Endangered and Threatened Animals of Texas Their Life History and Management by Linda Campbell

Home , 3 Headed Goat, Aplomado falcon, Atlanta (gastropod), Avocet, Awaous tajasica, Balmorhea State Park

Wildlife Division 4200 Smith School Road Austin, Texas 78744

Revised and approved by USFWS 2003 Endangered and Threatened Animals of Texas Their Life History and Management

Species Accounts Mammals Mexican Long-nosed Bat (Leptonycteris nivalis) ...... 1-3 Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) ...... 1-3 Management Guidelines for the Black-footed Ferret ...... 1-2 Jaguarundi (Felis yagouaroundi cacomitli) ...... 1-2 Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) ...... 1-3 Mangagement Guidelines for the Jaguarundi and Ocelot ...... 1 Louisiana Black Bear (Ursus americanus luteolus) ...... 1-3 Birds Golden-cheeked Warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia) ...... 1-4 Management Guidelines for the Golden-cheeked Warbler in Rural Landscapes ...... 1-5 Black-capped Vireo (Vireo atricapillus) ...... 1-4 Management Guidelines for Black-capped Vireo ...... 1-4 Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis) ...... 1-6 Management Guidelines for Red-cockaded Woodpecker ...... 1 Attwater’s Prairie Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) ...... 1-3 Management Guidelines for Attwater’s Prairie Chicken ...... 1-2 Whooping Crane (Grus americana) ...... 1-6 Eastern Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis occidentalis) ...... 1-3 Eskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis) ...... 1-3 Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) ...... 1-4 Interior Least Tern (Sterna antillarum athalassos) ...... 1-4 Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) ...... 1-4 Habitat Management Guidelines for Bald Eagles in Texas ...... 1-2 Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) ...... 1-4 Northern Aplomado Falcon (Falco femoralis septentrionalis) ...... 1-5 Mexican Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis lucida) ...... 1-2 Reptiles Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) ...... 1-4 Concho Water Snake (Nerodia paucimaculata) ...... 1-4 Amphibians and Fish Edwards Aquifer Species: ...... 1-6 San Marcos Salamander (Eurycea nana) Texas Blind Salamander (Typhlomolge rathbuni) San Marcos Gambusia (Gambusia georgei) Fountain Darter (Etheostoma fonticola) Peck’s Cave Amphipod (Stygobromus pecki) Comal Springs Riffle Beetle (Heterelmis comalensis) Comal Springs Dryopid Beetle (Stygoparnus comalensis) Management Guidelines for Endangered and Threatened Species of the Edwards Aquifer ...... 1-2 Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum) ...... 1-2 Houston Toad (Bufo houstonensis) ...... 1-3 Management Guidelines for the Houston Toad ...... 1-2 Clear Creek Gambusia (Gambusia heterochir) ...... 1-2 Desert Spring Fishes: ...... 1-5 Comanche Springs Pupfish (Cyprinodon elegans) Leon Springs Pupfish (Cyprinodon bovinus) Pecos Gambusia (Gambusia nobilis) Big Bend Gambusia (Gambusia gaigei) Invertebrates Karst Invertebrates: ...... 1-3 Bee Creek Cave Harvestman (Texella reddelli) Bone Cave Harvestman (Texella reyesi) Tooth Cave Pseudoscorpion (Tartarocreagris texana) Tooth Cave Spider (Neoleptoneta myopica) Tooth Cave Ground Beetle (Rhadine persephone) Kretschmarr Cave Mold Beetle (Texamaurops reddelli) Coffin Cave Mold Beetle (Batrisodes texanus) Management Guidelines for Karst Invertebrates ...... 1-2 Appendix 1: The Endangered Species Process ...... 125-126 Appendix 2: State Listed Endangered and Threatened Species ...... 127-129 Mexican Long-nosed Bat Scientific Name: Leptonycteris nivalis Federal Status: Endangered, 9/30/88 • State Status: Endangered

Description creosotebush-cactus (1800-3500 ft.), The feeding ecology of the The Mexican Long-nosed Bat is a deciduous woodland (3700-7800 ft.), Mexican Long-nosed Bat is of great relatively large bat compared with pinyon-juniper-oak woodland (3700- importance in understanding its life most U.S. bat species. It measures 7800 ft.), and cypress-pine-oak history and recent decline. These about 2.75 to 3.75 inches in total (5800-7200 ft.). bats are nectar feeders, emerging at length, can be dark gray to “sooty” For day roosting sites, Mexican night to feed on the showy flowers of brown in color, and has a long Long-nosed Bats depend on cool plants such as agave or century muzzle with a prominent nose leaf at caves, crevices, abandoned mines, plants (Agave spp.). They are very the tip. Its long tongue, an adapta- tunnels, and old buildings. These strong, highly maneuverable fliers, tion for feeding on flower nectar, highly colonial bats are frequently and like hummingbirds, are able to can be extended up to 3 inches and found near the entrances of caves hover in flight while they feed. A has hair-like papillae on its tip. It and other roosts, in the twilight mutual relationship exists, with the has a minute tail that may appear to zones. The bats often occupy the bats depending on the plants for be lacking. same roosts from year to year. food, and the plants benefiting from Throughout their range, thousands of the bats as pollinators. individuals may roost together at a Agaves flower by sending up a single site, although the number of green stalk supporting numerous caves with large aggregations is less flower clusters that produce large common today than in the past. quantities of nectar each night. In addition to consuming the nectar, the Life History bats also ingest pollen, picked up Although movement patterns are not inadvertently on their fur as they well known, Mexican Long-nosed Bats feed and later ingested during groom- are thought to move from central ing. The pollen provides vitamins Mexico into northern Mexico each year, with part of the population crossing the border into Texas and New Mexico. The colony of bats at Big Bend occupies their northern roosts from June through August, after which they move south to winter in central Mexico.

Mexican Long-nosed Bat The young are © Merlin D. Tuttle born in Mexico during April, May and early June, Distribution then move northward with and Habitat their mothers. Females are The Mexican Long-nosed Bat has been believed to give birth to one or found in southwestern New Mexico, perhaps two young each year. the Big Bend area of Texas, the Although not documented for the Chinati Mountains of Presidio Mexican Long-nosed Bat, mothers of County, Texas and southward to other bat species recognize their own central Mexico. The species was first young by a combination of smell and discovered in the United States in distress cries made by their offspring. 1937 in a cave in the Chisos Moun- Young bats nurse for about one and minerals and is rich in protein. tains of Big Bend National Park. In month and are generally capable of Agave nectar is at least 17-22% sugar Texas and northern Mexico, at the flying by five weeks of age. Few and the pollen is about 50% protein. northern part of their range, these adult males have been recorded in The Mexican Long-nosed Bat and a bats are found in desert scrub vegeta- Texas and northern Mexico suggest- similar species, the Lesser Long-nosed tion dotted with century plants ing that males and females may segre- Bat (Leptonycteris curasoae), are the (agaves), mesquite, creosotebush, and gate geographically, with males rarely main pollinators of several agave a variety of cacti. In Big Bend appearing in the most northerly part species, including Agave angustifolia National Park, long-nosed bats are of the species’ range. From late Octo- (mezcal plant), A. salmiana (pulque associated with five distinct vegeta- ber to December, adult males and plant), and A. tequilana (tequila tion types at various elevations. females congregate in a cave near plant). The Mexican Long-nosed Bat These include the arroyo-mesquite- Cuernavaca, Morelos (central Mexico) acacia (1800-4000 ft.), lechuguilla- to copulate. Mexican Long-nosed Bat 1 prefers higher and cooler places in ulation of 10,000 Mexican Long-nosed Agave plants are harvested just parts of New Mexico, Texas, and Bats in 1938, had no sign of the before they bloom by removing the Mexico; whereas, the Lesser Long- species in 1983. Another mine in “cabeza” or carbohydrate-rich meris- nosed Bat generally inhabits lower Nuevo Leon had a ceiling covered tem (actively growing tissue) and leaf elevations in New Mexico, Arizona, with newborn bats in 1967, but only base at the center of the plants. When Mexico, and parts of Central and one bat was found in 1983. Consid- agaves are harvested, not only are South America. In some areas, the ering this information, the U.S. Fish they removed from the bats’ present two species are found together. and Wildlife Service added this bat, food supply, but future generations of Mexican Long-nosed Bats, with along with its close relative the Lesser agave plants also are eliminated. This their long muzzles and tongues, are Long-nosed Bat, to the list of endan- is especially critical, since a single well adapted to feeding on nectar and gered species in 1988. plant grows for 10 to 20 years and protein-rich pollen. Adapted for spe- The reasons for these population cialized feeding, they migrate to follow declines are not entirely understood, the bloom periods of a number of but are thought to be associated with agave and cacti species. In Big Bend loss of roosting sites and food National Park, agaves begin blooming sources. Food resources are lost by in mid-May at lower elevations and both land use change and wild agave early June at higher altitudes. The bats harvesting. Colonial roosting species, arrive in Texas about one month after such as many bats, are particularly flowering of agaves has begun. After vulnerable to disturbance and spending most of the summer in Big destruction of roosting habitat, since Bend, they leave the United States in this can result in the displacement of late summer or early fall as the agaves large numbers of animals at one time. go out of bloom. They follow later- Just a few roost sites are known for blooming agaves southward through this species that provide the proper Mexico. By November, they are several roosting environment including tem- hundred miles into Mexico, where they perature and humidity. While the feed on the blooms of subtropical trees roost site in the United States is pro- and cacti. They spend the winter in tected within Big Bend National Park, the lush Central Valley of Mexico, feed- the bats spend most of the year in ing on a large variety of flowers. In Mexico, where human disturbance the spring, they work their way back and destruction of roost sites is a north, following the bloom times of common occurrence. In Mexico, a various cacti and agaves. country with 137 species of bats, there are few laws protecting bats or Threats and Reasons their roosts. However, in 1994 the for Decline Mexican government listed three bat Although the Mexican Long-nosed Bat species (Choeronycteris mexicana, occurs throughout much of Mexico, Leptonycteris nivalis, and L. cura- there are indications of substantial soae) as threatened. population decline both in the United In tropical Mexico where vampire bats are a problem, ranchers States and Mexico. Compared to the Agave plants in bloom Lesser Long-nosed Bat, the Mexican and the public often consider all bats © Merlin D. Tuttle Long-nosed Bat was considered a rare to be vampire bats, which sometimes flowers only once then dies. Other species in mammal collections based spread diseases to livestock and factors, such as wild fires and clearing on the taxonomic review of Arita and people. Thus, destructive control of rangeland areas in northern Mexico Humphrey in 1988. The population at practices targeted for vampire bats may also reduce the food supply and one of only two known roosting sites often kill beneficial species. thus affect bat populations, although in the United States, a cave in Big Loss of food sources may be the degree to which these activities Bend National Park, fluctuates widely another threat contributing to the affect the bats is unknown. in numbers from one year to the next. decline of the Mexican Long-nosed Yearly estimates of population size Bat. Agaves are an important food range from zero to as many as 10,650 source, and are the primary blooming Recovery Efforts individuals. Reasons for these fluctua- plants available in northern Mexico Research is currently underway to tions are unknown but survey meth- during their northern migration in better understand the life history, ods varied throughout the years the spring, and again in August when habitat requirements, limiting factors, making defining trends uncertain. they move south. Harvest of agaves and management practices affecting Population declines in Mexico for the production of liquor, and in the Mexican Long-nosed Bat and the have also been documented. An northeastern Mexico, for preparation plants that provide their food. abandoned mine in Nuevo Leon, of “quiote,” a traditional sweet, may Efforts by scientists to locate roosting Mexico, which had an estimated pop- be contributing to the decline of this sites are currently being initiated in important food source. However, the Mexico. Periodic surveys are con- extents to which these harvest activi- ducted to assess population status at 2 Mexican Long-nosed Bat ties affect the bats in unknown. one of the two only known roosting site in the United States, located in leave the area immediately. Viewing For More Information Big Bend National Park. of bats is best done by waiting out- Contact Recovery efforts also include side the roost site until the bats Texas Parks and Wildlife Department planting agaves along roadways in emerge to feed in the evening. Also, Texas Bat Biologist Northern Mexico. More than 50,000 because the Mexican Long-nosed Bat 3000 S. IH 35, Suite 100 agaves had already been planted in depends on agave plants for its food, Austin, Texas 78704 Tamaulipas, in the last three years. please do not cut or otherwise dis- (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 Agaves are very important plants to turb these plants. If you live in an www.tpwd.state.tx.us control soil erosion, and help to speed area where these bats may occur you or up the natural succession process in can plant cultivated agaves and leave Bat Conservation International degraded areas. Finally, recovery them to bloom. P.O. Box 162603 You can be involved in the con- Austin, Texas 78716 servation of Texas’ nongame wildlife (512) 327-9721 resources by supporting the Special www.batcon.org Nongame and Endangered Species or Conservation Fund. Special nongame U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service stamps are available at Texas Parks Ecological Services Field Office and Wildlife Department (TPWD) field 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 offices, most state parks, and the Austin, Texas 78758 License Branch of TPWD headquarters (512) 490-0057 in Austin. Part of the proceeds from www.fws.gov these sales is used to protect habitat and provide information concerning endangered species. You can become involved in the Texas Master Naturalist Program to learn more about bats and other wildlife and then volunteer for bat conservation. You can help by supporting bat conservation efforts in the United States and in Mexico. Conservation organizations in Texas also welcome your participation and support. Mexican Long-nosed Bat in f light © Merlin D. Tuttle

efforts include providing information to the general public and school children concerning the great diversity References and importance of bats. Arita, H.T. 1991. “Spatial segregation in long-nosed bats, Leptonycteris nivalis and Leptonycteris curasoae, in Mexico.” Journal of Mammalogy 72(4):706-714. Arita, H.T. and D.E. Wilson. 1987. “Long-losed bats and agaves: The tequila Where To Learn More connection.” Bats Vol.5, No. 4. Bat Conservation International. pp. 3-5. About the Mexican Easterla, D.A. 1972. “Status of Leptonycteris nivalis in Big Bend National Park, Texas.” Southwestern Naturalist 17:287-292. Long-nosed Bat Howell, D.J. 1976. “Plant-loving bats, bat-loving plants.” Natural History 85(2):52-59. Visit Big Bend National Park to learn Moreno-V., A. 2000. “Ecological studies of the Mexican long-nosed bat (Leptonyc- more about the Mexican Long-nosed teris nivalis).” PhD Thesis, Texas A&M Univesity, 96 pp. Bat and its habitat. Read about Texas Nabhan, G.P. 1985. Gathering the desert. The University of Arizona Press. bats in The Bats of Texas by David Tucson, AZ. 209 pp. Schmidly and Texas Bats by Merlin Neighbor, D.S. 1992. “Status report and protocol for the Mexican long-nosed bat (Lep- Tuttle. Bat Conservation Interna- tonycteris nivalis).” National Park Service, Big Bend National Park, TX. 10 pp. Schmidly, David J. 1991. The bats of Texas. Texas A&M University Press. tional, a nonprofit organization College Station, TX. 188 pp. located in Austin, can provide addi- Tuttle, Merlin D. 2003. Texas bats. University of Texas Press. Austin, TX. 71 pp. tional information on Texas bats. Wilson, D.E. 1985. “Status report: Leptonycteris nivalis (Saussure) Mexican long- nosed bat.” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Denver Wildlife Research Center, How You Can Help National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. 33 pp. If you enter a cave or other place where bats are present, be aware that these mammals are very sensitive to human disturbances. Maternity Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. colonies and hibernating bats should be avoided, since even slight disturbances can be harmful. It is best to Mexican Long-nosed Bat 3 Black-footed Ferret Scientific Name: Mustela nigripes Federal Status: Endangered, 3/11/67 • State Status: Endangered

Description Their muzzle is more pointed than Dogs in Arizona, New Mexico, and Black-footed Ferrets are buckskin-tan that of the Black-footed ferret. southern Utah and Colorado. The in color with distinctive body mark- other two species of prairie dogs, ings, including a black face-mask, Habitat Utah and Mexican, may have also dark “saddle” on the back, black feet The Black-footed Ferret once inhabited supported ferrets. and legs, and a black-tipped tail. The extensive areas of the Great Plains In Texas, the Black-tailed breast and stomach are light tan to ranging from the foothills of the Rocky Prairie Dog historically occurred cream in color. Adult ferrets range in Mountains east to Nebraska and from throughout the High Plains, Rolling total length from 18 to 24 inches. southern Canada south to Texas. Fer- Plains, and Trans-Pecos regions, occu- Their tail is approximately one-quar- rets rely on prairie dogs for food and pying 78 counties. Today, the largest ter the length of the body. The ferret shelter. Because of this, active prairie active prairie dog colonies in Texas is a member of the weasel family. dog colonies provide potential habitat occur in the Panhandle, although for Black-footed Ferrets. It is estimated some areas in the Trans-Pecos also that over 100 million acres of western support large prairie dog towns. rangelands were occupied by prairie Colonies also exist on public lands dogs in the early 1900’s. Early such as the Rita Blanca National accounts of huge prairie dog towns are Grasslands in Dallam county, common. For example, Bailey in 1905 Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge recorded an almost continuous prairie (NWR) in Bailey county, and Buffalo dog town extending in a strip about Lake NWR in Randall County. Based 100 miles wide and 250 miles long on on a survey conducted by TPWD it is the high plains of Texas. Until about estimated that about 170,000 acres of 60 years ago, prairie dog colonies pro- prairie dog towns still exist in Texas. vided a nearly continuous patchwork of ferret habitat, interrupted only by areas of undisturbed rangeland, mountain ranges, and large rivers. Historically, the range of the Black-footed Ferret coincided closely with the range of prairie dogs throughout the Great Plains, semi-arid grass- Black-footed Ferret © USFWS Dean Biggins lands, and mountain basins of North America. Black-footed Ferrets can be con- Based on written accounts fused with the smaller Long-tailed and specimens collected since Weasel. Adult Long-tailed Weasels are its identification, the historical about 12 to 20 inches in total length, range of the ferret in the U.S. and have a proportionately longer included Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Historic range tail, nearly half or more of body Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, in Texas length. The southwestern color phase North Dakota, Oklahoma, South of the Long-tailed Weasel is brown in Dakota, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming, in color with yellowish-white underparts addition to the Canadian Province of and white patches on the forehead Saskatchewan and the Mexican State There have been no confirmed and below the ears. These weasels of Chihuahua. Black-footed Ferrets reports of Black-footed Ferrets in have a black tip on the tail but do may have occupied nearly all ade- Texas since 1963. It is believed that not have black feet. Southwestern quate prairie dog habitat available to existing prairie dog colonies are Long-tailed Weasels are sometimes them regardless of prairie dog either too small or isolated from one referred to as “bridled weasels.” species, vegetation, soils, or climate. another to support Black-footed Black-footed Ferrets can also be Three of the five species of Ferrets. However, the larger prairie confused with domestic European Fer- prairie dogs are known to have sup- dog colonies in the northern Panhan- rets, which are sold as pets. These ported Black-footed Ferrets: Black- dle may still provide habitat for these animals have long, coarse guard hairs tailed Prairie Dogs on the shortgrass endangered animals. and a completely dark tail. They may prairies of the Great Plains and have a faint face mask. European Southwest; White-tailed Prairie Dogs Ferrets are yellow to black in body in Wyoming, and northern Utah and color and often have black legs. Colorado; and Gunnison’s Prairie Black-footed Ferret 1 Life History Threats and Reasons associated with prairie dog towns. Black-footed Ferrets hunt primarily at for Decline Vacant prairie dog burrows provide homes for Burrowing Owls, Cottontail night, so they are rarely seen. They In Texas, reasons for decline in the Rabbits, and various small rodents live in burrows made by prairie dogs. prairie dog population, and thus the and reptiles. Birds of prey, such as Prairie dogs comprise about 90 per- Black-footed Ferret, include conver- the Ferruginous Hawk, are attracted cent of the ferret’s diet, although they sion of rangeland to cropland, elimi- by the abundance of small mammals. also eat rabbits, mice, voles, ground nation of prairie dog towns, urban Mountain Plovers feed on insects and squirrels, pocket gophers, birds, and development, and introduced diseases nest in areas of short grass and bare insects. such as sylvatic plague. Sylvatic ground. Songbirds frequently appear Little is known regarding the life plague, a disease affecting prairie in greater numbers on prairie dog history of Black-footed Ferrets in the dogs and other rodents, is a fairly towns than in surrounding prairie, wild. Only two populations have common occurrence in the Panhan- since seeds and insects are often been studied; one in South Dakota dle, and is a significant mortality more abundant and visible. These and one in Wyoming. From the study factor in some years. For example, unique patches of habitat provide for in South Dakota, we know that a fer- the prairie dog population on the a wide variety of plants and animals, ret family consisting of one female Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge adding valuable biological diversity to and young require a minimum of was nearly eliminated by plague dur- the landscape. about 100 acres of prairie dog colony. ing a two week period in 1974. The area required to support a sus- Although there have been no docu- tainable breeding population of 40 to mented cases of sylvatic plague affect- 60 adult ferrets is estimated to be ing Black-footed Ferrets directly, the about 6000 acres of prairie dog indirect effects of a reduced food towns, either contiguous or located supply would certainly have serious within about 4 miles of one another. consequences. Ferrets do not hibernate and are It is estimated that slightly more usually solitary during the late fall than one percent of historical prairie and winter. Ferrets have not been dog habitat remains in Texas. The observed mating in the wild, but cap- presence of large, healthy prairie dog tive ferrets have been observed breed- towns may not always seem compati- ing in March and early April. Captive ble with agricultural grazing interests. ferrets have a gestation period of 41 Prairie dogs feed on many of the to 45 days, and litter sizes range from same grasses and forbs that livestock 3 to 5. The female alone cares for the do. They therefore reduce the young, even though the male may stay amount of forage available for live- in the same prairie dog town. By stock, although studies show this early July, the young ferrets make reduction may be partially offset by their first appearance above ground, improved nutritional content of forage. The competition between usually in the early morning. They Shortgrass prairie begin to occupy separate burrows by prairie dogs and livestock is a major © TPWD late August or early September. By factor in the human-caused decline of September, young ferrets are nearly prairie dogs and Black-footed Ferrets. full grown and begin to disperse from Also, many prairie dog towns adja- Recovery Efforts their birthplace to unoccupied territo- cent to cropland have been elimi- State and federal agencies, in cooper- ries within the colony or to nearby nated to prevent crop depredation, ation with private landowners and prairie dog towns. It is during this which can be significant, particularly conservation groups, are beginning to dispersal period that the young are on winter wheat. reintroduce Black-footed Ferrets to exposed to the greatest danger. Isolation of habitat may have the wild. Reintroduction efforts have Many things can kill Black-footed also contributed to the decline of begun in Wyoming, and other states Ferrets. Predators such as owls, prairie dogs and Black-footed Ferrets plan to follow. The first releases are eagles, hawks, coyotes, badgers, foxes, in Texas. The inability of young planned on public land and will be and bobcats are the main cause of ferrets to find suitable habitat after experimental, as researchers learn the death for wild ferrets. Some ferrets leaving their birthplace is a major best ways to return Black-footed Fer- are killed crossing roads, particularly cause of mortality. Habitat fragmen- rets to their native habitat. Research during the fall dispersal period. tation affects the exchange of individ- with captive ferrets is attempting to Canine distemper, to which ferrets uals and thus genetic material, which answer the many questions regarding have no natural immunity, has caused is necessary to maintain viable breed- reproduction and behavior. Black- serious losses, especially in Wyoming. ing populations. footed Ferrets are also being main- Ferrets are probably also susceptible Maintaining prairie dog colonies tained and bred at several zoos and to rabies, tularemia, leptospirosis, is vital to recovery of the Black- other facilities around the country. mange, and various other infections. footed Ferret in Texas. Prairie dog In Texas, efforts are being made to towns are the basis for a unique inform landowners and the general ecosystem which supports many public regarding the importance of other species. One study identified conserving and managing prairie dog 2 Black-footed Ferret more than 140 species of wildlife colonies. How You Can Help For More Information You can be involved with the Contact conservation of Texas’ wildlife Texas Parks and Wildlife Department resources by supporting the Special Wildlife Diversity Branch Nongame and Endangered Species 4200 Smith School Road Conservation Fund. Special nongame Austin, Texas 78744 stamps and decals are available at (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 Texas Parks and Wildlife Department or (TPWD) field offices, most state U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service parks, and the License Branch of Ecological Services Field Office TPWD headquarters in Austin. If you 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 see a Black-footed Ferret in the wild, Austin, Texas 78758 report it to the Texas Parks and (512) 490-0057 Wildlife Department or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Management guidelines are available If you own or manage land with from the Texas Parks and Wildlife prairie dog colonies, you can contact Department or U.S. Fish and Wildlife the Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- Service for landowners and managers ment or USDA Natural Resources Con- wishing to conserve and manage servation Service for range and prairie dog communities. wildlife management recommendations that will benefit your ranching operation and maintain the diversity of native wildlife found on your property.

Prairie dogs © TPWD Glen Mills

References Bonham, C.D. and A. Lerwick. 1976. Vegetation changes induced by prairie dogs on shortgrass range. J. Range Manage. 29(3):221-225. Davis, W.B. 1974. Mammals of Texas. Texas Parks and Wildlife Bull. 41. p. 101-102. Forrest, S.C., T.W. Clark, L. Richardson, and T.M. Campbell III. 1985. Black-footed ferret habitat: some management and reintroduction considerations. Wyoming BLM Wildlife Technical Bull. No. 2. 48pp. Foster, N.S. and S.E. Hygnstrom. 1990. Prairie dogs and their ecosystem. Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln, Dept. of Forestry, Fisheries, and Wildlife. O’Meilia, M.E., F.L. Knopf, and J.C. Lewis. 1982. Some consequences of competition between prairie dogs and beef cattle. J. Range Manage. 35(5):580-585. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. 1991. Black-footed ferret reintroduction evaluation status survey. Final Section 6 Report. Project No. E-1-3. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988. Black-footed ferret recovery plan. Denver, CO. 154 pp. Whicker, A.D. and J.K. Detling. Ecological consequences of prairie dog disturbances. BioScience 38(11):778-785.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Black-footed Ferret 3 Management Guidelines for the Black-footed Ferret

The following guidelines address managed, hunting is a preferred should maintain a minimum of management practices that can be method. Hunting, as opposed to poi- 100 to 150 acres per colony. used to conserve prairie dog colonies sons, gas, or rodenticides, kills only Colonies should be located within and the wildlife they support. They prairie dogs. It also ensures that not about 4 miles of one another. Coop- are intended primarily to serve as all of the prairie dogs in a colony are erative agreements between adjacent general guidance for landowners and killed, thus leaving a smaller, yet landowners can be used to manage managers of livestock and wildlife viable population. Hunting also has larger areas for prairie dogs and the operations in Texas. the advantage of providing recre- species they support. ational opportunity and income to the landowner. Compatibility With If chemical control methods must Domestic Livestock be used for prairie dog management, Prairie dogs are frequently described read and carefully follow all label as competitors with livestock for directions. Before chemical control range forage. The degree of competi- measures are undertaken, the colony tion, however, depends on both the should be surveyed for signs of Black- density of prairie dogs and the stock- footed Ferrets by a biologist familiar ing rate of livestock. As most ranch- with the species. As with any chemi- ers know, a necessary part of good cal control method used on rangeland, range management is adjusting stock- whether for mesquite or prairie dogs, ing rates and allocating forage for all the economics must be evaluated very grazing animals, both wild and carefully to be certain that the costs domestic. Controlling grazing pres- do not exceed the expected benefits. sure is basic to maintaining rangeland It is important to prevent in good condition with high produc- damage to non-target wildlife when- tivity and economic returns. By allo- ever chemicals are used. Effects on cating some forage to the prairie dogs Burrowing Owls, foxes, badgers, rab- and the community of plants and ani- bits, reptiles, and songbirds can be mals they support, ranchers can help minimized by discriminating between conserve an important part of the nat- Prairie dog burrows occupied by prairie dogs and ural heritage of Texas. © TPWD Glen Mills those occupied by other species. A Numerous studies have been burrow hole diameter of 3 to 5 inches done to understand the relationship Conservation and with single or multiple entrances, dirt between prairie dogs and other graz- Management of mounded up around the entrance, ers. Prairie dogs influence the plant Prairie Dog Colonies and scat which is 3/4 to 1 1/4 inches composition in areas where they Conservation of prairie dog colonies long, are signs that prairie dogs occur. Shortgrasses, such as buffalo- is vital, since the Black-footed Ferret occupy the burrow. Prairie dog scat is grass and other plants that can with- is totally dependent on prairie dogs light brown in color and composed of stand continuous grazing pressure, for survival. Prairie dogs play an plant material. Burrows which are 8 tend to increase while midgrasses important role in their ecosystem by to 12 inches in diameter, with dirt decrease. Research results indicate creating islands of unique habitat. loosely piled or spread away from the that although prairie dogs reduce the Their daily activities change the phys- entrance, are likely occupied by foxes total amount of forage available for ical characteristics of the community, or badgers. Owl burrows often have livestock, this reduction is partially which leads to increased plant and white droppings, owl pellets, feathers, compensated by the improved nutri- animal diversity. More than or shredded cow manure around the tional content of forage that is avail- 100 other wildlife species can live in opening. Toxic bait is especially haz- able. When evaluating livestock or use prairie dog towns. Prairie ardous to birds. If used, it should be performance, one should consider the dogs are a source of food for preda- scattered at the edge of mounds only. tradeoff between reduction in forage tors, and their burrows provide Bait should not be applied in a pile. quantity and increased forage quality. homes for a variety of animals, Land managers with questions con- Increases in forage quality have been including a number of increasingly cerning prairie dog population man- attributed to a higher percentage of rare species such as the Texas Horned agement are advised to contact the young, rapidly growing plants, and Lizard. They also provide recre- nearest office of the Texas Parks and higher plant diversity, allowing for ational opportunities for natural his- Wildlife Department or the Texas greater selection by livestock. tory study, photography, and hunters. Wildlife Damage Management Service. Where prairie dog population Landowners interested in Black-footed Ferret management is needed, directed, and conserving prairie dog ecosystems Management Guidelines 1 Efforts by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and various conservation groups are currently underway to develop incentives for management of endangered species on private lands in Texas. Hopefully, we can work together to conserve the prairie dog ecosystem and perhaps return the Black-footed Ferret to Texas. For More Information Technical assistance in range and wildlife management, including management for endangered species, is available to landowners and managers by contacting the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD), U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service), or Texas Agricultural Exten- sion Service. Further guidance and specific questions concerning Black- footed Ferret recovery efforts, should be directed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Black-footed Ferret 2 Management Guidelines Jaguarundi Scientific Name: Felis yagouaroundi cacomitli Federal Status: Endangered, 6/14/76 • State Status: Endangered

