of the Ameri­ a lone "sociologist of religion"—to the authors from whom he took his material present their can Historical Association into sects specialize. Clusters of scholars in the books for him to copy. by asking someone to define "What field of religion, however, get located Is History?" and then subdivide in the humanities. these into cults by arguing for Everything that happens to the "Cliometrics" or "Narrativity." What humanities happens to the religion is philosophy? Name your method. scholars who are in their zone, and God knows, or scholars of religion the work of these scholars happens or faith know, people of genius tried to impinge on literature, history, to do such defining. Rudolf Otto, philosophy, and the rest. We see ex­ Joachim Wach, Mircea Eliade, and amples in the rise of hermeneutics their kind plumped for "The Holy" and historical relativism, both of or "The Sacred" as a specifiable core which involved first the scholars of subject. They have their followers, sacred texts. That is why the study but there is no danger or chance of of religion, latecomer in the revival their getting a majority. As for meth­ of the humanities and not as taken od, one weary advocate finally de­ for granted as languages and liter­ cided to settle for "polymethodol­ ature or philosophy on or off cam­ ogy," until my colleague Wendy pus, has become such a volatile field, Doniger fretted about "polymetho- one that discloses much about the doodling all the day." Let's just get character of humanistic studies today. to work studying the phenomena Thus when literary scholars want people call religious, she was in ef­ to deal with those texts that are her­ fect saying. Attempts to define and meneutically most interesting, they

28 tend to turn to sacred scriptures. being relative to everything else, Leaders in their disciplines—Nor­ contingent, transitory, subjects of throp Frye, Robert Alter, Wayne shifting and differing perspectives. It Booth, Frank Kermode, and more— was most profound in the communi­ do so with such regularity and zest ties of faith. The historians among that Jonathan Culler has cried out in scholars of religion revisit the scenes protest from the precincts of post- where that crisis first appeared and Enlightenment rationalism: What is account for its effects today. happening to literary studies? The study of religion on ele­ Wasn't the university designed to mentary and high school levels re­ use reason and skepticism to demol­ mains neglected. Overcoming the ish religion? (Was it?) Why honor void in texts and curricula has come faith by taking its texts so seriously? to be a popular political agenda top­ Such cries cannot keep scholars away ic. Everyone from fundamentalists from those texts, which members of to liberals in People for the American the Society of Biblical Literature pur­ Way wants to do something about it. sue so steadfastly. Of course, they differ on what to do So with American Academy of Re­ and how to do it. ligion scholars when they take up Many argue that restoring religion

will contribute positively to the de­ Klutznick M useum the literature of Buddhism or Islam, Courtesy of B'nai Brith texts about goddesses or the civil bate over "values" and might even rights struggle, themes treating improve morals and promote civic human well-being or calls for killing virtue. In higher education, few Top: A text in Sanscrit, the sacred language of the Hindus. in the name of God. If the de­ scholars have climbed those political Sanscrit is typically written in a script called Devanagari. constructionists, positivists, and lan­ bandwagons. They are usually con­ Bottom: Hanukkah lamp; Holland, ca. 1800. Brass and guage analysts among them are tent to say, with the Commission on bronze. right, all of these texts have become the Humanities, that the humanities destabilized, or pointless, or lacking offer clues but not answers. "They in reference. If their successors are reveal how people have tried to correct—and there are and will be make moral, spiritual, and intellec­ successors, so long as disciplines are tual sense of a world." Pursuit of vigorous—some issues raised now such disclosures goes on in all the will remain alive, and new ones will humanities, but because more and emerge. more citizens and scholars recognize So also with the "crisis of histor­ how much those attempts focus on ical consciousness" that occurred in religion, however defined, debates nineteenth-century Europe and with over the study of religion will pro­ which modern and, if you will, duce consequences beyond the spe­ postmodern people struggle. This cific zone of the humanities in which shift led people to see everything they occur,

29 Judaic

Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) Classics cussion of the philosophical and the­ "The Yale Judaica Series is expand­ ological implications of the Book of ing to become the major English Job as viewed by Jews living in the translation series of classical works medieval Muslim world. of the Jewish heritage," says Ruder­ An edition of Saadia's com­ man. English translations of particu­ in mentary in the original Arabic, with lar Jewish classics are sporadically Hebrew translation, has long been published by presses other than available to scholars. But not until Yale's. But the Yale series is unique, 1988 did the commentary become says Ruderman, because it is the English available in University of Hawaii pro­ only comprehensive effort in the fessor Lenn Goodman's English country to make available to a wide translation through the Yale Judaica readership Jewish texts that have Series, with NEH support. usually been accessible only to schol­ BY BEVERLY CHICO Since 1948, the Yale Judaica Series, ars with knowledge of the original published by the Yale University languages. "If more people can read Press, has produced scholarly-critical from original annotated texts," English translations of ancient and Ruderman points out, "the opportu­ medieval Jewish classics from the nity arises for direct contact with original Hebrew, Aramaic, Ethiopic, minds of earlier ages, thus encourag­ and Arabic languages. Most have ing ongoing engagement with pre­ never before been accessible in En­ vious ages and cultures." N THE HEBREW Bible's Book of glish. To date, twenty-five works The project's first volume is Saadia I Job, Job suffers at God's hand de­ have been translated and published, Gaon's Book of Beliefs and Opinions, spite his apparent innocence. Jewish and nine are now in progress. An translated by Samuel Rosenblatt of thinkers in the Middle Ages adopted NEH grant from 1982 to 1986 sup­ Johns Hopkins University. The two views on Job's lot from Muslim ported translations of the last two tenth-century book is one of the ear­ tradition. The Asharite view held completed works and seven of the liest medieval Jewish philosophic that Job is made to suffer not because prospective works. works to survive intact. It discusses God is unjust, but because Job, like The series' administrative commit­ everyone, is subject to a divine will tee considers for translation any that has purposes inscrutable to the work that has had a major historical, finite human mind. The Mutazilite literary, or cultural impact in Jewish view was that Job must have been life from the ancient to the modern guilty of some sin—wittingly or un­ eras, says David B. Ruderman, the wittingly, by omission or commis­ Frederick R Rose Professor of Jewish sion—to deserve God's wrath. History at Yale University and chair­ To reconcile the Asharite-Muta- man of the administrative committee

zilite dilemma, Saadia Gaon for the past five years. To reveal the Courtesy of Hebrew Union College Library (882-942), a Jewish scholar and lead­ vitality of Jewish culture throughout er of Baghdadian Jewry, wrote a its history, the series opens up past lengthy commentary on the Book of Jewish records for future generations Job in which he postulated that those of humanities scholars in com­ who suffer for no apparent reason parative religion, medieval literature, are being tested as an act of divine history, cultural anthropology, phi­ favor to justify God's augmenting losophy, and linguistics. Each trans­ their reward in the hereafter. lation contains an introduction iden­ Saadia's book offers a detailed dis- tifying the significance of the text in its literary and historical context, ex­ planations of manuscripts used, ex­ Beverly Chico is the director of museum tensive notes, parallel sources, bibli­ Title page of Saadia Gaon's Sefer ha-Emunot outreach at the Mizel Museum of Juda- cal and rabbinic citations, and veha-De'ot (Book of Beliefs and Opinions), ica, Denver, Colorado. detailed indices. published in 1647 in Latin and Hebrew.

30 God's unity, divine attributes, im­ Brandeis University, incorporates the anthologies embellish the original mortality and the soul, reward and writings of a Jewish group that has "great book" concept of the series. punishment, and resurrection. Aris­ lived from the first centuries of the "Translation is one of the key in­ totelian, Platonic, and Stoic influ­ common era to the present in iso­ gredients of a vibrant cultural ences are discernible in this Jewish lated mountainous regions near legacy," says Ruderman. "It is im­ attempt at reconciling the Bible with Laka Tana, Ethiopia. The Karaite An­ portant that a significant civilization philosophy. thology, edited by Leon Nemoy of like the Jews, whose legacy perme­ Historically, Saadia's work has Dropsie University for Hebrew, in­ ates Western civilization, be able to been overshadowed by the writings cludes translations of Arabic, Ara­ communicate its literature and phi­ of Moses Maimonides (1135-1204), maic, and Hebrew sources produced losophy to other cultural settings. Judaism's intellectual giant in the by a Jewish sect that emerged in The Yale Judaica Series makes possi­ post-talmudic era. The Code of Babylonia and Persia during the ble this diffusion of Judaic studies Maimonides, or Mishneh Torah, is eighth century. within the university and within the most ambitious work in the se­ Plans are being made to publish American culture as a whole." ^ ries. Originally written in Hebrew, paperback editions of other forth­ the code consists of fourteen books, coming volumes, including an an­ In 1981, Yale University received each representing a distinct category thology of medieval Jewish sermons $64,000 in outright funds from the Texts of the Jewish legal system. The work and an anthology of Jewish mys­ category of the Division of Research Pro­ contains philosophic and scientific ticism. According to Ruderman, the grams to complete the Yale Judaica Series. speculation in addition to legal inter­ pretations. To date, twelve of these fourteen books have been translated Yale Judaica Series Publication Schedule and published in the series. The last two— The Book of Knowledge, being Volume 1: Saadia Gaon: The Book of Be­ Volume 17: The Tractate "Mourning." translated by Harvard professor Ber­ liefs and Opinions. Translated by Sam­ Translated by Dov Zlotnick, 1966. uel Rosenblatt, 1948. Volume 18: Pesikta Rabbati. 2 vols. nard Septimus, and The Book of Love, Volume 2: The Book of Civil Laws (Code Translated by William G. Braude, 1968. being translated by Yeshiva Univer­ of Maimonides, Book 13). Translated by Volume 19: The Book of Women (Code of sity professor Sid Leiman—are ex­ Jacob J. Rabinowitz, 1949. Maimonides, Book 4). Translated by pected to appear by the early 1990s. Volume 3: The Book of Judges (Code of Isaac Klein, 1972. Maimonides, Book 14). Translated by "Maimonides' code is one of the Volume 20: An Elegant Composition A.M. Hershman, 1949. concerning Relief after Adversity. Trans­ critical signposts of Jewish learning Volume 4: The Book ofOfferings (Code of lated by William M. Brinner, 1977. and Jewish cultural activity," Ruder­ Maimonides, Book 9). Translated by Volume 21: The Book of Agriculture man says. "As the primary summary Herbert Danby, 1950. (Code of Maimonides, Book 7). Trans­ Volume 5: The Book of Acquisition (Code lated by Isaac Klein, 1979. of Jewish law in the Middle Ages, it of Maimonides, Book 12). Translated by Volume 22: Introduction to the Code of is an extremely important source of Isaac Klein, 1951. Maimonides (Mishneh Torah).* Isadore Jewish law prior to that time as well Volume 6: Falasha Anthology.* Trans­ Twersky, 1980. as afterwards. Jewish legalists still lated by Wolf Leslau, 1951. Volume 23: The Folk Literature of the grapple with Maimonides' attempt Volume 7: Karaite Anthology.* Trans­ Kurdistani Jews: An Anthology. Trans­ lated by Leon Nemoy, 1952. lated by Yona Sabar, 1982. to encapsulate Jewish law in a clear Volume 8: The Book of Cleanness (Code Volume 24: Sifre: A Tannaitic Com­ summary. It is absolutely central to of Maimonides, Book 10). Translated by mentary on the Book of Deuteronomy. the entire rabbinic tradition." Herbert Danby, 1954. Translated by Reuven Hammer, 1986. Most of the volumes in the series Volume 9: The Book of Torts (Code of Volume 25: Saadia Gaon: Commentary Maimonides, Book 11). Translated by on the Book of Job. Translated by Lenn were intended as reference sources Hyman Klein, 1954. E. Goodman, 1988. for libraries, Ruderman says. But Volume 10: The Fathers According to current popular interest in Judaic Rabbi Nathan. Translated by Jucfah Forthcoming Goldin, 1955. studies has led the Yale University Anthology and Study of Medieval Jewish Volume 11: Sanctification of the Nezu Sermons. Translator, Marc Saperstein. Press to publish three works in the Moon (Code of Maimonides, Book 3, Trea­ series—which Ruderman calls the tise 8). Translated by Solomon Gandz, Midrash on Proverbs. Translator, Burton Visotsky. "bestsellers"—in lower-cost, paper­ 1956. Autobiography of Rabbi Jacob Emden. back editions to meet the demand. Volume 12: The Book of Temple Service (Code of Maimonides, Book 8). Trans­ Translator, Jacob Schacter. The most popular volume is Harvard lated by Mendell Lewittes, 1957. The Book of Knowledge (Code of Maim­ professor Isadore Twersky's Introduc­ Volume 13: The Midrash on Psalms. 2 onides, Book 1). Translator, Bernard Septimus. tion to the Code of Maimonides, the vols. Translated by William G. Braude, 1959. The Book of Love (Code of Maimonides, only monograph in the series, which Volume 14: The Book of Seasons (Code ot Book 2). Translator, Sid Z. Leiman. includes a thorough discussion of Maimonides, Book 3). Translated by Sol­ Judah Halevi: Khazari. Translator, Law­ the philosophical assumptions that omon Gandz and Hyman Klein, 1961. rence V. Berman. inform Maimonides' perspective as a Volume 15: The Book of Asseverations Sefer Hasidim. Multivolume. Trans­ lator, Ivan Marcus. codifier of the law. (Code of Maimonides, Book 6). Trans­ lated by B.D. Klein, 1962. Jewish Mysticism: Ecstatic Kabbalah and The other paperback editions are Volume 16: The Book of Holiness (Code Theosophic Kabbalah. 2 vols. Trans­ anthologies, which, Ruderman of Maimonides, Book 5). Translated by lators, Moshe Idel and Ronald Keiner. points out, are popular because they Louis I. Rabinowitz and Philip The Meor Einayim of Azariah De'Rossi. Grossman, 1965. Translator, Joanna Weinberg. "have broader interest in their cover­ * Available in paperback. age of an area." The Falasha An­ thology, edited by Wolf Leslau of

