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Individual and Collective Opposition to Windfarms Gard Bangor University DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Nimby, network or social movement? individual and collective opposition to windfarms Gardner, Ian Award date: 2014 Awarding institution: Bangor University Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 10. Oct. 2021 NIMBY, NETWORK OR SOCIAL MOVEMENT? INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE OPPOSITION TO WINDFARMS By Ian William Gardner Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology to the School of Social Science, Bangor University, 2014 NIMBY, NETWORK OR SOCIAL MOVEMENT? INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE OPPOSITION TO WINDFARMS One of the 42 turbines of the Black Law wind energy development in South Lanarkshire, Scotland. The picture was taken from a distance of about 4/5th of a mile from the village centre of Forth on the B7016 road looking NW. Photograph & Text above courtesy of Country Guardian. 2 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my wife, Melinda for being so patient with me during the past few years when the research for this thesis has kept me from the garden and from carrying out so many of ‘those little jobs about the house’. I would like to thank my supervisors Ian Rees Jones and Graham Day for their patience and guidance; Colin Barker and Mike Tyldesley for allowing me to present and test the ideas in this thesis at a number of Alternative Futures and Popular Protest conferences at Manchester Metropolitan University and Andy Dobson for affording me the same opportunity at the University of Keele. I would like to thank Dan Williams at the USDA Forest Research Service for his guidance on Place Attachment; Bert Klandermans for hosting a study visit to VU University, Amsterdam and for lunch…; Richard Rogers for his help in using IssueCrawler; Martin Everett for explaining the intricacies of UCINET ; Mike Thelwall for his observations on hyperlink network analysis; Del Siegle for use of his Cronbach Alpha spreadsheet calculator; Inga Carlman for copies of her research and for discussing it with me and Peter Somerville for his observations on the research as it has progressed. Finally, I would also like to thank the activists who generously gave of their time during the research and Susan Jones for transcribing the resultant interviews and biographies. 6 Abstract This thesis is a mixed methods study of individual and collective anti-wind energy activism in the UK, USA and Europe. A ‘grounded theory’ approach was taken to the generation of theoretical material in that research questions evolved as the research progressed and no ‘a priori’ hypotheses were proposed. However, the initial aims of the research were: to assess the applicability of the ‘NIMBY’ label; to investigate the extent of the anti-wind activist network and to judge whether the phenomenon could legitimately be described as a ‘social movement’. The research involved two types of quantitative analysis: Social Network Analysis of hyperlink and real world network data; and an assessment of the strength of Place Attachment for anti-wind energy activists. Qualitative analysis of semi-structured interview and biographical data was also used to gain an understanding of the characteristics of leading anti-wind activists: their similarities, differences, motivations, underpinning ideologies and biographical trajectories. The thesis frames the development and deployment of wind energy as a strategic response of advanced capitalism to geopolitical factors and historic energy crises. New forms of energy generate new relations of production and externalities which impact on localities and class interests. For onshore wind energy, these particularly (but not exclusively) affect elements of the rural middle class who have deeply entrenched views of the ‘pastoral ideal’. A conceptual model is developed to show how the expansion of industrial wind energy presents instrumental and ideological challenges to this ideal, and to identities. As a consequence individual and collective protests take place. These are sufficiently organised, connected, purposive and large-scale as to qualify as a social movement. The thesis contributes to Social Movement and Social Network theory by combining quantitative and qualitative methods to better understand anti- wind activism. 7 Contents DECLARATION AND CONSENT .................................................................................... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... 6 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. 7 CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. 8 LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... 11 LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... 12 ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................... 12 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 13 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 14 THESIS OUTLINE ............................................................................................................. 15 METHODOLOGICAL NOTE .................................................................................................. 16 CHAPTER 1 – WIND ENERGY AND ITS OPPOSITION .................................................. 17 GLOBAL WIND ENERGY – A SHORT TIMELINE ....................................................................... 18 INTERNATIONAL WIND ENERGY DEPLOYMENT ....................................................................... 21 WIND ENERGY - THE UK EXPERIENCE ................................................................................ 24 WIND TURBINE SIZE ........................................................................................................ 27 WIND ENERGY RESISTANCE .............................................................................................. 28 CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 35 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 35 WIND ENERGY LITERATURE .............................................................................................. 36 DISCOURSE ................................................................................................................... 37 WIND ENERGY DISCOURSES ............................................................................................. 38 Technical Discourse ........................................................................................................... 38 Public Opinion / Attitude Discourse .................................................................................. 44 Public Opinion ...................................................................................................... 44 Attitudes ............................................................................................................... 56 Protest Discourse ............................................................................................................... 83 CHAPTER CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 87 CHAPTER 3 – THEORISING GROWTH OF AND OPPOSITION TO WIND ENERGY ......... 91 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 91 Some Comments on Theory ............................................................................................... 91 WIND ENERGY & THE EXPANSION OF TRANSNATIONAL CAPITAL ................................................ 92 Production, Class Interest and the Consumption of Nature ............................................... 94 Transnational Capital ........................................................................................................ 95 Other Drivers ..................................................................................................................... 97 Externalities and Relations of Production .......................................................................... 99 Anti-Wind Activism as Instrumental Class Action? ......................................................... 101 IDEOLOGICAL ALTERNATIVES TO NIMBY ........................................................................... 104 Place Attachment and Identity .......................................................................................
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