Description and information from Mexico indicate day. Jaguarundis forage mainly on The Jaguarundi is a small, slender- that the Jaguarundi may be more tol- the ground. Prey includes birds, bodied, unspotted cat, slightly larger erant of open areas, such as grass- rabbits, reptiles, and small rodents. than a domestic cat (7-22 pounds). lands and pastures, than the Ocelot. Historical accounts from Mexico sug- Jaguarundis are characterized by slen- Typical habitat consists of mixed gest that Jaguarundis are good swim- der, elongated bodies, small flattened thornshrub species such as spiny mers and enter the water freely. heads, and long tails (11-24 inches) hackberry, brasil, desert yaupon, Little is known regarding more reminiscent of an otter or wolfberry, lotebush, amargosa, white- Jaguarundi reproduction in Texas. In weasel than a cat. Other characteris- brush, catclaw, blackbrush, lantana, Mexico, Jaguarundis are said to be tics include short legs standing at a guayacan, cenizo, elbowbush, and solitary, except during the mating height of 11 inches at the shoulder; Texas persimmon. Interspersed trees season of November and December. and short, rounded, widely spaced such as mesquite, live oak, ebony, and Kittens have been reported in March ears. There are three color phases: hackberry may also occur. Riparian and also in August. It is not known black, reddish-brown and a brownish- habitats along rivers or creeks are whether females produce one or two gray. Because of similarity in size, the sometimes used by Jaguarundis. litters each season. The gestation Canopy cover and density of period is 60 to 75 days, and litters shrubs are important considerations contain two to four young. in identifying suitable habitat. Little information exists concerning optimal habitat for the Jaguarundi in Texas. Scientists speculate that these elusive cats are similar to the Ocelot in their requirement for dense brush cover. Tracts of at least 100 acres of isolated dense brush, or 75 acres of brush interconnected with other habitat tracts by brush corridors, are considered important habitat. Even brush tracts as small as 5 acres, when adjacent to larger areas of habitat, may be used by Jaguarundis. Roads, narrow water bodies, and rights-of-way are not considered barriers to movements. Brushy fence lines, water courses, and other brush strips connecting areas of habitat are very important in providing escape and protective cover. Threats and Reasons These strip corridors are considered for Decline important habitat. Historically, dense mixed brush Texas counties where Jaguarundis occurred along dry washes, arroyos, occurred during the past 30 years resacas, and the flood plains of the include Cameron and Willacy. Rio Grande. The extensive shrub Jaguarundi © USFWS Gary Halvorsen lands of the Lower Rio Grande Valley Life History have been converted to agriculture Jaguarundi can easily be confused Little information is available concern- and urban development over the past with a large black feral cat, especially ing the biology of the Jaguarundi in 60 years. Much of this land, particu- when seen in low light or dense cover. Texas. Most of what is known comes larly the more fertile soils, has been from anecdotal or historical writings cleared for production of vegetables, Habitat and information gained through the citrus, sugarcane, cotton, and other Little is known about the habitat of study of Ocelots in south Texas. crops. Unfortunately for the Jaguarundis in Texas. It is thought Jaguarundis hunt primarily dur- Jaguarundi and Ocelot (another that they occur in the dense thorny ing the day with peak activity occur- endangered South Texas cat), the best shrublands of the Rio Grande Valley. ring at midday. They are less soil types also grow the thickest Their habitat may be very similar to nocturnal than the Ocelot and have that of the Ocelot, although sightings been observed more often during the Jaguarundi 1 brush and thus produce the best Grove Sanctuary near Brownsville For More Information habitat. Less than 5% of the original (956) 541-8034. Contact vegetation remains in the Rio Grande Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Valley. How You Can Help Wildlife Diversity Branch The Jaguarundi is one of the You can be involved with the conser- 4200 Smith School Road rarest cats in Texas, with only the vation of Texas’ nongame wildlife Austin, Texas 78744 Jaguar, which has not been reported resources by supporting the Special (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 in recent years, being rarer. Informa- Nongame and Endangered Species or tion about this species is urgently Conservation Fund. Special nongame U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service needed. Unless vigorous conserva- stamps and decals are available at Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife tion measures are taken soon, this Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Refuge elusive cat may join the list of species (TPWD) field offices, most state P.O. Box 450 extirpated from the United States. parks, and the License Branch of Rio Hondo, Texas 78583 TPWD headquarters in Austin. (956) 748-3607 Recovery Efforts The Feline Research Program at the or Very little is known concerning Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Jaguarundi biology in south Texas. Institute (Texas A&M University- Ecological Services – LRGV Office Research regarding capture tech- Kingsville) also accepts contributions Route 2, Box 202-A niques, reproduction, rearing of to its Cat Conservation Fund. These Alamo, Texas 78516 young, dispersal, home range, and funds are dedicated to the research (956) 784-7560 movements is urgently needed. and recovery of free-ranging wild cats Recently initiated Jaguarundi research of Texas. For more information, con- Management guidelines are available in northeast Mexico, where they are tact the Feline Research Program at from the Texas Parks and Wildlife more common, will enable biologists (361) 593-3922. The public is asked Department or U.S. Fish and Wildlife to better understand the requirements to report sightings of Jaguarundis to Service for landowners and managers for a viable population. This informa- the Feline Research Program, Texas wishing to conserve and improve tion can then be used to assist conser- Parks and Wildlife Department, or habitat for the Jaguarundi. vation efforts for the Jaguarundi in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Be Texas. Efforts to inform landowners sure to note size, color, habitat, and the public about the habitat behavior, location, date, and time of needs, land management options, and day seen. biology of the Jaguarundi are also critical to recovery. Conservation of remaining habitat, and maintenance or creation of brush corridors connecting these habitats, is necessary for survival of the Jaguarundi population in Texas. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, The Nature Conservancy, and many local landowners have been working to protect, acquire and restore Jaguarundi habitat in the Rio Grande Valley. Restoration generally involves Rio Grande resaca © TPWD revegetating previously cleared areas with native trees and shrubs. References Where To Learn More Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1964. A field guide to the mammals. About Jaguarundis Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Mass. 284pp. The best places to visit to learn more Davis, W.B. and D.J. Schmidly. 1994. The mammals of Texas. Texas Parks and about the Jaguarundi are the Laguna Wildlife Press. Austin, Texas. 338pp. Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge near Tewes, M.E. and D.J. Schmidly. 1987. “The neotropical felids: jaguar, ocelot, Rio Hondo (956) 748-3607, Santa Ana margay, and jaguarundi” in M. Novak, J. Baker, M.E. Obbard and B. Malloch (eds.) Wild Furbearer Management and Conservation in North America. Min- National Wildlife Refuge near Alamo istry of Natural Resources, Ontario. 703-705. (956) 787-3079, Bentsen-Rio Grande U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990. Listed cats of Texas and Arizona recovery Valley State Park near Mission (956) plan (with emphasis on the ocelot). Endangered Species Office, Albuquerque, 585-1107, Las Palomas Wildlife Man- N.M. agement Area near Edinburg (956) Walker, E.P., F. Warnick, K.I. Lange, H.E. Uible, and P.F. Wright. 1975. Mammals of 447-2704, and Audubon’s Sabal Palm the world. Vol. 2. John Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore. 1500pp.

2 Jaguarundi Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Ocelot Scientific Name: Leopardus pardalis Federal Status: Endangered, 3/30/72• State Status: Endangered

Description brush, catclaw, blackbrush, lantana, to two square miles for females and The Ocelot is a beautiful medium- guayacan, cenizo, elbowbush, and three to four square miles for males. sized spotted cat with body dimen- Texas persimmon. Interspersed trees Most mornings they bed down in a dif- sions similar to the bobcat (30-41 such as mesquite, live oak, ebony, and ferent spot within the territory. Male inches long and 15-30 lbs). Its body hackberry may also occur. Ocelots tend to travel more than coloration is variable; with the upper Canopy cover and density of females. Males generally cover an parts gray or buff with dark brown shrubs are important considerations extensive area in a short time, or black spots, small rings, blotches, in identifying suitable habitat. Opti- whereas females cover less area but and short bars. A key feature is the mal habitat has at least 95% canopy use the home range more intensively. parallel stripes running down the cover of shrubs, whereas marginal Female Ocelots occupy a den for nape of the neck. The under parts habitat has 75-95% canopy cover. their kittens in thick brush or dense are white spotted with black. The Shrub density below the six foot level bunchgrass areas surrounded by Ocelot’s long tail is ringed or marked is the most important component of brush. The den is often a slight with dark bars on the upper surface. Ocelot habitat. Shrub density should depression with the dead leaves and The backs of the rounded ears are be such that the depth of vision from mulch scraped away. The usual litter black with a white central spot. outside the brush line is restricted to size is one or two kittens. The about five feet. Because of the density of brush below the six foot level, human movement within the brush stand would often be restricted to crawling. Tracts of at least 100 acres of isolated dense brush, or 75 acres of brush interconnected with other habitat tracts by brush corridors, are considered very important. Even brush tracts as small as 5 acres, when adjacent to larger areas of habitat, may be used by Ocelots. Roads, narrow water bodies, and rights-of-way are not considered barriers to movement. Ocelot © USFWS Tom Smylie Brushy fence lines, water courses, and other brush strips connecting areas of habitat are very important. Historical records indicate that mother goes off to hunt at night, but the Ocelot once occurred throughout spends each day at the den site. The south Texas, the southern Edwards kittens begin to accompany their Plateau Region, and along the Coastal mother on hunts at about 3 months Plain. Over the years, the Ocelot pop- of age. They stay with her until they ulation declined primarily due to loss are about a year old. Studies have of habitat and predator control activi- shown that kittens are born from late ties. Today, Texas counties that con- spring through December. Ocelot kittens tain areas identified as occupied © USFWS Linda Laack habitat are: Cameron, Duval, Hidalgo, Threats and Reasons Jim Wells, Kenedy, Kleberg, Live Oak, for Decline Habitat McMullen, Nueces, San Patricio, Starr, Historically, the South Texas Plains In Texas, Ocelots occur in the dense Willacy, and Zapata. supported grassland or savanna-type thorny shrub lands of the Lower Rio climax vegetation with dense mixed Grande Valley and Rio Grande Plains. Life History brush along dry washes and flood Deep, fertile clay or loamy soils are Ocelots normally begin their activities plains of the Rio Grande. The exten- generally needed to produce suitable at dusk, when they set out on nightly sive shrub lands of the Lower Rio habitat. Typical habitat consists of hunts for rabbits, small rodents, and Grande Valley have been converted to mixed brush species such as spiny birds. They move around during the agriculture and urban development hackberry, brasil, desert yaupon, night, usually within a well-established wolfberry, lotebush, amargosa, white- home range (area of activity) of one Ocelot 1 over the past 60 years. Much of this habitat in the Rio Grande Valley. land, particularly the more fertile Restoration generally involves revege- soils, has been cleared for production tating previously cleared areas with of vegetables, citrus, sugarcane, cot- native trees and shrubs. ton, and other crops. Unfortunately The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for the Ocelot, the best soil types also and the Texas Department of Trans- grow the thickest brush and thus pro- portation are also working together to duce the best habitat. Less than 5% try and reduce Ocelot road mortality of the original vegetation remains in by installing Ocelot underpasses under the Rio Grande Valley. roads where Ocelots are known to fre- Only about 1% of the South quently cross. Texas area supports what is currently defined as optimal habitat. Most of Where To Learn More this habitat occurs in scattered About Ocelots patches probably too small to support The best places to visit to learn more Ocelots for extended periods. As a about the Ocelot are the Laguna Atas- Sub-tropical forest habitat result, young cats dispersing from cosa National Wildlife Refuge near Rio © TPWD areas of suitable habitat have no Hondo (956) 748-3607, Santa Ana place to go and most are probably hit National Wildlife Refuge near Alamo by cars or die of disease or starva- (956) 787-3079, Bentsen-Rio Grande tion. Road mortality is a more recent Valley State Park near Mission (956) reason for decline. As Ocelot habitat 585-1107, Las Palomas Wildlife Man- in South Texas becomes fragmented agement Area near Edinburg (956) by bigger highways with faster traffic, 447-2704, and Audubon’s Sabal Palm Ocelots have become increasingly vul- Grove Sanctuary near Brownsville nerable to being struck by vehicles (956) 541-8034. while crossing roads. About half of the Ocelot mortality documented in How You Can Help the past 20 years has been from road You can be involved with the conser- mortality. vation of Texas’ nongame wildlife Habitat loss in the Lower Rio Grande Valley The Ocelot population in Texas © TPWD Bill Reaves resources by supporting the Special is very small, probably no more than Nongame and Endangered Species 80 to 120 individuals. Approximately Research Program, Texas Parks and Conservation Fund. Special nongame 30 to 35 live in the chaparral remain- Wildlife Department, or U.S. Fish and stamps and decals are available at ing at or near the Laguna Atascosa Wildlife Service. Be sure to note tail Texas Parks and Wildlife Department National Wildlife Refuge. Unless vig- length, size, color, habitat, behavior, (TPWD) field offices, most state orous conservation measures are location, date, and time of day seen. parks, and the License Branch of taken soon, this beautiful cat may TPWD headquarters in Austin. join the list of species extirpated For More Information The Feline Research Program at the from the United States. Contact Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Institute (Texas A&M University- Recovery Efforts Wildlife Diversity Branch Kingsville) also accepts contributions 4200 Smith School Road Much information has been obtained to its Cat Conservation Fund. These Austin, Texas 78744 recently concerning Ocelot biology in funds are dedicated to the research (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 south Texas. However, there is still and recovery of free-ranging wild cats or much to be learned regarding repro- of Texas. For more information, con- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service duction, rearing of young, dispersal, tact the Feline Research Program at Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife home range, and movements. Efforts (361) 593-3922. Refuge to inform landowners and the public The non-profit group, Friends of P.O. Box 450 about the habitat needs, land manage- Laguna Atascosa Refuge, has an Adopt- Rio Hondo, Texas 78583 ment options, and biology of the an-Ocelot program in which 100% of (956) 748-3607 Ocelot are critical to recovery. the donated funds go towards ocelot or Conservation of remaining habi- conservation. For a small donation, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service tat, and maintenance or creation of participants receive an adoption Ecological Services – LRGV Office brush corridors connecting these packet that includes life histories and Route 2, Box 202-A habitats, is necessary for survival of pictures of ocelots living at Laguna Alamo, Texas 78516 the Ocelot population in Texas. The Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge, (956) 784-7560 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Texas ocelot facts, and an adoption certifi- Parks and Wildlife Department, The cate. To learn more, contact Linda Management guidelines are available Nature Conservancy, and many local Laack at (956) 748-3607 or write from the Texas Parks and Wildlife landowners have been working to Adopt-an-Ocelot, P.O. Box 942, Rio Department or U.S. Fish and Wildlife protect, acquire and restore Ocelot Hondo, Texas 78583. Service for landowners and managers The public is asked to report wishing to conserve and improve 2 Ocelot sightings of Ocelots to the Feline habitat for the Ocelot. References Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1964. A field guide to the mammals. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Mass. 284pp. Davis, W.B. and D.J. Schmidly. 1994. The mammals of Texas. Texas Parks and Wildlife Press. Austin, Texas. 338pp. Tewes, M.E. and D.J. Schmidly. 1987. “The neotropical felids: jaguar, ocelot, margay, and jaguarundi” in M. Novak, J. Baker, M.E. Obbard and B. Malloch (eds.) Wild Furbearer Management and Conservation in North America. Ministry of Natural Resources, Ontario. 697-711. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990. Listed cats of Texas and Arizona recovery plan (with emphasis on the ocelot). Endangered Species Office, Albuquerque, N.M. Walker, E.P., F. Warnick, K.I. Lange, H.E. Uible, and P.F. Wright. 1975. Mammals of the world. Vol. 2. John Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore. 1500pp.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Ocelot 3 Management Guidelines for the Jaguarundi and Ocelot

The following guidelines address Habitat Preservation Habitat Restoration land management practices that can Conservation of dense stands of Where dense mixed brush has devel- be used to maintain, enhance, or mixed thornshrub, which serve as oped into a tree form, or shrub den- create habitat for the Jaguarundi and habitat for the Ocelot and Jaguarundi, sity below four feet is inadequate, Ocelot. They are intended primarily is vital to the survival of these cats in mechanical brush treatment methods to serve as general guidance for Texas. Habitat preservation around such as chaining or roller chopping landowners or managers of live- the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife may be used to restore or create suit- stock/wildlife operations in South Refuge, in the Lower Rio Grande Val- able habitat. These mechanical meth- Texas. The guidelines are based on ley, and in counties directly north of ods encourage basal sprouting by our current understanding of the this area is particularly important. breaking off limbs or trunks of estab- biology of these species. Mechanical or chemical brush lished plants, and can be used to control, including prescribed burning, increase cover and density of brush should not be conducted in habitat below the four foot level. areas or in brushy corridors connect- Adapted native shrubs, such as ing larger areas of habitat. In every- ebony, brasil, and granjeno, can be day agricultural operations (i.e., planted to increase habitat or to pro- livestock water facilities, fence con- vide interconnecting corridors to struction), it is important to minimize existing habitat. Methods are cur- disturbances that would destroy the rently being developed to allow for integrity of a habitat tract or corri- more successful establishment of dor. Tracts of at least 100 acres of these species. isolated brush (of the required den- Technical assistance in habitat Habitat restoration – planting native brush species © David Diamond sity and structure), or 75 acres of management is available to landown- brush interconnected with other habi- ers and managers by contacting the tat tracts by brush corridors, are con- Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, sidered important habitat. Useful U.S. Natural Resources Conservation habitat can be provided by smaller Service (formerly Soil Conservation tracts especially if these tracts are Service), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- adjacent to larger areas of habitat. vice, Texas Agricultural Extension Ser- On rangeland that does not pro- vice, or the Caesar Kleberg Wildlife vide the required brush cover and Research Institute. density (non-habitat areas), normal brush management practices, including prescribed burning, are not considered detrimental. Dense mixed brush habitat © David Diamond

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Jaguarundi and Ocelot Management Guidelines 1 Louisiana Black Bear Scientific Name: Ursus americanus luteolus Federal Status: Endangered, 2/17/92• State Status: Threatened

Description eth century. Their last strongholds in County Line when a black bear was The Louisiana Black Bear is one of eastern Texas were in the swamps struck by a tractor-trailer rig in 1999. 16 currently recognized subspecies of and thickets of the Big Thicket Louisiana Black Bear (Ursus American Black Bear. This subspecies Region of southeast Texas. According americanus luteolus), and American is a large, bulky mammal with long to Schmidly (1983) the majority of Black Bear (U. americanus) have black hair and a short, well-haired the final remaining bears were exter- been given the same protection tail. The facial profile is rather blunt, minated from this area during the within the historic range of the the eyes small, and the nose pad period between 1900, to 1940. Louisiana black bear in eastern Texas, broad with large nostrils. The muzzle Presently the Louisiana black and both subspecies will essentially is yellowish-brown with a white patch bear primarily occurs within the be treated as the U. luteolus sub- sometimes present on the lower boundaries of the state of Louisiana. species. All free-ranging black bear throat and chest. There are five toes The largest concentrations are in the subspecies within the historic range with short, curved claws on the front Atchafalaya and Tensas River Basins. of Louisiana Black Bear are federally and hind feet. Adult males may There are occasional movements, pri- listed as threatened due to similarity weigh 300 to 400 pounds or more, marily of solitary juvenile males, into in appearance, and given the same and adult females 120 to over 180 western Mississippi, and eastern legal protection. pounds. Body length of adults ranges Texas. A resident breeding popula- Key habitat requirements of black from 4 to 7 feet. Louisiana black tion does not currently exist in Mis- bears include food, water, cover, and bear skulls, when contrasted with sissippi or eastern Texas; however denning sites spatially arranged other black bear skulls, are relatively this could occur at some point in the across sufficiently large, relatively long, narrow, and flat, and have pro- future. Some professionals think that remote blocks of land. Louisiana portionately large molar teeth. this subspecies may also occur in por- black bears typically inhabit bottom- tions of southeast Arkansas. Ongoing land hardwood forests but also utilize genetics research will answer this other types of forested habitats. question sometime in the near future. Other documented habitat types used Black bear populations in the include brackish and freshwater neighboring states of Arkansas, marshes, salt domes, wooded spoil Louisiana and Oklahoma are stable or levees along canals and bayous, and increasing. Concurrently, the fre- agricultural fields. Although black quency of occurrence of black bears, bears originally occurred throughout primarily dispersing juvenile males, the lower southeastern coastal plain, within eastern Texas is on the bear densities were probably histori- increase. This has been documented cally greater within bottomland hard- in the Red River and Sulphur River wood and other forested communities Basins in northeast Texas, and at where hard (acorns and nuts) and other locations in eastern Texas. soft mast (berries and fleshy fruits) Louisiana Black Bear There have been some 24 confirmed production was higher than in the © TPWD black bear sightings within eastern fire-maintained, pine-dominated Texas since 1977. There have been upland communities. Distribution reliable black bear sightings in the Remoteness is an important and Habitat following counties: Anderson, spatial feature of black bear habitat. The Louisiana Black Bear was once a Angelina, Bowie, Cass, Fannin, In the southeast, remoteness is rela- common inhabitant of forested Franklin, Harrison, Henderson, Hop- tive to forest tract size and the pres- regions of eastern Texas, Louisiana kins, Jasper, Lamar, Marion, Morris, ence of roads. Forest tract size and and Mississippi. According to the U. Nacogdoches, Newton, Panola, Polk, the number of roads reflect the likeli- S. Fish and Wildlife Service Recovery San Jacinto, and Shelby Counties. hood of human disturbance that can Plan for the species (1995), the Approximately 67 percent of these limit habitat suitability and use. Louisiana Black Bear occurred in all sightings have occurred since 1990. Quality cover for bedding, Texas counties east of and including Additionally, approximately 70 per- denning and escape is very signifi- Cass, Marion, Harrison, Upshur, Rusk, cent of these sightings have occurred cant as forests become smaller and Cherokee, Anderson, Leon, Robertson, within the northeastern counties of more fragmented, and as human Burleson, Washington, Lavaca, eastern Texas. Several of these sight- encroachment and disturbance to Victoria, and Refugio. ings involved direct observations of a habitats increases. Black bears are According to survey work by black bears, and one involved a road- adaptable and opportunistic, and can Bailey in 1905, black bears were killed black bear along Interstate considered as being rare throughout Highway 30 east of Mount Vernon, Texas at the beginning of the twenti- Texas, on the Franklin-Hopkins Louisiana Black Bear 1 survive in proximity to humans if Threats and Reasons bottomland hardwood forests; (2) Pro- afforded areas of retreat that mini- for Decline moting reforestation programs mize chance of close contact or visual (including TPWD’s Landowner Incen- Decline of this species, throughout its encounters. tive Program, the U.S. Fish and range, was due to depletion of popu- The federal listing of the Wildlife Service’s Partners for Wildlife lations through over harvest by Louisiana Black Bear was made Program, East Texas Wetland Project, humans, and to loss and fragmenta- without formally designating critical and numerous USDA Farm Bill Pro- tion of suitable forested habitats. habitat. In addition, a special rule grams) that create or restore areas of Presently human population density was included allowing for normal new habitat for the species; (3) Moni- with its high potential for forest management activities to con- toring and documenting movements human/bear conflicts is probably the tinue within the bear’s range. of black bears into Texas from popu- most significant threat. Continued lations in Arkansas, Louisiana and alteration, conversion and fragmenta- Oklahoma; (4) Developing manage- Life History tion of forested habitats throughout ment strategies to protect and con- Although classified as carnivores, its range, including eastern Texas, are serve black bears that move into bears are not usually active preda- equal, if not greater threats to the Texas from bordering states (in addi- tors, and have an omnivorous diet long-term survival of the species. consisting primarily of vegetable mat- tion to current protection by federal ter. They are opportunistic feeders, Recovery Efforts and state law); (5) Continuing partici- eating almost anything that is readily pation in the interstate Black Bear The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service available. Hard and soft masts like Conservation Committee as a conser- (Service) formally listed the acorns and berries, carrion, and vation partner for the species Louisiana Black Bear as threatened on insect larvae found in dead and throughout its range; and (6) develop- February 7, 1992. The Service pub- decaying wood are typical food ing and implementing programs to lished the Louisiana Black Bear Recov- sources. However, agricultural crops educate the public about this species, ery Plan in 1995. This plan was like corn, wheat and sugarcane may its biology, and its management. designed to assure long-term conserva- also be utilized. Bears are consid- Department staff and a coalition tion of the black bear and its habitat ered to be very intelligent animals. of partners including state and fed- within Louisiana. This plan was basi- They are basically shy and secretive, eral agency biologists, forest products cally designed to maintain current and usually intentionally avoid con- industry biologists, non-governmental black bear populations within the tact with humans. Conversely, bears conservation professionals, citizen Atchafalaya and Tensas Basins and have a keen sense of smell, and will groups, landowners and a number of adjacent areas, and to create suitable locate and feed on human garbage. private sector stakeholders are cur- bottomland hardwood habitat corri- This tendency can sometimes create rently engaged in preparing a man- dors to link these two populations. problems with humans. Proper management plan for black bears within The goal is for these populations to agement of human garbage, making it eastern Texas. This is an on-going be connected, and self-sustaining. inaccessible to bears, can minimize process that has had, and will con- Field studies by the Texas Parks this problem, and is paramount to tinue to have input from a number of and Wildlife Department from 1994 successful conservation of this stakeholders that will ultimately pro- through 1996 (Garner and Willis, species. 1998) used a Habitat Suitability vide well-defined guidelines and Males typically have larger home Index to analyze 4 potential habitat strategies for long-term conservation ranges than females, and are usually areas in eastern Texas for suitability of this species within the region. solitary except during the breeding for black bears. Area A included a In addition to the efforts period. The breeding period occurs significant portion of the Sulphur previously discussed, the Black Bear during the summer. Females usually River and its tributary White Oak Conservation Committee (BBCC), begin breeding at 3 to 4 years of age. Creek; Area B included the Middle formed in 1990, is a regional non- Female black bears undergo induced Neches River Corridor; Area C governmental organization focused on ovulation and delayed implantation, included the Lower Neches River Cor- the restoration of the Louisiana black and have a gestation period lasting ridor; and Area D included the Big bear throughout its historic range in between 7 and 8 months. Usually Thicket National Preserve. Each of Louisiana, Mississippi, and eastern 1 to 3 black bear cubs are born every these areas provided suitable habitat Texas. The BBCC is a coalition of other year around mid-January, to and food sources, but areas A, C and very diverse parties, or stakeholders mid-February. An average litter size D had a high occurrence of potential with an interest in the Louisiana is typically 2 cubs, but 3- to 4-cub lit- human/bear conflict zones. Area B, black bear, and has brought together ters are not uncommon. Cubs remain the Middle Neches River Corridor, had people that previously had adversar- with their mother the first year, and a much lower potential for human/ ial roles, and created a cooperative then disperse to establish their own bear conflicts, and was thus the most working environment. The BBCC, territories usually during their second suitable potential habitat for black whose headquarters is in Baton summer. Cubs are vulnerable to a bears identified in the study. Rouge, Louisiana, has been actively number of threats, and juvenile mor- Additional ongoing measures by engaged in Louisiana black bear con- tality can be high. the Department, Service and their servation for the past thirteen years. cooperators to assure conservation of They have been actively working with this species in eastern Texas include: governmental agencies, forest product (1) Minimizing loss of suitable companies, non-governmental organi- 2 Louisiana Black Bear forested habitats, particularly mature zations and private landowners within occupied black bear habitats, bottomland hardwood forests, it is For More Information and habitats that could potentially important to minimize dumping of Contact become occupied. In addition to pro- human garbage and foods near rural Texas Parks and Wildlife Department viding direct management assistance, homes, and/or hunting camps. Bears Wildlife Diversity Program the BBCC spends significant energies are attracted to these areas, and can 4200 Smith School Road educating the public about the plight become acclimated to locating them Austin, Texas 78744 of this threatened species. BBCC is for easy sustenance. This creates a (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 currently engaged in the coalition to situation that will lead bears into sit- www.tpwd.state.tx.us prepare a management plan for black uations where they may actually be or bear in eastern Texas. In addition, killed out of fear by some homeown- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service the BBCC published a Black Bear ers. In addition to problems with Ecological Services Field Office Conservation Plan in 1997 to restore dumping, well-intentioned citizens, 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 this species throughout its entire his- actually interested in bears near their Austin, Texas 78758 toric range. homes, can create the same problem (512) 490-0057 by actively feeding bears. The thing www.usfws.gov that must be avoided is training the Where To See or bear to associate man with food. The Black Bear Conservation Committee Louisiana Black Bear natural fear that a bear has of man There are currently no well-defined P.O. Box 4125 must be maintained for the safety of populations of black bears within the Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70821 both the bear and man. boundaries of eastern Texas. Black (504) 338-1040 In addition, you can become a bears in eastern Texas have largely www.bbcc.org member of the Black Bear Conserva- been considered as nomadic wander- tion Committee. You can become ing males visiting or moving in from either a supportive, or active member, adjacent states. A person wanting to and become active in the conservation see Louisiana black bears in the wild, of this species throughout its range. a difficult task at best, would have greater chance of success by going to the Tensas River National Wildlife Refuge in Tallulah, Louisiana, or the White River National Wildlife Refuge in southeast Arkansas.