31 Planting and replanting religion in America The Path to Pluralism

BY EDWIN S. GAUSTAD

OR TWO HUNDRED years, re­ while French Calvinists (after the Re­ persecuting bishops and unsym­ F ligion in this country was more vocation of the Edict of Nantes in pathetic kings. European than American, the influ­ 1685) settled in scattered contingents Puritanism, which later took on ence of the new continent becoming in South Carolina, New York, and the denominational label of Con­ much more evident in the nine­ elsewhere. And, of course, Africa gregationalism, permeated not only teenth and twentieth centuries. gave up thousands of involuntary Massachusetts but also Connecticut And, for much of America's own emigrants who would change the and New Hampshire with a homo­ colonial period, "European" can vir­ shape and tempo of religion in their geneous character of life unmatched tually be read as "British," although new land. elsewhere in the colonies. The meet­ exceptions must be acknowledged. In the colonies themselves, British ing house, the school, the town The imprint left by the Dutch on rule—a rule often exercised with a worked together to create a "New what later became New York and weak or wavering hand—was the England way" whose influence New Jersey has never wholly van­ common denominator. The degree of across the continent and across the ished. The German emigrants in the home rule or internal assertiveness centuries has kept countless scholars eighteenth century transformed a varied widely, but more often than busy in an effort to trace, weigh, and British Quaker colony into some­ not religion contributed powerfully account for that unique cultural force thing much more colorful and com­ to an independence of mind and in American life. plex. Swedish Lutherans ventured spirit. This was notably the case in Far to the south in Anglican Vir­ early but modestly into Delaware, Puritan New England where settlers ginia, one might expect much less of came in the first place because they a spirit of independence, surely in Edwin S. Gaustad is a professor of his­ believed and worshipped "other­ religion. For Virginia was unmistaka­ tory at the University of California, wise"—distinct from the National bly Church of England, in close con­ Riverside. Church and bitterly opposed to its cord with the Bishop of London, and loyal to the Book of Common Prayer. Virginia's churches copied English styles of ecclesiastical architecture, American Methodists going to their camp meeting (1819). and Virginia's clergy aspired to a Part of the Great Awakening, Methodism started as a revival of faithful re-creation of the National the Church of England. Church writ small. Yet, the realities of remoteness and local geography | and the absence of genuine towns ^ and any broad cultural support led g* over time to a kind of southern An- 3 glicanism that Old World bishops would hardly recognize and scarcely tolerate. Elsewhere, throughout the eigh­ teenth century, the Church of En­ gland leaned heavily on the mission­ ary labors of clergy sent out and supported by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Closely tied to British philanthropy and to the sponsoring organization, these missionaries did not foster any sense of independence or autonomy. On the contrary, they put down few

32 roots in American soil and adopted one must add by the end of the cen­ few attitudes or perspectives that tury a constitutionally guaranteed could be regarded as characteris­ religious freedom, not toleration, tically American. As a consequence, that placed all churches on an equal when revolutionary sentiments waxed footing in a highly competitive eccle­ hot, these missionaries were sent siastical marketplace. packing. The result was a major All shared equally in the legal weakening of Anglicanism (or the guarantees, but all did not address Episcopal Church) not only during the challenges and opportunities the Revolution but for at least a full with equal success. A rapidly mov­ generation thereafter. ing frontier and an even more Neither Congregationalism nor rapidly moving continental destiny Anglicanism, the two strongest re­ favored those denominations whose ligious forces during most of the baggage was light: the circuit rider colonial period, maintained their rel­ who could cover great reaches of ter­ ative superiority in the centuries that ritory even as it was being settled, followed. Besides the Revolution, the farmer-preacher who could help much else was going on that would his neighbors to build their—and sharply alter the religious landscape. his—church, the Sunday school In the 1740s and beyond, a wave of leader who could teach children to religious revivalism known as the read and write where no school or Great Awakening swept over all po­ clergy yet existed. litical and denominational bound­ Churches tied too closely to a for­ aries with an astounding force that mal liturgy, to a carefully prepared pleased some and dismayed others. and screened clergy, and to an eastern- Congregationalism was split into dominated hierarchy found themselves pro- and anti-revivalist parties, as handicapped. The West, along with was Presbyterianism, now a signifi­ most of the South, belonged to the cant presence in New York, New evangelizing crusaders and to the Jersey, and Pennsylvania. creative energies of thousands of Not all religious groups joined in settlers far removed from authority the Awakening. Anglicanism, for ex­ and unfettered by deep-rooted ample, held itself aloof from the re­ tradition. vivals, thereby further reducing its The frontier even managed to pro­ popular base. Roman Catholics, duce religious traditions of its own. Quakers, and Lutherans found little Most notable is the Disciples of reason to support a movement so Christ movement of the 1830s, saturated with Calvinist presupposi­ which elevated the authority of the tions. Revivalism and passionate Bible and the appeal of the Apostolic anxiety about salvation nonetheless Age. Utopias could flourish in both swept through all the Atlantic settle­ East and West, but the West pro­ ments, from Georgia to Maine and vided more room for experimenta­ Top: St. Luke's Church (1632), near Smithfield, back again. tion and more opportunity to escape Virginia. Below: Bruton Parish Church (1711- But, like the Cromwellian period suspicious or hostile neighbors. 15), in Williamsburg. Although unmistakably in England a century before, what Meanwhile in the East, those re­ Church of England, Virginia's churches devel­ oped their own kind of Anglicanism. the Awakening did most of all was to ligious patterns that seemed so unleash powerful new religious firmly fixed found themselves movements that would capitalize on roughly pushed aside. Congrega­ the spontaneous, emotional, experi­ tionalism in New England gave way ential, nonliturgical character of so to the force of heavy Catholic immi­ much of religion in America. To gration, while Anglicanism in the those novel forces (Baptists and South yielded to a transforming Methodists are the best representa­ evangelicalism (both black and tives) unleashed by the Awakening white) that moved far beyond the 33 old colonial boundaries into Ala­ the Spanish or Mexican Southwest. bama, Mississippi, Texas, and con­ In this same century, the number of tiguous states to the north. Jews increased from a tiny fraction The emancipation of the slaves in (the first federal census of 1790 1863 did not, surprisingly, lead the counted only about 1,200) to around blacks to abandon Christianity, the one million in 1900. Colonial eccle­ religion of their masters. Rather, siastical patterns, it turns out, pre­ they more joyfully embraced a re­ dict little about the nation's evolving ligion that they proceeded to make religious life. Why is this so? very much their own. Again, Bap­ In 1791 the First Amendment de­ tists and Methodists gained the most termined that the European plan of a from this adoption and adaptation. national church aided and abetted Immigration after the Civil War by the state would not be followed in settled what for some still remained the United States, no matter the de­ a serious question: Did America con­ gree of toleration that might be ex­ stitute a Protestant empire? By 1900, tended to dissenters. Those groups if not long before, the answer to that that had enjoyed some kind of politi­ question was clearly in the negative cal patronage or favor would enjoy it as Roman Catholics, Jews, Eastern no more. Beyond that, such groups Orthodox, Moslems, Hindus, and might actually labor under the suspi­ others put the United States firmly cion that they would—First Amend­ on the path to pluralism. ment or no—seek some government A comparison of denominational assistance whenever and wherever strength in 1800 and in 1900 is in­ they could. structive. In the former year, Con­ By affirming no patronage rules, gregationalism still had far more the First Amendment changed all churches than any other denomina­ the prevailing, widely presumed tion. Then in numerical order fol­ rules concerning relationships be­ lowed Presbyterians, Baptists, and tween the civil and ecclesiastical es­ Episcopalians. One hundred years tates. Neither European precedent later, the top four denominations in and tradition nor colonial precedent terms of membership were Roman and tradition counted for much in a Catholic, Methodist, Baptist, and continent now literally up for grabs. Interior and exterior of the synagogue in Touro, Rhode Island (1759-63). Designed by Peter Harrison, it is Amer­ Presbyterian. The Episcopal and Second, the largely unsettled West ica's second synagogue and the oldest still standing. The Congregational communions had enforced no standard of behavior or richly carved interior details were modeled after the designs dropped to a ranking of seventh and belief on those homesteading in its in English pattern books. eighth, respectively, with a new­ valleys or on its plains. Indeed, the comer like the Disciples of Christ concern was not that the West would ahead of them both. exercise some exotic authority but Another sharp contrast is evident that there would be no authority at in a Protestant-Catholic comparison. all. Barbarism was the enemy, not In 1800 the number of Catholics in French fur traders or Spanish mis­ the United States was a modest sionaries. Christianity was widely 40,000 to 50,000, concentrated heav­ assumed to be the essential ingre­ ily in Maryland. A century later, that dient for civilizing and taming a number had grown to more than 12 wilderness. million, with Catholicism being by In the face of so great a challenge, far the largest church in the nation. denominations sometimes forgot or A large part of that growth resulted minimized their peculiar and sepa­ from heavy European immigration, rate identities, often working to­ of course. But it also came about as a gether to do whatever needed to be consequence of the national absorp­ done for morality, for education, for tion of territories where Catholicism establishing missions or recruiting had already been planted, for exam­ personnel. Sometimes the coopera­ ple, in the Louisiana Territory and tion was formal as in the 1801 Pres-