How You Can Help There are a number of things that you can do to help with conservation of the Louisiana Black Bear in eastern Texas. First, if you own bottom- References land property in eastern Texas, you Black Bear Conservation Committee. 1997. Black bear restoration plan. can conserve existing mature bottom- Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 133 pp. land hardwood forest, and restore Black Bear Conservation Committee. 1996. Black bear management hand- retired bottomland agricultural lands book for Louisiana, Mississippi, southern Arkansas, and east Texas. Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 26 pp. back to bottomland hardwood forests. Collins, H.H., Jr. 1981. Harper and Row’s complete field guide to north For managed bottomland hardwood american wildlife – eastern region. Harper and Row’s Publishers, New forests, creative management strate- York, New York. 714 pp. gies that maintain multiple age Davis, W.B. 1978. The mammals of Texas. Bulletin Number 41. Texas Parks classes of preferred hard and soft and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas. mast species through time will assure Garner, N.P. and S.E. Willis. 1998. Suitability of habitats in east Texas for long-term habitat needs for Louisiana black bears. Project No. 85. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, black bear. For adjacent slope forests, Austin, Texas. and upland forests, it is critical to Linam, L.A.J., G.L. Graham and D.D. Diamond. 1994. A plan for action to con- leave significant streamside manage- serve rare resources in Texas. Endangered Resources Branch, Texas Parks ment zones (SMZs). These SMZs, in and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas. Nemec, K. 1994. Louisiana black bear information handout. U.S. Fish and addition to providing food and cover Wildlife Service. Clear Lake Field Office, Houston, Texas. for bears, can be utilized to provide Schmidly, D.J. 1983. Texas mammals east of the Balcones Fault Zone. Texas corridors or linkages between areas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas. of suitable habitats. It is of critical U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Louisiana black bear recovery plan. importance in these bottomland hard- Jackson, Mississippi. 52 pp. wood forests, and within these SMZs to conserve mature hardwood trees with significant hollows that could be Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. utilized by black bears as den trees. In addition to creation of black bear habitats through management of Louisiana Black Bear 3 Golden-cheeked Warbler Scientific Name: Dendroica chrysoparia Federal Status: Endangered, 5/4/90 • State Status: Endangered

Description Habitat habitat, smaller patches may become The Golden-cheeked Warbler is a Typical nesting habitat is found in more important to warblers, particu- small, migratory songbird, 4.5 to tall, dense, mature stands of Ashe larly those located near areas of occu- 5 inches long, with a wingspan of juniper (blueberry cedar) mixed with pied habitat. about 8 inches. The male has a black trees such as Texas (Spanish) oak, In general, Golden-cheeked back, throat, and cap; and yellow Lacey oak, shin (scalybark) oak, live Warblers occur in areas with a moder- cheeks with a black stripe through the oak, post oak, Texas ash, cedar elm, ate to high density of older trees, and eye. Females are similar, but less col- hackberry, bigtooth maple, sycamore, dense foliage in the upper canopy. orful. The lower breast and belly of Arizona walnut, escarpment cherry, Higher warbler densities are associ- both sexes are white with black and pecan. This type of woodland ated with larger contiguous patches, streaks on the flanks. generally grows in relatively moist greater average tree height, greater areas such as steep-sided canyons, variability in tree heights, and greater slopes, and adjacent uplands. A mix density of deciduous trees. of juniper and deciduous trees on the slopes, along drainage bottoms, and in creeks and draws provide an ideal mix of vegetation for these birds. Warblers can also be found in drier, upland juniper-oak (i.e., Texas oak, live oak, post oak, blackjack oak) woodlands over flat topography. Not all mature juniper-mixed deciduous woodlands are used by Golden- cheeked Warblers. Only habitat actually used by endangered or threatened animals is subject to protection by the Endangered Species Act (ESA). (Only habitat modifications that would result in harm to the Golden-cheeked Warbler would be considered a violation by private actions under the ESA.) Warblers need a combination of Male Golden-cheeked Warbler © Greg W. Lasley mature Ashe juniper and hardwood trees in their nesting habitat. Mature juniper trees vary in age and growth Life History form, depending on site factors. Gen- The Golden-cheeked Warbler’s entire erally, trees required for nesting habi- nesting range is currently confined to tat are at least 15 feet tall with a habitat in 33 counties in central trunk diameter of about five inches at Texas. The birds are dependent on four feet above the ground. The Ashe juniper (blueberry juniper or cedar) for fine bark strips used in essential element is that juniper trees nest construction. Although nests have shredding bark, at least near the may be placed in various species of base of the tree. trees, such as juniper, Texas oak, live Although the composition of oak, and cedar elm, all nests contain woody vegetation varies within suit- strips of Ashe juniper bark woven able warbler habitat, Ashe juniper is together with spider webs. often, but not always, the dominant Warblers feed almost entirely on species. One study showed that caterpillars, spiders, beetles, and other juniper comprises anywhere from insects found in foliage. The birds 10-90% of total trees in occupied are thought to take advantage of habitat at 27 sites scattered through- insect blooms associated with differ- out the breeding range. ent plants as the growing season pro- Golden-cheeked Warblers have gresses. For example, broad-leaved been found in patches of habitat trees and shrubs, especially oaks, are smaller than 12 acres, although popu- Female Golden-cheeked Warbler particularly important in providing © Greg W. Lasley lations of warblers in larger tracts of habitat for insects during the first woodland habitats will persist longer than populations in small tracts of land. With increasingly fragmented Golden-cheeked Warbler 1 part of the nesting season. Later in fragmentation. Since warblers have the season, warblers are frequently limited and specific habitat require- seen foraging in Ashe juniper. Mesic ments, direct habitat loss has resulted (relatively moist) conditions, such as in population reduction, although those found on wooded slopes, precise comparisons of historic and canyon bottoms, and along creeks and current populations are not available. draws, are especially favorable for the Recently, serious losses in nesting production of insect foods. habitat have occurred in counties such Depending on the location and as Travis, Williamson, and Bexar, where quality of habitat, Golden-cheeked rapid urban development has spread Warblers forage and nest in areas of into oak-juniper woodlands associated habitat ranging in size from five to with canyonlands. Flood control and 20 acres per pair. Within suitable other impoundments have also reduced nesting habitat, male Golden-cheeked habitat for the warbler by inundating Warblers occupy an area, called a ter- the juniper-oak woodlands existing on ritory, which is vigorously defended canyon slopes and bottoms along against all other male Golden-cheeked springs, streams, and rivers. Construc- Warblers. Nesting territories range in tion of large reservoirs has also led to size from three to ten acres, depend- loss of warbler habitat due to developing on habitat quality. Banding stud- ment of lake-side communities. ies show that males often occupy the Historically, some warbler habitat same territory in subsequent breed- was lost as a result of clearing ing seasons. Male warblers can often juniper/oak woodlands for increased be located through their territorial livestock production or improved live- Female warbler with insect song, described as a rather hurried, stock handling. Stands of large juniper © TPWD Dean Keddy-Hector buzzy “tweah-tweah-twee-sy.” Single, trees were also cut for sale as fence sharp “chipping” calls can frequently posts and other timber products, espe- be heard as Golden-cheeks forage cially before 1940. Over-browsing by among the trees. white-tailed deer, goats, and exotic The female does most of the work ungulates is believed to contribute to of nest building and incubating the habitat degradation by reducing the eggs. The cup-like nest is often neatly survival of seedling oaks and other tucked into the fork of a vertical limb deciduous trees, which are a vital com- and camouflaged to blend with the ponent of warbler habitat. Also, many bark of the tree. Nests are constructed of the deeper and more fertile soils in at an average height of 15 feet above much of the Hill Country are found in ground, although they have been found small floodplains along creeks or inter- as low as five feet and as high as 32 mittent streams associated with hillside feet. The male stays close by, singing drainage. Many of these areas, some his distinctive song and defending his of them supporting a variety of decidu- territory during incubation. ous trees, were cleared and converted During April, a single clutch of to forage crops and pasture, often three to four eggs is laid. Warblers resulting in a decrease in the amount usually nest only once per season, of warbler habitat. unless a nest is lost to accident or pre- Habitat loss may be obscured by dation. The eggs hatch in 12 days, the increase in juniper on rangeland and both parents care for the young. throughout central Texas. The inva- After the young hatch, male singing sion of juniper on upland sites is declines, although they can still be often the result of fire suppression, heard into June. Nestlings fledge overgrazing, or a combination of Warbler at a nest © TPWD Dean Keddy-Hector eight or nine days after hatching, but both. These young juniper stands remain in the vicinity of the territory invading open rangelands generally for at least four weeks while being lack the kinds and numbers of hard- cared for by both parents. wood trees required by warblers. Golden-cheeked Warblers migrate Warblers are usually not found in to their wintering grounds in the monocultures (pure stands) where pine-oak woodlands of southern Mex- juniper comprises over 90% of the ico (Chiapas), Guatemala, Honduras, composition throughout a large area. and Nicaragua from late June to mid Poor grazing management August. They return to Texas in early practices and fire suppression result to mid-March. in a decline in the diversity and productivity of rangeland. The decline Threats and Reasons in range condition associated with for Decline improper management has led to The most serious problems facing the increases in juniper throughout the Golden-cheeked Warbler habitat Golden-cheeked Warbler today, as in Hill Country. © TPWD David Riskind the recent past, are habitat loss and Brood parasitism by Brown- headed Cowbirds may threaten successful reproduction of Golden-cheeked 2 Golden-cheeked Warbler Warblers, although the degree of impact of cowbird parasitism on war- trapping is being conducted by more bler productivity is not fully under- than 400 landowners in counties stood. Cowbirds lay their eggs in throughout the range of the warbler. other birds’ nests, leaving the host bird Recently, a consortium of to raise the cowbird young. Golden- researchers in governmental and non- cheeked Warblers apparently will governmental agencies has proposed either abandon parasitized nests, or a multinational effort to better under- raise young cowbirds in addition to or stand and coordinate approaches to in place of their own young. Warblers managing and recovering the Golden- that abandon parasitized nests may cheeked Warbler. Additional research renest later in the season. However, in Mexico and Central America is abandonment of first clutches, or rais- planned to gather information con- ing cowbird young in addition to their cerning life history and habitat own, decreases the total number and requirements on the wintering range. Closed canopy habitat survivability of Golden-cheeked war- Studies are needed to assess the © Carol Beardmore bler young produced. potential for income generating activ- Habitat fragmentation reduces ities, such as selective harvest of the quality and quantity of warbler juniper, which may be compatible habitat. In small woodland patches, with habitat protection. the increased proportion of habitat edge to interior area may increase Where To See the rates of brood parasitism and preda- Golden-cheeked tion, so that the surviving populations cannot maintain themselves. Warbler Also, increased distances between A number of state lands, including patches may make recolonization of Colorado Bend State Park (SP), vacated habitat more difficult. Dinosaur Valley SP, Garner SP, In Texas, Mexico and Central Guadalupe River SP, Honey Creek State America, habitat management and pro- Natural Area (SNA), Hill Country SNA, tection, responsible land stewardship, Kerr Wildlife Management Area, Long- Juniper with peeling bark and incentives for landowners to horn Cavern SP, Lost Maples SNA, © TPWD D. Keddy-Hector maintain and develop habitat, are keys Meridian SP, Pedernales Falls SP, and to the survival and recovery of the Possum Kingdom SP offer opportuni- Golden-cheeked Warbler. The diverse ties for people to see Golden-cheeked mix of hardwoods and junipers in Warblers and their habitat. Other canyons, and on slopes and adjacent locations include the Balcones Canyon- hilltops, provide ideal habitat for the lands National Wildlife Refuge, Travis warbler. Numerous beautiful and Audubon Sanctuary, Wild Basin interesting native plants and animals Preserve, and Emma Long City Park in are also found in these canyons. the Austin area; and Friedrich Wilder- ness Park near San Antonio. Once open to the public, Government Recovery Efforts Canyon State Natural Area, located Research is underway to better under- northwest of San Antonio, will offer stand the life history, habitat require- additional opportunities to see ments, limiting factors, and land Golden-cheeked Warblers. management practices affecting the Because the Golden-cheeked Golden-cheeked Warbler. Population Warbler is an endangered species, surveys during the breeding season birders and other observers should are being conducted in known and carefully follow certain viewing potential habitat areas. Efforts to pro- ethics. Recorded calls of the Golden- vide information and educational cheeked Warbler or Screech Owl opportunities to landowners and the should not be used to attract birds public regarding life history and habi- and observers should be careful not tat requirements of the warbler are to disturb or stress birds. also a vital part of the recovery effort. Major recovery efforts are being conducted on Department of Defense’s How You Can Help Fort Hood and Camp Bullis, Travis You can help by providing encourage- County and the City of Austin’s Bal- ment and support for private cones Canyonlands Preserve, the U.S. landowners who are managing Fish and Wildlife Services’ Balcones their land to protect natural diversity Canyonlands National Wildlife Refuge, and endangered species habitat. and many properties owned and/or Landowners are encouraged to learn Creek bottom habitat managed by the Nature Conservancy. the facts about the Golden-cheeked © TPWD Glen Mills Additionally, Environmental Defense Warbler and its habitat needs, and to through their Safe Harbor Agreement protect areas of habitat found on with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service their property. is assisting many landowners to manage and/or create habitat for the benefit of the warbler. Voluntary cowbird Golden-cheeked Warbler 3 The Golden-cheeked Warbler is a Austin. Conservation organizations beautiful songbird, and is much sought in Texas also welcome your participa- after among people who enjoy bird- tion and support. watching and nature study. Possibili- ties exist for landowners to take For More Information advantage of the growing demand for Contact natural history tours and vacations. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Landowners interested in more infor- Wildlife Diversity Branch mation concerning nature tourism 4200 Smith School Road opportunities should contact the Austin, Texas 78744 Nature Tourism Coordinator, Texas (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin or (512) 389-4396; Environmental U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Defense, Austin (512) 478-5161; or the Ecological Services Field Office Nature Conservancy, San Antonio 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 (210) 224-8774. Austin, Texas 78758 Finally, you can be involved in (512) 490-0057 the conservation of Texas’ nongame wildlife resources by supporting the Management guidelines are available Special Nongame and Endangered from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Species Conservation Fund. Special Department and U.S. Fish and nongame stamps and decals are avail- Wildlife Service for landowners and able at Texas Parks and Wildlife managers wishing to maintain and Department (TPWD) field offices, improve habitat for the Golden- most state parks, and the License cheeked Warbler. Branch of TPWD headquarters in

Golden-cheeked Warbler habitat © TPWD Bill Reaves

References Arnold, K.A., C.L. Coldren, and M.L. Fink. 1996. The interactions between avian predators and golden-cheeked warblers in Travis County, Texas. Research report 1983-2 for Texas Department of Transportation. Coldren, C.L. 1998. The effects of habitat fragmentation on the golden-cheeked warbler. Ph.D. Dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas. Engels, T.M. 1995. Conservation biology of the golden-cheeked warbler. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Texas, Austin, Texas Fink, M.L. 1996. Factors contributing to nest predation within habitat of the golden-cheeked warbler, Travis County, Texas. M.S. Thesis, Texas A&M Uni- versity, College Station, Texas. Huss, D.L. 1954. Factors inf luencing plant succession following fire in ashe juniper woodland types in Real County, Texas. MS Thesis, Texas A&M Univer- sity, College Station, Texas. 77pp. Ladd, C. and L. Gass. 1999. “Golden-cheeked warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia).” In The Birds of North America, No. 420. (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. Mass, D.S. and G.D. Schnell. 1998. “Effects of habitat fragmentation on demograph- ics of golden-cheeked warblers (Dendroica chrysoparia).” Masters Thesis, Part 1 of 2, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. Urban expansion Oberholser, H.C. 1974. The bird life of Texas. University of Texas Press, Austin, © USFWS Wyman Meinzer Texas. Pulich, W. 1976. The golden-cheeked warbler, a bioecological study. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas. 172pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1992. Golden-cheeked warbler recovery plan. USFWS, Endangered Species Office, Albuquerque, NM. 88pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1996. Golden-cheeked warbler population and habitat viability assessment report. Compiled and edited by Carol Beard- more, Jeff Hatfield, and Jim Lewis in conjunction with workshop participants. Report of an August 21-24, 1995 workshop arranged by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in partial fulfillment of U.S. National Biological Service Grant No. 80333-1423. Austin, Texas. xii+48pp.+Appendix. Wahl, R., D.D. Diamond, and D. Shaw. 1990. The golden-cheeked warbler: a status review. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services Office, Austin, Texas.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Warbler with identification band 4 Golden-cheeked Warbler © TPWD Management Guidelines for the Golden-cheeked Warbler in Rural Landscapes

The descriptions presented in this Habitat Descriptions The four habitat types discussed document are intended to help below can be associated with a vari- landowners determine if they have Habitat Types Where Warblers ety of tree canopy covers, ranging Golden-cheeked Warbler habitat on Are Expected To Occur (Protection from 35-100%. Also, all four habitat their property. Not all sites within efforts should be focused in these types can contain mature Ashe the habitat types described will be habitat types) juniper. Although not representative used by Golden-cheeked Warblers. Woodlands with mature Ashe of what is typically thought of as the It is only where individuals of this juniper (cedar) in a natural mix with “best” warbler habitat, these areas species occupy the identified habitat oaks, elms, and other hardwoods, in may support Golden-cheeked War- types during the breeding season that relatively moist (mesic) areas such as blers, especially fledglings (young special management considerations steep canyons and slopes, and adja- birds that have left the nest). These such as those provided in these guide- cent uplands are considered habitat habitats may be relatively more lines need to be considered. types that are highly likely to be important to warblers nesting in the Private landowners have a used by warblers. Mature Ashe western and northern portions of the tremendous opportunity to conserve junipers are trees that are at least species’ breeding range, or in areas and manage the fish and wildlife 15 feet in height with a trunk diame- where optimal habitat no longer resources of Texas. The objective of ter of about five inches at four feet exists. Although these habitat types these guidelines is to provide above the ground (dbh). These areas may occupy a large geographic area landowners with recommendations generally will have a nearly continu- within the Hill Country, little is about how typically-used agricultural ous canopy cover of trees with 50- known about warbler occupancy land management practices could be 100% canopy closure and an overall when the sites are not close to the conducted so that it would be woodland canopy height of 20 feet or optimal habitat types. Landowners unlikely that Golden-cheeked more. This habitat type is also are advised to treat the following Warblers would be adversely important for deer, turkey, other vegetation types as occupied habitat impacted. The guidelines will be songbirds, and a variety of other until technical assistance is obtained updated periodically to make them wildlife due to the diversity of vege- or a survey done to determine more practical and useful to rural tation and topography and, in many whether or not specific areas support landowners. The guidelines are cases, proximity to water. Woodlands warblers: based on the best available informa- of this description should be retained 1. Stands of mature Ashe juniper tion and current understanding about wherever they occur, especially along (trees with shredding bark), the biology of the warbler, but may creeks and draws, and on steep over 15 feet in height and dbh be refined as more complete biologi- slopes and generally rough terrain. of about 5 inches, with scat- cal data are collected. TPWD biolo- Landowners with woodlands that fit tered live oaks (at least 10% gists have prepared these guidelines the above description should assume total canopy cover), where the in consultation with USFWS biologists that warblers may be using the area total canopy cover of trees to assure landowners who carry out and are advised to follow the man- exceeds 35% and overall agricultural land management prac- agement guidelines presented here. woodland canopy height is at tices within the guidelines that they Additional information regarding least 20 feet. would know, with the greatest cer- habitat types and their potential to 2. Bottomlands along creeks and tainty possible, that they would not support Golden-cheeked Warblers is drainages which support at be in violation of the Endangered presented in Table 1. least a 35% canopy of decidu- Species Act. ous trees (average canopy This document also provides Habitat Types That May Be Used height of 20 feet), with information on land management By Warblers mature Ashe juniper (at least practices that are appropriate for It is relatively easy to recognize 15 feet and 5 inches dbh) protection and/or enhancement of the above described high quality growing either in the bottom habitat. The categories were chosen habitat types where Golden-cheeked or on nearby slopes. to represent commonly encountered Warblers are likely to occur. How- 3. Mixed stands of post oak vegetation types and to address ever, there are a number of other and/or blackjack oak (10-30% common questions regarding the vegetation types that may also be canopy cover), with scattered effect of management practices on used by warblers, depending on the mature Ashe juniper (15 feet Golden-cheeked Warblers. In addi- location, size of tract, land use, adja- in height and 5 inches dbh), tion, suggestions are offered that cent landscape features, and vegeta- where the total canopy cover promote conservation of soil, water, tion structure. These habitat types of trees exceeds 35% and plant, and wildlife resources. are most often used by warblers when they are located adjacent to or Golden-cheeked Warbler near areas of high quality habitat. Management Guidelines 1 overall woodland canopy foraging. This is especially true for that have been cleared within height is 20 feet. sparsely wooded grassland or low- the last 20 years are not con- 4. Mixed stands of shin (scaly- impact agriculture, but much less so sidered habitat. bark) oak (10-30% canopy for industrial, commercial, and 2. Pure stands of larger (greater cover) with scattered mature medium to high density residential than 15 feet in height and Ashe juniper (15 feet in height areas (Coldren 1998). Further, 5 inches dbh) Ashe juniper, and 5 inches dbh), where the although junipers occur abundantly with few or no oaks or other total canopy cover of trees over much of the Hill Country, a rela- hardwoods. exceeds 35% and overall wood- tively small portion of them are actu- 3. Open park-like woodlands or land canopy height is 20 feet. ally a part of usable warbler habitat. savannahs (even with old (See Table 1). 1. Stands of small Ashe juniper, junipers) where canopy cover averaging less than 15 feet in of trees is less than 35%. Areas Where Warblers Are Not height and 5 inches dbh, are These areas often have scat- Expected To Occur not habitat. This includes tered live oaks and other trees. The following types of areas are small juniper that invades 4. Small junipers and other trees not typical warbler habitat and are open rangelands, previously coming up along existing unlikely to be used by warblers cleared areas, or old fields. fence lines. unless adjacent to warbler habitat These areas are often dry and 5. Small junipers (less than areas. This is important because relatively flat, and lack oaks 15 feet tall) coming up under areas consisting of non-typical war- and other broad-leaved trees larger hardwoods where bler habitat that are adjacent to occu- and shrubs. Generally, areas junipers have been removed pied habitat may in fact be used for such as those described above in the past 20 years.

Table 1. Ecological site types and Range Sites with plant communities that may provide habitat for Golden-cheeked Warblers. On flat or rolling uplands, warblers are most likely to occupy larger patches of woodlands adjacent to canyon systems. Most of the flat and rolling uplands within these Range Sites have other plant communities, like open savannahs, that do not support warblers. Sites that are not used by warblers are described in the Habitat Descriptions section of this leaflet. Potential for Typical Plant Communities that may support Golden-cheeked Site Description Range Site Golden-cheeked Warblers Warblers Slopes and canyons, and Adobe Continuous canopy woodland* of Ashe Juniper, Texas Oak, Live Oak, Highly likely to associated creek bottoms Clay Loam 1 Lacey Oak, Chinkapin Oak, Cedar Elm, Escarpment Blackcherry, Texas be used Loamy Bottomland1 Ash, Bigtooth Maple, Redbud, Hackberry, Pecan, and other deciduous Steep Adobe trees Steep Rocky Flat or rolling uplands Adobe Continuous canopy woodland* of Live Oak, Blackjack Oak, Post Oak, Highly likely to with shallow, rocky soils Low Stony Hill Shin Oak, Lacey Oak, Texas Oak, Cedar Elm, Hackberry, Texas Madrone, be used of variable depth Shallow and Ashe Juniper Very Shallow Patchy woodlands + or interspersed mottes of mature Live Oak, Blackjack May be used Oak, Post Oak, and Ashe Juniper Flat or rolling uplands Deep Redland2 Continuous canopy woodland* of Live Oak, Blackjack Oak, Post Oak, Highly likely to with reddish soils Gravelly Redland2 Shin Oak, Lacey Oak, Texas Oak, Cedar Elm, Hackberry, Texas Madrone, be used Redland2 and Ashe Juniper

Patchy woodlands+ or interspersed mottes of mature Live Oak, Blackjack May be used Oak, Post Oak, and Ashe Juniper Flat or rolling uplands Low Stony Hill Continuous canopy woodland* of Ashe Juniper, Live Oak, and Shin Oak May be used with shallow but more continuous rocky soils Patchy woodlands+ or interspersed mottes of mature Live Oak, Ashe May be used over limestone 3 Juniper, Hackberry, Cedar Elm, and Mesquite * Defined as 50-100% canopy cover of trees at least 15 feet in height or greater. + Defined as 35-50% canopy cover of trees at least 15 feet in height or greater. 1 Stream bottoms in and near canyon systems. 2 Golden-cheeked Warblers may occur on Redland Range Sites adjacent to slope and canyon habitat. It is not known whether or not warblers occur on Redland Sites isolated from canyon systems. 3 Common woody plants include Hackberry, Texas Persimmon, Texas Ash, Live Oak, Texas Oak, Ashe Juniper, Evergreen Sumac, Cedar Elm, and Mesquite

Golden-cheeked Warbler 2 Management Guidelines Controlling juniper on these another. For example, when brush during the non-nesting period areas by prescribed burning, hand management practices are planned in (September-February). cutting, or well-planned mechanical non-habitat areas, one should consider When mature juniper trees are methods is often desirable to improve the proximity of the area to habitat abundant in the habitat, incidental range condition and plant diversity, used by warblers. These guidelines removal of juniper for use as fence and is compatible with protection encourage landowners to keep natural, posts on the ranch will have little and conservation of adjacent Golden- mature woodland sites wooded while impact on warbler habitat. The num- cheeked Warbler habitat. Maintaining allowing for the restoration of former ber of trees cut depends on the den- a minimum 300 feet wide buffer of savannah and grassland habitats that sity of Ashe juniper in the habitat. woodland vegetation adjacent to and have been invaded by small juniper (or For example, more trees could be around Golden-cheeked Warbler habi- other invasives). removed from an area with a high tat is beneficial to minimize preda- density of juniper compared with the tion. This recommendation stems for Agricultural Practices density of hardwoods. The idea studies which suggest that avian pre- in Golden-cheeked should always be to provide a mix of dation is greatest within 300 feet of Warbler Habitat juniper and hardwoods. When post- the edge of an occupied habitat patch ing is done, trees should be selected Disruption of the tree canopy should than farther inward (Arnold et al. to avoid disturbance to the tree be avoided when planning ranch 1996). However, when brush man- canopy. One way to do this is to improvements or maintenance work agement and maintenance activities select trees with a relatively small in Golden-cheeked Warbler habitat. It near habitat are necessary, they individual canopy and scatter your is recommended that new fence lines should not occur during the March- tree selections over the area. Posting and livestock watering facilities August nesting season to avoid should not occur in habitat during (pipelines, storage tanks, ponds, and adverse impacts such as disturbance the nesting period (March-August). troughs) be planned to avoid areas of of nesting and feeding birds. Since In habitat areas and on range- habitat whenever possible. However, brush management activities can lands immediately adjacent to habitat, narrow linear openings, such as affect habitat for the Black-capped it is important to manage grazing pres- those needed for traditional agricul- Vireo as well as the Golden-cheeked sure by deer and livestock to prevent tural management (fence lines, ranch Warbler, landowners are encouraged over browsing of broad-leaved shrubs roads, and livestock water pipelines) to learn about the habitat require- and trees, and to maintain plant diver- will not harm Golden-cheeked War- ments of both endangered songbirds sity and productivity. Controlling the blers if openings (spaces between (see TPWD leaflet on the Black- number of browsing animals (deer, trunks or stems at breast height) are capped Vireo). exotic animals, and livestock) is no greater than 16 feet in width. It is important in wildlife manage- important to maintain hardwood This width is large enough to allow ment in general, and in endangered seedlings and ensure eventual replace- for maintenance, while permitting species management in particular, to ment of deciduous trees in the canopy. the hardwood tree canopy to grow consider the “big picture” with regard Range condition improvement in and over the gap. Permanent electric to how land types relate to one adjacent to habitat areas, through fencing may enable landowners to proper grazing management and cross fence areas of rough terrain planned deferment, will likely prove with little or no disturbance to the beneficial to livestock and wildlife, tree canopy. Often, these power including the Golden-cheeked Warbler. fences are the most cost effective way Landowners with questions to cross fence areas of steep topogra- regarding how ranch improvements phy and shallow soils. Fencing and and management practices will affect other ranch improvement work in habitat are advised to seek technical Golden-cheeked Warbler habitat assistance from the Texas Parks and should only be done during the non- Wildlife Department, USDA Natural nesting period (September-February). Resources Conservation Service, or U.S. Dozing or hand cutting in habi- Fish and Wildlife Service. For activi- tat with closed tree canopy and steep ties other than those described above, slopes not only destroys warbler habi- land managers should seek assistance tat, but mechanical disturbance also from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Open savannah – not habitat can create serious soil erosion prob- © Matt Wagner since permits may be needed. lems. In addition, clearing these areas is generally not cost effective due to higher clearing costs; lower Other Management forage production potential, and graz- Suggestions ing distribution problems associated with steep slopes. Selective removal Reducing Impacts from Predation of small juniper less than 15 feet in and Cowbird Parasitism height and 5 inches dbh within habi- Reducing the impacts of preda- tat is not a problem as long as the tion and brood parasitism by Brown- tree canopy is not disturbed. Any Regrowth cedar - not habitat selective removal of juniper within or Golden-cheeked Warbler © Matt Wagner adjacent to habitat should be done Management Guidelines 3 headed Cowbirds may be important restore or create habitat for the structure and timed to avoid the for successful reproduction in some Golden-cheeked Warbler in areas that breeding season until a survey is populations of Golden-cheeked War- currently do not support warblers. done to determine if warblers are blers. This is particularly true where One type of restorable habitat is the using the area. Important habitat warblers nest near grazed land or relatively mesic (moist) area, with a components such as the ratio of grain crops diversity of deciduous trees, where mature juniper to deciduous trees, Planned grazing systems junipers have been previously and canopy structure and height, designed to rotate livestock away removed. Allowing the reestablish- should be retained whenever possible from known nesting areas during the ment of juniper on these sites would to enable population recovery. breeding season (March-August) may eventually result in the mature oak- Landowners who are not sure be desirable to reduce cowbird juniper woodland preferred by whether or not they have suitable impacts. Periodic rest also has impor- Golden-cheeked Warblers. Golden-cheeked Warbler habitat, or tant benefits for improving range con- Other situations where restoring whether a planned activity will affect dition and productivity. Since habitat may be a possibility include these birds, may want to consult a cowbirds are attracted to easily avail- relatively mesic areas dominated by biologist familiar with the species. able food sources, spilling or scatter- juniper, where heavy browsing pres- An on-site visit by a biologist familiar ing grain should be avoided. sure by deer or livestock has pre- with the warbler can determine if Supplemental feeding areas for live- vented the establishment of warbler habitat is present and stock should be moved frequently, hardwood seedlings. In these areas, whether the planned activity falls located away from nesting habitat, control of deer numbers and planned under the guidelines presented here. and kept free from accumulations of deferment from livestock grazing Also, a biologist who has a scientific waste grain. would help promote reestablishment permit from the U.S. Fish and Maintaining woodland vegetation of broad-leaved shrubs and trees, Wildlife Service and Texas Parks and adjacent to Golden-cheeked Warbler eventually resulting in mature Wildlife Department to do Golden- habitat is often desirable to reduce juniper-oak woodland. cheeked Warbler survey work will predation and brood parasitism by In mesic areas where small know how to conduct a breeding sea- Brown-headed Cowbirds. Woodland junipers (15 ft. or less) are dominant, son survey to determine if warblers strips of 300 feet or more are prefer- small junipers could be thinned to are present in the area for which a able. These strips should be com- favor faster growth of remaining management activity is planned. posed of both the physical structure trees. Thinning would encourage (height and canopy cover) and species hardwood regeneration, especially if Technical Assistance composition similar to warbler habitat some slash is left in place to provide Technical assistance in range and (Arnold, et. al. 1996). protection for hardwood seedlings. If wildlife management, including man- Finally, controlling cowbirds large junipers are dominant, several agement for endangered species, is through trapping is effective in reduc- small openings per acre would available to landowners and man- ing warbler brood parasitism. encourage hardwood regeneration. agers by contacting the Texas Parks Mounted mobile traps, placed near These openings should be protected and Wildlife Department, USDA Nat- watering sites as livestock are rotated from browsing and left to regenerate ural Resources Conservation Service, through pastures, have been used suc- naturally, or planted to native hard- Texas Cooperative Extension, or U.S. cessfully to reduce cowbird numbers. woods. In each of these examples, Fish and Wildlife Service. Further Properly placed stationary traps have the idea is to restore areas that may guidance and specific questions con- also proven effective in reducing cow- once have provided habitat to the cerning Golden-cheeked Warbler bird numbers and parasitism in a natural oak-juniper woodland capable research, endangered species manage- local area. Other methods, such as of growing on the site. ment and recovery, and landowner shooting, can be used to supplement responsibilities under the Endangered trapping efforts where needed. Per- Further Guidance Concerning Species Act, should be directed to the sons trapping cowbirds need to be the ESA Texas Parks and Wildlife Department certified for the handling of non-tar- Good range management practices or U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. get birds under the general trapping such as proper stocking, rotational permit held by TPWD. Preventing grazing, prescribed burning, periodic mortality of non-target birds is of deferments, carefully planned brush paramount concern, so traps must be control, and attention to plant and carefully monitored and checked fre- animal resource needs will help pre- quently. Contact Texas Parks and vent loss of Golden-cheeked Warbler Wildlife Department for information habitat. Habitat where Golden- and assistance in implementing a cow- cheeked Warblers are likely to occur bird control program. should be protected from activities that alter the composition or struc- Habitat Restoration ture of trees and shrubs, except as The following suggestions are provided for in these guidelines. offered for landowners wishing to Likewise, management activities in areas that may be used by warblers Golden-cheeked Warbler should be carefully planned to avoid 4 Management Guidelines altering vegetation composition and May be occupied May be occupied Stands of mature juniper and scattered live oaks Upland stands of post oak/blackjack oak with canopy cover 35-100%. with junipers with 35-100% canopy cover. (Actual cover illustrated ~75%) (Actual cover illustrated ~50%)

juniper

hardwood

shaded trees represent trees that Probably occupied may be removed with minimal impact Slope communities of juniper on Golden-cheeked Warblers and mixed hardwoods with 35-100% canopy cover. (Actual cover illustrated ~90%) 10' canopy cover - measured as the drip line of trees >10' in height May be occupied Bottomland communities of 35-100% canopy cover. (Actual cover illustrated ~90%) Not habitat* “Pure” stands of juniper with <10% hardwoods. (Composition illustrated ~91% juniper/~9% hardwood)

Not habitat* Open park-like woodlands or savannahs with canopy cover <35%. (Actual cover illustrated ~34%)

*As long as these areas are not in close (within 300 feet) proximity to “probably occupied” or “may be occupied” habitat, neither surveys nor permits are required for activities within these areas.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Golden-cheeked Warbler Management Guidelines 5 Black-capped Vireo Scientific Name: Vireo atricapillus Federal Status: Endangered, 10/6/87• State Status: Endangered