34 £

Roman Catholic Cathedral, Baltimore, Maryland (1806-21). The pencil, pen and ink, and watercolor drawing on paper is by the cathedral's architect, Benjamin Henry Latrobe. byterian and Congregational Plan of ishing. Not only do the mainstream lute controversy in the 1940s) and of Union, sometimes informal as in the denominations of 1800 no longer "no establishment" (for example, the camp meetings and frontier revivals. dominate, they have even begun to parochial aid controversy of the No eastern headquarters directed or decline. Rapid growth is found in 1960s and beyond) in ever increasing controlled this energetic effort. groups not known in 1800—in such numbers. Religious leaders them­ Third, the shifting patterns of im­ millennial bodies as the Jehovah's selves seem increasingly polarized migration in the nineteenth century, Witnesses and the Seventh-day Ad­ into "radical rights" and "liberal moving away from northern and ventists; in such Pentecostal church­ lefts," with the ecumenical plans of a western Europe to southern and es as the Assemblies of God and mere decade or two ago apparently eastern Europe, inevitably meant a Church of God in Christ. Televange- stalled if not wholly derailed. The different mixture religiously. New lism, even though recently falling on longer-term consequences of a plu­ England, seeing the Protestant "old hard times, erases familiar ecclesias­ ralism that changes our terms and stock" being engulfed in waves of tical labels as personality and tech­ challenges our loyalties await the Catholic Irish, then Catholic French, nology take over from the quieter twenty-first century. then Catholic Portuguese and Ital­ parish and neighborhood pastor. Alexis de Tocqueville long ago ob­ ians, pushed hard for immigration Asian religions, with timid pros­ served that Americans were (as St. restriction that would preserve "the elytizing at the World's Parliament of Paul said of the Athenians even lon­ basic strain of our people." An Im­ Religion in 1893, had less than a ger ago) a very religious people. migration Restriction League, hundred years later lost their timidi­ Americans regarded religion as formed in New England in 1894, ty and their unfamiliarity on the "indispensable to the maintenance helped win the National Origins Act American scene. Buddhism has be­ of republican institutions," he wrote. of 1924. Racial and religious motiva­ come especially strong on the West And G. K. Chesterton much later tions built into this act hoped to re­ Coast, but also Hinduism in several spoke of the United States as the vive the cultural patterns of an ear­ manifestations. Islam now counts its "nation with the soul of a church." lier day. But by 1924 the America American adherents in the millions. Pluralism raises hard and persistent of 1800 was so far removed in This rampant pluralism has many questions about these earlier obser­ denominational terms as to be consequences, not the least of which vations, about the fundamental unrecognizable. is the growing contentiousness nature of the continuing relationship Now, with nearly a century more about religion and of religion in between the civil and ecclesiastical of history beyond 1900, the United America. The U.S. Supreme Court is realms. These difficult questions States presents a profusion of plu­ obliged to adjudicate cases of "free have not yet been answered, yet ralism that shows no sign of dimin­ exercise" (for example, the flag sa­ they prove impossible to ignore. 35 Religion from a Global Perspective

BY JOHN BUESCHER

Anyway, what you call religion around here is what other people would call sociology. That's how you teach it, right? Everything from the Gospels to The Golden Bough, Martin Luther to Martin Luther King, it all happened, it's historical fact, it's anthropology, it's ancient texts, it's humanly interesting, right? But that's so safe. How can you go wrong? . . . I looked over your cat­ alogue before I came, and studying all that stuff doesn't say any thing, doesn't commit you to anything, except some perfectly harmless, human cultural his­ tory. What I'm coming to talk to you about is God as a fact, a fact about to burst upon us, right up out of Nature.

n this passage from John Updike's methods of teaching religious stud­ religion within the liberal arts curric­ I Roger's Version, Dale Kohler, an ies courses. ulum. The idea is to assist teachers, earnest young visionary, upbraids a The purpose, as described by one whose academic training may have comfortable old seminary professor of the project's directors, Mark Juer- been quite specialized, in strength­ for his detached approach to reli­ gensmeyer of the Graduate Theolog­ ening their undergraduate religious gion. At a summer institute at Berke­ ical Union and the University of Cal­ studies courses." ley in 1987, Huston Smith, professor ifornia, Berkeley, is "to reflect on the Following the opening workshop emeritus of religion at Syracuse Uni­ nature of religious studies as a disci­ in 1985 at the Graduate Theological versity, quoted the passage to pline and on the role of the study of Union, the first institute, "Religious prompt scholars of religious studies Studies and Liberal Education: Op­ to ask themselves, "Is any of what portunities and New Direction," was I'm dealing with true? Is the ques­ held the next year at Chicago's Di­ tion of religious truth relevant to my vinity School under the direction of work?" Frank Reynolds, professor of the his­ This issue is an undercurrent in tory of religions at the school. The "A Global Approach to the Study of institute focused on concepts of reli­ Religion," a five-year, NEH-support- gion and religious tradition, the ed higher education project of which comparison of religions across cul­ the Berkeley institute is a part. Fo­ tural boundaries, practical problems cusing on the teaching of religious of courses and program develop­ studies in the liberal arts, the project ment, and the role of religion in the includes two workshops on the role liberal arts curriculum. of religious studies in the liberal arts Emerging from the discussion curriculum; three consecutive sum­ were two contrasting positions on mer institutes at Chicago's Divinity how religious studies should be School, Berkeley's Graduate Theo­ taught. One view was that, because logical Union, and Harvard's Center religious studies draws on the disci­ for the Study of World Religions; plines and methods of history, liter­ and the creation of a sourcebook on ature, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy, the focus should not be on God but on the phenomenon of John Buescher is a program officer in the Amitahba Buddha, Korea: Koryo Dynasty, religion itself. According to this Division of Education Programs. 13th-14th century, gilt repousse silver. view, religious studies should set

36 aside the question of God's existence physical commitment." They argued and look at religion as a range of that, like other intellectual endeav­ human activities and beliefs. Propo­ ors, the investigation of religion pro­ nents argued that religious studies ceeds on the investigator's values should concern itself only with what and beliefs. is plainly observable and measur­ The 1987 summer institute, "A able, that is, the rituals, scriptures, Teacher's Workshop on the Introduc­ myths, dogmas, images, and other tory Course in Religious Studies," phenomena that, in turn, have God was held at the Graduate Theological or the ultimate as their object. Thus Union. Directed by Juergensmeyer, Torah crown, silver with glass stones; probably circumscribed, they contended, reli­ the institute reviewed the role of in­ Berlin, ca. 1870. gious studies might even justly be troductory courses in religious stud­ considered scientific. ies programs. Participants concurred theme, Harvard professor Richard R. The other view was that this ap­ that they should lead their students Niebuhr noted that the faculty in­ proach misrepresented religion be­ beyond an uncritical relativism. Yet tended to show how the pilgrimage cause it did not consider the exis­ they also agreed that, as Garrett theme in various world religions illu­ tence of the object toward which reli- Green, professor of religious studies minates the religious dimensions of at Connecticut College, put it, "the human experience in disparate times object of the academic study of reli­ and places. gion is the suspension of one's own The thematic approach serves as a opinions and the imaginative entry corrective in religious studies, ac­ into other worlds." cording to Juergensmeyer, because The institute also examined teach­ certain themes emerge as patterns in ing methods. In contrast to Huston religious experience throughout the Smith's claim that ultimate truth is world. "In the past," he says, "com­ too central to be set apart in teaching parative religious studies tended to religious studies, Ninian Smart, pro­ misunderstand non-Western reli­ fessor of religious studies at the Uni­ gions by describing their experiences versity of California, Santa Barbara, in terms of Western religious and the University of Lancaster, En­ gland, took the opposing view. "Our field," he said, "has nothing to do with an ultimate truth-claim, but is solely concerned with the under­ standing and explanation of the data of human religiousness. The power and truth of religious studies and re­ ligious studies scholars is at a differ­ ent logical level from that of religions and religious people. We are neither a 'soft discipline' nor a 'meta-religion.'" Eight treatises and sermons by Martin Luther, Harvard was the site of the final published in 1518, within a year after his summer institute, "Teaching Com­ Ninety-five Theses. parative Courses: Exploring Themat­ Courtesy of the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary of Am erica ic Approaches," held in 1988 and di­ gious activity is directed. Advocates rected by John Carman and William argued that a careful presentation of Graham of the university's Center the phenomenon of religion, com­ for the Study of World Religions. bined with an equally careful avoid­ Participants examined thematic ance of comment on its ultimate courses in religion and ways of con­ truth, would result in religion's ulti­ structing such courses. Harvard's mate object being not merely set short courses on the themes of "pil­ aside but effectively denied. The grimage" and "scripture" were of­ question they raised was whether fered as examples of how thematic The Prague Haggadah, 1526, a book contain­ anyone, in studying or describing re­ courses might be taught. In develop­ ing the liturgy recited at a Passover seder, is the ligion, could honestly avoid "meta­ ing the course on the pilgrimage earliest complete Haggadah.

37 thought, which was assumed to be College, Joseph Price, a participant applicable to all the world's religious in the Chicago institute, headed traditions. For example, the Hindu Whittier's revision of its introductory view of absolute truth, brahman, has religion courses. The scope was en­ no easy correlation to the historical larged beyond Christianity by em­ gods of Judaism and Christianity, al­ phasizing cross-cultural religious though Western religious philoso­ themes and focusing reading assign­ phers tended to view both concepts ments on the primary sacred texts of as referring to the same underlying religious traditions rather than on phenomenon. This blurring of cate­ secondary interpretive works. gories has exaggerated the similari­ "Teaching religion should not merely ties between religions at the expense infuse students with information of profound differences." The the­ about particular religious traditions matic approach avoids a Western cul­ but enhance their imagination," tural bias, Juergensmeyer points out, Price says. "They can thereby con­ by demonstrating that the religious ceive the world in new ways and concepts of Shinto, Hinduism, Tao­ criticize their new conceptions." ism, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, and Like Whittier's program, other re­ Christianity are not necessarily inter­ ligious studies programs may never changeable and must be understood be the same because of the Chicago- on their own terms. Berkeley-Harvard project. They may The last workshop, to be held in be able, says Juergensmeyer, to Berkeley next summer, will summa­ "integrate the varieties and depths of rize the three institutes and will human experience revealed in the work on completion of a sourcebook rest of the liberal arts curriculum ."^ of the materials produced in the in­ stitute. Also being assembled is an In 1985 the Graduate Theological Union "image bank," a collection of slides received $401,240 in outright funds from of art, architecture, and other images the Higher Education in the Humanities of religious significance that will be category of the Division of Education available to teachers. Programs to conduct summer institutes The project has already had an in­ on "A Global Approach to the Study of fluence in the classroom. At Whittier Religion." Courtesy Courtesy of John Buescher

Top, left: Hornbook with the ABC's and the Lord's Prayer, London, ca. 1625. Children learned religion along with the alphabet. Above: A one hundred and fifty year old Torah from the Iraqi Jewish community in India. Right: A pilgrimage book for Japanese temples, with stamps indicating that the pilgrim has visited the temples.

38 GUIDE RPSL DALNS RNS GUIDE GRANTS DEADLINES PROPOSALS Eight Keys to a Successful Teacher-Scholar Proposal

BY THOMAS GREGORY WARD

HE FIRST REVIEW of proposals for performing arts or projects concerned T the NEH/Reader's Digest Teacher- primarily with educational theory, ed­ Scholar Program for Elementary and ucational research, educational psy­ Secondary School Teachers was com­ chology, school management, child pleted on November 18, 1988, with development, counseling, or acquisi­ awards made to individuals in fifty tion of basic skills. states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. By 2. Focus on the Familiar supporting a year of sabbatical leave Often the strongest applications grow for independent study, the program out of a teacher's long-term intellectual provides opportunities for outstanding interests. Focusing on a familiar topic teachers of the humanities to become enhances your ability to present a de­ more knowledgeable about the sub­ tailed plan, include a full bibliography, jects they teach. For those who wish to and demonstrate a knowledgeable ap­ submit proposals for the 1989 com­ proach to the subject. Even so, strong petition (deadline May 1, 1989), here applications often come from individu­ are eight keys to success: als who want to explore a new field. In these instances applicants usually consult with a scholar in preparing the In the 1. Pick the Right Topic application, identify specific courses GUIDE Choose a topic that is clearly within to take during the tenure of the award, the humanities disciplines. Good and include detailed plans for working 39 Eight Keys choices include topics in history or lit­ with a mentor during the year's to a erature, but other fields such as philos­ Successful sabbatical. ophy, ethics, or foreign languages are Teacher- also appropriate. In addition to being Scholar 3. Draft an Intellectual central to one or more of the human­ Proposal Rationale ities disciplines, the topic should relate 41 Recent to the teaching responsibilities of the The rationale explains not only what NEH Grants applicant. the project will investigate but also, by The Teacher-Scholar Program does more importantly, the project is Discipline why not support projects in the creative or significant. The best proposals not 46 Deadlines only outline the questions to be ad­ dressed and the issues in the human­ Thomas Gregory Ward is coordinator ities that will be examined but also of the NEH/Reader's Digest Teacher- demonstrate a balanced, objective in­ Scholar Program. vestigation of the subject. GUIDE 40 h idpnetsuypa isthe plan study independent The Study of Course 4.a Plan the substance and quality of the pro­ of the quality and substance the the study plan, it is important to keep tois itimportant plan, studythe developing In humanities. of theedge knowl­ applicants' theto make will principal evidence for reviewers about reviewers for evidence principal this study. A complete plan includes a includes plan complete study. this A aca­ first project on of the thefocus ei suywt ucms ae on based outcomes studywith demic oe poetadtecnrbto it contribution the and project posed time line of activities, a one-page bib­ one-page a activities, of line time feasible, and centered in the in centered and feasible, issig­ study onstrateproposed thatthe study. The plan should also include a include also should plan study. The proposed the undertaking gumentfor ar­ structured carefully and coherent ok htwl b ed ad presentsa and read, be booksthat will the cites project, thefor rationale 5. Show an Impact Impact an 5.Show humanities. rigorous, academically nificant, dem­ to detail enough and liography, tures to share the results of the studyresults of the the share turesto responsibilities. teaching your to vant rele­ ideastexts and involve will ect proj­ thatthe reviewers todemonstrate with peers, new humanities books orbooks humanities new peers, with tangible a include also may Outcomes graph on the subject, a series of lec­ seriesof a subject, the ongraph workshop presentations at scholarly or scholarly at presentations workshop revised curriculum, the in content product, such as an essay or mono­ or essay asan such product, to rationale and plan study the Use audience. project's findings with a wider wider a with project'sfindings theshare meetingsto professional or syllabi, course or lesson plans n Teaching on To increase the academic substance of substance academic the increase To fer guidance in preparing the study the preparing in guidance fer Humanities 6.a Consult or professor of literature who could of­ could professorliteraturewho or of scholar a with consult application, an ters of recommendation that document thatdocument recommendation tersof htteapiathssbitd The submitted.has applicant thatthe lettersbestrecommendation The of inde­ of year a benefitfrom to ability humanities, of the knowledge your let­ objective and concrete two Seek Strong 7. Secure bibliography. the developing and plan historianasa such humanities inthe support and expand on the materials the on expand supportand humanities. theof standingteacher in otetahn rfsin and profession, teaching thetotions out­ asan qualities study, andpendent or nelcul aaiiy contribu­ capability, intellectual your about details specific include should principal or immediate supervisor, immediate or principal school your from one letters, including 8. Read the Guidelines the 8. Read humanities. of the teacher asa reputation rmte iiino dcto Pro­ Education of Division thefrom obtained be can Programer-Scholar Teach­ Digest NEH/Reader's the about information further and Guidelines Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. D.C. Washington, N.W., Avenue, grams, Room 302, 1100 Pennsylvania Pennsylvania 1100 302, Room grams, 00, 202/786-0377.20506, Scholar Recommendations GRANT RECENTNEH AWARDS Some of the items in this list are offers, not final awards.