Description central and southwest Texas, a few leaved plants in vireo habitat in these The Black-capped Vireo is a 4.5 inch counties in central Oklahoma, and in regions include: Texas (Spanish) oak, insect-eating songbird. Mature males Coahuila and Nuevo Leon, Mexico, Lacey oak, shin oak, Durand (scaley- are olive green above and white although less is known of their status bark) oak, live oak, mountain laurel, below with faint greenish-yellow in Mexico. Black-capped Vireos winter evergreen sumac, skunkbush sumac, flanks. The crown and back of the along the western coast of Mexico. flameleaf sumac, redbud, Texas per- head is black with a partial white eye- The descriptions of habitat pre- simmon, Mexican buckeye, elbowbush ring. The iris is brownish-red and the sented in this document are intended and agarita. Although Ashe juniper is bill black. The plumage on the back to help landowners determine if they often part of the plant composition in of the female is duller than the male. have Black-capped Vireo habitat on vireo habitat, preferred areas usually Females have a medium to dark gray their property. Not all sites within have a low density and cover of head with a blackish ring around the the habitat types described will be juniper. used by Black-capped Vireos. It is In the western Edwards Plateau only where individuals of this species and Trans-Pecos Regions, on the west- occupy the identified habitat types ern edge of the vireo’s range, the during the breeding season that spe- birds are often found in canyon bot- cial management considerations such toms and slopes where sufficient as those provided in these guidelines moisture is available to support need to be considered. diverse shrub vegetation. Dominant In Texas, vireo habitat is found woody plants in this habitat type on rocky limestone soils of the include sandpaper oak, Vasey oak, Edwards Plateau, Cross Timbers and Texas kidneywood, Mexican walnut, Prairies, eastern Trans-Pecos and, to a Texas persimmon, lotebush, brasil, limited extent, on igneous soils in the wafer ash, mountain laurel, cenizo, Male Black-capped Vireo © TPWD Chisos Mountains. Although Black- whitebrush, and guajillo. capped Vireo habitat throughout Texas is highly variable with regard to plant species, soils, temperature, and rainfall, all habitat types are similar in vegetation structure; i.e. the “overall look” is somewhat similar although the plant species vary. Vireos require broadleaf shrub vegetation reaching to ground level for nesting cover. They typically nest in shrublands and open woodlands with a distinctive patchy structure. Typical habitat is characterized by shrub vegetation extending from the ground to about 6 feet or more and covering about 30-60% or greater of the total Female Black-capped Vireo © USFWS A. Shull area. In the eastern portion of the vireo’s range, the shrub layer is often For all habitat types, the plant white surrounding the eye (this gener- combined with an open, sparse to composition appears to be less impor- ally distinguishes the female from the moderate tree canopy. Patches of tant than the presence of adequate second year male). open grass or bare rock separate the broad-leaved shrubs, foliage to ground clumps of shrubs and trees. In central level, and mixture of open grassland Distribution Texas, this habitat is often regrowth and woody cover. Deciduous and and Habitat from disturbances such as clearing, broad-leaved shrubs and trees through- Historical records from 1852-1956 fire, and browsing. out the vireo’s range are also impor- show that the Black-capped Vireo In the Edwards Plateau and Cross tant in providing habitat for insects on once occurred and nested from cen- Timbers Regions, vireo habitat occurs which the vireo feeds. tral Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas and where soils, topography, and land use into northern Mexico. Today, Black- produce scattered hardwoods with capped Vireos are known to nest in abundant low cover. Common broad- Black-capped Vireo 1 Life History nearby. The birds migrate to their win- Black-capped Vireos arrive in Texas tering grounds on Mexico’s western from mid-March to mid-April. Adult coast beginning in July, and are gone males often arrive before females and from Texas by mid-September. first-year males to select their territories. Vireos’ territories are often clus- Threats and Reasons tered in patches of suitable habitat. for Decline Although territories range in size The Black-capped Vireo is vulnerable from 1 to 16 acres, most territories to changes in the abundance and qual- are 5 to 10 acres. Males sing to ity of its habitat. Habitat may become attract mates and defend territories. unsuitable for vireos because of nat- Many males can be heard singing ural plant succession, sustained brood throughout the breeding season, but parasitism by the Brown-headed Cow- singing begins to decline by July. The bird, or because of human activities. vireo’s song is described as hurried Factors that can adversely affect vireo and harsh, composed of numerous habitat include broad-scale or phrases separated from one another improper brush clearing, fire suppres- by pauses of 1 to 3 seconds. sion, over browsing by deer and live- Nesting begins after the females stock, and urbanization. Loss of Black-capped Vireo nest arrive in late March to early April. tropical wintering habitat is also a © TPWD Glen Mills Both the male and female select the concern, but requires further study. nest site and build the nest, but the Poorly planned brush manage- female often completes it. First nests ment practices on rangeland may are built in about 6 to 9 days, but remove too much low growing woody subsequent nests can be built in one cover, especially when large acreages day. The cup-shaped nest is sus- are treated at one time. This elimi- pended from its rim in a fork of a nates or reduces habitat value for branch about 1 to 6 feet above the vireos and for other wildlife, such as ground. However, most Black-capped White-tailed deer, quail, small mam- Vireos nest at about “door-knob” mals, and various songbirds. Over height. Nests have been found in a browsing of broad-leaved shrubs by variety of species including shin oak, goats, deer, and exotic animals scalybark oak, Texas oak, Vasey oak, reduces the vegetation in the 2- to sumac, Texas persimmon, juniper, 4-foot zone, making it unsuitable for Texas redbud, Mexican buckeye and vireo nesting. Continued overuse of Texas mountain laurel. these preferred browse plants over The vireo usually nests more than many years may eventually eliminate once in the same year. A new nest is them from the plant community, thus constructed each time. Three to four permanently altering the habitat. eggs are usually laid in the first nest- In the absence of natural ing attempt, but later clutches may processes, active, well-planned land Nesting vireo contain only 2 to 3 eggs. The first egg management is often required to © Greg W. Lasley is usually laid one day after comple- maintain good vireo habitat, espe- Texas. However, the combination of tion of the nest, with one egg being cially in the eastern portion of its overgrazing, brush clearing, and lack laid each subsequent day. Incubation range. Disturbance, particularly fire, of fire in the recent past has reduced takes 14 to 17 days, and is shared by plays an important role in maintain- vireo habitat in many other areas. the male and female. ing, improving, or creating vireo Natural plant succession is less of a Vireo chicks are fed insects by habitat. The rangelands of central concern in the western portion of its both adults. The young leave the Texas, and the various plant commu- range where suitable habitat persists nest 10 to 12 days after hatching. nities these lands support, evolved for long periods. Fledglings are cared for by the female under the influence of periodic fires. Human activities have provided alone, the male alone, or by both Historically, these natural and man- favorable habitat for the Brown- adults. Sometimes the parents split made fires maintained a matrix of headed Cowbird, which parasitizes the brood and each care for one or open grassland, shrubland and wood- vireo nests. The cowbird is usually more young. Occasionally, males or land. Fire stimulated shrubs to associated with livestock, farms, females will leave the care of the sprout multiple stems at the base, dairies, and grain fields, where it ben- young to their mate, and attempt thus providing areas of dense foliage efits from waste grain and insects. another nesting effort. at the 2- to 4-foot level, required by They may also be attracted to back- Vireos may live for more than five vireos. In the past, fire was responsi- yard bird feeders, trash dumps, or years, and usually return year after ble for maintaining or periodically other urban areas where food and year to the same territory, or one returning some areas to vireo habitat. water are available. Cowbirds lay Today, prescribed burning, a valuable their eggs in other birds’ nests, leav- range and wildlife management tool ing the host bird to raise their young. 2 Black-capped Vireo occurs on many ranches throughout The female cowbird often removes an development is a major threat in private landowners to incorporate expanding urban areas of Travis, management for Black-capped Vireos McLennan, Dallas, Bexar, and Kerr into their livestock and wildlife opera- counties. Problems associated with tions are an essential part of the suburban expansion, such as recovery process. increases in predation by dogs, cats, raccoons, skunks, and jays, have also Where To See the impacted the vireo. Black-capped Vireo A number of state lands offer oppor- Recovery Efforts tunities to see and learn more about Research is underway to better under- the Black-capped Vireo. These Habitat at Kickapoo Caverns State Park © Matt Wagner stand the distribution, life history, include Colorado Bend State Park habitat requirements, and land man- State Park (SP), Devils River State agement practices affecting the Black- Natural Area (SNA), Kerr Wildlife capped Vireo. Population surveys Management Area, Kickapoo Cavern during the breeding season are being SP, Lost Maples SNA, and Hill Country conducted in known and potential SNA. Also, the Balcones Canyonlands habitat areas. Efforts to provide National Wildlife Refuge near Austin information and educational opportu- offers additional opportunities to see nities to landowners and the public Black-capped Vireos. regarding life history and habitat Because the Black-capped Vireo requirements of the vireo are also a is an endangered species, birders and vital part of the recovery effort. other observers should carefully fol- Major research and/or recovery low certain viewing ethics. Habitat with low-growing shrubs © Matt Wagner efforts are being conducted on Observers should be careful not to Department of Defense’s Fort Hood flush birds from the nest or disturb and Camp Bullis, Travis County and nests or young. Black-capped Vireos the City of Austin’s Balcones Canyon- should be viewed only from a dis- lands Preserve, the U.S. Fish and tance with binoculars. Do not use Wildlife Services’ Balcones Canyon- recorded calls of the Black-capped lands National Wildlife Refuge, Vireo or the Screech Owl to attract TPWD’s Kerr Wildlife Management birds, and be careful that your pres- Area, properties owned and/or man- ence does not unduly disturb or aged by The Nature Conservancy of stress the birds. Texas, and in Mexico. Additionally, Environmental Defense through their How You Can Help Safe Harbor Agreement with the U.S. You can help by learning more about Fish and Wildlife Service is assisting the habitat requirements of the Black- many landowners with thousands of capped Vireo and incorporating man- Habitat in Big Bend National Park © USFWS A. Shull acres to manage and/or create habitat agement practices which create or for the benefit of the vireo. Research maintain habitat for these birds. You egg or a nestling from the host nest is ongoing regarding the impact of can also encourage and support pri- before she lays an egg in it. Cowbird cowbirds on vireo populations in vate landowners who are managing chicks hatch earlier than most hosts’s Texas. Research efforts in Mexico are their land to protect and provide habi- young and are thus able to out-com- also underway to gather information tat for endangered species. pete the smaller vireo nestlings for concerning life history, habitat The Black-capped Vireo is a food and, consequently, the young requirements, and conservation beautiful songbird and is much vireos typically starve. While some threats on the wintering range. sought after among people who enjoy birds remove cowbird eggs from their TPWD biologists are monitoring pop- birdwatching and nature study. Possi- nest, the vireo does not, although it is ulations on both state and private bilities exist for landowners to take known to abandon parasitized nests. lands, and voluntary cowbird trap- advantage of the growing demand for Thus parasitized nests usually fail to ping is being conducted by more than natural history tours and vacations. produce vireos. The amount of brood 400 landowners in counties through- Landowners interested in more infor- parasitism varies greatly from one out the range of the vireo. mation concerning nature-based population to another throughout the Habitat conservation planning is tourism opportunities should contact state, ranging from 10 to over 90% of underway in counties such as Travis the Wildlife Diversity Branch, Texas the nests. Brown-headed Cowbirds and Bexar to allow for urban expan- Parks and Wildlife Department, are also known to remove vireo sion and development while still con- Austin (800) 792-1112; Environmen- chicks from active nests. Evidence serving endangered species habitat. tal Defense, Austin (512) 478-5161; indicates that sustained parasitism Intensive monitoring of a large popu- the Nature Conservancy, San Antonio pressure may lead to local extinctions lation at the U.S. Army Fort Hood (210) 224-8774. of vireo populations. Military Installation is on-going. Direct habitat loss and fragmen- Finally, efforts to provide information, tation due to urban and suburban technical assistance, and incentives for Black-capped Vireo 3 You can also be involved with the conservation of Texas’ nongame wildlife resources by supporting the Special Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation Fund. Special nongame stamps and decals are available at Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) field offices, most state parks, and the License Branch of TPWD headquarters in Austin. Part of the proceeds from the sale of these items is used to conserve habitat and provide information to the public concerning endangered species. Conservation organizations in Texas also welcome your participation and support. For More Information Contact Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Wildlife Diversity Branch 4200 Smith School Road Austin, Texas 78744 (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 or Cowbird egg (spotted) in Black-Capped Vireo nest U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service © Glen Mills Ecological Services Field Office 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Austin, Texas 78758 References (512) 490-0057 Armstrong, W.E., M.W. Lockwood, and D.K. Stuart. 1992. Performance report: Black-capped vireo management on Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Management guidelines are available lands. Federal Aid Project No. E-1-4, Job No. 3.2. from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Armstrong, W.E., C. Travis, and B.G. Alexander. 1989. Final report: Black-capped Department and U.S. Fish and vireo management. Federal Aid Project No. W-103-R-19, Job No. 60. Wildlife Service for landowners and Farquhar, C.C. and J. P. Maresh. 1998. Population biology and habitat characteri- managers wishing to know more zation of black-capped vireos at Dolan Falls Ranch Preserve, Val Verde about rangeland management prac- County, Texas. Year two final report. Endangered Resources Branch, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Austin, Texas. tices which improve habitat for the Graber, J.W. 1961. Distribution, habitat requirements, and life history of the Black-capped Vireo. black-capped vireo. Ecol. Mon. 31:313-336. Grzybowski, J.A., R.B. Clapp, and J.T. Marshall, Jr. 1986. History and current population status of the Black-capped vireo in Oklahoma. American Birds 40:1151-1161. Grzybowski, J,A., D.J. Tazik, and G.D. Schnell. 1994. Regional analysis of black- capped vireo breeding habitats. Condor 96:512-544. Grzybowski, J.A. 1995. “Black-capped vireo (Vireo atricapillus).” The birds of North America, No. 181. The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and The American Ornithologist Union, Washington D.C. Oberholser, H.C. 1974. The bird life of Texas. Edgar Kincaid, Ed., University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas. Vol. 2, 1069 pp. Robinson, S.K., S.I. Rothstein, M.C. Brittingham, L.J. Petit, and J.A. Grzybowski. 1995. “Ecology and behavior of cowbirds and their impact on host populations” (pp 428-460) in T.E. Martin and D.M. Finch, eds. Ecology and management of neotropical migratory birds. Oxford University Press, New York, New York. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Black-capped vireo recovery plan. Endan- gered Species Office, Albuquerque, N.M. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Black-capped vireo population and habitat viability assessment report. Complied and edited by Carol Beardmore, Jeff Hatfield, and Jim Lewis in conjunction with workshop participants. Report of a September 18-21, 1995 workshop arranged by the U.S. fish and Wildlife Ser- vice in partial fulfillment of U.S. National Biological Service Grant No. 80333- 1423. Austin, Texas. ix + 57 pp.

4 Black-capped Vireo Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Management Guidelines for Black-capped Vireo

The following guidelines address land agement practices could be conducted son burns that are patchy and management practices that can be so that it would be unlikely that low intensity, conducted prior to used to maintain, enhance, or create Black-capped Vireos would be March 15, are often recommended to Black-capped Vireo habitat. They are impacted. The guidelines will be control small juniper, thus maintain- intended primarily to serve as gen- updated periodically to make them ing the relatively open shrublands eral guidance for rural landowners more practical and useful to rural preferred by vireos. Care should be and others managing land for live- landowners. The guidelines are taken to burn under appropriate stock and/or wildlife in Texas. The based on the best available informa- humidity and wind conditions to guidelines are based on our current tion and current understanding about maintain the proper black-capped understanding of the biology of this the biology of the vireo, but may be vireo vegetation profile. Prescribed species. refined as additional biological data burns conducted during late spring Private landowners have a are collected. TPWD biologists have and early fall, under hotter condi- tremendous opportunity to conserve prepared these guidelines in consultations, can be used to set back plant and manage the fish and wildlife tion with USFWS biologists to assure succession to create vireo habitat; resources of Texas. The objective of landowners who carry out land man- however, warm season burns should these guidelines is to provide agement practices within the guide- be done only in areas that do not landowners with recommendations lines that they would know, with the currently support Black-capped about how typically-used land man- greatest certainty possible, that they Vireos. On grazed rangeland, pre- would not be in violation of the scribed burns should be coordinated Endangered Species Act. with livestock rotation to allow for This document also provides needed deferments. It is best to information on land management avoid burning relatively small areas practices that are appropriate for pro- within large pastures to prevent tection and/or enhancement of habi- heavy grazing pressure by livestock tat. The categories were chosen to and/or deer on burned areas. represent commonly encountered veg- Desirable burn intervals for cool etation types and to address common season burns vary throughout the questions regarding the effect of man- state, depending on rainfall and vege- agement practices on Black-capped tation type. Field experience shows Vireos. In addition, suggestions are that, for much of the Hill Country, a offered that promote conservation of burning interval of 5 to 7 years is soil, water, plant, and wildlife considered desirable to keep Ashe resources. juniper (cedar) invasion in check and Prescribed burning © Matt Wagner to allow regrowth of broad-leaved Prescribed Burning shrubs. Maintaining open grassland Fire is a natural component of areas between clumps of shrubs is Texas rangelands, and prescribed important for good vireo habitat. burning has many range and Research is needed to better under- wildlife management benefits. These stand the use of prescribed burning include improved forage quality and to maintain and create vireo habitat, availability for livestock and deer, and to develop guidelines on desir- and maintenance of desirable plant able burn intervals throughout the composition and structure. Pre- vireo’s range in Texas, especially in scribed burning in some portions of the western Edwards Plateau and the vireos range can be an excellent eastern Trans-Pecos. tool used to maintain or create the Assistance from people experi- desired vegetation structure for vireo enced with the use of prescribed nesting; i.e. a mosaic of shrubs and burning is highly recommended. open grassland with abundant woody Landowners are encouraged to have a foliage below 10 feet. If planning complete written prescribed burn these activities in Bandera, Kerr, Kim- plan addressing the objectives of the ble, Real, and Uvalde counties, burn, required weather conditions, landowners should avoid impacts to grazing deferments, fireguard prepa- Tobusch fishhook cactus (Ancistro- rations, personnel and equipment cactus tobuschii), a federally listed Selective handcutting of juniper endangered plant, which occurs on Black-capped Vireo © TPWD Glen Mills similar soils as the vireo. Cool sea- Management Guidelines 1 needed, a detailed map showing how highly selective individual plant treat- the burn will be conducted, and noti- ment methods, whenever practical, to fication and safety procedures. avoid damage to desirable shrubs Landowners are advised to contact such as live oak, shin oak, Texas oak, local representatives of the Texas hackberry, Texas persimmon, sumac, Parks and Wildlife Department, USDA redbud, and elm. Herbicides should Natural Resources Conservation Ser- always be used in strict accordance vice, or Texas Cooperative Extension with label directions, including those for help in developing and imple- for proper storage and disposal of menting a prescribed burning pro- containers and rinse water. Herbi- gram designed specifically for your cide applications should not occur property and management objectives. during the breeding season, except for basal applications or individual plant treatment of prickly pear pads. Cattle rotation Selective Brush © TPWD Management Carefully planned mechanical In some portions of the vireos range, methods of brush management such particularly the central and eastern as chaining, roller chopping, shred- segment, increases in juniper (cedar) ding, hand cutting, hydraulic shear- and other woody species can cause ing, grubbing, and tree dozing can be the vegetation to grow out of the used to achieve desirable shrub com- patchy, low shrub cover that provides position and to stimulate basal sprout- suitable habitat. In these communi- ing of key woody species in order to ties, good nesting habitat generally maintain, enhance, or create vireo has between 30-60% shrub canopy. habitat. If planning these activities in Selective brush removal with herbi- Bandera, Kerr, Kimble, Real, and cides or mechanical means during the Uvalde counties landowners should non-breeding season (September- avoid impacts to Tobusch fishhook Overgrazed range with low-growing cover removed February) can be used to keep the cactus (Ancistrocactus tobuschii), a © TPWD habitat favorable for vireo nesting. federally listed endangered plant, For example, the selective removal of which occurs on similar soils as the needed for nest concealment. Live- juniper, mesquite, or pricklypear (less vireo. As with other habitat manipu- stock and deer management, which desirable to the vireo and to the lation procedures, mechanical meth- allows woody plants such as live oak, rancher) serves to maintain the ods should only be used during the shin oak, sumac, Texas persimmon, proper shrub canopy and encourages non-breeding season (September-Feb- elbowbush, redbud, and hackberry to growth of associated broad-leaved ruary) and done in such a way as to make dense growth from zero to at shrubs. Selective brush removal maintain the proper black-capped least 8 feet, is needed. On ranches should strive to maintain the desired vireo vegetation profile. Remember throughout Texas, moderate stocking, low shrubby structure. Radical that good grazing management and rotation of livestock, controlling deer changes in shrub canopy from one moderate stocking rates can reduce and exotic ungulate numbers and year to the next over large areas woody plant invasion and therefore proper use of desirable browse plants should be avoided, since this may the need for expensive brush control will benefit deer and livestock as well alter vireo habitat too drastically practices. as Black-capped Vireos. within a short time-frame. However, Finally, although brush manage- To provide adequate nesting moderate thinning of dense (>60%) ment practices can be used to change cover for vireos, woody plants should shin oak so that the low canopy is the structure and composition of veg- receive only limited browsing during maintained at 30-60% shrub canopy etation so that vireos may occupy the the spring and summer. If animals can enhance habitat. Western habitat, landowners should seek tech- (livestock, deer, and exotics) are well- Edwards Plateau rangelands com- nical assistance when planning brush managed and kept within recom- prised primarily of mesquite, often management practices in habitat that mended stocking rates, this can be referred to as mesquite flats, are not is known to be occupied by Black- achieved. Experience has shown that, considered Black-capped Vireo habi- capped Vireos. Since brush manage- in general, ranges stocked with cattle tat; therefore, mesquite control in ment activities can affect habitat for and deer tend to maintain better these areas will not affect vireos. the Golden-cheeked Warbler as well vireo nesting cover than ranges When using herbicides, careful as the Black-capped Vireo, landown- stocked with goats and exotic ani- attention to the kinds, amounts, tim- ers are encouraged to learn about the mals. Limit browsing pressure, espe- ing, and application technique will habitat requirements of both endan- cially during the growing season, to achieve the best control of target gered songbirds (see TPWD leaflet on no more than 50% of the total annual species at minimum cost. Precise the Golden-cheeked Warbler). growth (current year twigs and application also reduces the risk of leaves) within reach of animals on environmental contamination and off- Grazing and Browsing any given plant. This will maintain site effects. It is best to choose Management plants that are already vigorous and Excessive browsing by goats, exotic allow for improvement of those with Black-capped Vireo animals, and white-tailed deer less than ideal structure. As a rule of 2 Management Guidelines destroys the thick woody growth thumb, if you can “see through” a remove grazing animals from areas be needed to jump start the where vireos nest. For example, live- resprouting and root sprouting of stock can be rotated away from prime trees and shrubs. nesting habitat during the breeding Habitat restoration may also be season. Another option is to graze possible in areas where the shrub stocker cattle during the fall and win- layer has become too tall or dense to ter, resting pastures during the provide good vireo habitat. In these spring/summer nesting season. Rest- areas, well-planned use of controlled ing pastures periodically improves fire or other brush management tech- range condition and may also help niques listed above can reduce over- reduce nest parasitism. all shrub height, stimulate basal Finally, trapping and/or shooting sprouting of shrubs, and reduce cowbirds can be very effective in shrub density to produce more favor- Cowbird trap reducing vireo brood parasitism, since able habitat for vireos. The goal is to © TPWD a single female cowbird can parasitize maintain the critical low growing browse plant at “door knob” to “eye hosts over a sizeable area (4-5 acres, canopy cover of 30-60%. level”, then too much stem and leaf or more). Mounted mobile traps, Also, in areas where the brush growth has been removed. Installa- placed near watering sites as livestock has become too dense, selective tion of structures needed to facilitate are rotated through pastures, have thinning conducted during the non- good grazing management; i.e., fenc- been used successfully to reduce cow- nesting period (September through ing, pipelines, water troughs, water bird numbers. Properly placed sta- February) could be done to produce tanks, and ponds, need to avoid tionary traps have also proven a more open habitat. Carefully removing vireo habitat, should effective in reducing cowbird numbers planned brush management could include only enough space to allow and parasitism in a local area. Shoot- be used to encourage regeneration for proper operation and mainte- ing cowbirds at places where they and lateral branching of desirable nance, and need to conduct activities congregate is another option, shrubs by allowing sunlight to during the non-nesting period although this method is often not reach the ground. The idea is to (September-February). selective for the cowbirds responsible restore areas to relatively open, Careful management of woody for the parasitism. Shooting female low-growing shrub/grassland vegeta- plants will not only provide for the cowbirds within Black-capped Vireo tion that may provide habitat pre- habitat needs of Black-capped Vireos, nesting habitat for as little as one ferred by vireos. If planning any of but will also create high quality habi- hour a week can reduce parasitism. these activities in Bandera, Kerr, tat for deer and other wildlife as well Persons trapping cowbirds need to be Kimble, Real, and Uvalde counties as livestock. Technical assistance in certified for the handling of non-tar- landowners should avoid impacts to identifying browse plants and deter- get birds under the general trapping Tobusch fishhook cactus (Ancistro- mining proper use is available from permit held by TPWD. Preventing cactus tobuschii), a federally listed the Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- mortality of non-target birds is very endangered plant, which occurs on ment and USDA Natural Resources important, so traps must be carefully similar soils as the vireo. Conservation Service. monitored and checked frequently. Currently, there is no strong Contact Texas Parks and Wildlife evidence to suggest that habitat Reducing Impacts Department for information and assis- manipulation will be necessary on From Cowbirds tance in implementing a cowbird con- many parts of the drier western Brood parasitism by Brown-headed trol program. and southwestern Texas range Cowbirds poses a serious threat to (western Edwards Plateau and east- successful reproduction in some pop- Habitat Restoration ern Trans-Pecos) as mature vegeta- ulations of Black-capped Vireos. For landowners in central Texas tion communities in these areas are Research is currently underway to wishing to restore or create habitat used successfully by vireos. Unless better understand the impacts of cow- for the Black-capped Vireo in areas browsing pressure or other cata- birds on vireos. Because livestock currently unoccupied by vireos, the strophic disturbances have elimi- attract cowbirds, management to following suggestions are offered. nated desirable shrub land in these reduce cowbird impacts is important One type of restorable habitat is an areas, the only requirement needed on grazed land. open shrubland capable of growing is time. Fire is of limited use in Because cowbirds are attracted a diversity of woody plants, where lower rainfall areas devoid of fine to easily available sources of food, much of the low-growing cover has fuels and the plant density required avoid spilling or scattering grain. been removed through overbrows- for cost-effective prescribed burns. Supplemental feeding areas should be ing by livestock or deer. Control- There are a number of agencies moved frequently and kept free from ling browsing pressure by reducing and organizations conducting man- accumulations of waste grain. This animal numbers and providing pas- agement activities benefiting the would help to prevent sparsely vege- ture rest will allow the natural vireo that can provide useful infor- tated areas of compacted soils, which reestablishment of low-growing mation and/or assistance to also tend to attract cowbirds. shrub cover needed by vireos. Pre- landowners. These include Texas Because cowbirds can be scribed burning and or mechanical attracted by the presence of livestock, methods described under the Selec- Black-capped Vireo grazing management can be used to tive Brush Management section may Management Guidelines 3 Parks and Wildlife Department, benefits such as clean water, natural USFWS, The Nature Conservancy, diversity, and recreational opportuni- USDA Natural Resources Conserva- ties for all Texans. tion Service, and Environmental Technical assistance in range and Defense. wildlife management, including grazing management, determination of Summary proper stocking rates, prescribed In the Edwards Plateau and other burning, brush management, and parts of the range supporting wood- management for endangered species, land or savanna, periodic prescribed is available to landowners and man- burning and selective brush manage- agers by contacting the Texas Parks ment are very effective in maintain- and Wildlife Department, USDA Nat- ing and creating Black-capped Vireo ural Resources Conservation Service, habitat. In all parts of the range, con- or Texas Cooperative Extension. Fur- trol of deer and exotic wildlife num- ther guidance and specific questions bers, and good grazing management concerning Black-capped Vireo practices, including proper stocking research, endangered species manage- and rotational grazing, are management and recovery, and the Endan- ment options that can be used to gered Species Act, should be directed maintain and enhance habitat for to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Black-capped Vireos. These same or Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- management tools will also maintain ment. If, after reading this leaflet, diverse and productive rangelands. In you are still unsure whether or not addition to providing food, fiber, and your management plans will support for rural landowners, well- adversely affect the Vireo or its habi- managed rangelands provide habitat tat, please contact the U.S. Fish and for a wide variety of wildlife, and Wildlife Service for assistance.