International Folk Art Foundation, Santa Fe, U. of Arkansas, Fayetteville; Allyn A. Lord: Archaeology and NM; Helen Lucero: $300,000. To support an ex­ $5,000. To plan for computerized documenta­ Anthropology hibition that explores the culture of Hispanic tion of the museum's archaeology collection. New Mexico in historical perspective. GM GM Richard H. Keeling: $18,317. To prepare a American Schools of Oriental Research, Balti­ U. of California, Berkeley; Nelson H. H. Gra- guide to ethnographic field recordings held by burn: $58,979 OR; $15,000 FM. To prepare a more, MD; Walter E. Rast: $9,955 OR; $32,796 the Lowie Museum of Anthropology at the Uni­ FM. To conduct archaeological surveys and ex­ catalogue raisonne of the Lowie Museum's Alas­ versity of California, Berkeley. RC ka Commercial Company Collection of 19th- cavations in several important early Bronze Age Louisiana State U., Baton Rouge; Frank de Caro: sites (3rd to 2nd millennium B.C.) in the Dead century northwestern native American and $31,015 OR; $9,397 FM. To support a traveling Eskimo artifacts. RT Sea plain in Jordan. RO exhibition and catalogue exploring the photo­ U. of California, Los Angeles; Ernestine Elster: Asia Society, Inc., NYC; Andrew Pekarik: graphic documentation of Louisiana folk culture $43,660. To complete the second and final vol­ $175,000 OR; $75,000 FM. To support a travel­ from the 1860s to the present. GM ume of Excavations at Sitagroi, an important ing exhibition exploring the fundamental princi­ Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA; Edward Bro- Neolithic site in northwest Greece, for the study ples of Australian aboriginal art from the mid- varski: $33,900 OR; $13,100 FM. To conduct of the early emergence of metallurgy in the 19th century to the present. CM fieldwork, analysis, and write-up of the research Mediterranean. RO Brooklyn Museum, NY; Diana G. Fane: on a portion of the tombs and cemeteries sur­ $118,340. To plan for an exhibition, catalogue, rounding the pyramid of Cheops at Giza. RO U. of Chicago, IL; Alan L. Kolata: $70,000 OR; and programs that use the Cullin Collection of Museum of the American Indian, NYC; Cecile $90,000 FM. To support an archaeological sur­ native American art to investigate issues of col­ R. Ganteaume: $25,219. To document the mu­ vey and excavation of Tiwanaku Valley, an urban lecting for museums. CM seum's collection of Apache material culture. GM zone (100-1200) in the Bolivian Andes on the Bryn Mawr College, PA; James C. Wright: President and Fellows of Harvard College, Cam­ shores of Lake Titicaca. RO $75,000. To conduct analysis and study of the bridge, MA; C.C. Lamberg-Karlovsky: $37,986. U. of Florida, Gainesville; Michael V. Gannon: growth and changes from Paleolithic to modern To support documentation of the Lattimore Col­ $100,000 OR; $75,000 FM. To support adminis­ times in a well-defined rural area in Greece, lection of ethnographic photographs from Inner trative costs of the Institute for Early Contact using the archaeological, anthropological, and China. GM Studies and related research projects investigat­ environmental record. RO ing the earliest instances of European-native Bryn Mawr College, PA; Richard S. Ellis: San Diego State U. Foundation, CA; Gary O. Rollefson: $20,000 OR; $60,000 FM. To con­ American contact in the Caribbean, Florida, and $14,538. To support the Gritille project excava­ coastal Georgia. RO tion report involving analysis of small objects, duct archaeological excavations at Ain Ghazal, preparation of publishable photographs and Jordan, in order to study cultural developments U. of Iowa, Iowa City; Thomas H. Charlton: drawings, and completion of the computerized during the 7th and 6th millennia B.C. RO $33,325. To support an archaeological study of lists and indices on the Syro-Anatolian site ex­ Edward Schieffelin: $45,000. To conduct col­ the Aztec center of Otumba in order to evaluate cavations. RO laborative research for a book-length mono­ the role of economic factors, such as irrigation Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, VA; Robert graph on non-Western methods of community and craft production, in the evolution and func­ C. Birney: $300,000 OR; $75,000 FM. To sup­ discussion and agreement as expressed in the tioning of pre-Hispanic Aztec city-states. RO social rituals of the Bosavi people of New port the Martin's Hundred Exhibition at Carter's U. of New Mexico, Albuquerque; Mari Lyn Sal­ Guinea. RO Grove. GM vador: $337,744. To support a permanent exhi­ Columbia U., NYC; Robert F. Murphy: $81,000. School of American Research, Santa Fe, NM; bition on the prehistory of the Southwest from To study the historical and cultural conditions Douglas W. Schwartz: $41,800 OR; $18,800 the Paleoindian period through European con­ under which the deeply paralyzed maintain the FM. To support postdoctoral fellowships in an­ tact. GM GRANTS desire to live and to actively pursue social in­ thropology and related disciplines. RA U. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Mary Voigt: volvement. RO Southern Methodist U., Dallas, TX; David A. Cornell U., Ithaca, NY; Peter I. Kuniholm: $30,000 OR; $150,000 FM. To conduct an ar­ Freidel: $20,000 OR; $14,068 FM. To conduct chaeological study of Gordion in central Turkey $209,114. To support the third phase of the an archaeological survey and excavation at the Aegean dendrochronology project that will in­ to obtain a stratigraphical sequence from the Mayan center, Yaxuna, Yucatan, in order to Middle Bronze Age to late Hellenistic times and clude bogs and rivers, other recommended ar­ study changing political relationships during a chaeological sites, and American museum col­ evidence for the Bronze Age occupation of this period of rivalry for control of this region by the site by the Hittites. RO lections containing ancient Egyptian cedar northern states, ca. 800-1000. RO samples. RO Texas A&M Research Foundation, College Sta­ U. of Tennessee, Knoxville; Geraldine C. Gesell: Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL; tion; George F. Bass: $20,000 OR; $82,764 FM. $20,000 OR; $90,000 FM. To support two field Phyllis G. Rabineau: $750,000 OR; $150,000 To excavate a 14th-century B.C. shipwreck off seasons of excavations at the site of Kavousi, FM. To implement a major, permanent exhibi­ the coast of Ulu Burun, Turkey. The artifacts ob­ Crete. The study will examine the transition tion on the cultures and history of the Pacific Is­ tained so far contribute to understanding of the from Bronze Age Minoan to Early Iron Age landers. GM Late Bronze Age in the Mediterranean. RO Greek civilization (12th to 8th centuries B.C.). Harvard U., Cambridge, MA; Sally F. Williams: RO $38,000. To consolidate two scholarly indexing Textile Museum, Washington, DC; Julie L. Haif- Washington State U., Pullman; Dale R. Croes: services: the Anthropological Index (Royal An­ ley: $5,000. To plan for computerization of an $20,000 OR; $17,489 FM. To analyze and pre­ thropological Institute of the United Kingdom) existing documentation system and investigation pare for publication the findings from the Hoko and Anthropological Literature (Tozzer Library, of image retrieval systems for the museum. GM River archaeological project in Washington Harvard University). RC U. of Alaska, Fairbanks; Jean S. Aigner: $20,000 State. RO Indiana U., Bloomington; Richard Bauman: OR; $45,200 FM. To conduct an interdisciplin­ $80,000. To conduct a comparative study of tra­ ary study of changes in settlement pattern, popu­ Yale U., New Haven, CT; William W. Hallo: ditional folk poetry forms brought to the New lation size, and social structure on Unalaska Is­ $142,000 OR; $30,000 FM. To prepare a cata­ World by Spanish colonists and of their continu­ land of the eastern Aleutians prior to contact by logue of the 40,000 cuneiform tablets, seals, ing role in the social life of Latin American Russian explorers and in the early contact peri­ and other inscribed artifacts in the Yale Babylo­ culture. RO od. RO nian Collection. RC

41 focusing on aesthetic, technological, and socio­ ments on the history of black political protest in Arts— History economic aspects of documentary, feature, and South Africa since 1964. Drawn from protest and Criticism avant-garde films. RO groups, these sources cover a wide range of Philadelphia Museum of Art, PA; Ann B. Percy: black political expression. RO American Film Institute, Washington, DC; Mi­ $51,320. To plan for a traveling exhibition on College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA; chael H. Friend: $75,000 OR; $187,500 FM. To the relationship between visual art and the natu­ Robert P. Maccubbin: $139,609. To support an prepare two volumes, 1931—40 and ral sciences in Philadelphia from the colonial exhibition demonstrating the pivotal importance 1893-1910, of the American Film Institute cata­ period through the early Republic. GM of the reign of William III and Mary II in politics logue, the definitive guide to American feature Joel A. Sachs: $96,408. To research and write a and art in Britain, Europe, and America. GM film production. RC biography of American composer and author Consuelo W. Dutschke: $66,492. To prepare a American Music Center, Inc., NYC; Eero Rich­ Henry D. Cowell, 1896-1965. The book will be catalogue of the medieval and Renaissance mond: $47,006 OR; $75,000 FM. To catalogue divided into two sections: one on Cowell's life manuscripts in the Bancroft Library, University 13,500 scores of contemporary American com­ and one covering an analysis of his works. RO of California, Berkeley. RC posers in the center's library. Catalogue records Toledo Museum of Art, OH; Cynthia Crow: Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington, DC; will be entered in the Research Libraries Infor­ $23,730. To implement a series of educational Werner L. Gundersheimer: $57,000 OR; mation Network (RUN). RC programs to accompany a traveling exhibition of $14,000 FM. To support postdoctoral fellow­ Architectural History Foundation, NYC; Karen contemporary German art. GM ships at the Folger Library. RA W. Banks: $43,500 OR; $10,000 FM. To re­ U. of California, Berkeley; James Cahill: Paul F. Grendler: $46,250. To conduct research search and edit a two-volume catalogue rais- $44,000. To support the second phase of the In­ for a history of Italian Renaissance universities, onne of 1,800 drawings by the Renaissance ar­ dex of Ming Dynasty Painters and Paintings. RC 1400-1600, with special attention to the admin­ istration of the universities and curriculum de­ chitect Antonio da Sangallo, the Younger, and U. of Illinois, Urbana, Champaign; Eunice D. velopment. RO his circle. RT Maguire: $71,199. To support an exhibition, Patricia K. Grimsted: $120,000 OR; $30,00 Art Institute of Chicago, IL; Richard F. Towns­ catalogue, and programs that examine spiritual FM. To continue a series of guides to archival end: $32,108. To plan for an exhibition, cata­ and mundane aspects of early Christian life as and manuscript repositories in the USSR. RC logue, and programs that explore the intellectual revealed by material culture in domestic set­ Harvard U., Cambridge, MA; Roderick MacFar- and aesthetic foundations of ancient New World tings. GM quhar: $80,500. To select and translate sources civilizations. GM U. of Kansas, Lawrence; Stephen Addiss: on the Chinese Communist Party from 1921 to CUNY Research Foundation/Bernard Baruch $100,000. To support a traveling exhibition, cat­ 1949. Scholars were only recently granted ac­ College, NYC; George R. Hill: $47,700. To pre­ alogue, and educational programs on the cultur­ cess to these documents from the regional ar­ pare a guide to music compositions published in al, historical, and intellectual dimensions of chives in the Chinese People's Republic. RL approximately 10,000 collected editions and Zenga, the painting and calligraphy of Japanese Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ; Pe­ historical sets. RC monks from 1600 to 1925. GM ter Paret: $54,000 OR; $42,000 FM. To support Dallas Museum of Art, TX; Maureen A. McKen­ U. of Missouri, Columbia; Patricia A. Condon: fellowships at the institute's School of Historical na: $42,070. To plan for an exhibition examin­ $36,285. To plan for a traveling exhibition, cata­ Studies. RA ing the importance of the African cultural heri­ logue, and programs that examine the art of Lincoln Junior-Senior High School, Rl; Paul J. tage in the work of contemporary black artists in France under "Citizen-King" Louis Philippe. GM Dalpe: $23,380. To conduct a two-year master- the United States and the Caribbean. GM U. of New Mexico, Albuquerque; John M. Fritz: work study project on major texts of Western Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH; Jacquelynn $80,000 OR; $45,000 FM. To support the final civilization for six high school teachers. ES Baas: $54,268. To plan for an exhibition, pub­ phase of a study of the art, architecture, and so­ New York Public Library, NYC; Edward Kasinec: lication, and programs that investigate the fas­ cial configurations of imperial Vijayanagara, a $105,045 OR; $45,000 FM. To preserve 1,800 cination with natural and manmade wonders in 14th- through 16th-century Hindu regional cap­ volumes of periodicals published in the Soviet art and science during the 16th and 17th cen­ ital in South India. RO Union between 1917 and 1940. PS turies. GM U. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Michael W. Ted A. Telford: $22,180. To add entries to the Dorothy Gillerman: $28,620 OR; $11,600 FM. Meister: $78,041 OR; $10,000 FM. To prepare annotated catalogue of Chinese local gazetteers To support phase two of the Census of Gothic and edit the Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Ar­ held by the Genealogical Society of Utah. RC Sculpture in America. RT chitecture. RT U. of California, Los Angeles; John Brewer: Harvard U., Cambridge, MA; John B. Howard: Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, MD; Hiram W. $170,000 OR; $5,000 FM. To support an inter­ $157,966 OR; $10,000 FM. To conduct the sec­ Woodward, Jr.: $388,514. To support the per­ disciplinary program to examine consumption ond stage of an inventory of music manuscripts manent installation of the museum's collections and culture in 18th-century England and North from 1600 to 1800 that are held by U.S. librar­ of Asian art. GM America. RO ies, as part of the Repertoire International des Winterthur Museum, DE; Karol A. Schmiegel: U. of Maryland, College Park; John J. McCusker: Sources Musicales (RISM). RC $23,927. To develop an information retrieval $64,000. To prepare a guide to European com­ International Museum of Photography, system for the museum's comprehensive collec­ mercial and financial newspapers published be­ Rochester, NY; Robert A. Mayer: $53,905. To tion of decorative and fine arts. GM plan for a permanent exhibition that examines tween 1540 and 1775. RC photography in its historical, social, cultural, U. of Michigan, Ann Arbor; David E. Crawford: economic, and artistic dimensions. GM Classics $145,000. To continue the Census of Renais­ Jewish Museum, NYC; Emily D. Bilski: sance Liturgical Imprints. RC $102,680. To support a traveling exhibition, cat­ Miami U., Oxford, OH; Robert M. Wilhelm: alogue, and educational programs exploring ar­ $178,780 OR; $10,300 FM. To conduct a four- History— U.S. tistic representations of the Jewish legend of the week institute with follow-up activities in which golem. GM 40 elementary school teachers will study clas­ American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, MA; sical mythology through Ovid's Metamorphoses. Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff; Elaine John B. Hench: $59,000. To support postdoc­ ES R. Hughes: $25,228. To document the muse­ toral fellowships in the humanities. RA Parkway School District, Chesterfield, MO; um's collection of Navajo textiles. GM Baltimore City Life Museums, MD; John W. Du- Mary K. Mills: $12,374. To support a master- Music Project for Television, Inc., NYC; Mor- rel: $15,022 OR; $26,100 FM. To plan fora work study project that will enable ten teachers decai H. Bauman: $54,950. To produce a two- permanent exhibition, public programs, and of grades three through six to study Homer's Od­ hour film for television on the life and work of publications on the urban environment of Balti­ yssey for a year. ES Johann Sebastian Bach. GN more in three historical periods. GM U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Jay D. Bolter: New York Historical Society, NYC; Ella M. Fos- Bisbee Council on the Arts and Humanities, AZ; $15,364. To conduct a conference to plan for hay: $150,745 OR; $100,000 FM. To support a Larry B. Tanner: $27,480. To plan for a perma­ the computerization of L'Annee Philologique. RC permanent exhibition, catalogue, and lecture se­ nent exhibition, gallery guide, and educational ries examining the influential role of Luman materials interpreting the social and mining his­ Reed, 1785-1836, in the development of Amer­ tory of Bisbee, Arizona. GM ican art and connoisseurship. GM History—Non-U.S. Calvert Marine Museum, Solomons, MD; Paula New York U., NYC; Charles Affron: $90,000. To J. Johnson: $217,635 OR; $50,000 FM. To sup­ Boston U., MA; James C. McCann: $80,000 study and compare cinema sets and settings in port a permanent exhibition on the history of OR; $10,000 FM. To support an interdisciplin­ the United States, Great Britain, France, and Maryland's Patuxent River, emphasizing the cul­ ary project that uses conventional historical doc­ Italy, from the coming of sound in 1929 to the tural, social, and economic history of river life uments, songs, literature, and newspapers to il­ end of the studio system in 1959. RO and communities. GM luminate African perceptions and reactions to Carolina Charter Corporation, Raleigh, NC; Ohio State U. Research Foundation, Columbus; colonial rule, 1910-40. RO Robert J. Cain: $34,857. To locate, describe, Charles H. Harpole: $120,000. To support re­ CUNY Research Foundation/Graduate School & and microfilm records and manuscripts in search for the middle phase (volumes 5, 6) of a University Center, NYC; Thomas G. Karis: Scotland relating to the history of North Carolina ten-volume History of the American Cinema, $125,000 OR; $125,000 FM. To collect docu­ to 1820. RC

42 Center for Research Libraries, Chicago, IL; Mar- and write a book on the history of the native postdoctoral fellowships in archaeology and re­ lys Rudeen: $90,642. To preserve Civilian Con­ American family, 1880-1930, and the produc­ lated subjects at the Albright Institute of Archae­ servation Corps' newspapers through conversion tion of a computerized data base on this subject ological Research in Jerusalem. RA to microfiche. PS for the use of scholars and the native American Arkansas Museum of Science and History, Little Chippewa Valley Museum, Eau Claire, Wl; Su­ community. RO Rock; Alison B. Sanchez: $65,000. To plan for san M. McLeod: $31,250. To plan for a perma­ New York Historical Society, NYC; Kenneth T. an exhibition that analyzes the historical and nent exhibition on the history of the Chippewa Jackson: $159,600. To prepare a one-volume cultural milieux surrounding four major discov­ Valley from 1850 to 1920. GM Encyclopedia of New York. RT eries in the history of science. GM Civil Rights Project, Inc., Boston, MA; Henry E. Pennsylvania State U., Main Campus, University American Schools of Oriental Research, Balti­ Hampton: $350,000 OR; $75,000 FM. To pro­ Park; Peter Gottlieb: $48,697 OR; $15,000 FM. more, MD; Bert DeVries: $29,000. To support duce a pilot film and research and develop one To arrange and describe the archives of the postdoctoral fellowships in archaeology and re­ treatment for a nine-part series on the Great De­ United Steelworkers of America. RC lated subjects at the American Center of Oriental pression. GN Queens Museum, Flushing, NY; Marc H. Miller: Research in Amman, Jordan. RA Colorado Historical Society, Denver; James E. $219,879. To support an exhibition, catalogue, Association for Computers & the Humanities, Hartmann: $277,438 OR; $58,000 FM. To sup­ and programs that present the life of the Marquis Poughkeepsie, NY; C. M. Sperberg-McQueen: port Colorado's participation in the U.S. News­ de Lafayette and his farewell tour of America $148,895 OR; $25,000 FM. To develop and paper Program. The project will locate and cata­ from 1824 to 1825. GM promote guidelines for the preparation and inter­ logue 4,000 newspapers and microfilm Strong Museum, Rochester, NY; Harvey Green: change of machine-readable texts for scholarly approximately 1.7 million pages. PS $19,198. To plan for an exhibition and cata­ research in the humanities. RT Connecticut State Library, Hartford; Lynne H. logue examining the economics of American Association for Recorded Sound Collections, Newell: $15,506. To plan for Connecticut's par­ family life from 1860 to 1940. GM Washington, DC; Elwood A. McKee: $3,500. To ticipation in the U.S. Newspaper Program. PS Texas State Historical Association, Austin; Ron disseminate a 1,200-page report documenting a Duke U., Durham, NC; John Hope Franklin: C. Tyler: $351,400. To revise the Handbook of year-long study of standards and procedures re­ $20,000 OR; $50,000 FM. To support research Texas, an encyclopedia and biographical dic­ lating to the preservation of recorded sound ma­ and writing of a book on runaway slaves. RO tionary that documents Texas people, history, terials. PS DuSable Museum of African American History, geography, culture, industry, and commerce. RT Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Sci­ Chicago, IL; Amina J. Dickerson: $15,000 OR; U. of Kansas, Lawrence; William M. Tuttle: ences, Stanford, CA; Gardner Lindzey: $70,000 $10,000 FM. To conduct a self-study to allow $12,480. To conduct a research project analyz­ OR; $70,000 FM. To support postdoctoral fel­ the museum staff, trustees, and humanities con­ ing the kinds of experience American children lowships in the humanities. RA sultants to review the mission of the museum, had during World War II and the consequences Council for Basic Education, Washington, DC; assess its collections, and plan future inter­ of these experiences when the children grew H. Dennis Gray: $1,037,208 OR; $210,000 pretive educational programs. GM into middle age. RO FM. To conduct a two-year project that will fund Edison Institute, Dearborn, Ml; William S. U. of Missouri, Kansas City; Ted P. Sheldon: fellowships for six weeks of independent sum­ Pretzer: $38,890. To document 5,000 radio and $279,031. To support Missouri's participation in mer study for 170 K-12 teachers in each year of television artifacts from the museum's communi­ the U.S. Newspaper Program. Approximately the project. ES cations collection. GM 3,400 titles will be catalogued, and deteriorating William H. Donahue: $20,666. To prepare a Edison Institute, Dearborn, Ml; Judith E. En- titles important for research will be microfilmed. guided study of the astronomical writings of delman: $39,041. To document the museum's PS Johannes Kepler, 1571-1630, in order to make collection of popular and commercial graphic U. of Oklahoma, Norman; Bradford S. his accomplishments in planetary theory ac­ arts and related works on paper. GM Koplowitz: $42,200. To support a new guide to cessible to the general reader. RH George Mason U., Fairfax, VA; Roy A. Rosen- the university's Western History Collection. RC Carolyn Eisele: $10,000. To conduct a guided zweig: $9,540. To conduct research for a col­ U. of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras; Haydee Munoz study of the mathematical writings of Charles laborative history of Central Park in New York Sola: $154,036 OR; $10,000 FM. To support Sanders Peirce, 1839-1914, so as to make his City through a study of the social, cultural, and Puerto Rico's participation in the U.S. News­ work more accessible to the general reader and political forces that shaped it. RO paper Program. Approximately 650 newspaper to indicate the role of mathematics in Peirce's Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadel­ titles will be catalogued and about 1.5 million philosophy. RH phia; Marianne S. Wokeck: $235,000. To work deteriorating newspaper pages will be micro­ Fisk U., Nashville, TN; Ann A. Shockley: on the Biographical Dictionary of Early Pennsyl­ filmed. PS $29,094. To organize, process, and preserve the vania Legislators of the 17th and 18th centuries. Valentine Museum, Richmond, VA; B. Frank papers of Mary Elizabeth Spence, the first white RT Jewell: $150,000. To plan for a permanent exhi­ female graduate and faculty member of Fisk Illinois State Museum, Springfield; Janice T. bition, catalogue, videotaped programs, and University. RC Wass: $67,648. To plan for a long-term exhibi­ school materials on the history of Richmond, Georgetown U., Washington, DC; Warren T. tion interpreting the material culture of domestic Virginia. GM Reich: $69,523 OR; $70,122 FM. To revise the life in Illinois. GM Worcester Polytechnic Institute, MA; JoAnn first edition of the Encyclopedia of Bioethics, a John Carter Brown Library, Providence, Rl; Nor­ Manfra: $60,000. To research and write a book reference work for the field of study dealing with man Fiering: $30,000 OR; $7,000 FM. To sup­ on black families in Rowanty, Virginia. RO ethical questions in the life sciences and health. RT port postdoctoral study of the history of the Harvard U., Cambridge, MA; Walter Kaiser: Americas before 1830. RA $85,000. To support postdoctoral fellowships at Lower East Side Historic Conservancy, NYC; Interdisciplinary the Villa I Tatti. RA Ruth J. Abram: $69,970. To plan for a series of Hebrew Union College, Cininnati, OH; Herbert "living history" walking tours interpreting six im­ American Academy in Rome, NYC; Joseph Con­ C. Zafren: $63,000 OR; $75,000 FM. To micro­ migrant communities that existed on New York nors: $70,700 OR; $4,500 FM. To support film the Hebrew manuscript collection of the City's Lower East Side from 1850 to 1910. GM postdoctoral fellowships in the humanities. RA Jewish National and University Library in Jerusa­ Mississippi Dept, of Archives and History, Jack­ American Association of Museums, Washing­ lem. RC son; Elbert R. Hilliard: $166,546 OR; $37,500 ton, DC; Kathy L. Dwyer: $50,000. To conduct Indiana U., Bloomington; Ruth M. Stone: FM. To complete Mississippi's participation in a comprehensive survey of American museums. $80,279. To preserve and catalogue field re­ the U.S. Newspaper Program by microfilming GM cordings of traditional music dating from 1895 932,400 newspaper pages. PS American Council of Learned Societies, NYC; to the present. RC Museum of the City of New York, NYC; Richard Allen H. Kassof: $150,000 OR; $500,000 FM. Institute for Research in Classical Philosophy & E. Beard: $50,000. To conduct educational pro­ To support programs for advanced research in Science, Pittsburgh, PA; Alan C. Bowen: grams for an exhibition on the role of architect the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of $93,263. To conduct research for a book on the and planner Calvert Vaux and his contributions Eastern Europe, scholarly exchange with those historical and philosophical context of Greek as­ to domestic architecture and landscape design countries, and related grant activities in the hu­ tronomy and astrology in the 3rd and 2nd cen­ in 19th-century America. GM manities. Rl turies B.C. RH Museum of Western Colorado, Grand Junction; American Institute of Physics, NYC; Joan N. Institute of Early American History & Culture, Judy A. Prosser-Armstrong: $5,000. To plan for Warnow-Blewett: $50,000 OR; $35,000 FM. To Williamsburg, VA; Thad W. Tate: $26,000. To computerized documentation of the museum's enhance the records and automation of the In­ support a postdoctoral fellowship in early Amer­ historical and anthropological collections. GM ternational Catalogue of Sources for History of ican history and culture. RA Museum of the Confederacy, Richmond, VA; Physics and Allied Sciences. RC Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Kym S. Rice: $48,686. To plan for an exhibition, American Research Center in Egypt, Inc., NYC; Jackson; Patricia Galloway: $46,332. To con­ catalogue, and educational program exploring Terence Walz: $77,000. To conduct postdoc­ duct a collaborative project investigating the Afro-American life in the Old South between toral fellowships in pharaonic and Islamic stud­ more than four-century process by which the 1790 and 1850. GM ies. RA Choctaw tribe in Mississippi has occupied, iden­ Newberry Library, Chicago, IL; Frederick E. American Schools of Oriental Research, Balti­ tified with, and lost claim to the lands associated Hoxie: $80,000 OR; $20,000 FM. To research more, MD; Seymour Gitin: $57,000. To support with its tribal identity. RO Moravian College, Bethlehem, PA; Doris J. U. of Houston-University Park, TX; Martin V. linguistic and literary material related to the Schattschneider: $73,251. To study the note­ Melosi: $165,065 OR; $50,000 FM. To conduct Hupa language, a native American language books and drawings of the graphic artist M. C. a study on urban growth in the United States spoken in northwestern California. RT Escher, 1898-1972, to investigate his develop­ from 1840 to 1980 that will focus on the en­ Johns Hopkins U., Baltimore, MD; Delbert R. ment of a theory for generation and classifica­ vironmental consequences and the political, Hillers: $240,000 OR; $50,000 FM. To prepare tion of colored designs with repeating figures. legal, and civic responses to problems of a comprehensive Aramaic dictionary, covering RH growth. RH texts from 925 B.C. to A.D. 1400. RT National Humanities Center, Research Triangle U. of Illinois, Urbana; Patricia B. Ebrey: Stanford U., CA; Kurt Mueller-Vollmer: $90,000 Park, NC; Charles Blitzer: $127,000 OR; $80,000. To support a two-year collaborative OR; $5,000 FM. To prepare a catalogue rais- $122,000 FM. To support postdoctoral fellow­ project on the connections between social and onne and microfilm depository of the linguistic ships in the humanities. RA religious changes in China during the T'ang and papers of German philologist and statesman New York Public Library, NYC; Julia R. Van Sung dynasties, 750-1300. RO Wilhelm von Humboldt, 1767-1835. RT Haaften: $70,000 OR; $5,000 FM. To support U. of Illinois, Urbana, Champaign; Roger SUNY Research Foundation/Albany, NY; Peter physical organization, conservation, and cata­ Clark: $539,869 OR; $369,912 FM. To support M. Boyd-Bowman: $103,285 OR; $25,000 FM. loguing of 72,000 stereoscopic views in the a cooperative microfilming project among mem­ To support the last volume of the Lexico His- New York Public Library. RC ber libraries of the Committee on Institutional panoamericano project, a lexicon that illustrates Newberry Library, Chicago, IL; Richard H. Cooperation to preserve crucial books important the development of regional Spanish-American Brown: $90,000 OR; $30,000 FM. To support for research in various humanities disciplines. PS vocabulary from 1492 to the present. RT postdoctoral fellowships in the humanities. RA U. of Massachusetts, Amherst; Larry W. Owens: U. of Chicago, IL; Erica Reiner: $231,901 OR; Oregon State U. Foundation, Corvallis; Paul $87,651. To conduct a biographical study of $100,000 FM. To continue preparation of the Lawrence Farber: $41,287. To study the efforts Vannevar Bush, 1890-1974, in order to under­ Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, a comprehensive of Charles Darwin's followers to construct eth­ stand his crucial role in shaping the relationship lexicon of Akkadian, the earliest known Semitic ical systems based on the theory of natural se­ between government and technology during and language. RT lection. RH after World War II. RH U. of Chicago, IL; Harry A. Hoffner: $235,382 Research Libraries Group, Inc., Stanford, CA; U. of Mississippi, University; Ronald W. Bailey: OR; $80,000 FM. To continue work on the Chi­ Patricia A. McClung: $500,000 OR; $500,000 $70,000 OR; $40,000 FM. To support a project cago Hittite Dictionary, which includes pub­ FM. To microfilm deteriorating scholarly books analyzing the world of black Mississippians in lished and unpublished cuneiform texts from the from seven research libraries including Ameri­ the 20th century. In year-long and summer semi­ empire of the Hittites. RT can, Chinese, Near Eastern, and South Asian nars, the staff will evaluate the classic text, Deep U. of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Robert E. Lewis: histories; German literature; and histories of sci­ South. RO $209,274 OR; $539,868 FM. To support work ence and economics. PS U. of Oklahoma, Norman; Gwenn Davis: on The Middle English Dictionary. RT Research Libraries Group, Inc., Stanford, CA; $110,000. To prepare bibliographies of drama U. of North Texas, Denton; Heather K. Hardy: John W. Haeger: $39,000. To add 13,000 ma- and short fiction written by British and American $85,085 OR; $5,000 FM. To produce the first chine-readable records for Chinese rare books women prior to 1900. RC dictionary of the Alabama language, a native of the National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan, U. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Judith American language of the southeastern United to the Research Libraries Information Network A. McGaw: $109,995. To study several topics in States. RT (RLIN). RC early American technology in order to under­ U. of Oregon, Eugene; Thomas Givon: $60,000. Saint John's College, Main Campus, Annapolis, stand the foundations of the Industrial Revolu­ To renew a linguistic study of serial verb con­ MD; Thomas K. Simpson: $40,004. To prepare tion in the United States during the first half of structions, extending the original sample of five a guided study of several papers on the electro­ the 19th century. RH Oceanic languages by five more languages— magnetic theory of light by James Clerk Max­ U. of Pittsburgh, PA; James G. Lennox: English, Mandarin Chinese, Thai, Yoruba, and well, 1831-79, in order to make Maxwell's writ­ $91,556. To prepare a guided study of Aristotle's Ewe. RO ings more accessible to general readers. RH De Partibus Animalium that will render Aristo­ U. of Tennessee, Knoxville; Jonathan E. Lighter: Sealaska Heritage Foundation, Juneau, AK; tle's ideas, methods, and arguments concerning $84,543 OR; $11,305 FM. To edit the first com­ Richard L. Dauenhauer: $150,000. To collect, zoology accessible to the general reader. RH prehensive dictionary of American slang. RT transcribe, translate, and annotate the oral tradi­ U. of South Carolina, Columbia; George U. of Washington, Seattle; Anne O. Yue- tions of the Tlingit, a major tribe in the Pacific Terry: $45,380. To complete a definitive volume Hashimoto: $80,000. To support a collaborative Northwest. RO on the alkaline-glazed stoneware tradition of pilot study of variations in syntax in four Chinese Social Science Research Council, NYC; Frederic South Carolina from the late 18th- to the dialects for the purpose of documenting and ex­ E. Wakeman: $50,000. To support the costs of mid-20th century. RO plaining structural differences among spoken di­ administering a program of postdoctoral re­ U. of Texas, Austin; Richard N. Adams: alects of a major language. RO search grants for international area studies, man­ $150,594 OR; $28,100 FM. To prepare a histor­ Westminster College, New Wilmington, PA; Jac­ aged jointly by the American Council of Learned ical atlas of Central America. RT ob Erhardt: $121,841. To conduct a four-week Societies and the Social Science Research Coun­ U. of Washington, Seattle; Patrick V. Kirch: immersion institute for 25 high school teachers cil. Rl $321,020. To support an exhibition, catalogue, that includes study in Berlin of German liter­ Spelman College, Atlanta, GA; Beverly Guy- and educational programming on the native ature, language, and culture. ES Sheftall: $64,000. To arrange and describe ar­ American cultures of Washington. GM chives and manuscripts at Spelman College. RC Webster U., St. Louis, MO; Fred Stopsky: Stanford U., CA; David C. Weber: $200,000 $129,788. To conduct a three-week institute for Literature OR; $75,000 FM. To support the conversion to 36 St. Louis elementary school principals on lit­ American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, MA; machine-readable format of six major research erary and political expressions of the relations Nancy H. Burkett: $120,000 OR; $20,000 FM. libraries' bibliographic records for Latin Ameri­ among law, mercy, and justice. ES can studies materials. RC Joella G. Yoder: $17,650. To support a cata­ To catalogue works of fiction, school books, re­ ligious tracts, and picture books published in Texas A&l U ., Kingsville; Joe S. Graham: logue and concordance to the works of Christian $42,943. To plan for a traveling exhibition, cata­ Huygens, a major figure in the scientific revolu­ America for children, 1821-76. RC Brown U., Providence, Rl; Susanne Woods: logue, and related educational programs explor­ tion of the 17th century. RC ing aspects of the Hispanic presence in South $100,000 OR; $100,000 FM. To research an an­ Texas from 1750 to 1940. GM thology of women writers in English from the Texas Historical Commission, Austin; Kit T. Middle Ages through the romantic period (ca. Neumann: $98,627. To implement four inter­ Language and Linguistics 1330 to 1830). RO pretive skills seminars for museum and historical Cornell U., Ithaca, NY; Henry Louis Gates: society personnel from 23 states. GM Georgetown U., Washington, DC; Deborah F. $69,206 OR; $60,000 FM. To prepare an anno­ U. of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio; Tannen: $25,000. To complete research and tated bibliography and on-line data base that David A. Kronick: $49,937. To prepare a guide write-up of a study of common linguistic strat­ will result in an index to the fiction and poetry to 17th- and 18th-century science and technolo­ egies found in literature and everyday conversa­ published in black periodicals between 1827 gy periodicals. RC tion. RO and 1919. RT U. of California, Los Angeles; Raymund Harvard U., Cambridge, MA; Horace G. Lunt: Middlebury College, VT; Paul M. Cubeta II: Paredes: $35,000. To support a survey of archi­ $29,527. To complete the Dictionary of Uncon­ $160,000. To support a project that would en­ val holdings of Mexican-American literary mate­ ventional Russian, a two-volume reference work able 20 rural secondary school English teachers rial from 1821 to 1945. RC that lists and defines the argot, jargon, slang, to participate in some specially designed and U. of Florida, Gainesville; Austin B. Creel: and popular vernacular used by citizens of the some regular activities of the seven-week Bread $167,001. To conduct a four-week national in­ USSR. RT Loaf School of English program. ES stitute for 45 high school American studies Hoopa Tribal Education Association, CA; Mar- Jo Modert: $5,000. To complete a facsimile edi­ teachers on the role of religion in American life. cellene G. Norton: $227,631. To produce a ref­ tion of Jane Austen's letters. RE ES erence dictionary, a grammar, and a corpus of Ohio State U. Research Foundation, Columbus;