Black-capped Vireo 4 Management Guidelines Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Scientific Name: Picoides borealis Federal Status: Endangered, 10/13/70 • State Status: Endangered

Description Preferred cluster sites are mature, The quality of the foraging The Red-cockaded Woodpecker is an park-like pine stands with 50 to 80 habitat determines the amount eight-inch long woodpecker with a square feet of basal area per acre needed to support a group of wood- solid black cap and nape, and promi- (about 90-145 trees averaging 10 peckers. While 125 acres of well- nent white cheek patches. The male inches in diameter). Ideally, clusters stocked (100-140, 10-inch or larger has a tiny red streak behind the eye should have a grassy or herbaceous diameter trees per acre) mature pine and near the ear (the cockade). The understory with few or no midstory is sufficient for some groups; where cockade is seldom visible in the field, hardwood or pine trees above 6 feet habitat conditions are less ideal, making it difficult to distinguish in height. Controlling midstory groups may require several hundred males from females. The Red-cock- growth is especially critical within 50 acres to meet their foraging needs. aded Woodpecker is similar to the feet of all cavity trees. Once the mid- Downy and Hairy Woodpeckers in story grows to the level of the cavi- general appearance, except that it has ties (20-50 feet above the ground), a a barred back, spotted breast, and the high rate of cavity abandonment male has red on either side of the occurs. A few widely scattered hard- head rather than on the nape. wood trees and shrubs do not harm the woodpeckers and are beneficial to other wildlife. However, control of dense thicket-like midstory vegetation is essential to maintain the cluster site. An important function of the cluster site is to provide a source of new cavity trees. Cavity Historic Range trees are generally used Present Range for several years, but an Male (left) and female Red-cockaded Woodpeckers average of 5% of loblolly © TPWD Frank Aquilar and shortleaf, and 1% of longleaf pines die each year. Some causes of mortality include infestation Life History Habitat The Red-cockaded Woodpecker has a The Red-cockaded Woodpecker is by bark beetles, wind snap, and fire. complex social system. These birds found in mature pine forests of east Also, cavity enlargement by Pileated live in groups, which usually have Texas and the southeastern United Woodpeckers often makes cavities two to six birds, although as many as States. It is the only species of wood- unusable by the Red-cockaded Wood- nine birds have been observed. The pecker that excavates its cavities pecker. Clusters should be at least 10 group may consist of only a mated exclusively in living pines. In Texas, acres in size, with 10-30 mature pines, pair; a mated pair with their current cavities have been found in longleaf, to ensure cavity trees for the future. year’s offspring; or a mated pair, their loblolly, shortleaf, and slash pines. The best cluster site will not be current year’s offspring and helpers. Most cavities are found in trees 60 to used if the foraging or food gathering These helpers are one to three year 70 years of age or older. The tree habitat is not suitable. Red-cockaded old adult birds, typically sons of one must have enough heartwood (older, Woodpeckers exhibit a distinct prefer- or both of the breeders. Helpers non-living, inner portion of wood) to ence for large living pines as foraging assist in incubating the eggs, feeding contain the roosting chamber, since a sites. Good foraging habitat consists young, constructing new cavities, and chamber in sapwood (younger, living of pine stands with trees 10 inches defending the group’s territory. portion of wood) would fill with and larger in diameter measured at Although Red-cockaded Woodpecker resin. Since heartwood is very hard, 4.5 feet above the ground. These groups may consist of a number of a large percentage of cavities are birds also forage in pole stands, con- adult birds during the nesting season, found in pines infected with a heart sisting of pines 4 to 10 inches in there is only one mated pair. A rot fungus called red heart. This fun- diameter. However, little use is made breeding male may live for several gus weakens the heartwood and of sapling stands, which contain years; and when he dies, one of his makes cavity excavation easier. pines less than 4 inches in diameter. helper sons generally becomes the A cluster is a stand of trees con- Red-cockaded Woodpeckers are also breeding male. taining and surrounding the cavity known to actively seek and forage trees in which a group of Red-cock- extensively on pines infested by aded Woodpeckers nest and roost. southern pine beetles (bark beetles). Red-cockaded Woodpecker 1 A woodpecker group roosts and Cavities are constructed by nests in a cluster of cavity trees. The tunneling at an upward slope through cluster may include 1 to 30 cavity the sapwood so that the resin or trees. Most clusters have some cavities pitch will drain from the hole. under construction, some completed Once the birds have tunneled into and in use, and some abandoned, the heartwood a sufficient distance, often occupied by competitors. they excavate downward, forming a Generally, each member of a gourd-shaped chamber about 6 to woodpecker group has its own cavity 10 inches deep and 3 to 5 inches for roosting. Red-cockaded Wood- wide. Near the cavity entrance, peckers defend their cavities from numerous small holes called resin members of other groups and from wells are chipped through the bark. Red-cockaded Woodpecker at cavity © TPWD Glen Mills other animals. Major competitors for The birds regularly peck at resin nest cavities include other woodpeck- wells to keep resin flowing. ers (Red-headed, Red-bellied, and Red-cockaded Woodpeckers Pileated) and flying squirrels. From maintain open cavity holes by remov- an ecological perspective, the Red- ing the growing tissue from around cockaded Woodpecker is largely the holes. Eventually, the birds responsible for the majority of initia- expose the sapwood for several tion and excavation of cavities within inches around the entrance. This pine dominated forests of the south- exposed area is called the plate. east, and their abandoned cavities Pitch from the plate and resin wells provide nesting and roosting cavities coats the trunk of the cavity tree. for a number of other animal species The continuous flow of resin deters like screech owls. predators, especially snakes. Actively Red-cockaded Woodpeckers nest used trees have clear, sticky pitch, from April through July. Group mem- and freshly chipped, reddish bark bers assist with incubating the eggs around the resin wells and plate. during the day, and the breeding These cavity trees, with resin flowing male stays with the eggs at night. down their boles or trunks from the The eggs hatch in 10 to 12 days. plate and resin wells, have an appear- Young birds leave the nest in about ance similar to “melting candles” Active cavity with resin f low 26 days, but remain with the group. within the forest. © R. N. Conner Studies have shown higher nestling survival at nests attended by helpers. Threats and Reasons The diet of the Red-cockaded for Decline Woodpecker consists mainly of insects The main threat to the survival of (85%), but also includes small fruits the Red-cockaded Woodpecker is the and seeds (15%). The birds concen- decrease in the quality and quantity trate their search for food on the of old growth pine forest nesting trunks and limbs of live pine trees. habitat, primarily due to short rota- They scale the bark and dig into dead tion (harvest cycle) timber manage- limbs for insects and larvae. ment. Fire suppression has also been Compared to decayed wood, the detrimental due to the importance of sapwood and heartwood of a living fire events in controlling the mid- pine is very hard and difficult to story vegetation in Red-cockaded excavate. The average time required habitat. Additional research has to excavate a cavity is 1 to 3 years shown that the well developed grassy- for loblolly and shortleaf pine, and herbaceous plant understory charac- 4 to 7 years for longleaf. Once the teristic of fire-influenced ecosystems sapwood is penetrated, the abundant plays an important role in producing resin flow that occurs creates another arthropod (spider) and insect popula- barrier. Most of the work on cavities tions utilized as food sources. occurs in summer after the young Because of this bird’s requirement for leave the nest. Cavity excavation older mature pines, habitat loss takes occurs primarily in the morning, but a long time to rectify. It may take can occur any time during the day. 60 to 70 years to begin to provide Once completed, a cavity is used for suitable nesting habitat. Ideally, rota- several years. Cavities in longleaf tion ages of 100 years for loblolly, pine are sometimes used for 20 and and 120 years or more for shortleaf even 30 years. and longleaf pine are needed to produce trees with the required amount Habitat with tall, large widely-spaced pines of heartwood and frequency of red © TPWD Glen Mills 2 Red-cockaded Woodpecker heart fungus. Some of the potential adverse (81%) on National Forests, 19 (5.5%) effects of current forest management on state lands, 29 (8.5%) on forest practices on Red-cockaded Wood- products company lands, and 17 (5%) pecker habitat can include: (1) short on non-industrial private landowner timber rotations (25-45 years) result properties. These clusters were dis- in loss of suitable nesting and roost- tributed within 15 counties of the ing habitat, (2) leaving only cavity Pineywoods Region of eastern Texas. trees and cutting all others within a cluster reduces foraging habitat and Recovery Efforts does not allow for cavity tree replace- Despite the problems facing the Red- ment, (3) leaving isolated clusters sur- cockaded Woodpecker, recovery rounded by harvested areas reduces efforts are proceeding on federal, foraging habitat and may increase state and private properties in Texas. predation by forcing birds to cross There are a number of management large open areas, (4) removing all strategies that have been imple- dead and dying trees results in loss mented since the first edition of this of habitat for other cavity-nesters, publication that are contributing sig- thereby increasing competition for nificantly to the recovery of this Red-cockaded nest cavities, (5) pre- species within eastern Texas, and serving cavity trees and removing across the West Gulf Coastal Plain. other dominant trees in a cluster As shown above, the majority of makes the cavity tree the tallest in the known Red-cockaded Woodpecker the area and subject to lightning clusters within eastern Texas occur strikes and wind damage, (6) careless on federal lands within the National use of pesticides may poison the Forests of Texas; including the birds directly or decrease their food Angelina, Davy Crockett, Sabine and supply below the minimum level Sam Houston National Forests. Under Old growth logging © TPWD needed for reproduction, and (7) the recently revised (January, 2003) noise and activity of logging opera- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Red- tions in the vicinity of a cluster dur- cockaded Woodpecker Recovery Plan, ing the breeding season can disrupt the Red-cockaded Woodpecker popula- nesting success. tion on the Sam Houston National Southern pine beetle infestations Forest has been designated as a have been found to be a major cause Recovery Population in the Upper of cavity tree loss in Texas. This is West Gulf Coastal Plain. The particularly true during southern Angelina and Sabine National Forest pine beetle epidemics, such as the populations are functionally one pop- one that occurred on the Sam Hous- ulation, and have been designated as ton National Forest in 1983 following such under the plan as a Recovery hurricane Alicia. Active management Population in the West Gulf Coastal is needed to reduce the loss of cavity Plain. The Davy Crockett National trees and foraging habitat to south- Forest population has been desig- ern pine beetles. nated in the plan as a Support Popu- Another threat to Red-cockaded lation in the West Gulf Coastal Plain. Woodpecker cavity trees is damage In 1996, the National Forests in Texas from meteorological events like hurri- designated over 288,000 acres as a canes, tornadoes and sheer winds. A Habitat Management Area (HMA) to large-scale sheer wind event that provide for recovery of this species occurred in February, 1998, on the and its ecosystem in the West Gulf Sabine National Forest resulted in loss and Upper West Gulf Coastal Plain of of the majority of cavity trees. Coop- Texas. The overall established popu- erative efforts to install artificial cav- lation goal for these lands is 1,385 ity inserts to replace lost cavity trees active clusters with goals of 541 clus- were initiated immediately to con- ters on the Sam Houston, 514 on the serve the Red-cockaded Woodpecker Angelina/Sabine, and 330 on the groups, and this effort was highly Davy Crockett National Forests. successful. However, this event rein- There are currently three state Midstory encroachment leads to cavity abandonment forces the need to conserve and properties with active Red-cockaded © Brent Ortego increase the number of groups across Woodpecker clusters in east Texas. the region, and throughout the range The Texas Forest Service manages of the species. populations on the W. Goodrich Jones In 2002, there were 342 known active Red-cockaded Woodpecker clusters in east Texas, including 277 Red-cockaded Woodpecker 3 State Forest near Conroe, Texas, and with the State to manage existing, or on the I.D. Fairchild State Forest near baseline RCW groups, and their nec- Rusk, Texas. There is an active group essary nesting and foraging habitat as well on the Sam Houston State Uni- into the future. The benefit to the versity Biological Research Facility RCW groups on these properties is near Huntsville, Texas. Red-cockaded easily understood, and the existing Woodpecker groups from the W. number of RCW groups is conserved Goodrich Jones State Forest and The for the future. The primary benefit Sam Houston State Biological Research to the private landowner, who is Facility contributes to, or is function- already responsible for management ally part of the overall Sam Houston of existing RCW groups on their National Forest Recovery Population. property under the Endangered The remaining Red-cockaded Species Act, is that the establishment Woodpecker groups within the region of a baseline condition provides cer- occur on private property; forest tainty for future land management. products corporation lands, and non- By working cooperatively with the industrial private forest landowner State, and through the use of modern properties. State and federal agencies technology used in RCW manage- are working cooperatively with these ment, forest management objectives Red-cockaded Woodpecker cavity enlarged by a raven private landowners to conserve exist- and RCW conservation objectives can © Brent Ortego ing Red-cockaded Woodpecker groups be integrated. This integrated man- and their nesting and foraging habi- agement provides a “win-win” situa- tats, and to restore native ecosystems tion for the landowner and the RCW beneficial to the species across the groups. In addition, landowners Pineywoods landscape of east Texas. enrolled in the program can produce A cooperative effort was initi- “RCW-friendly” pine forest habitat ated in 1994 to develop a strategy for without the fear of loss of control of the management of Red-cockaded the property. Woodpecker populations on private The first two landowners within properties within the Pineywoods of the State to enroll in the Regional eastern Texas. This effort involved RCW-HCP were Champion Interna- federal and state biologists and tional Corporation (1,038,000 acres), resource managers, forest product cor- and Temple-Inland Forest Products poration biologists and resource man- Corporation (1,247,260 acres). These agers, non-corporate private companies enrolled jointly in the pro- landowners and land managers, con- gram in March, 1999. Temple-Inland servation organizations, and univer- established a baseline of 14 RCW Cavity hole restrictor plate sity academicians. These entities groups and designated 3,000 acres © Brent Ortego were divided into two working specifically for RCW at its Scrappin’ Currently active RCW management groups, a steering committee and a Valley Habitat Management Area in tasks are being performed there, and scientific advisory board. The work Newton County, Texas. Champion current RCW groups exceed the origi- of these diverse individuals resulted established a baseline of 4 RCW nal baseline initially established by in the development of a Regional groups and designated 2,000 acres Champion International. Both of the Habitat Conservation Plan for Red- specifically for RCW at its Brushy RCW Habitat Management Areas pre- cockaded Woodpecker in the East Creek Experimental Forest. Temple- viously discussed provide habitat Texas Pineywoods (Regional RCW- Inland has actually performed signifi- linkages or corridors across the land- HCP). A Section 10(a)(1)(B) inciden- cant RCW management actions at scape to existing RCW population tal take permit was issued jointly to Scrappin’ Valley, and corporately has centers on National Forest and State the Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- RCW groups that are presently in Forest lands. ment and the Texas Forest Service by excess of their baseline condition. In addition, to these corporate the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on Champion International subsequently properties, there are presently February 20, 1998. sold their properties to International 17 non-industrial private forest The basic concept of the Texas Paper Company, and International landowners enrolled in the Regional Regional RCW-HCP, is that cooperat- Paper assumed their obligations RCW-HCP. These landowners have a ing landowners properties are sur- under the Regional RCW-HCP. Subse- combined total of 8,477 acres veyed for existing RCW groups, and quently, and presently, International enrolled in the program, with a com- then a baseline responsibility is Paper is divesting itself of a number bined baseline of 14 groups. One of established to maintain the number of properties within Texas. The RCW these properties enrolled, Cook’s of existing RCW clusters occurring on Habitat Management Area at Brushy Branch Conservancy in Montgomery the private property at the time of Creek Experimental Forest has been County, Texas, contains approxi- survey. The private landowner then assumed by the Heartwood Forest- mately 5,600 acres of mature pine develops a Conservation Agreement land Fund IV Investment Group, and forest habitat, and has a baseline of they have assumed baseline responsi- 13 active RCW groups. In addition 4 Red-cockaded Woodpecker bilities under the Regional RCW-HCP. to providing habitat linkages or cor- Most of these non-industrial mation to landowners and the public, forest landowners have RCW baseline and monitoring woodpecker popula- conditions of 0 (zero), but have prop- tions are all important parts of the erties in close proximity to existing recovery process. In addition to RCW core populations. Enrollment in these tasks, both the Texas Parks and the program will encourage these Wildlife Department and the U.S. Fish landowners, through active forest and Wildlife Service are providing management, to produce suitable nest- monetary incentives to private ing and foraging habitat for RCW, and landowners that are managing prop- could prevent a number of them from erties for RCW. The Department has taking their properties out of forest a program entitled the Landowner production resulting in significant loss Incentive Program, and the Service of critical RCW foraging habitat near has a program entitled Partners for RCW population centers. The cooper- Wildlife that provide challenge cost- ative atmosphere between RCW biolo- share grants to landowners in the gists and landowners will enhance performance of management for habi- adaptive management strategies to uti- tats of rare species like the RCW, and lize any RCW groups that may occur native ecosystems that are in decline. on these lands with baseline conditions of 0 (zero). Ultimately, these Where To See Artificial cavity nest box landowner’s maintain control of these © R. N. Conner Red-cockaded properties in their baseline condition, Woodpeckers and any further provisions for RCW A number of state and federal proper- on their part are voluntary. ties offer opportunities to see and Overall Red-cockaded Wood- learn more about Red-cockaded pecker populations across the region Woodpeckers. These include the are mostly stable or increasing as a Alabama Creek, Bannister, and Moore result of active management through Plantation Wildlife Management habitat improvements (removal of Areas; the W. Goodrich Jones and I.D. midstory vegetation, and prescribed Fairchild State Forests; the Angelina, burning), insertion of artificial cavity Davy Crockett, Sabine and Sam inserts (nest boxes placed on the Houston National Forests. inside of the tree), and relocation strategies known as augmentations or How You Can Help translocations. These relocation There are a number of things that strategies involve moving young you can do to help with conservation females or males to single bird clus- of the Red-cockaded Woodpecker in ters or pairs to established recruit- eastern Texas. First, if you own ment clusters in suitable habitat in an mature pine, and pine-hardwood effort to conserve existing clusters forests in eastern Texas, you can con- and to start new clusters. Recent sider forest management strategies techniques such as artificial cavities that promote the mature forest condi- and augmentation are helping to pro- tions preferred by this rare species. long the useful life of some cavities, In managing these forests, strategies to create man-made cavities where that promote open, “park-like” forest suitable natural cavities are limited, conditions like thinning and pre- and to address short-term problems scribed burning will provide habitat. of isolation and fragmentation. Texas The importance of fire events in the participates in an annual interstate Artificial cavity nest box with restrictor plate installed ecology of the upland pine ecosystem © R. N. Conner effort known as the West Gulf Coastal of Texas, particularly in the herba- Plain RCW Augmentation/Transloca- ridors to existing RCW population ceous/grassy layer of the understory tion Cooperative with the states of centers, this property contains the in these forests, is paramount in Arkansas, Louisiana and Oklahoma. largest number of active RCW groups restoration and conservation of this The purpose of this effort is to on a non-industrial private forest ecosystem. In addition, forest increase RCW populations, and ulti- west of the Mississippi River. This landowners within the habitat of the mately recover all RCW populations landowner’s overall goal is conserva- RCW, can take advantage of the west of the Mississippi River. tion of the RCW and the natural Regional RCW-HCP, the Landowner State and federal agencies are ecology of the property. Their man- Incentive Program and the Partners working with private landowners agement plan includes active forest for Wildlife Programs, for assistance interested in developing Red-cock- management, wildlife management in management of these upland pine aded woodpecker conservation and and recreation management. This habitats. property was awarded a Texas Lones- habitat management plans for their tar Land Steward Award for its property. Conservation planning and efforts. habitat management, providing infor- Red-cockaded Woodpecker 5 Conservation organizations in Texas also welcome your participation and support. Finally, you can encourage and support private landowners who are managing their land to protect endangered species and their habitat. For More Information Contact Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Wildlife Diversity Program 4200 Smith School Road Austin, Texas 78744 (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 or Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Regional Wildlife Diversity Biologist P.O. Box 4655, SFA Station Nacogdoches, Texas 75962 References (936) 564-0234 Carpenter, J. and T. Hayes. 1991. Managing forests for Red-cockaded woodpeckers- or guidelines for private landowners in southeast Texas. Texas Nature Conservancy. Conner, R.N., D.C. Rudolph, D.L. Kulhavy, and A.E. Snow. 1991. Causes of mortality U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of Red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees. J. Wildl. Manage. 55(3):531-537. Ecological Services Field Office Conner, R.N., D.C. Rudolph, and J.R. Walters. 2001. The Red-cockaded wood- 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 pecker: surviving in a fire-maintained ecosystem. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas 78758 Austin, Texas. 363 pp. (512) 490-0057 Conner, R.N. and D.C. Rudolph. 1991. Effects of midstory reduction and thinning or in Red-cockaded woodpecker cavity tree clusters. Wild. Soc. Bull. 19:63-66. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Costa, R. 1992. Draft Red-cockaded woodpecker procedures manual for private East Texas Field Office lands. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Atlanta, GA. 35 pp. 701 N. First Street Hooper, R.G, A.F. Robinson, Jr., and J.A. Jackson. 1980. The Red-cockaded Lufkin, Texas 75901 woodpecker: notes on life history and management. USDA Forest Service, (936) 639-8546 General Report SA-GR 9. Ortego, B., M. Krueger, and E. Barron. 1993. Status and management needs of Red-cockaded woodpeckers on state and private land in Texas. Management guidelines are available Rudolph, D.C. and R.N. Conner. 1991. Cavity tree selection by Red-cockaded from the Texas Parks and Wildlife woodpeckers in relation to tree age. Wilson Bull. 103(3):458-467. Department and U.S. Fish and Rudolph, D.C., R.N. Conner, and J. Turner. 1990. Competition for Red-cockaded Wildlife Service for landowners and woodpecker roost and nest cavities: effects of resin age and entrance diame- managers wishing to manage timber- ter. Wilson Bull. 102(1):23-36. lands to benefit the Red-cockaded Rudolph, D.C., R.N. Conner, R.R. Schaefer, D. Saenz, D.K. Carrie, N.R. Carrie, Woodpecker. R.W. Maxey, W.G. Montague, J. Neal, K. Moore, J. Skeen, and J.A. Reid. 2003. In Press. “Red-cockaded woodpecker status and management: West gulf coastal plain and interior highlands” in R. Costa and S. J. Daniels, eds. Red- cockaded Woodpecker Symposium IV, Hancock House Publishers, Blain, WA. Swepston, D. 1980. Results of Red-cockaded woodpecker research in Texas between 1969 and 1973. Species Report. Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- ment, P-R Project W-103-R-9. Texas Parks and Wildife Department and Texas Forest Service. 2003. Annual report: Regional habitat conservation plan for Red-cockaded woodpecker on private land in the east Texas pineywoods. Endangered Species Permit Number PRT-839172. Texas Parks and Wildife Department and Texas Forest Service. 1999. Annual report: Regional habitat conservation plan for Red-cockaded woodpecker on private land in the east Texas pineywoods. Endangered Species Permit Number PRT-839172. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2003. Recovery plan for the Red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis): Second Revision. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 296 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1985. Red-cockaded woodpecker recovery plan. USFWS, Endangered Species Office, Atlanta, GA. U.S. Forest Service (USFS). 1995. Final environmental impact statement for the management of the Red-cockaded woodpecker and its habitat on national forests in the southern region: Recovery through management. Management Bulletin R8-MB 73. U.S. Forest Service Southern Region, Atlanta, GA. 192 pp.

6 Red-cockaded Woodpecker Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Management Guidelines for the Red-cockaded Woodpecker

Landowners with Red-cockaded the desired basal area. However, sites from foraging areas. Most of the Woodpeckers can implement manage- thinning within a cluster site should foraging acreage should be adjacent to 1 ment practices that enhance survival, not be done if stocking is below (within 300 ft.) or within /4 mile of regardless of the size of their prop- 50 square feet of basal area per acre the cluster site. Thin sapling and erty. However, because these birds of stems 10 inches DBH or larger. pole stands to improve diameter forage over large areas, forest condi- Also, all potential cavity trees (older, growth and open the pine stand to a tions on adjacent land may ultimately relict pines) within the cluster should condition more favorable for the determine the fate of the birds. be retained for replacement cavities. woodpecker. Prescribe burn for hard- On larger tracts, particularly those Do not isolate cluster sites from forag- wood control. When regenerating 200 acres or larger, these birds can ing areas of pines 4 inches or greater stands, plant pines at 10x10 or 12x12 be maintained with greater assur- in diameter. foot spacing to encourage rapid stand Burning or otherwise treating development. Use natural regenera- cluster areas to control midstory vege- tion, such as seed tree, shelterwood, tation is vital. Do not allow midstory and group selection to develop an to exceed 6 feet in height, especially open park-like stand of pines. Favor within 50 feet of the cavity trees. In longleaf pine over loblolly and short- cluster sites lacking past hardwood leaf whenever possible. control, the fuel load may be too great to burn without destroying the Rotation Age cavity trees. In these cases, it may be Generally, the longer the rotation age, necessary to remove them by cutting the greater the opportunity the Red- or use of herbicide. Raking to remove cockaded Woodpecker has to maintain mulch at the base of cavity trees is existing clusters and to create new also helpful in preventing fire dam- ones. Rotation cycles of 80 to 120 age. Regular, periodic prescribed burn- years are encouraged. When it is not ing should be implemented to control feasible to have long rotations over midstory growth and maintain the the entire ownership, setting aside open forest preferred by the birds. smaller acreages of older pines will Pine stands surrounding cluster benefit the bird. Also, leaving old- Prescribed burning sites should be thinned to 50 to growth remnant groups of trees well © Craig Rudolph 80 square feet of basal area per acre. distributed throughout younger stands, Maintain groups of larger pines (10 and maintaining small remnant stands to 12 inches or larger DBH) within or patches of old-growth pines the surrounding forest for future clus- throughout the forest are helpful. ter sites. Leave some dead and abandoned cavity trees of both pine and For More Information hardwood for other cavity nesters, to reduce competition for the Red-cock- Contact aded cavities. Maintain a spacing of For detailed timber management 20 to 25 feet between trees to main- guidelines, private landowners are tain stand vigor and minimize the referred to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife probability of southern pine beetle Service, Draft Red-cockaded Wood- infestation and spread. pecker Procedures Manual for Private Lands, by Ralph Costa. A number of Longleaf pine habitat management options are available for © Brent Ortego Foraging Area Provide adequate foraging habitat to landowners with Red-cockaded Wood- peckers on their land. Contact the ance. Successful management for support existing clusters and to facili- Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Red-cockaded Woodpeckers must do tate establishment of new territories. at (800) 792-1112 (Austin), (512) five things: (1) retain existing cavity A minimum of 3,000 square feet of trees, (2) provide trees for new cavi- pine basal area (10-inch DBH or 912-7011 (Austin), or (409) 564-7145 ties, (3) provide adequate foraging larger) should be provided on at least (Nacogdoches); or the U.S. Fish and habitat, (4) control hardwood and 60 acres and up to 300 acres for each Wildlife Service at (409) 639-8546 pine midstory in the cluster site, and active cluster. Avoid isolating cluster (Lufkin) for more information. (5) provide for future cluster sites.

Cluster Site Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Do not remove or damage active cavity trees. Selective cutting within Red-cockaded Woodpecker cluster sites can be used to maintain Management Guidelines 1 Attwater’s Prairie Chicken Scientific Name: Tympanuchus cupido Federal Status: Endangered, 3/11/67 • State Status: Endangered

Description different heights is optimum. For The hens start coming to the The Attwater’s Prairie Chicken is a example, the birds use short grass booming grounds in late February brownish, strongly black-barred, cover (less than 10 inches in height) and early March. They appear quietly, medium-sized grouse with a short, for courtship, feeding, and to avoid often staying on the edge of the rounded, blackish tail. Males have moisture during heavy dew or after booming ground. When a hen is on long tufts on the sides of the neck, rains. Midgrass areas (10-16 inches the booming ground, the males called pinnae, which point forward in height) are used for roosting and become much more vocal and active. during courtship. Males also have a feeding. Tall grasses (16-24 inches in This increased activity often causes yellow-orange comb above the eyes, height) are needed for nesting, loaf- males not on the ground to fly in and and, on each side of the neck, an ing, feeding, and escape cover. Very start booming. Most mating occurs in area of yellow-orange skin that dense stands of grass are generally early March, with one or two domi- inflates during courtship display. avoided, but are occasionally used for nant males doing the majority of the shade during summer, and as protec- breeding. Booming activity gradually tion against inclement weather and ceases during the last week of April predators. Studies have shown that and the first two weeks of May. By prime habitat consists of tall grass mid May, the males have abandoned prairie dominated by bunchgrasses the booming grounds. such as little bluestem, Indiangrass, Nesting is usually initiated in switchgrass and big bluestem; along early March. Most nests are located with flowering plants such as Ruellia, within one mile of the booming yellow falsegarlic, and ragweed. The ground. The nest is a well-concealed, birds prefer open prairies without shallow depression about eight inches any woody cover, and avoid areas in diameter lined with dry grass and with more than 25% cover of shrubs. feathers from the hen. Hens prefer to Preferred habitat is also characterized nest in mid to tall grass cover with the by knolls and ridges, with the minor grass canopy concealing the nest. Also variations in topography and soils on preferred are areas with openings that these sites resulting in a variety of facilitate walking, including cow trails vegetation types. used for access to their nests. Clutch size ranges from 4 to Life History 15 eggs, with the average being 12 eggs. During the 26 day incuba- Male Attwater’s Prairie Chicken Prairie chicken breeding activity © Jeanne Miller occurs on or near leks. A lek or tion period, the hen leaves the nest booming ground is a specific area only for short periods (45-90 min- typically used year after year. They utes) during the morning and again are usually located on bare ground or in the afternoon to feed nearby (usu- short grass areas which allow the ally within 1/4 mile). The peak of males to be seen by the females. the hatch is in late April to early May. Booming grounds vary in size from If a nest is destroyed, a hen will one-eighth acre to several acres. renest; although renesting attempts They may be naturally occurring are limited because males leave the short grass flats or artificially main- booming grounds by mid-May. Nest- tained areas such as roads, runways, ing losses are often the result of oil well pads, and drainage ditches. predators such as snakes, raccoons, Areas around windmills, ponds, and opossums, skunks, and coyotes, and other cattle concentration areas are flooding of nests. Because of the flat often heavily grazed, and therefore nature of coastal prairie rangeland, provide the short grass cover used for nests and small young are unable to booming sites. Active booming survive heavy rains and flooding. grounds are usually in close proxim- The most detrimental rainfall pattern ity to mid and tall grass cover. for nests is heavy rains in late April Males begin to set up territories and early May. The April rains on the booming grounds in late destroy initial nests, and May rains ruin renesting attempts. Hailstorms Female Attwater’s Prairie Chicken January-February. Fighting ensues © USFWS Gary Montoya when one male enters the territory of and human activities such as shred- another. This fighting early in the ding during the nesting season can Habitat booming season determines the social also destroy nests. Attwater’s Prairie Chickens are found structure of the males on the lek. When the eggs hatch, the hen only in the coastal prairie of Texas. Usually one or two males will be leaves the nest site. She takes her They use different areas of coastal dominant. Booming is usually heard brood into more open areas, since it prairie grassland for various activi- from about daylight to 9 a.m. and in ties; so a mixture of native grasses at the late evening. Attwater’s Prairie Chicken 1 is difficult for young chicks to travel Coastal Prairie. The climax tall grass in dense vegetation, although some plant community with its associated heavy cover is important for escape native wildlife, which existed before areas. The chicks are quite mobile at the influence of European man, was hatching, and can fly short distances ideal habitat for the prairie chicken. by two weeks of age. Heavy or fre- Unfortunately, tall grasses such as big quent rainfall during May is espe- bluestem, little bluestem, and Indian- cially detrimental to young chicks. grass required by prairie chickens for Prairie chickens feed on a wide nesting are also preferred cattle for- variety of plant parts and insects. age. Without proper grazing manage- Potential food sources, both vegeta- ment, continuous intensive grazing by tion and insects, vary by season, loca- livestock will reduce desirable grasses tion, and availability. Studies have and forbs and replace them with a shown that green foliage and seeds plant community unable to support make up most of the diet, whereas the nesting and food requirements of © TPWD insects are important seasonally. The prairie chickens. foliage and seeds of native forbs Also, much coastal prairie range- (flowering plants) are particularly land has been converted to intro- important in the diet. Most com- duced grasses such as coastal monly consumed plants include Ruel- bermudagrass. Over a million acres lia, yellow falsegarlic, upright have been planted to introduced prairie-coneflower, leavenworth vetch, grass pastures in an effort to boost stargrass, bedstraw, doveweed, and livestock production. The conversion ragweed. Predators that feed on was especially rapid from 1940 to prairie chickens include Great-horned 1970, when fertilizer on which intro- Owls, hawks, bobcats and coyotes. duced grass production depends was Insects make up the majority of relatively inexpensive. This was the diet of chicks. The chicks gener- another setback for the prairie ally hatch when insect populations chicken, since introduced grass pas- are high. Hens take their broods to tures do not provide habitat. Coastal tallgrass prairie habitat © David Diamond weedy areas where insect density is The invasion of woody species greatest. such as Chinese tallow and Macartney rose (introduced exotics), wax myrtle, Threats and Reasons Baccharis, running liveoak, huisache, for Decline and mesquite have also contributed Habitat loss and alteration are the to loss of over a million acres of primary reasons for the population coastal prairie habitat. The invasion decline of Attwater’s Prairie Chicken. of brush is the result of overgrazing Loss of habitat due to land use combined with lack of fire. Histori- changes since 1930 are particularly cally, the coastal prairie burned peri- significant. It is estimated that 6 mil- odically. These natural and lion acres of coastal Texas were once man-made fires helped to maintain covered with suitable tall grass healthy and diverse grassland. prairie habitat. Only a few patches of Finally, urbanization and industrial expansion have taken their toll Attwater’s Prairie Chicken chick this immense expanse of prairie © Gary Montoya chicken habitat now remain. Cur- on prairie chicken habitat. Losses rently, it is estimated that less than have been most evident along the 200,000 acres of suitable habitat upper Texas coast. The considerable remain. This represents a 97% loss urban sprawl of Houston, Galveston, of habitat within the historic range, and other coastal cities has led to and a 57% loss since 1937. irreplaceable habitat losses. The loss This loss of habitat has been the of diverse tallgrass prairie has not result of several factors. The biggest only affected the prairie chicken, but single change was brought about by also plants such as Texas windmill- the start of rice production along the grass (Chloris texensis), Texas prairie Gulf Coast. From about 1892 to pre- dawn (Hymenoxys texana), and sent, about two million acres of grass- Houston camphor daisy (Rayjackso- land were converted to rice nia aurea), which have become rare production. components of the ecosystem. Other factors, such as overgraz- In 2003, fewer than 60 birds ing by cattle in some locations and remained in two fragments of habitat conversion of rangeland to intro- located in Galveston and Colorado duced grass pastures have also counties. We must find a way to reduced habitat. High stocking rates reverse the factors contributing to the and continuous grazing over a period loss of tallgrass coastal prairie and the of many years have caused declines life it supports. The Attwater’s prairie chicken now literally stands on the in range condition on parts of the Attwater’s Prairie Chicken nest brink of extinction. Time is running © Mike Morrow out for this spectacular inhabitant of 2 Attwater’s Prairie Chicken our coastal grasslands. Recovery Efforts Nongame and Endangered Species Research is continuing regarding the Conservation Fund and the interaction of limiting factors on Adopt-A-Prairie Chicken Program prairie chicken populations. Efforts to (www.tpwd.state.tx.us/apc). Special provide information and incentives for nongame stamps and decals are private landowners to manage range- available at Texas Parks and Wildlife land for the benefit of prairie chickens Department (TPWD) field offices, as well as livestock are an essential most state parks, and the License part of the recovery process, and Branch of TPWD headquarters in Coastal rice production Austin. The Nature Conservancy of © Gary Montoya many landowners have implemented habitat improvements under the pro- Texas also accepts gifts specifically tection of a Safe Harbor Habitat Con- for Attwater’s prairie-chicken servation Plan developed in 1995. recovery efforts. For more informa- Cooperative habitat management pro- tion, contact the Attwater Prairie jects involving private landowners, Chicken National Wildlife Refuge at Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, (979) 234-3021. and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have made a start at reversing the For More Information devastating habitat losses. Contact An active captive breeding pro- Texas Parks and Wildlife Department gram began in 1993, with the first Wildlife Diversity Branch supplementation of wild populations 4200 Smith School Road accomplished in 1995. The captive Austin, Texas 78744 breeding program continues to (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 expand, with seven zoos or research or facilities producing 131 Attwater’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Prairie Chicken for release in 2002. Ecological Services Field Office Release efforts will continue to sup- 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Industrialization on the Gulf Coast plement wild populations, while con- Austin, Texas 78758 © R. W. Jurries current efforts seek to increase the (512) 490-0057 amount of habitat available to the or species. Reintroduction may also be U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service attempted on restored habitat owned Corpus Christi Ecological Services by willing landowners. Office c/o TAMU-CC, Campus Box 338 Where To Learn More 6300 Ocean Drive, Room 118 About the Attwater’s Corpus Christi, Texas 78412 (361) 994-9005 Prairie Chicken or The best place to visit to learn more The Nature Conservancy’s Texas about prairie chickens is the Attwater City Prairie Preserve website at: Prairie Chicken National Wildlife http://nature.org/wherewework/ Refuge. The refuge is located off F.M. northamerica/states/texas/ 3013 about 6 miles northeast of preserves/texascity.html Eagle Lake, Texas. Management guidelines are available How You Can Help from Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- Introduced grass pasture You can be involved with the conser- ment for landowners and managers © R. W. Jurries vation of Texas’ nongame wildlife wishing to improve habitat for Attwa- resources by supporting the Special ter’s Prairie Chicken.

References Jurries, R. 1979. Attwater’s prairie chicken. Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- ment. Series F.S., No. 18, Project W-100-R. 36 pp. Lehmann, V.M. 1941. Attwater’s prairie chicken, its life history and management. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, North American Fauna No. 57. 65 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Attwater’s prairie chicken recovery plan. Endangered Species Office, Albuquerque, N.M.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Attwater’s Prairie Chicken 3 Management Guidelines for Attwater’s Prairie Chicken

Habitat for the Attwater’s Prairie Grazing Management tion, which is unpalatable for cattle Chicken consists of open tall grass The tall grass prairie evolved under and too dense for prairie chickens. coastal prairie dominated by bunch- grazing by bison and other herbi- Burned areas are often used for grasses such as little bluestem, vores. Carefully managed livestock booming grounds, especially if short Indiangrass, switchgrass, and big grazing is a beneficial tool for main- grass areas are in short supply. Pre- bluestem, along with various flower- taining healthy and diverse tall grass scribed burning also improves plant ing plants. Preferred habitat is char- prairie habitat for prairie chickens. diversity and, in the case of winter acterized by high plant diversity and Cattle recycle nutrients, break up burns, provides succulent food for variations in grass height. homogeneous grass stands, and pro- prairie chickens during the winter vide trails. Prairie chickens are and early spring. Prescribed burning known to nest in proximity of these in occupied habitat should be com- trails and other openings. Grazing pleted by late February; however, also produces a patchy, open cover, when prairie chickens are absent, and a diversity of forbs; which pro- summer burns may be helpful in vide the bulk of the adult prairie restoring prairie that has been heav- chicken’s diet. ily invaded by woody species. Prairie chickens need rangeland Pastures generally need to be in Good to Excellent Condition, with a rested following a prescribed burn to high percentage of decreaser plants allow vegetation to recover without (plants which decrease with continued selective grazing pressure. It may also heavy grazing pressure) such as little be necessary to rest a pasture prior to bluestem and Indiangrass in the plant the planned burn to accumulate composition. Proper stocking and enough grass fuel to accomplish the periodic deferment are the keys to burn objectives. The key to a success- Control of Chinese tallow and baccharis with hydroax preventing overuse of the range and a ful prescribed burning program is to © Matt Wagner decline in range condition. Animal have a detailed written plan and help numbers should be managed to main- from experienced people. Technical tain the proper degree of use (i.e., no assistance with prescribed burning is more than 50% use of annual forage available by contacting the Texas production). Grazing pressure should Parks and Wildlife Department, USDA also be balanced with soil types and Natural Resources Conservation Ser- rainfall. Flexible stocking and timely vice, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, responses to changing environmental The Nature Conservancy of Texas, or conditions are necessary. Implemen- Texas Cooperative Extension. tation of rotational grazing is desir- In summary, prescribed burning able to prevent decline of highly can be used to improve grazing distri- desirable plants through selective bution and forage quality for live- grazing. These desirable tall grasses stock; reduce brush encroachment and forbs provide nesting habitat and and maintain productive grassland; food for prairie chickens. In sum- improve range condition and plant mary, good range management which diversity; and improve availability of achieves maintenance and restoration food, nesting sites, and booming Prescribed burn © TPWD of tall grass prairie (i.e., rangeland in grounds for prairie chickens. Good to Excellent Condition) will ben- Management for Attwater’s efit sustained livestock production Brush Management Prairie Chicken involves good grazing and prairie chickens. Mechanical or chemical brush manage- management and carefully planned ment techniques are often needed to prescribed burning and brush man- Prescribed Burning provide initial control in areas of agement. Range management prac- The coastal tall grass prairie evolved dense, large brush. Prescribed burn- tices aimed at achieving and under the influence of natural and ing is not an option in many of these maintaining Good and Excellent man-caused fires. Prescribed burning, areas because there is not enough Range Condition (i.e., greater than therefore, is an excellent management grass to carry the fire or brush is too 50% climax vegetation present) will tool for maintaining healthy grass- large to be effectively controlled by benefit the prairie chicken, as well as land and improving prairie chicken other plants and animals that share habitat. Periodic burning keeps its habitat, including livestock. woody plant invasion under control. Attwater’s Prairie Chicken It also reduces rank growth of vegeta- Management Guidelines 1 fire. Each brush problem is unique, followed by prescribed burning or already been farmed or otherwise dis- and technical assistance from knowl- herbicide application, depending on turbed, rather than plowing additional edgeable people is helpful. Factors the target species. Prescriptions need grassland. Crops planted should be such as type, density and size of target to be carefully designed to achieve those normally recommended for the species, range site and soils, past his- the best results at the lowest cost. As local area, and could possibly include tory of brush management, and sur- with any range management practice, native forbs and legumes, rice, grain rounding land use must be considered. good grazing management (i.e., sorghum, annual legumes, and cool The right kinds, amounts, and proper stocking and rotational graz- season small grains. Narrow strip application techniques for herbicide ing) is vital to achieving cost effec- plantings are desirable to maximize treatments are important in achiev- tive treatment and improvement in prairie chicken use and minimize ing good control of target species. range condition. Technical assistance waterfowl depredation. Many herbicides are very selective, so in brush management is available Mixtures of native mid and tall choosing the correct formulation of from the Texas Parks and Wildlife bunchgrasses, along with perennial one or more herbicides is very impor- Department, USDA Natural Resources forbs such as Illinois bundleflower, tant for successful treatment of a par- Conservation Service, the U.S. Fish Maximilian sunflower, and Englemann ticular brush problem. Precise and Wildlife Service, and Texas Coop- daisy, should be used if needed for application also saves money and erative Extension. range seeding following mechanical reduces the risk of environmental brush removal or to revegetate for- contamination. In some cases, timing Additional mer cropland fields. Mulching with of application can make the differ- Management Practices native hay can also help reestablish ence between good and poor results. The following management practices native species. The goal is to use As with any chemical, label directions are suggested as ways to further plants, preferably native species, should be strictly followed, including enhance habitat quality. However, which are commercially available and those concerning disposal of rinse the benefits they may provide are locally adapted, to approximate the water and used containers. definitely secondary to the primary species composition and structure of Combining methods of brush goal of providing large areas of high the tall grass prairie. management, such as herbicide or quality prairie habitat for nesting and Finally, mowing can be used to mechanical control and prescribed brood rearing. provide feeding areas and brood burning, is often very effective. For Food plots or weedy areas of habitat, and to control undesirable example, on rangeland infested with three to five acres scattered through- plant growth. Shredding during the Macartney rose, herbicide application out pastures provide an easily avail- nesting and brooding season (March followed by periodic prescribed burn- able food source, although food plots through July 1) should be avoided to ing can provide good results in reduc- probably do not add much to habitat prevent destruction of nests and ing brush and restoring grassland. quality if good prairie habitat is avail- young chicks unable to fly. Mechanical methods such as dozing, able. When planning food plots, it is roller chopping, or shredding can be best to locate them in areas that have

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Attwater’s Prairie Chicken 2 Management Guidelines Whooping Crane Scientific Name: Grus americana Federal Status: Endangered, 6/2/70 • State Status: Endangered

Description of age, white feathers begin to appear only 500 to 1,400 Whooping Cranes The stately Whooping Crane is the on the neck and back. Juvenile feath- inhabited North America in 1870. tallest bird found in North America, ers are replaced through the winter Although the exact number is with males approaching nearly five months. By the following spring, juve- unknown, Whooping Cranes were feet in height. Adult birds are white nile plumage is primarily white, with uncommon, and their numbers overall with some red and black on rusty colored feathers remaining only had rapidly declined by the late the head. Their inner wing feathers on the head, upper neck, and on the 19th century. droop over the rump in a “bustle” tips of wing feathers. Young birds In the mid 1800’s, the principal that distinguishes cranes from herons. generally have adult plumage by late breeding range extended from central With a seven foot wingspan and a in their second summer. Illinois northwestward through north- slow wing beat, Whooping Cranes fly There are a number of birds that ern Iowa, western Minnesota, north- with their long necks and legs fully may appear similar to the Whooping eastern North Dakota, southern extended. When in flight, the birds’ Crane. The Sandhill Crane, the Manitoba and Saskatchewan, to the black wingtips or primary feathers Whooping Crane’s closest relative, is area near Edmonton, Alberta. The gray in color, not white. Also, Sandhill Cranes are Wood Buffalo somewhat smaller, with a National Park wingspan of about five feet. Sandhill Cranes occur in flocks of two to Canada hundreds, whereas Whooping Cranes are most often seen in flocks of two to as many as 10 to 15, although they sometimes migrate with Grays Lake National Main flock Wildlife Refuge Sandhill Cranes. Snow Foster flock Geese and White Pelicans are white birds with black wingtips, however both of Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge these birds have short legs that do not extend beyond the tail when in Bosque del Apache flight. In addition, Snow National Wildlife Refuge Geese generally occur in

large flocks, are much Aransas National smaller, and fly with a Wildlife Refuge rapid wing beat. White Pelicans fly with their neck folded and can be distinguished Whooping Crane disappeared from the by their long yellow bill. Finally, heart of its breeding range in the swans are all white and have short north-central United States by the legs, and herons and egrets fly with 1890’s. The last documented nesting their long necks folded. in southern Canada occurred in Saskatchewan in 1922. By 1937, only Whooping Crane © USFWS Steve Van Riper Status and two small breeding populations Distribution remained; a nonmigratory population can be seen, and their long legs The historical range of the Whooping in southwestern Louisiana and a extend beyond their tail. Their dark Crane extended from the Arctic coast migratory population that wintered on olive-gray beaks are long and pointed. south to central Mexico, and from the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge The area at the base of the beak is Utah east to New Jersey, South Car- (NWR) on the Texas coast and nested pink and the eyes are yellow. The olina, Georgia, and Florida. Distribu- in a location that at the time was Whooping Crane’s call, from which it tion of fossil remains suggests a unknown. The remnant population in derives its name, has been described wider distribution during the cooler, southwestern Louisiana was reduced as a shrill, bugle-like trumpeting. wetter climate of the Pleistocene. from 13 to 6 birds following a hurri- Whooping Crane chicks are a red- Although once numbering above dish cinnamon color. At four months 10,000, it has been estimated that Whooping Crane 1 cane in 1940, and the last individual Although not yet of breeding age, the was taken into captivity in 1950. In birds led south in both 2001 and the winter of 1938-39, only 14 adult 2002 returned north on their own and 4 juvenile Whooping Cranes were the following spring. found on the Aransas NWR. The nesting area of the Aransas Wildlife Habitat Refuge population was discovered in Within Wood Buffalo NP, Whooping 1954 in Wood Buffalo National Park Cranes nest in poorly drained wet- (NP), Northwest Territories, Canada. lands interspersed with numerous This population is the only historical potholes (small areas of open water). one that survives. These wetlands are separated by nar- Whooping Cranes currently exist row ridges that support trees such as in three wild populations and a white and black spruce, tamarack, breeding population kept in captivity. and willows, and shrubs such as The species numbers approximately dwarf birch, Labrador tea, and bear- 420 birds, all in Canada and the berry. Bulrush is the dominant plant United States. The only self-sustaining in areas used by nesting birds, wild population is the one that win- although cattail, sedge, musk-grass Whooping Crane at Aransas National Wildlife Refuge © TPWD Bill Reaves ters on the Texas coast and nests pri- and other aquatic plants are common. marily within Wood Buffalo NP. In Nest sites are often located in the 2002, this population consisted of 50 rushes or sedges of marshes and nesting pairs, with a total of 185 sloughs, or along lake margins. An birds wintering in Texas. abundance of invertebrates, such as In 1975, Whooping Crane eggs mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic were transferred from Wood Buffalo insects have been found in the ponds NP to Grays Lake National Wildlife near occupied nests. Refuge in Idaho and placed in Sand- Whooping Cranes use a variety of hill Crane nests in an effort to estab- habitats during their long migrations lish a migratory population in the between northern Canada and the Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Moun- Texas coast. Croplands are used for tain birds spend the summer in feeding, and large wetland areas are Idaho, western Wyoming, and south- used for feeding and roosting. western Montana, and winter in the Whooping Cranes are known to roost middle Rio Grande Valley of New in riverine habitat along the Platte, Mexico. Reintroductions ended in Middle Loup, and Niobrara Rivers in 1989 after the adult Whooping Nebraska, Cimarron River in Okla- Cranes did not pair up or mate due homa, and the Red River in Texas. to imprinting problems from their The birds often roost on submerged Whooping Crane chick foster Sandhill Crane parents. The sandbars in wide unobstructed chan- © USFWS last Whooping Crane in the flock nels isolated from human disturbance. died in 2002. Whooping Cranes also use large wet- Life History The second persisting wild popu- land areas associated with lakes for Whooping Cranes usually mate for lation in 2003 consisted of approxi- roosting and feeding during migration. life, although they will remate follow- mately 90 birds remaining from over The Whooping Crane’s principal ing the death of their mate. They 250 captive-reared Whooping Cranes wintering habitat consists of about mature at 3 to 4 years of age, and released in central Florida south of 22,500 acres of marshes and salt flats most females are capable of producing Orlando beginning in 1993. These on Aransas National Wildlife Refuge eggs by 4 years of age. It is estimated birds were released as the first step and adjacent publicly and privately that Whooping Cranes can live up to in an effort to establish a non- owned wetlands. Plants such as salt 22 to 24 years in the wild. Captive migratory population in Florida, and grass, saltwort, smooth cordgrass, individuals live 30 to 40 years. in 2002, produced the first whooping glasswort, and sea ox-eye dominate Whooping Cranes begin leaving crane chick born in the wild in the the outer marshes. At slightly higher the Texas coast in late March and United States since 1939. elevations, Gulf cordgrass is more early April, returning to their nesting The third wild population was common. The interior portions of area in Wood Buffalo NP by late initiated in 2001 when several young the refuge are characterized by oak April. Experienced pairs arrive first captive-reared whooping cranes were mottes, grassland, swales, and ponds and normally nest in the same vicin- released in potential nesting habitat on gently rolling sandy soils. Live ity each year. Nesting territories at Necedah National Wildlife Refuge oak, redbay, and bluestems are typi- vary considerably in size, ranging in Wisconsin. The young birds were cal plants found on upland sites. from 0.5 to 1.8 square miles. From trained to migrate to Florida’s Gulf Upland sites have been managed the start of egg laying until the Coast by following ultra light aircraft. using grazing, mowing, and con- chicks are a few months old, the trolled burning. About 14,250 acres birds’ activities are restricted to the of grassland are managed for cranes, breeding territory. Eggs are normally 2 Whooping Crane waterfowl, and other wildlife. laid in late April to mid May, and mally migrate as a single, pair, family flapping, head bowing, and leaps into group, or in small flocks, sometimes the air by one or both birds, increase accompanying Sandhill Cranes. in frequency. These rituals serve to Flocks of up to 10 sub-adults have forge and strengthen pair bonds. Fam- been observed feeding at stopover ily groups and pairs usually depart areas. Whooping Cranes migrate dur- first, normally between March 25 and ing the day, and make nightly stops April 15. The last birds are usually to feed and rest. Although they use a gone by May 1, but occasional strag- variety of habitats during migration, glers may stay into mid-May. During they prefer isolated areas away from the 16-year period between 1938 and human disturbance. 1992, a total of 27 birds have Aerial view of Aransas National Wildlife Refuge © TPWD Whooping Cranes arrive on the remained at Aransas NWR throughout Texas coast between late-October and the summer. Some of these birds were mid-December. They spend almost 6 ill or crippled or mates of birds which months on the wintering grounds at were crippled. and near Aransas NWR. Pairs and Parents separate from their family groups generally occupy and young of the previous year at the defend discrete territories, although beginning of spring migration, while close association with other Whoop- in route to the breeding grounds, or ing Cranes is sometimes tolerated. soon after arrival on the breeding Juveniles stay close to their parents grounds. Most juveniles spend the throughout their first winter. Recent summer near the area where they estimates of territory size average were born. 292 acres. Studies indicate a declining territory size as the wintering Threats and Reasons population increases. Sub adults and for Decline unpaired adults form small flocks and Whooping Cranes gradually disap- Whooping Crane in f light © TPWD Bill Reaves use areas outside occupied territories. peared as agriculture claimed the Sub adult birds often spend the win- hatching occurs one month later. northern Great Plains of the United ter near the territories where they Most nests contain 2 eggs. The eggs States and Canada. Man’s conversion spent their first year. Also, young are light-brown or olive-buff in color of the native prairies and potholes to adult pairs will often locate their first with dark, purplish-brown blotches pasture and crop production made territory near the winter territory of primarily at the blunt end. Whoop- much of the original habitat unsuit- one of their parents. ing Cranes will occasionally renest if able for Whooping Cranes. Rural During the wintering period on their first clutch is destroyed during electrification brought power lines, the Texas coast, Whooping Cranes eat the first half of the incubation period. resulting in an increase in death and a variety of plant and animal foods. They usually nest each year, but occa- serious injury due to collisions. Blue crabs, clams, and the fruits of sionally a pair will skip a nesting sea- Human disturbance has also wolfberry are predominant in the played a role in the decline of the son for no apparent reason. When winter diet. Clams are relatively nesting conditions are unsuitable, Whooping Crane. The birds are wary more important in the diet when on the breeding grounds. They will some pairs do not attempt to nest. water depths are low and blue crabs Whooping Crane parents share tolerate human intrusion for short are less abundant. Most clams and intervals, but will not remain near incubation and brood-rearing duties, small blue crabs (2 inches or less in and one member of the pair remains constant human activity. The mere width) are swallowed whole. Larger presence of humans during settlement on the nest at all times. Females take crabs are pecked into pieces before of the mid-continent and coastal the primary role in feeding and car- being swallowed. prairies may have interfered with the ing for the young. During the first 3 Whooping Cranes feed mostly in continued use of traditional breeding or 4 days after hatching, parents and the brackish bays, marshes, and salt habitat by Whooping Cranes. young return to the nest each night. flats. Occasionally, they fly to upland The Aransas population, the only After that, the young are protected by sites for foods such as acorns, snails, population that is self-sustaining, their parents wherever they happen crayfish, and insects, returning to the remains vulnerable to accidental spills to be during inclement weather or at marshes in the evening to roost. that could occur along the Gulf Intra- nightfall. During the first 20 days Upland sites are more attractive when coastal Waterway. The Intracoastal after hatching, families generally they are flooded by rainfall, burned remain within 1 mile of the nest site. to reduce plant cover, or when food is Waterway carries some of the heaviest Whooping cranes feed by probing less available in the marshes and salt barge traffic of any waterway in the the soil with their bills or taking food flats. Some Whooping Cranes use the world, and it runs right through the items from the soil surface or vegeta- upland parts of the refuge occasion- center of the Whooping Crane winter tion. Parents feed young chicks. ally in most years, but use of crop- range. Much of the cargo is petro- Summer foods include large insect lands adjacent to the refuge is rare. chemical products. Although spill nymphs or larvae, frogs, rodents, As spring approaches, the response plans have been developed, small birds, minnows, and berries. courtship displays for which Whooping Fall migration begins in mid- Cranes are famous begin. These dis- September. Whooping Cranes nor- plays include loud unison calling, wing Whooping Crane 3 an accident resulting in a spill could drought can make navigation haz- potentially destroy Whooping Cranes ardous or reduce food supplies. Colli- or their food resources. sion with utility lines, predators, Records of Whooping Cranes disease, and illegal shooting are other known to have died from gunshot or hazards that affect migrating cranes. other causes from colonial times to 1948 show that about 66% of the Recovery Efforts losses occurred during migration. The comeback story of the Whooping Shooting represented a substantial Crane has been heralded as one of drain on the population, particularly the conservation victories of the 20th from 1870 to 1920. Large and con- Century. The increase and stabiliza- Oil spills are a potential threat spicuous, Whooping Cranes were shot tion of the Aransas/Wood Buffalo © TPWD for both meat and sport. Laws population has been a result of many include evaluating the relationship enacted to protect the birds have led factors, including legal protection, to a decline in human caused mortal- between freshwater inflows, blue habitat protection, and biological crabs and Whooping Cranes. Signifi- ity, but shootings still occur. The research in both the United States most recent known cases involved an cant habitat research has also been and Canada. conducted on the nesting grounds in adult female being mistaken for a In 1975, the U.S. Fish and snow goose near Aransas NWR in Canada. Wildlife Service initiated a migration Prescribed burning is used on 1989, an adult female shot by a van- monitoring program to protect migrat- dal as she migrated northward Aransas NWR to reduce height and ing Whooping Cranes from disease density of grasses, top kill brush, and through Texas in 1991, and two shot outbreaks and other potential haz- by a vandal in Florida in 1990. to modify plant composition on the ards, and to compile information on uplands to make them more attractive Biological factors such as delayed the characteristics of stopover sites. sexual maturity and small clutch size to Whooping Cranes. Burned areas This monitoring program is now coor- are immediately used by the birds. prevent rapid population recovery. dinated with a network of people The major population of Whooping Currently, 15 prescribed burning from the Canadian Wildlife Service, units averaging 1,410 acres in size Cranes is now restricted to breeding U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, States, grounds in northern Canada. This are burned on a 3-year rotation. and Provinces along the migration The most complete count of the may hamper productivity because the corridor. ice-free season is only 4 months, Aransas/Wood Buffalo population is Flightless young Whooping made during the winter. Aerial barely enough time to incubate their Cranes were captured and marked eggs for 29 to 31 days and rear their counts are made weekly throughout with colored plastic leg bands in the winter period, although counts chicks to flight age in the remaining Wood Buffalo NP from 1977 through 3 months. Unless nest loss occurs are made less frequently during mid- 1988. Of the 133 birds banded, 14% winter. These flights provide infor- early in the incubation period, there could still be identified in the spring mation on mortality, habitat use, pair is rarely time to successfully rear a of 2003. This marking program has formation, territory establishment, second clutch if the first clutch fails. provided a wealth of information on and age structure by identifying all Drought during the breeding Whooping Crane biology. A radio color banded birds present. Addi- season presents a serious hazard tracking program, in which miniature tional protection of habitat outside because nest site availability and food radio transmitters were attached to Aransas NWR is provided by the supplies are reduced and newly the color leg bands of young Whoop- National Audubon Society, which hatched chicks are forced to travel ing Cranes banded at Wood Buffalo leases several islands from the State long distances between wetlands. NP, has also yielded valuable informa- of Texas, by Texas Parks and Wildlife Drought also increases the exposure tion concerning migration timing and Department, and by private landown- of eggs and chicks to predators such routes, stopover locations, habitat ers, several of whom have signed con- as ravens, bears, wolverines, foxes, use, social behavior, daily activity, servation agreements to protect and wolves. and causes of death. Recently, tests Whooping Cranes on their property. Although little is known about the of line marking devices have identi- Monitoring of nesting pairs also takes importance of disease and parasites as fied techniques effective in reducing place at Wood Buffalo NP. mortality factors, there have been doc- collisions with utility lines. Construction of the Gulf Intra- umented cases of wild Whooping The wintering territories of coastal Waterway through the marshes Cranes dying of avian tuberculosis, Whooping Cranes on the Texas coast of Aransas NWR in the early 1940’s, avian cholera, and lead poisoning. place the birds in close proximity to and subsequent erosion by wind and Coccidia, a parasite which causes diges- human disturbance factors such as boat wakes, has resulted in 11% loss tive tract disorder, has also been found tour boats, boat and barge traffic of wintering habitat. Between 1989 in wild and captive birds. along the Intracoastal Waterway, and 1992, volunteers placed over Finally, Whooping Cranes are recreational and commercial fishing 57,000 sacks of cement to protect exposed to a variety of hazards and boats, airboats, and air traffic. A 8,752 feet of shoreline. In 1992, the problems during their long migra- number of recent and ongoing studies U.S. Army Corps of Engineers placed tions. Natural events such as snow, have addressed the issue of how 2,013 feet of interlocking cement hail storms, low temperatures, and human disturbance factors might mats to stop erosion. Between 1999 affect wintering birds. Additional and 2001, additional armoring done 4 Whooping Crane research studies currently underway by the Corps protected 15.3 miles of cessful captive breeding program for Cranes as well as migratory waterfowl Whooping Cranes. Although Whoop- and other wildlife. As mentioned ers at Wood Buffalo NP lay two eggs, above, there are a number of commer- usually only one hatches. In most cially operated boat tours, departing years between 1967 and 1996, biolo- from both Rockport/Fulton and Port gists from the United States and Aransas which offer visitors the Canada collected eggs from wild nests chance for a close look at Whooping in order to establish captive popula- Cranes, waterfowl, shorebirds, herons, tions and support reintroduction and hawks. Contact Aransas NWR efforts. Three primary captive breed- (361) 286-3559, Rockport/Fulton ing facilities exist, including Patuxent Chamber of Commerce (800) 242-0071, Erosion control efforts along the Intracoastal Waterway at Aransas National Wildlife Refuge Wildlife Research Center in Maryland, or Port Aransas Chamber of Com- © TPWD the International Crane Foundation in merce (800) 452-6278 for more infor- Wisconsin, and Calgary Zoo in mation. Also, the San Antonio Zoo shoreline within critical habitat of the Alberta, Canada. Additional breeding exhibits captive Whooping Cranes as Whooping Crane. Dredged material deposited from cranes are kept at the San Antonio part of the recovery effort. periodic maintenance of the Intra- Zoo, Texas, and the Audubon Center coastal Waterway has destroyed some for Research on Endangered Species How You Can Help marsh areas and unintentionally cre- in Louisiana. Whooping Cranes migrate over north ated others. In 1991, Mitchell Energy Finally, there is much evidence and east-central Texas on their way to and Development Corporation built a that people value Whooping Cranes. and from Aransas NWR each fall and dike around 10 acres of open shallow Numerous books, magazine articles, spring. The birds are particularly bay, filled the area with dredge mate- television programs, and nature docu- vulnerable to human disturbance and rial, and planted it to wetland vegeta- mentary films have been produced other hazards during this migration tion. Whooping Cranes began using about this magnificent bird. Each period. They sometimes stop in the area the following winter. In year 70,000 to 80,000 people visit fields or wetlands near rivers or lakes 1993 and 1995, Mitchell Energy built Aransas NWR, most during the win- to feed or rest. If you see migrating 20 more acres of marsh adjacent to ter. These visitors spend a significant Whooping Cranes, view them from a the first area. In 1995, the Corps of amount of money locally on lodging, distance and be careful not to disturb Engineers created nearly 50 acres of gasoline, and supplies. In 2003, them. Report sightings to the Texas marsh. The Corps has plans to create three large tour boats operating out Parks and Wildlife Department an additional 1,500 acres of marsh of Rockport/Fulton offered trips to ([email protected] or using dredged material beneficially view Whooping Cranes along the Gulf 1-800-792-1112) or the U.S. Fish and over the next 50 years. Intracoastal Waterway. Approxi- Wildlife Service. Remember that Several efforts have been initi- mately 10,000 people took these harassing, shooting, or attempting to ated to establish new populations of tours, paying an average of $30 per capture a Whooping Crane is a viola- Whooping Cranes as a means of safe- ticket, for a total seasonal amount of tion of Federal Law. If you find a guarding the species against a cata- $300,000. The city of Rockport esti- dead or injured bird, report it imme- strophe in the Aransas/Wood Buffalo mates that wildlife-related activities diately to one of the numbers listed population. The effort in Idaho used result in annual gross economic bene- below or to your local game warden. Sandhill Cranes as foster parents to fits of $6 million to the local econ- Since injured Whooping Cranes are incubate Whooping Crane eggs, raise omy. Some of these benefits result delicate and require special care, you the chicks, and teach them migration from the nearby presence of Whoop- should quickly contact a representa- paths to New Mexico. Foster-parent- ing Cranes. The possibility of sight- tive of Texas Parks and Wildlife or ing has proved to be an unsuitable ing Whooping Cranes, along with technique, however, as imprinting led U.S. Fish and Wildlife and carefully large numbers of migrating Sandhill follow their instructions. to problems for the Whoopers in Cranes, is an additional attraction to establishing pair bonds. An effort in You can be involved in the con- tourists in other areas of the United Florida is using techniques developed servation of Texas’ nongame wildlife States. For example, approximately successfully with the endangered Mis- resources by supporting the Special 80,000 people visit the Platte River sissippi Sandhill Crane to try to Nongame and Endangered Species area of Nebraska each year during establish a non-migratory flock of Conservation Fund. Special nongame the peak of spring crane migrations, Whooping Cranes. Meanwhile, new stamps and decals are available at techniques for establishing a second spending approximately $15 million. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department migratory population continue to be The Chamber of Commerce of Grand (TPWD) Field Offices, most State explored. In 2001 and 2002, 23 Island, Nebraska has responded by Parks, and the License Branch of Whooping Crane chicks were cos- sponsoring an annual festival, “Wings TPWD headquarters in Austin. Some tume-raised and flown behind an over the Platte,” to further promote of the proceeds from the sale of these ultralight aircraft from Wisconsin to this interest in birds. items are used to conserve habitat Florida. In the spring of 2003, the and provide information concerning 16 surviving birds led south by ultra- Where To See rare and endangered species. Conser- light returned to their summer rein- Whooping Cranes vation organizations such as the troduction site on their own. Visit Aransas National Wildlife Refuge Whooping Crane Conservation Associ- These reintroduction efforts near Austwell, Texas during November have been made possible by a suc- through March to see Whooping Whooping Crane 5 ation, National Audubon Society, Inter- national Crane Foundation, and The Nature Conservancy of Texas also welcome your participation and support. For More Information Contact Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Wildlife Diversity Branch 4200 Smith School Road Austin, Texas 78744 (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 or U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Ecological Services Field Office 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Austin, Texas 78758 (512) 490-0057 or U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Corpus Christi Ecological Services Field Office c/o TAMU-CC, Campus Box 338 6300 Ocean Drive, Room 118 Corpus Christi, Texas 78412 (361) 994-9005 or Aransas National Wildlife Refuge P.O. Box 100 Austwell, Texas 77950 (361) 286-3559

References Allen, R.P. 1952. The Whooping crane. National Audubon Society Resource Report 3. 246 pp. Bishop, M.A. and D.R. Blankinship. 1982. “Dynamics of subadult flocks of Whooping cranes at Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Texas, 1978-1981.” Pages 180-189, in J.S. Lewis, eds. Proceedings 1981 International Crane Work- shop. National Audubon Society, Tavernier, Florida. Mabie, D.W., L.A. Johnson, B.C. Thompson, J.C. Barron, and R.B. Taylor. 1989. Responses of wintering Whooping cranes to airboat and hunting activities on the Texas coast. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17(3):249-253. Mirande, C., R. Lacy, and U. Seal (Ed.). 1991. Whooping crane (Grus americana) - conservation viability assessment workshop report. Captive Breeding Special- ist Group (CBSG/SSC/IUCN), Apple Valley, MN. 119 pp. Slack, R.D. and H. Hunt. 1987. Habitat use by Whooping cranes and Sandhill cranes on the Aransas Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Con- tract No. 14-16-0002-82-220. 146 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Whooping Crane Recovery Plan. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 76 pp.