44 Geoffrey D. Smith: $115,000. To prepare a Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ; EG Humanities Programs for Nontraditional comprehensive bibliography of American fiction Clifford Geertz: $54,000 OR; $49,000 FM. To Learners from 1901 to 1925. RC support postdoctoral fellowships in the human­ U. of California, Berkeley; Joseph A. Rosenthal: ities at the School of Social Science. RA DIVISION OF GENERAL PROGRAMS $90,000 OR; $25,000 FM. To support the con­ U. of Wisconsin, Madison; David A. Wood­ GN Humanities Projects in Media version of bibliographic records in the univer­ ward: $137,229 OR; $233,706 FM. To support GM Humanities Projects in Museums and sity's French studies collection to machine-read- work on volumes 2 through 6 of A History of Historical Organizations able form. RC Cartography. RT GP Public Humanities Projects U. of California, San Diego, La Jolla; Diego Cat­ GL Humanities Programs in Libraries and alan: $12,000. To support work on the General Capital letters following each grant amount have Archives Catalogue of the Pan-Hispanic Romancero and the following meanings: FM (Federal Match); the International Electronic Archive of the Ro­ OR (Outright Funds). Capital letters following OFFICE OF PRESERVATION mancero. RT each grant show the division and the program PS Preservation U. of Minnesota, Saint Paul; Thomas Clayton: through which the grant was made. PS U.S. Newspaper Program $95,124 OR; $5,000 FM. To prepare the New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare's Coriolanus. DIVISION OF EDUCATION PROGRAMS DIVISION OF RESEARCH PROGRAMS RT EB Central Disciplines in Undergraduate RO Interpretive Research Projects U. of Nebraska, Lincoln; Willis G. Regier: Education RX Conferences $46,350 OR; $5,000 FM. To prepare a five-vol- EK Improving Introductory Courses RH Humanities, Science and Technology ume history of Scandinavian literatures, each EL Promoting Excellence in a Field RP Publication Subvention volume to be devoted to one country. RO EM Fostering Coherence Throughout an RA Centers for Advanced Study U. of North Texas, Denton; Alice Mathews: Institution Rl Regrants for International Research $130,278. To conduct a summer institute on ES Humanities Instruction in Elementary and RT Tools major works in American literature. ES Secondary Schools RE Editions U. of South Carolina, Columbia; Joel A. Myer- EH Exemplary Projects in Undergraduate and RL Translations son: $77,748. To prepare a descriptive bibli­ Graduate Education RC Access ography of the works of Walt Whitman. RC —— Philosophy