6 Whooping Crane Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Eastern Brown Pelican Scientific Name: Pelecanus occidentalis occidentalis Federal Status: Endangered, 10/13/70 • State Status: Endangered The Eastern Brown Pelican has recovered sufficiently in Florida, Alabama, and the United States Atlantic coast to be delisted. Although numbers are increasing in Louisiana and Texas, it is currently still listed as Endangered in Texas and Louisiana.

Description Distribution groves and other woody vegetation. With its 6-foot wingspread and 18- and Habitat Part of the Texas population spends the nonbreeding season along the inch bill with pouch along the under- Historically, the Brown Pelican was Texas coast, while others migrate side, no other bird could be easily found in large numbers along the south to spend the winter along the mistaken for this unique seashore Atlantic and Gulf coasts from South eastern coast of Mexico. dweller. Possessing broad wings and Carolina to Florida and west to Texas. a bulky body, a Brown Pelican weighs Today, the birds occur throughout about 9 pounds. A graceful flier, the their historic range but their numbers Life History pelican’s powerful wingbeat is one of have been greatly reduced. It is quite an experience to watch a the slowest among birds. Its feet are The earliest population estimate Brown Pelican feeding. Soaring over- webbed to provide power while of Brown Pelicans in Texas was that head, the bird spots a fish near the swimming in or under the water. of Sennett in 1879, who estimated surface and keeps it in sight. Rotat- 5,000 adults nesting on two islands ing into a dive, the pelican plunges in Corpus Christi Bay. By 1918, the 30 to 60 feet bill-first into the water. estimated number was 5,000 birds The impact of hitting the water with nesting on the entire Texas coast. such force would stun an ordinary The numbers continued to decline bird, but the Brown Pelican is sharply from about 1,034 breeding equipped with air sacs just beneath birds on the central coast in 1939 to the skin to cushion the blow. As it only 50 birds in 1964. During the enters the water, the loose skin on period 1967-1974, the Texas popula- the underside of the bill extends to tion was estimated to be less than 100 birds, with fewer than 10 breeding pairs. Only 40 young were fledged on the entire Texas coast during this period. Today, Brown Pelicans are found along the Texas coast from Chambers County on the upper coast to Cameron County on the lower coast. Most of the breeding birds nest on Pelican Island in Corpus Christi Bay and Sundown Island

Brown Pelican near Port O’Connor, both Nesting Range © TPWD Glen Mills National Audubon Society Sanctuaries. Smaller Migratory and Nonbreeding adults have a white groups or colonies occa- Potential head and neck, often washed with sionally nest on Bird Nesting Range yellow; a grayish-brown body; and a Island in Matagorda Bay, dark brown to black belly. In a series of older spoil islands in West form a scoop net with an amazing breeding birds, the back of the neck is Matagorda Bay, Dressing Point Island capacity of 2.5 gallons. If the dive is a dark chestnut color with a yellow in East Matagorda Bay, and islands in successful, the pelican quickly drains patch at the base of the foreneck. Aransas Bay. Pelican numbers have the water from its pouch and tosses Some breeding birds develop red or increased slowly from very low levels its head back to swallow the fish. plum colored pouches. Adults molting in the 1960’s and 1970’s to an esti- Brown Pelicans can often be during incubation and chick-feeding mated 2,400 breeding pairs in 1995. seen flying in formation with slow have cream-colored heads and necks. Brown Pelicans nest on small, powerful wingbeats, searching the Juveniles are grayish-brown above isolated coastal islands where they are water for Menhaden and Mullet, with whitish underparts. Young birds safe from predators such as raccoons which form the major portion of appear more brown in color as they and coyotes. Nesting habitat ranges age, acquiring adult plumage by their from mud banks and spoil islands to third year. offshore islands covered with man- Eastern Brown Pelican 1 their diet. Several studies of food food. It is estimated that pelican num- habits have shown that the diet of bers declined by more than 80% in Brown Pelicans consists almost just 16 years, between 1918 and 1934. entirely of these fish. In one study, Even more damaging, however, Menhaden was by far the most preva- was the widespread use of DDT and lent fish found regurgitated and left similar insecticides beginning in the lying in pelican colonies. Since game- late 1940’s. These insecticides were fish considered desirable by fisher- used on farmlands across the United man are not typically included in the States and in coastal areas to control pelican’s diet, the birds do not com- mosquitoes. DDT does not usually pete with man for food. kill adult birds, but it does interfere Brown Pelicans breed in the with calcium metabolism. The result spring, building their nests in man- is that the birds lay thin-shelled eggs grove trees or on the ground. Nests that break during incubation or are vary greatly in size and structure, con- too thin to protect the embryo. Peli- sisting of piles of sticks, grass, reeds cans are fish eaters, and fish are and other available vegetation. Peli- great accumulators of all toxic chemi- cans usually lay two to four white cals that get into coastal waters. The eggs which are often stained brown pelican’s favorite food, Menhaden, a Brown Pelican with young © TPWD by nest materials. The young hatch in small filter-feeding fish, trap plankton about 30 days. Newly hatched peli- for food. The plankton absorbed DDT cans appear helpless indeed, with residues from runoff. Thus, the con- their black, featherless, leathery skin. centration of DDT and Endrin in the They are blind at first and completely environment had a devastating dependent upon their parents for impact on the reproduction of Brown food and protection. Until the young Pelicans, along with other top-of-the- birds develop a coat of down, about food-chain birds such as Bald Eagles, two weeks after hatching, it is often Ospreys, and Peregrine Falcons. necessary for the adults to shade Recovery of these species has been them from the direct rays of the sun, steady since the early 1970’s, when which can be fatal. DDT and Endrin were banned in the Young pelicans are fed by both United States. parents. Using its pouch as a feeding In Texas today, the major threats trough, the adult regurgitates semidi- to the continued recovery of the gested fish into it for the young to Brown Pelican appear to be human eat. As the young pelicans grow, they disturbance and loss of nesting habi- reach farther into the pouch, occa- tat. Pelicans need safe places to nest, sionally reaching down the parent’s away from predators and man. Many throat for food. The young are fed former nesting sites have become for about nine weeks. During this accessible to both due to new con- time, each nestling will devour about struction and siltation. The hope is 150 pounds of fish. The parents that as the pelican population spend most of every day catching fish expands, the birds will colonize the to satisfy the ravenous appetites of more remote islands still available as their offspring. nesting sites. Although mortality from predators, weather, and accidents is high Ongoing Recovery for hatchlings, once on their own, Efforts Brown Pelicans have a fairly long life The National Audubon Society, U.S. span. Adult survival approaches 80% Fish and Wildlife Service, and Texas per year, and some birds live 30 Parks and Wildlife Department have Brown Pelican in non-breeding plumage years or longer. combined forces to count, band, and © TPWD Leory Williamson inspect the Brown Pelican nesting existing colonies and surveying the Threats and Reasons colonies. Brown Pelicans banded on bays for possible new nesting sites. for Decline the central Texas coast have been One recently developed technique Brown Pelican numbers in Texas reported from the Louisiana coast, involves placing pelican decoys near began to decline sharply in the 1920’s Mobile Bay, Alabama, Naples, Florida, suitable islands in an effort to estab- and 1930’s, when adult birds were and the northeastern coast of lish new nesting colonies. killed and nesting colonies destroyed Yucatan. Researchers are studying Also, individuals from Texas Parks by fishermen, in the mistaken belief the migration patterns of Brown Peli- and Wildlife Department and the that pelicans compete with man for cans, particularly movements between National Audubon Society regularly Texas and Mexico. patrol the nesting islands to help mini- Biologists continue to monitor mize the effects of human disturbance. 2 Eastern Brown Pelican the nesting success of pelicans at Many of the islands are owned or any time is illegal. The Endangered Nongame and Endangered Species Species Act provides protection for Conservation Fund. Special nongame listed species against any action that stamps and decals are available at significantly disrupts normal behavior Texas Parks and Wildlife Department patterns, including breeding, feeding, (TPWD) Field Offices, most State Parks, or sheltering. and the License Branch of TPWD head- Occasionally, a Brown Pelican will quarters in Austin. Part of the pro- mistake a fishing lure or bait for a ceeds from the sale of these items are swimming fish and accidently gets used to conserve habitat and provide hooked. If this happens to you, don’t information concerning rare and just cut the line and leave the bird endangered species. Conservation with trailing line that can entangle Passports, available from Texas Parks and kill it. Gently reel the pelican in. and Wildlife, are valid for one year Even though pelicans are big birds, and allow unlimited access to most they are not that strong, and this is State Parks, State Natural Areas, and easy to do. Grab the bill first and Wildlife Management Areas. Conserva- then fold the wings up to restrain the tion organizations in Texas also wel- bird. Next, remove all fishing line and come your participation and support. try to remove the hook. Cut the barb or push the hook through, just as you For More Information would for a person. If the hook is Contact impossible to remove, leave it in and Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Banding pelicans release the bird. Endangered Resources Branch © TPWD For years, pelicans reared in 4200 Smith School Road leased by the National Audubon Soci- Texas have been banded. If you see a Austin, Texas 78744 ety as colonial waterbird nesting sanc- pelican with a colored plastic band or (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 tuaries. These islands are regularly an aluminum U.S. Fish and Wildlife or posted and patrolled. Service band on its leg, note which U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service leg, the color of the band, the date, Ecological Services Field Office Where To See and the location. Send a post card to: 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Brown Pelicans Bird Banding Laboratory, U.S. Fish and Austin, Texas 78758 Matagorda Island and Mustang Island Wildlife Service, Laurel, Maryland, (512) 490-0057 State Parks and Padre Island National 20811. This valuable information will or Seashore offer visitors the opportunity help biologists to better understand National Audubon Society to see and learn more about Brown the life cycle and movements of Brown P.O. Box 5052 Pelicans. Public piers and jetties, such Pelicans in Texas. Brownsville, Texas 78523 as those in Port Aransas, are also good You can be involved in the con- (210) 541-8034 places to watch pelicans. servation of Texas’ nongame wildlife resources by supporting the Special What You Can Do To Help Brown Pelicans and other colonial nesting birds (herons, egrets, spoonbills, ibis, terns, gulls, and skimmers) nest on islands. Islands offer protection from predators, but the birds are still vulnerable to human disturbance. Since the hot sun can kill small chicks and embryos in unhatched eggs in a matter of minutes if the adults are References flushed from the nests, you can help King, K.A. and E.L. Flickinger. 1977. The decline of Brown pelicans on the by staying off islands where birds are Louisiana and Texas gulf coast. The Southwestern Naturalist 21(4):417-431. nesting. Islands maintained as bird Mabie, David. 1990. Brown pelican/Reddish egret colony monitoring. Texas Parks sanctuaries are identified with posted and Wildlife Department Section 6 Report. Project W-125-R-1, Job. No. 9.4. 4 pp. signs. Boaters wishing to observe the Texas Parks and Wildlife Magazine: birds should bring binoculars and stay Paul R.T. “Pelican comeback.” March 1977. behind designated signs so as not to Middleton, R. “On the way back.” November 1984. disturb the birds. And whatever you U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1979. Eastern Brown pelican recovery plan. do, don’t get off the boat. Pelicans Endangered Species Office, Atlanta, Georgia. (and other birds) will become agitated and leave their nests if approached. Remember that state and federal laws Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. protect nongame and endangered species, and harassing the birds at Eastern Brown Pelican 3 Eskimo Curlew Scientific Name: Numenius borealis Federal Status: Endangered, 3/11/67 • State Status: Endangered

Description decurved. Other differences include north. Historic reports tell of the The Eskimo Curlew is a small shore- a rich cinnamon color to the upper- skies being full of Eskimo Curlews as bird, about 12 inches in length, with parts and underwing in Eskimo they migrated through the prairie a slightly decurved bill. It closely Curlew, as opposed to lighter grayish- states and provinces. A single flock resembles its larger relative, the brown upperparts and dark, heavily alighting in Nebraska was said to Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), barred underwing in Whimbrels. have covered 40 to 50 acres of which is about 17 inches in length. Also, although both species have ground. In the fall, massive flocks of The Eskimo Curlew has a thin bill brown head stripes, the Eskimo these birds gathered on the east coast which is slightly decurved, whereas Curlew’s head is less strongly pat- of Canada to prepare for their trans- the Whimbrel has a bill which is terned, with an indistinct central Atlantic flight to South American win- thick at the base and strongly crown stripe, whereas the Whimbrel tering grounds. Reminiscent of the has contrasting brown and buff immense flocks of Passenger Pigeons, stripes on the head. The call of the Eskimo Curlews (commonly called Eskimo Curlew has been described as prairie pigeons) may have been sec- soft, twittering whistles. ond in abundance only to the Lesser Golden-Plover among some 50 species Distribution and of North American shorebirds. Current Status During the last half of the 19th Thought to be very close to extinc- century, the Eskimo Curlew experi- tion, the Eskimo Curlew was once enced a decline from great abundance abundant. In the mid-1800’s, huge to great scarcity. Unregulated hunt- flocks migrated north from South ing during the late 1800’s, and loss America to their nesting grounds in of grassland habitat along the North the Alaskan and Canadian Arctic, for- American migration route and on aging on North American prairie South American wintering grounds, grasslands as they made their way are thought to be the main reasons Eskimo Curlew for the decline. © TPWD Only about 70 Eskimo Curlews have been seen anywhere in the last 50 years. They have not been reported with certainty in at least 30 of the last 86 years. Since 1916, sightings have most often been one or two birds at a time, and have always been of fewer than 25 birds at one time. The most recent sightings include one bird on the Platte River in Nebraska in mid-April 1987, at least two more along the Texas coast in late April and early May 1987, and a pair nesting in the Canadian Arctic in late May 1987. There may be no more than a few hundred Eskimo Curlews alive today. Habitat Like most birds with extensive migration routes, Eskimo Curlews use a variety of habitats. From breeding grounds on the grassy Arctic tundra, to fall concentration areas on the barren, low hills of Labrador, to wintering grounds on the Pampas grasslands of Argentina, Eskimo Curlews were found in open grass-

Eskimo Curlew 1 lands, fields, and wetlands. Recently the United States, Bermuda, and the Occasionally, severe storms along the burned prairies and marshes were eastern islands of the West Indies. northeastern coast of the United particularly attractive to migrating Spring migration began in late States caused migrating curlews to curlews on midwestern grasslands. February, with the birds heading land on the coast of Massachusetts, Eskimo Curlews were once northwestward from the wintering where they were rapidly killed. They abundant on the Texas prairies dur- area. Although not well documented, were also hunted on the South Ameri- ing their spring migration from it is believed the migration took them can winter range. South America to breeding areas in across the Andes, Chile, the Pacific In 1916, hunting in the United the Arctic. Early observers describe Ocean, Guatemala, and the Gulf of States was stopped by the Migratory the Eskimo Curlew as frequenting Mexico to the coasts of Texas and Bird Treaty Act. Although other mainly the plains and prairies, both Louisiana. They arrived on the Texas shorebirds with similar migration, in the interior and coast region. Like Gulf coast in early March. From breeding and wintering ranges recov- many shorebirds, it was found near Texas and Louisiana, the birds moved ered after hunting was prohibited, lakes, ponds, sloughs, and streams, northward through the American the Eskimo Curlew did not. Conver- but also ranged into dry prairies tallgrass prairie, arriving at the sion of native grasslands to cropland located away from water. Historical Arctic breeding grounds before the in the main wintering area in South observations on Galveston Island sug- end of May. America, and along the migration gest that Eskimo Curlews fed over Regarding the Eskimo Curlew’s route through the tall grass prairie of wide areas of sand flats, shallow Texas migration range, Oberholser the United States, coincided with the ponds, and grassy patches, as well as noted that the species has been seen population decline. This loss of well-drained, gently rolling grazed in Eliasville, Lampasas, Ft. Stockton, grassland habitat has continued to pastures, with grass about 3 to Boerne, and San Antonio. He also the present and is thought to be the 4 inches high. noted observations at Brownsville, reason for failure of the species to North Padre Island, Corpus Christi, recover. Although the Arctic tundra Life History Galveston Island, Long Point, Rice, may still provide enough crowberries Most of what we know today about Gainesville, Clarksville, and Victoria, and blueberries for energy storage for the biology of the Eskimo Curlew Calhoun, and Wise Counties. fall migration, the South American comes from accounts written in the The primary food of Eskimo and North American grasslands, now late 1800’s. These birds formerly Curlew in late summer on Arctic tun- largely cultivated, may not provide nested in the Arctic tundra of north- dra, and at the migration staging area enough suitable insect foods during western Canada between the MacKen- in Labrador, was crowberry and blue- winter and early spring to allow the zie and Coppermine Rivers. They berry. Ants were also consumed on curlews to travel their long tradi- probably also nested in the Alaskan the tundra breeding grounds. A tional migration routes and then tundra west to the Bering Sea. Early small species of snail, abundant on breed successfully. scientists described the Eskimo rocks in the intertidal areas of south- Other factors that may have Curlew’s nest as a shallow depression ern Labrador was also extensively played a role in the population in the ground on open Arctic tundra. eaten. During spring migration, decline include unusually cold Nests were sparsely lined with grasshoppers and their eggs were an weather on the nesting grounds, decayed leaves and dried grasses. important food item. Egg pods and severe storms over the Atlantic Ocean There were usually 4 eggs to a clutch. emerging young grasshoppers were during fall migration, pesticide use The eggs blended with the color of obtained by probing grassland sod. on grasslands, and loss of habitat the grass, being dark green to brown- On plowed land, the birds fed on along the Gulf Coast due to urban ish-green in color with brown white grubs and cutworms. and industrial development. blotches. Nests were found from late May through mid-June. Threats and Reasons Recovery Efforts Fall migration began in July, and for Decline Encouraged by recent sightings, biolo- was in a southeasterly direction from There is overwhelming evidence that, gists with the governments of the the breeding grounds to feeding and between 1870 and 1890, unrestricted United States, Canada, and Argentina, staging areas on the coast of south- hunting and excessive killing by mar- along with several conservation orga- ern Labrador. After a brief stopover ket hunters drastically and rapidly nizations have begun efforts to save to fatten on crowberries and blueber- reduced populations of Eskimo the Eskimo Curlew from extinction. ries, the birds began their southward Curlew. Considered a table delicacy, In Texas, efforts are underway to migration. They flew via Newfound- the Eskimo Curlew was killed by the characterize habitat for confirmed and land and Nova Scotia, over the thousands by market hunters, just as possible sightings of Eskimo Curlews. Atlantic Ocean, directly to eastern the Passenger Pigeon had been years The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and South America. The first curlew earlier. The curlew’s lack of fear and Texas Parks and Wildlife Department arrived on the wintering grounds of its habit of travelling in large flocks are cooperating in efforts to inform Uruguay and southern Argentina in made it an easy target for market the public about the status of the September. Occasionally, Eskimo hunters. Eskimo Curlews were partic- Eskimo Curlew and enlisting their Curlews were forced by severe storms ularly vulnerable during northward help in reporting sightings. to land on the north Atlantic coast of spring migration through the midwestern prairies of the United States, How You Can Help and to a lesser degree during fall Rare sightings of the Eskimo Curlew 2 Eskimo Curlew migration in southeastern Labrador. in Texas would most likely occur near the Texas coast in March and April. If Texas Parks and Wildlife Department you believe you have seen an Eskimo (TPWD) Field Offices, most State Curlew, please report your sighting to Parks, and the License Branch of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service TPWD headquarters in Austin. Part (USFWS) or Texas Parks and Wildlife of the proceeds from the sale of these Department (TPWD) in Austin at the items are used for endangered species telephone numbers listed below. You habitat management and public infor- may also contact the USFWS in mation. Conservation organizations Arlington (817) 885-7830, Houston in Texas also welcome your participa- (713) 286-8282, or Corpus Christi tion and support. Finally, you can (512) 888-3346; or the TPWD in Cor- encourage and support efforts to con- pus Christi (512) 993-4492. Be sure serve and properly manage coastal to record notes concerning appear- prairie grasslands in Texas. ance, behavior, habitat being used, location, associated bird species, and For More Information local weather conditions. Take a pho- Contact tograph if possible, or record the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department bird’s call. Observe the bird for as Endangered Resources Branch long as possible to be sure of your 4200 Smith School Road identification, but keep disturbance to Austin, Texas 78744 a minimum. (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 You can be involved in the con- or servation of Texas’ nongame wildlife U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service resources by supporting the Special Ecological Services Field Office Nongame and Endangered Species 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Conservation Fund. Special nongame Austin, Texas 78758 stamps and decals are available at (512) 490-0057

References Aldrich, J. 1978. Eskimo curlew. Unpublished report of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 11 pp. Atkinson, S.F., G.M. Church, and D.M. Shaw. 1991. Characterization of historical Eskimo curlew habitat in Texas. Institute of Applied Sciences, Center for Remote Sensing and Landuse Analysis, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas. 39 pp. Bent, A.C. 1962. Life histories of north american shorebirds, part 2. Dover Pub- lications, New York, N.Y. Eubanks, T.L. and G.F. Collins. 1993. The status of the Eskimo curlew along the upper Texas coast. Unpublished report of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Technical Services, Order #2018110522. Iversen, E.H. 1976. On the brink of extinction. Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- ment 34(3):24-26. Oberholser, H.C. 1974. The bird life of Texas, Vol. 1. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas. 530 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990. Have you seen an Eskimo curlew? Endangered Species Office, Grand Island, Nebraska.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Eskimo Curlew 3 Piping Plover Scientific Name: Charadrius melodus Federal Status: Threatened in Northern Great Plains and Atlantic Coast, endangered in Great Lakes. • State Status: Threatened

Description reduced, remnant populations occur passes are also important feeding The Piping Plover is a small, stocky throughout the historic range. Cur- areas, especially along the upper shorebird about 7 inches long with a rently, Piping Plovers breed on sandy Texas coast. Piping Plovers also feed wingspan of about 15 inches. Adults beaches along the Atlantic Coast from on beaches, especially when high have a sand-colored upper body, Canada to North Carolina, along the tides cover the flats. white undersides, and orange legs sand and gravel shores of Lakes Michi- Piping Plovers often roost on throughout the year. A white rump, gan, Huron and Superior in Michigan, beaches huddled down in the sand, which is visible in flight, distin- and along Lakes Superior and Michi- or behind driftwood or clumps of guishes this species from other small gan in Wisconsin, and on river sand- seaweed and other debris. They plovers. During the breeding season, bars and islands, barren shorelines of also roost among debris in wash-over adults acquire a dark narrow breast inland lakes, and alkali wetlands in passes created by hurricanes and band, a dark strip across the fore- the northern Great Plains of Canada storms on barrier islands and head, and a black-tipped orange bill. and the United States. They winter peninsulas. The breast band is sometimes incom- primarily along Gulf Coast beaches plete, especially in females. Juveniles from Florida to Mexico, along the are similar to nonbreeding adults in Atlantic Coast from North Carolina to appearance. Florida, and on Caribbean islands. Sightings of color-banded Piping Plovers indicate that most of the birds from the Great Plains and Great Lakes breeding populations spend the winter along the Gulf Coast and adjacent barrier islands. However, some birds from the Atlantic Coast breeding population also winter along the Gulf Coast. Piping Plovers spend more than 70% of the year on the wintering grounds. Win- ter habitat includes beaches, sand flats, mudflats, algal mats, emergent sea grass beds, wash-over passes, and Piping Plover © USFWS J.P. Mattsson very small dunes where seaweed (Sargassum) or other debris has Life History Although post-breeding birds accumulated sand. Spoil islands Piping Plovers spend about 3 to lose the dark bands and orange bills, along the Intracoastal Waterway are 4 months on their breeding grounds they can be distinguished from also used by wintering plovers. in the northern United States and Snowy Plovers (Charadrius alexan- Texas is estimated to winter more southern Canada, including St. Pierre drinus) by their shorter bill and than 35% of the known population and Miquelon off the coast of New- bright orange legs. Compared with of Piping Plovers. foundland. They begin arriving from the Semipalmated Plover (Charadrius Wintering Piping Plovers in the wintering areas in mid-April. semipalmatus), the Piping Plover’s Texas prefer bare or very sparsely Courtship behavior includes aerial back is paler and more sand-colored. vegetated tidal mudflats, sand flats, or flights, digging of several nest algal flats – areas which are periodi- scrapes, and ritualized stone tossing. Distribution cally covered with water and then Piping Plovers are monogamous, and Habitat exposed either by tides or wind. The but mate-switching may occur both The Piping Plover is a migratory North soft sand or mud is rich with poly- during the breeding season and American shorebird. Historically, chaete worms, a primary food of Pip- between years. Piping Plovers were common in cer- ing Plovers. The extensive wind-tidal Plover nests are shallow depres- tain habitats along the Atlantic and flats in the Laguna Madre of the lower sions in the sand, frequently lined Gulf coasts, along the river systems coast are often covered with blue- with small pebbles or shell fragments. and lakes of the Northern Great Plains green algae, which supports large The nest cups are about an inch deep and Great Lakes region, and in the numbers of insects and other inverte- Bahamas and West Indies. Although brates eaten by plovers. Tidal flats populations have been drastically formed at the base of jetties and tidal Piping Plover 1 and 2.5 inches in diameter. Females are non-breeders. When the plovers lay 4 eggs, which are gray to pale are on the wintering grounds, the sand-colored with a few dark spots. numbers of plovers that are detected The eggs blend almost perfectly with is generally correlated with seasonal the sand, making them very difficult high tides. Seasonal high tides cover to see. Both parents incubate the extensive flats that would otherwise eggs for about 27 days. Most adults be available to the birds during peri- raise only one brood per year, and ods of low tide, pushing foraging occasionally they will renest if their plovers into areas that are more visi- nest is destroyed. ble to the public and researchers. Eggs begin to hatch from late Sightings of banded Piping May to mid-June. The chicks can feed Plovers on the wintering grounds sug- themselves within hours after hatch- gest that they show some site fidelity, ing. Both parents attend the young. returning to the same stretch of Broods generally remain on the nest- beach year after year. On the lower Wintering habitat along the Texas coast © TPWD Leroy Williamson ing territory, expanding their move- Texas coast, individual plovers are ments as they mature or are known to use areas about 3,000 acres disturbed. The young are able to fly in size, moving 2 miles or more about 30 to 35 days after hatching. between foraging sites as tidal move- Females commonly leave broods ments shift the availability of produc- when the young are 14 to 20 days of tive tidal flats. age, but males often remain with On the wintering grounds, the them until after they have reached diet of the Piping Plover consists of flight age. marine worms, flies, beetles, spiders, The Piping Plover’s activity crustaceans, mollusks, and other (home range) during the breeding small marine animals and their eggs season is limited to the section of and larvae. Plovers are visual preda- lakeshore or beach on which the nest tors. Therefore, they feed primarily Feeding is located. Both adults defend an during the day, but may also feed at © TPWD Glen Mills area (territory) surrounding the nest night, during full moons. They often against intruders. This territory run short distances, pausing to stare sometimes includes their foraging at the sand with a slightly tilted area. Plovers in some areas defend head, before picking a food item from both nesting and feeding territories. the substrate. Plovers feed most Piping Plovers commonly nest in aggressively during the falling tide, association with Least Terns, Arctic when the availability of exposed mud Terns, Common Terns, Killdeer and flats is greatest. When foraging on American Avocets. Adults begin tidal flats, Piping Plovers are often migrating south from the breeding observed in flocks. These flocks are Resting grounds by July or early August. sometimes large (200 or more birds), © Greg W. Lasley Adult females begin leaving the but are usually much smaller (5-30 Oystercatcher, American Avocet, breeding grounds first, followed by birds). When foraging on beaches, Willet, Marbled Godwit, Ruddy adult males. Juveniles leave a few individual plovers are usually distrib- Turnstone, Sanderling, Dowitchers, weeks later, and most are gone by uted along the beach at intervals, and Dunlin, and Sandpipers. late August. Although little is known occasionally have aggressive encoun- of their migration, it is believed that ters with other shorebirds or other Threats and Reasons they generally migrate non-stop from members of their own species. for Decline the breeding grounds to the winter- When not feeding, plovers rest Habitat alteration and destruction are ing grounds. and preen. Piping Plovers roost on the primary causes for the decline of Piping Plovers generally begin beaches, in wash-over passes, or on the Piping Plover. Loss of sandy arriving on the Texas coast in mid- tidal flats, often near the areas where beaches and lakeshores due to recre- July. The number of plovers appears they forage. They usually roost in ational, residential, and commercial to increase on the Texas coast spots somewhat sheltered by drift- development has reduced available through October. Plovers begin wood, accumulations of seaweed or habitat on the Great Lakes, Atlantic migrating towards the breeding sea grass, other debris, or small Coast, and the Gulf of Mexico. Reser- grounds in late February. Most birds dunes. Plovers often roost together in voir construction, channel excavation, are gone from Texas by mid May, small flocks. When roosting, Piping and modification of river flows have although a few birds can be found Plovers can be very difficult to see. eliminated sandbar nesting habitat along the coast year round. Birds During the wintering period on along hundreds of miles of the Mis- found on the Texas coast during the the Texas coast, Piping Plovers are souri and Platte Rivers. Winter habi- breeding season may be adults, but often seen with other shorebirds. tats along the Gulf coast are These associated species include the threatened by industrial and urban Snowy, Semipalmated, Wilson’s, and expansion and maintenance activities 2 Piping Plover Black-bellied Plovers; American for commercial waterways. Pollution that winter on the Texas coast are are sensitive to human disturbance, found in the lower Laguna Madre, they should be observed from a safe where tidal flats are extensive and distance with binoculars or spotting productive. It is up to Texans to scopes. insure that the wintering habitat so vital to the survival of this species is How You Can Help protected. Whether you enjoy fishing, boating, swimming, or viewing wildlife, please Recovery Efforts remember that your actions, espe- State, federal, and private organiza- cially when multiplied by thousands tions are collaborating to monitor Pip- of other recreational users, can have ing Plover populations and assess an immense impact on the bays and current and potential habitat on estuaries of the Texas Coast. Respon- breeding and wintering grounds. sible recreational use should include Residential development along the Gulf coast © Leroy Williamson Research concerning reproductive suc- proper disposal of trash and other cess, food habits, habitat selection, potential pollutants, respect for pri- and limiting factors is underway. The vate property rights, preventing harm results of these studies will help biolo- to plants and wildlife, and generally gists develop management plans keeping human impacts to a mini- designed to benefit Piping Plovers. mum. Minimize driving on the beach Protective measures, such as signs or and keep pets on a leash. Extensive fences, are being implemented to driving on tidal flats on the bayside reduce human disturbance to breed- of barrier islands should also be min- Recreational use of beach habitat ing birds. Vegetation management, imized, as significant rutting can alter © Phil Glass predator control, pollution abatement, the habitat required by these birds. from spills of petrochemical products and habitat creation/restoration are Avoid disturbance to foraging shore- and other hazardous materials is also management strategies being used to birds to the greatest extent possible. a concern. benefit Piping Plover populations. You can be involved in the con- On the breeding grounds, repro- Biologists continue to assess habitat servation of Texas’ nongame wildlife ductive success can be curtailed by availability and quality throughout resources by supporting the Special human disturbance. Vehicular and the plover’s range in Texas, and iden- Nongame and Endangered Species foot traffic destroys eggs and chicks. tify essential habitat for management Conservation Fund. Special nongame The presence of people on beaches and protection. Finally, public infor- stamps are available at Texas Parks and sandbar islands inhibits incuba- mation campaigns concerning Piping and Wildlife Department (TPWD) tion and other breeding behavior. Plover conservation are a vital part of field offices, most state parks, and the Changes in land use such as agricul- the recovery process. License Branch of TPWD headquar- tural development, urbanization, and Critical habitat was designated for ters in Austin. Conservation organi- use of beaches has brought an wintering Piping Plovers in July of zations in Texas also welcome your increase in the number of unleashed 2001. This designation identifies participation and support. pets and other predators such as areas that are important to the plovers gulls, skunks, and foxes. on their wintering grounds, and pro- For More Information Increased recreational use of Gulf vides the public and resource agencies Contact beaches may also threaten the quality with information that can be used to Texas Parks and Wildlife Department of wintering sites. Beach traffic, minimize impacts to these areas. Wildlife Diversity Branch including vehicles and ATV’s, as well 4200 Smith School Road as the activities of unleashed dogs, Where To See Austin, Texas 78744 can disturb birds and degrade habitat. Piping Plovers (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 Beach raking, a practice associated Piping Plovers can be seen along the or with high recreational use, removes Texas coast from about mid-July U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service driftwood, seaweed, and other debris through April. Padre Island National Corpus Christi Ecological Services used by roosting plovers, and may dis- Seashore, along with Galveston Field Office rupt nutrient cycles and remove prey Island, Bryan Beach, Matagorda c/o TAMU-CC, Campus Box 338 organisms from foraging areas where Island, Mustang Island, and Goose 6300 Ocean Drive, Room 118 plovers forage on the beach. Island State Parks, are good places to Corpus Christi, Texas 78412 In 2001, the total population of visit and observe Piping Plovers and (361) 994-9005 Piping Plovers in North America was other shorebirds. The extensive tidal estimated to be 5,945 breeding flats on the west side of South Padre For critical habitat designation info, adults. The Texas Gulf Coast had the Island, Mollie Beattie Coastal Habitat see http://plover.fws.gov highest wintering population, with Community (near Corpus Christi), about 1,042 individuals detected. and Bolivar Flats Shorebird Sanctuary This represents about 44% of birds (near Galveston) are also good places detected on the wintering grounds to search for plovers. Look for them during the 2001 International Piping on large mud, sand, or algal flats, or Plover Census. Most of the plovers on Gulf beaches. Since these birds Piping Plover 3 References Eubanks, T. (in press). The status and distribution of the Piping plover in Texas. Bulletin of the Texas Ornithological Society. Ferland, C.L. and S.M. Haig. 2002. 2001 International Piping plover census. U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Corvallis, Oregon. 293 pp. Haig, S.M. 1992. “The Piping plover” In Birds of North America No. 2 (A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, F. Gill, eds.). American Ornithologists Union, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 1-18. Haig, S.M. and J.H. Plissner. 1993. Distribution and abundance of Piping plovers: results and implications of the 1991 international census. Condor 95:145-156. Johnson, C.M. and G.A. Baldassarre. 1988. Aspects of the wintering ecology of Piping plovers in coastal Alabama. Wilson Bulletin 100(2):214-223. Nicholls, J.L. and G.A. Baldassarre. 1990. Winter distribution of Piping plovers along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. Wilson Bulletin 102(3):400-412. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Great Lakes and northern great plains Piping plover recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Twin Cities, MN. 116 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2001. Final determination of critical habitat for wintering Piping plovers. Federal Register 66(132):36038-36143. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2002. Piping plover (Charadrius melodus), Great Lakes population, agency draft recover plan. Ft. Snelling, Minnesota. viii + 121 pp. Wilcox, L. 1959. A twenty year banding study of the Piping plover. Auk 76(2):129-153.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