Loyola U., New Orleans, LA; Patrick L. Bour­ geois: $48,182. To support a collaborative study of the similar, if disparately conceived, insights of the American pragmatist George Mead and the French phenomenologist Maurice Merleau- Ponty. RO Marquette U., Milwaukee, Wl; Richard C. Tay­ lor: $50,000. To translate the 13th-century Latin version of Averroes's Long Commentary on Aris­ totle's "De Anima," important for understanding medieval Muslim theories of the soul and for the influence it had on Latin scholasticism. RL U. of California, Berkeley; Hubert L. Dreyfus: $90,000. To support a collaborative study of the work of the 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger to provide an integrated ac­ count, accessible to a wide scholarly public, of the continuity and development of Heidegger's thought. RO U. of Kentucky, Lexington; Ronald C. Bruzina: $55,400. To conduct a study of the collabora­ tion between philosophers Eugen Fink and Ed­ mund Husserl in the final phase of Husserlian phenomenology, 1928-38. RO Religion GRANTS American Theological Library Association, Chi­ cago, IL; Albert E. Hurd: $110,000 OR; $100,000 FM. To support a nationwide, cooper­ ative effort to preserve on microfiche 8,000 monographs on the history of religion and re­ ligious thought published between 1850 and 1910. PS Social Science

Center for Civic Education, Calabasas, CA; Du­ ane E. Smith: $153,419. To support a four-week national institute for 30 social studies teachers on American political thought and the intellec­ tual origins of the Constitution. ES Cornell U., Ithaca, NY; Sidney G. Tarrow: $114,820. To research and write a book exam­ ining cycles of popular protest in the 20th cen­ tury in France, Italy, and the United States. RO Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH; Ian S. Lustick: $87,000. To support the research and writing of a book on secession and decoloniza­ tion, using Britain and France and their colo­ nies, Ireland and Algeria, to suggest explana­ tions for the relationship between Israel and the West Bank/Gaza. RO

45 DEADLINES 46 Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. is numbers telephone all for code Area Teacher-ScholarProgram for Elementary and Secondary School Teachers— Travel toCollections— YoungerScholars— SummerStipends— Elementaryand Secondary Education inthe Humanities— HigherEducation inthe Humanities— SummerSeminars for College Teachers— Fellowshipsfor University Teachers— SummerSeminars for School Teachers— FacultyGraduate Study Program for Historically BlackColleges and Universities— Fellowshipson the Foundations of American Society— Fellowships forCollege Teachers and Independent Scholars— Division of Education Education of Division Division of Fellowships and and Fellowships of Division HumanitiesProjects inMuseums and Historical Organizations— Humanities Projects in Media— HumanitiesProjects in Libraries— Public Humanities Projects— Division of General Programs-Donaw General of Division DEADLINES Participants Participants Directors Implementation Planning Directors oeh . eil 786-0466 Neville B. Joseph en rmo 786-0463 Bramson Leon Kathleen Mitchell 786-0463 Mitchell Kathleen Wilsonia Cherry 786-0271 Cherry Wilsonia James Dougherty 786-0278 Dougherty James Thomas Phelps 786-0271 Phelps Thomas id Sor 786-0377 Spoerl Linda Maben D. Herring 786-0466 Herring D. Maben Maben D. Herring 786-0466 Herring D. Maben Lyn Maxwell White 786-0380 White Maxwell Lyn Programs— Michael Hall 786-0463 Hall Michael tpe Ross786-0463 Stephen SemifiarS-Guinevere ae D Herring D. Maben Linda Spoerl 786-0377 Spoerl Linda jerry l. Manm, Director Director Manm, l. jerry Karen Fuglie 786-0466 Fuglie Karen a b s o n , D i r e c t o r Marsha Semmel 786-0284 Semmel Marsha , 786-0466 L. Criest, Director 786-0458 Director Criest, L. 786-0267 786-0373 pi 1 1989 1, April May 15,1989 May uy1, 1989 15, July 1989 1, June 1989 1, May ue , 1989 1, June Deadline October 1 October ac 1, 1989 15, March 1989 1, June ac 1 1989 1, March ue9 1989 9, June 1989 17, March oebr , 1989 1, November ac 1, 1989 17, March 1989 1, March pi 1 1989 1, April ac 1, 1989 17, March 5,1989 May ac 1 1989 1, March , 1989 January 1990 January 1, 1990 June 1, 1990 January 1, 1990 January 1, 1990 beginning For projects October 1989 January 1, 1990 May 1, 1990May September 1, 1990 December1989 October1, 1989 October1, 1989 October1, 1989 Summer 1989 December 1989 1, October 1, 1989 Summer 1990 Summer 1989 Summer 1990 DEADLINES For projects Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. Deadline beginning

Division of Research Program s /?, ;, ,,,/ um an, Director 786-0200

Texts— Margot Backas 786-0207

Editions— David Nichols 786-0207 June 1, 1989 April 1, 1990

Translations— Martha Chomiak 786-0207 June 1, 1989 April 1, 1990

Publication Subvention— Margot Backas 786-0207 April 1, 1989 October 1, 1989

Reference Materials— Charles Meyers 786-0358

Tools— Helen Aguera 786-0358 September 1,1989 July 1, 1990

Access—Jane Rosenberg 786-0358 September 1, 1989 July 1, 1990 DEADLINES

Interpretive Research— Daniel Jones 786-0210

Projects— David Wise 786-0210 October 15, 1989 July 1, 1990

Humanities, Science and Technology— Daniel Jones 786-0210 October 15,1989 July 1, 1990

Regrants— Christine Kalke 786-0204

Conferences— Christine Kalke 786-0204 February 15,1989 October 1, 1989

Centers for Advanced Study— David Coder 786-0204 December 1,1989 July 1, 1990

Regrants for International Research— David Coder 786-0204 March 15, 1989 January 1, 1990

DlVISIOn Of Stat6 Programs— Marjorie A. BerHncourt, Director 786-0254 Each state humanities council establishes its own grant guidelines and application deadlines. Addresses and telephone numbers of these state programs may be obtained from the division.

Office Of Challenge Grants— Harold Cannon, Director 786-0361 May 1,1989 December 1, 1989

Office Of Preservation— George F. Farr, Jr., Director 786-0570

Preservation— George F. Farr, Jr. 786-0570 June 1, 1989 January 1, 1990

U.S. Newspaper Program—Jeffrey Field 786-0570 June 1, 1989 January 1, 1990

Guidelines are available from the Office of Publications and Public Affairs two months in advance of the application deadlines.

Telecommunications device for the deaf: 786-0282. NATIONAL ENDOWMENT SECOND CLASS MAIL FOR THE HUMANITIES POSTAGE & FEES PAID 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW NAT IONAI EN D O W M EN T FOR THE HUM ANITIES Washington, D.C. 20506 PUB. NO. 18752b

Official Business Penalty For Private Use, $300.00