4 Piping Plover Interior Least Tern Scientific Name: Sterna antillarum athalassos Federal Status: Endangered, 6/27/85 • State Status: Endangered

Description with brown mottling. Fledglings on the Arkansas, Missouri, Mississippi, Least Terns are the smallest North (young birds that have left the nest) Ohio and Platte River systems in American terns. Adults average 8 to are grayish brown and buff colored, other states. The breeding range 10 inches in length, with a 20 inch with white heads, dark bills and eye extended from Texas to Montana and wingspan. Their narrow, pointed stripes, and stubby tails. Young terns from eastern Colorado and New Mex- wings make them streamlined flyers. acquire adult plumage after their first ico to southern Indiana. It included Males and females are similar in molt at about 1 year, but do not the braided rivers of Oklahoma and appearance. Breeding adults are gray breed until they are 2 to 3 years old. southern Kansas, salt flats of north- above and white below, with a black The Least Tern’s call has been west Oklahoma, and alkali flats near cap, black nape and eye stripe, white described as a high pitched “kit,” the Pecos River in southeast forehead, yellow bill with a black or “zeep,” or “zreep.” New Mexico. brown tip, and yellow to orange legs. Today, the Interior Least Tern Hatchlings are about the size of ping- Distribution continues to breed in most of the pong balls and are yellow and buff and Habitat major river systems, but its distribu- There are three subspecies of the tion is generally restricted to the less Least Tern recognized in the United altered and more natural or little dis- States. The subspecies are identical turbed river segments. In Texas, Inte- in appearance and are segregated on rior Least Terns are found at three the basis of separate breeding ranges. The Eastern or Coastal Least Tern (Sterna antillarum antillarum), which is not federally listed as endangered or threatened, breeds along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida and west along the Gulf coast to south Texas. The California Least Tern (Sterna antillarum browni), federally listed as endangered since 1970, breeds along the Pacific coast from central California to southern Baja California. Breeding Range The endangered Interior Least Tern (Sterna antil- Wintering larum athalassos) breeds Range inland along the Mis- Interior Least Tern on nest souri, Mississippi, Col- © Leroy Williamson orado, Arkansas, Red, and Rio Grande reservoirs along the Rio Grande River systems. Although these sub- River, on the Canadian River in the species are generally recognized, northern Panhandle, on the Prairie recent evidence indicates that terns Dog Town Fork of the Red River in hatched on the Texas coast sometimes the eastern Panhandle, and along the breed inland. Some biologists specu- Red River (Texas/Oklahoma bound- late that the interchange between ary) into Arkansas. coastal and river populations is Nesting habitat of the Interior greater than once thought. Least Tern includes bare or sparsely The Interior Least Tern is vegetated sand, shell, and gravel migratory, breeding along inland beaches, sandbars, islands, and salt river systems in the United States flats associated with rivers and reser- and wintering along the Central voirs. The birds prefer open habitat, American coast and the northern and tend to avoid thick vegetation coast of South America from and narrow beaches. Sand and Venezuela to northeastern Brazil. gravel bars within a wide unob- Historically, the birds bred on sand- structed river channel, or open flats Least Tern and chick bars on the Canadian, Red, and Rio © TPWD Glen Mills Grande River systems in Texas, and Interior Least Tern 1 along shorelines of lakes and reser- remain in the nest for about a week. voirs, provide favorable nesting habi- As they mature, they begin to wander tat. Nesting locations are often at the from the nest, seeking shade and higher elevations away from the shelter in clumped vegetation and water’s edge, since nesting usually debris. Chicks are capable of flight starts when river levels are high and within 3 weeks, but the parents con- relatively small amounts of sand are tinue to feed them until fall migra- exposed. The size of nesting areas tion. Least Terns will renest until depends on water levels and the late July if clutches or broods are lost. extent of associated sandbars and Activities of the Interior Least beaches. Highly adapted to nesting Tern during the breeding season are in disturbed sites, terns may move limited to the portion of river near colony sites annually, depending on the nesting site. Nesting adults landscape disturbance and vegetation defend an area surrounding the growth at established colonies. nest (territory) against intruders, For feeding, Interior Least Terns and terns within a colony will need shallow water with an abun- defend any nest within that colony. dance of small fish. Shallow water When defending a territory, the incu- areas of lakes, ponds, and rivers bating bird will fly up giving an located close to nesting areas are alarm call, and then dive repeatedly Least Tern chicks preferred. at the intruder. © TPWD Glen Mills As natural nesting sites have The breeding season is usually become scarce, the birds have used complete by late August. Prior to sand and gravel pits, ash disposal migration, the terns gather at staging areas of power plants, reservoir areas with high fish concentrations. shorelines, and other manmade sites. They gather to rest and eat prior to the long flight to southern wintering Life History grounds. Low, wet sand or gravel Interior Least Terns arrive at breed- bars at the mouths of tributary streams and floodplain wetlands are ing areas from early April to early Nesting area and foraging site on the Canadian River June, and spend 3 to 5 months on important staging areas. Interior © Bruce C. Thompson the breeding grounds. Upon arrival, Least Terns often return to the same of much of the tern’s natural nesting adult terns usually spend 2 to 3 breeding site, or one nearby, year habitat in the major river systems of weeks in noisy courtship. This after year. the Midwest. Discharges from dams includes finding a mate, selecting a Nesting success of terns at a built along these river systems pose nest site, and strengthening the pair particular location varies greatly from additional problems for the birds bond. Courtship often includes the year to year. Because water levels nesting in the remaining habitat. “fish flight,” an aerial display involv- fluctuate and nesting habitats such as Before rivers were altered, summer ing aerobatics and pursuit, ending in sandbars and shorelines change over flow patterns were more predictable. a fish transfer on the ground time, the terns are susceptible to The nesting habits of the Least Tern between two displaying birds. habitat loss and frequent nest and evolved to coincide with natural Courtship behaviors also include nest chick loss. declines in river flows. Today, flow preparation and a variety of postures The Interior Least Tern is pri- regimes in many rivers differ greatly and vocalizations. marily a fish-eater, feeding in shallow from historic regimes. High flow Least Terns nest in colonies, waters of rivers, streams, and lakes. periods may now extend into the nor- where nests can be as close as 10 feet The birds are opportunistic and tend mal nesting period, thereby reducing but are often 30 feet or more apart. to select any small fish within a cer- the availability of quality nest sites The nest is a shallow depression in tain size range. Feeding behavior and forcing terns to nest in less than an open, sandy area, gravelly patch, involves hovering and diving for optimum locations. Extreme fluctua- or exposed flat. Small twigs, pieces small fish and aquatic crustaceans, tions can inundate potential nesting of wood, small stones or other debris and occasionally skimming the water areas, flood existing nests, and dry usually occur near the nest. surface for insects. out feeding areas. Egg-laying begins in late May, In portions of the range, shore- Historical flood regimes scoured with the female laying 2 to 3 eggs birds such as the Piping and Snowy areas of vegetation, providing addi- over a period of 3 to 5 days. The plovers often nest in close proximity. tional nesting habitat. However, eggs are pale to olive buff and speck- The Piping Plover is listed as Threat- diversion of river flows into reser- led or streaked with dark purplish- ened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife voirs has resulted in encroachment of brown, chocolate, or blue-gray Service. vegetation and reduced channel width markings. Both parents incubate the along many rivers, thereby reducing eggs, with incubation lasting about Threats and Reasons sandbar habitat. Reservoirs also trap 20 to 22 days. The chicks hatch for Decline much of the sediment load, limiting within one day of each other and Channelization, irrigation, and the formation of suitable sandbar habitat. construction of reservoirs and pools In Texas and elsewhere, rivers 2 Interior Least Tern have contributed to the elimination are often the focus of recreational levels warranting concern, although (830) 775-7491, and Gene Howe reproductive difficulties have not Wildlife Management Area near been observed. Canadian in Hemphill County Finally, too little water in some (806) 323-8642 offer visitors the river channels may be a common opportunity to see and learn more problem that reduces the birds’ food about the Interior Least Tern. supply and increases access to nest- Often, the best opportunity to see ing areas by humans and predatory the birds is by boat. Please remem- mammals. Potential predators ber that human disturbance during include coyotes, gray foxes, raccoons, the nesting season reduces reproduc- domestic dogs and cats, raptors, tive success and threatens survival. American Crows, Great Egrets, and The terns should be viewed from a Great Blue Herons. distance with binoculars or spotting scope. Recovery Efforts State, federal, and private organiza- How You Can Help tions throughout the United States Interior Least Terns and other colo- are collaborating to census the birds, nial nesting shore and water birds conduct research, curtail human dis- (plovers, herons, egrets, spoonbills, Dam on the Brazos River © TPWD turbance, and provide habitat. Con- ibis, gulls, and skimmers) often nest tinued monitoring of confirmed and on sandbars and islands. These areas activities. For inland residents, sand- potential colony sites is underway to offer protection from predators, but bars are the recreational counterpart assess population status and repro- the birds are still vulnerable to of coastal beaches. Activities such as ductive success. Protective measures, human disturbance. Since the hot fishing, camping, and ATV use on and including signs and fences, are being sun can quickly kill small chicks and near sandbar habitat are potential implemented to restrict access to sites unhatched eggs if the adults are threats to nesting terns. Even sand most threatened by human distur- flushed from the nest, you can help and gravel pits, reservoirs, and other bance. Vegetation control at occupied by staying off sandbars and islands artificial nesting sites receive a high sites, chick shelter enhancement, and away from flats and shorelines level of human use. Studies have predator control, pollution abate- where birds are nesting. Also, when shown that human presence reduces ment, and habitat creation/restoration adults are flushed from the nest, the reproductive success, and human dis- at unoccupied sites are management eggs or young are more vulnerable to turbance remains a threat throughout strategies used to benefit Interior predation. Nesting areas maintained the bird’s range. Least Tern populations. as bird sanctuaries are identified by Water pollution from pesticides Biologists continue to assess official signs. If you want to observe and irrigation runoff is another habitat availability and quality the birds, bring binoculars and stay a potential threat. Pollutants entering throughout the bird’s range in Texas, safe distance away so you don’t dis- rivers upstream and within breeding and identify essential habitat for turb the birds. Pets and livestock areas can adversely affect water qual- management and protection. should also be kept off these areas ity and fish populations in tern feed- Recently, in a cooperative effort while the terns are nesting. Remem- ing areas. Least Terns are known to between the Texas Parks and Wildlife ber that state and federal laws pro- accumulate contaminants that can Department, National Park Service, tect migratory and endangered birds, affect reproduction and chick sur- International Boundary and Water and harassing them at any time is vival. Mercury, selenium, DDT deriva- Commission, Comision Internacional illegal. tives, and PCBs have been found in de Limites y Aguas, Oficina de Ecolo- You can be involved in the con- Least Terns throughout their range at gia Estado de Coahuila, and City of servation of Texas’ nongame wildlife Del Rio, warning signs in both Span- resources by supporting the Special ish and English were erected to Nongame and Endangered Species inform visitors about the effects of Conservation Fund. Special nongame human disturbance on the terns. stamps and decals are available at Also, the National Park Service Texas Parks and Wildlife Department recently initiated annual status sur- (TPWD) Field Offices, most State veys for Interior Least Terns at Amis- Parks, and the License Branch of tad NRA. Finally, public information TPWD headquarters in Austin. Con- campaigns concerning Least Tern conservation Passports, available from servation are a vital part of the Texas Parks and Wildlife, are valid recovery process. for one year and allow unlimited access to most State Parks, State Nat- Where To See ural Areas, and Wildlife Management Interior Least Terns Areas. Some of the proceeds from Falcon State Park near Falcon Heights the sale of these items are used to in Zapata County (956) 848-5327, Banding Least Terns Amistad National Recreation Area © Bruce C. Thompson near Del Rio in Val Verde County Interior Least Tern 3 protect habitat and to provide public information concerning endangered species conservation. Conservation organizations in Texas welcome your participation and support. For More Information Contact Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Wildlife Diversity Branch 4200 Smith School Road Austin, Texas 78744 (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 or U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Ecological Services Field Office 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Bilingual “Do not Disturb” sign Austin, Texas 78758 © TPWD Sylvestre Sorola (512) 490-0057

References Hill, L.A. 1992. Status of the Least tern and Snowy plover on the Red River, 1991. Interagency Agreement No. 14-16-0002-91-923 (FWS) and G040A10001 (BLM). U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Oklahoma Resource Area, Moore, OK. 29 pp. Locknane, D.M. 1988. Interior least tern distribution and taxonomy. Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., Federal Aid Project No. W-103-R-17, Job No. 54. 37 pp. Thompson, B.C. 1985. Interior least tern distribution and taxonomy. Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., Federal Aid Project No. W-103-R-14, Job No. 54. 11 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990. Recovery plan for the interior population of the Least tern (Sterna antillarum). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Twin Cities, Minnesota. 90 pp. Whitman, P.L. 1988. Biology and conservation of the endangered Interior least tern: a literature review. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Report 88(3). 22 pp.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

4 Interior Least Tern Bald Eagle Scientific Name: Haliaeetus leucocephalus Federal Status: Threatened • State Status: Threatened

Description Eagles require 4 or 5 years to reach Robertson, Rusk, Sabine, San Augus- The Bald Eagle is one of nature’s full adult plumage, with distinctive tine, San Jacinto, Shelby, Smith, most impressive birds of prey. Males white head and tail feathers. Trinity, Victoria, Walker, Wharton, generally measure 3 feet from head and Wood counties. to tail, weigh 7 to 10 pounds, and Distribution In Texas, Bald Eagles nest in have a wingspan of 6 to 7 feet. and Habitat areas along river systems, reservoirs Females are larger, some reaching 14 The Bald Eagle, our National Symbol, or lake shores with large, tall (40- pounds with a wingspan of up to 8 occurs throughout the United States, 120 ft.) trees for nesting and roost- feet. Adults have a white head, neck, Canada, and northern Mexico. Bald ing. Nests are usually located within and tail and a large yellow bill. Eagles are present year-round 1 mile of water, such as lakes, reser- throughout Texas as spring and fall voirs, creeks or rivers, and are often migrants, breeders, or winter residents. The Bald Eagle population in Texas is divided into two populations; breeding birds and nonbreeding or wintering birds. Breeding populations occur primarily in the eastern half of the state and along coastal counties from Rockport to Houston. Nonbreed- ing or wintering populations are located primarily in the Panhan- dle, Central, and East Texas, and in other areas of suitable habitat throughout the state. Nesting Range The Bald Eagle in Wintering Range Texas formerly nested in Migratory else- the Panhandle, throughout where in State East Texas, and at localized sites in central Texas. Populations located in the ecotone or edge declined throughout the lower 48 between forest and marsh or water. states during the 1900’s with habitat Bald Eagles often build their nests in destruction and use of pesticides the tallest trees in an area, providing detrimental to the species. Nesting an unobstructed view and flight path populations are now increasing in to the nest. Nests are built in a vari- most areas of the country. Active ety of tree species. Eagles nest pri- nests in Texas increased from 13 in marily in loblolly pine in East Texas. 1982 to 117 in 2003. Breeding terri- Throughout the rest of it’s Texas tories are located mostly along rivers breeding range, nests are found in a and near reservoirs in East Texas, the variety of trees, including bald Post Oak region, and the Gulf Coast. cypress, water oak, live oak, Ameri- Bald Eagle The nesting near reservoirs by Bald can elm, cottonwood, sycamore, and © TPWD Eagles is a rather recent event, since pecan. Open water or wetland areas First year birds are mostly dark this habitat type was not available to located within approximately 1 mile and can be confused with immature eagles historically. As of 2003, Bald of nesting habitat are needed to pro- Golden Eagles. Immature Bald Eagles Eagle nests are known to occur in vide feeding areas. have blotchy white on the under wing Angelina, Austin, Bastrop, Bell, Most of the Bald Eagles seen in and tail, compared with the more Bosque, Brazoria, Burleson, Calhoun, Texas breed in the northern states sharply defined white pattern of Cass, Chambers, Colorado, Fayette, and spend the winter (December Golden Eagles. While gliding or soar- Fort Bend, Freestone, Goliad, Grimes, through March) in Texas. Wintering ing, Bald Eagles keep their wings flat, Harris, Henderson, Jackson, Jasper, populations may occur statewide, but and their wing beats are slow and Kaufman, Lavaca, Liberty, Limestone, generally are found near large lakes smooth. In contrast, Turkey Vultures Llano, Marion, Matagorda, Mont- soar with uplifted wings, and they fly gomery, Nacogdoches, Navarro, Nava- with quick, choppy wing beats. Bald sota, Newton, Panola, Polk, Refugio, Bald Eagle 1 and reservoirs, such as Lake Meredith, ies in Texas have shown that eagles Buffalo Lake, Lake Texoma, Wright-Pat- commonly eat coots, catfish, rough man Lake, Lake O’ the Pines, Lake fish, and soft-shell turtles. Fork, Lake Tawakoni, Lake Whitney, In Texas, Bald Eagles nest from Lake Fairfield, Toledo Bend Reservoir, October to July. Nests are con- Sam Rayburn Reservoir, Lake Liv- structed primarily by the female, with ingston, Lake Conroe, Lake Buchanan, the male assisting. The typical nest is Lake Cooper, Lake Palestine, Lake Pat constructed of large sticks, with Mayse, Lake Warren, and Palo Duro softer materials such as leaves, grass, Lake, or in the rice growing region and Spanish moss used as nest lining. hunting waterfowl. Nests are typically used for a number Bald Eagle wintering habitat is of years, with the birds adding nest characterized by abundant, readily material every year. Bald Eagle nests available food sources. Most wintering are often very large, measuring up to areas are associated with open water 6 feet in width and weighing hun- or waterfowl concentration areas, dreds of pounds. Eagles often have where eagles feed on fish or water- one or more alternative nests within fowl. Wintering populations are also their territories. found on rangelands of the Davis Peak egg-laying occurs in Mountains, western Edwards Plateau, December, with hatching primarily and the Panhandle, where eagles may in January. The female lays a clutch Mature Bald Eagles © USFWS take rabbits and feed on carrion. of 1 to 3 eggs, but the usual clutch is The availability of night roost 2 eggs. A second clutch may be laid sites is often an important characteris- if the first is lost. Incubation begins tic of wintering habitat. Bald Eagles when the first egg is laid and usually may roost singly or in groups, and the lasts 34 to 36 days. The young gener- same roosts are used from year to ally fledge (fly from the nest) in 11 year. Roost trees are usually the old- to 12 weeks, but the adults continue est and largest trees in an area, and to feed them for another 4 to 6 most have large horizontal limbs and weeks while they learn to hunt. open branching that allows plenty of When they are on their own, young room for takeoff and landing. Eagles Bald Eagles migrate northward out of generally choose roosts that allow Texas, returning by September or unobstructed visibility to the sur- October. rounding areas, with a minimum of Nest surveys in Texas from human activity in the immediate vicin- 1981-2003 have shown that greater ity. Roost sites are often located near than 80% of the active nesting territories successfully produced young, water, but eagles also roost on wind- Young eagles in nest breaks and in secluded canyons well with production averaging greater © TPWD Jim Whitcomb away from water. than 1 young per active nest found. opment along the coast and near Studies show that at least 70% of the inland rivers and waterways is a pri- Life History juveniles survive their first year. mary cause of habitat loss. There are, Bald Eagles are opportunistic preda- Causes of first year mortality include however, encouraging signs in Texas tors. They feed primarily on fish, but disease, lack of food, inclement that a significant amount of new habi- also eat a variety of waterfowl and weather, and human interference. tat has been created in the form of other birds, small mammals, and tur- Bald Eagles reach sexual matu- man-made reservoirs. Most reservoirs tles, when these foods are readily rity at 4 to 6 years of age; however, in eastern Texas, especially those bor- available. Carrion is also common in they have been known to successfully dered by national forests, are used by the diet, particularly in younger breed at 3 years. They are monoga- nesting eagles, and are also used to birds. Bottom-dwelling fish tend to mous and are believed to mate for some degree by wintering birds. occur more frequently in the diet. It life; however, if one of the pair dies, Hopefully, if human disturbance is is thought that the downward visual the surviving bird will accept another kept to a minimum, a redistribution orientation of bottom-feeding fish mate. Bald Eagles are believed to live of nesting to reservoirs may offset makes them more vulnerable to eagle up to 30 years or more in the wild. some habitat loss in other areas. attacks than surface sight-feeders, Shooting has long been recog- which are more aware of movements Threats and Reasons nized as a major human-caused factor from above. Eagles capture fish by for Decline in the decline of Bald Eagles. extending their talons a few inches Habitat loss over the past 200 years is Although primarily fish and carrion below the water’s surface. Therefore, the factor most consistently associated eaters, eagles were thought to be a live fish are vulnerable only when with declines in Bald Eagle popula- major threat to chickens, livestock, near the surface or in shallows. Stud- tions. Unfortunately for eagles, peo- and game animals. As a consequence, ple also like to live and spend their many were killed by farmers, ranch- leisure time near water. In recent ers, and hunters. In 1940, Congress 2 Bald Eagle decades, the accelerated pace of devel- passed the Bald Eagle Protection Act, eagles in some instances. However, the tive, accumulation of lead in the food impact of these disturbances is highly chain is expected to decline. variable, depending on the activity, its Since 1981, Texas Parks and frequency and duration, its proximity Wildlife Department has conducted to areas used by eagles, the extent to extensive aerial surveys to monitor which the activity modifies the habitat Bald Eagle nesting activity. The 2003 or its use, and timing in relation to the survey identified 117 active nests reproductive cycle. Also, some birds which fledged at least 144 young. are more tolerant of disturbance than This compares with only 7 known others, with adults generally less toler- nest sites in 1971. Midwinter Bald ant than immature birds. Despite this Eagle counts coordinated by TPWD variability, disturbance near nests has and conducted by birding enthusiasts caused nesting failures. throughout the state reported 325 Finally, the most dramatic eagles in 2002. From 1986-1989, declines in Bald Eagle populations midwinter counts averaged less than nationwide resulted from environ- 15 Bald Eagles per survey site. Since mental contaminants. Beginning in 1990, the average number of eagles 1947, reproductive success in many per survey site has increased to 18. areas of the country declined sharply, These numbers show encouraging and remained at very low levels trends for Texas. With continued vig- through the early 1970’s. After sev- ilance, protection, and informed man- eral years of study, the low reproduc- agement, today’s Texans can insure tion of Bald Eagles and many other that future generations will have the birds was linked to widespread use of opportunity to enjoy the sight of our the insecticides DDT and Dieldren. majestic national symbol – the only These insecticides were used exten- eagle unique to North America. sively in agriculture and forestry beginning in 1947. As DDT entered Recovery Efforts watersheds, it became part of the Bald Eagle nest During the 1970’s and 1980’s, major © TPWD Leroy Williamson aquatic food chain, and was stored as efforts were directed toward captive DDE in the fatty tissue of fish and breeding and reintroducing young waterfowl. As eagles and other birds birds into the wild. A total of 124 of prey fed on these animals, they Bald Eagles were hatched at the accumulated DDE in their systems. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Although occasionally causing Maryland from 1976-1988. These death, DDE mainly affected reproduc- captive-hatched eaglets were an tion. Some birds affected by the important source for restocking wild chemical failed to lay eggs, and many populations. One successful reintro- produced thin eggshells that broke duction program placed young eaglets during incubation. Eggs that did not in the nests of adults whose own eggs break were often addled or contained were infertile or failed to hatch. The dead embryos, and the young that “foster” parents readily adopted the hatched often died. Dieldren killed chicks and raised them as their own. Juvenile Bald Eagles eagles directly rather than causing Another method, called “hacking” © TPWD Mark Mitchell thin eggshells, but compared to DDT, places young birds on man-made tow- which made it illegal to shoot or Dieldren was probably not as impor- ers in suitable habitat where popula- harass eagles. In 1969, Bald Eagles tant in overall Bald Eagle declines. tions are low. The nestlings are kept gained further legal protection under In 1972, the EPA banned the use of in an enclosure and fed by humans federal endangered species laws. DDT in the United States. Since the that stay out of sight. When they are With heightened public awareness ban, DDE residues in Bald Eagle able to fly, the enclosure is opened and sensitivity to the plight of the eggshells have dropped significantly, and the birds are free to leave. Food Bald Eagle, coupled with strict laws, and a slow recovery of eagle produc- is still provided at the release site shooting mortality has declined from tivity has occurred. Most populations until no longer used or needed by the 62% of total reported deaths from appear to be producing chicks at the young birds. Hacking has been used 1961-1965 to 18% from 1975-1981. expected rate. very successfully in at least 11 states. Although this downward trend is Of more recent concern is evi- In Texas, the greatest challenge encouraging, shooting mortality dence that lead poisoning may be a for the future will be to prevent fur- could still be a limiting factor, partic- significant cause of death in eagles. ther destruction of habitat and reten- ularly in remote areas. Chronic low levels of lead can pro- tion of sufficient creek and river flows Human disturbance can also be a duce nervous system disorders, affect to support a food base for breeding cause of population decline. Activities behavior and learning, cause anemia, and wintering eagles. The Texas such as logging, oil exploration and and increase susceptibility to disease. extraction, construction, and recre- As laws requiring the use of steel ational activity certainly do disturb shot to hunt waterfowl become effec- Bald Eagle 3 Parks and Wildlife Department, in Department (TPWD) Field Offices, cooperation with landowners, other most State Parks, and the License agencies and conservation groups, is Branch of TPWD headquarters in continuing to monitor breeding and Austin. Conservation organizations wintering Bald Eagle populations. in Texas also welcome your participa- Monitoring of nesting success is par- tion and support. Finally, you can ticularly important in detecting any encourage and support private problems associated with contami- landowners who are minimizing nest nants in the environment. disturbance and managing their land Finally, appropriate management to protect Bald Eagle habitat. of nesting, feeding, loafing, and wintering habitat must be a priority For More Information if we are to maintain the current Contact upward trend in Bald Eagle numbers Texas Parks and Wildlife Department in Texas. Wildlife Diversity Branch 4200 Smith School Road Where To See Austin, Texas 78744 Bald Eagles (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 Placing wing tags on Bald Eagles There are a number of State Parks or © TPWD Leroy Williamson where visitors have the opportunity U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to see and learn more about Bald Ecological Services Field Office Eagles. These include Lake Brown- 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 wood, Lake Livingston, Lake Texana, Austin, Texas 78758 Lake Whitney, and Possum Kingdom (512) 490-0057 State Parks. The Vanishing Texas Rivers Cruise, a privately operated Management guidelines are available excursion boat, also provides visitors from Texas Parks and Wildlife with excellent opportunities to see Department or the U.S. Fish and wintering eagles on Lake Buchanan Wildlife Service for landowners wish- in Burnet and Llano Counties. ing to protect and manage Bald Eagle Because the Bald Eagle is a habitat. protected species and sensitive to human disturbance, birders and other observers should carefully follow certain viewing ethics. Recorded calls of prey species should not be used to attract birds. Also, observers should be careful not to approach too closely or otherwise disturb or stress birds. How You Can Help References If you see a Bald Eagle nest, remem- Green, N. 1985. The Bald eagle. The Audubon Wildlife Report 1985:508-531. ber that eagles are vulnerable to dis- National Audubon Society. turbance throughout the nesting Hunt, W.G., J.M. Jenkins, R.E. Jackman, C.G. Thelander, and A.T. Gerstell. 1992. period (October to July in Texas), and Foraging ecology of Bald eagles on a regulated river. J. Raptor Research 26(4):243-256. are easily disturbed particularly dur- Mabie, D.W. 1992. Bald eagle post-f ledgling survival and dispersal. Texas Parks ing the first 12 weeks of nesting and Wildlife Department, Fed. Aid Project No. W-125-R-3, Job. No. 59. 14 pp. activity. Observers should remain a Mabie, D.W., M.T. Merendino, and D.H. Reid. 1994. Dispersal of Bald eagles safe distance away from the nest (at f ledged in Texas. J. Raptor Research 28:213-219. least 750 feet) and keep noise and Mitchell, M.R. 1992. Bald eagle nest survey and management. Texas Parks and other human impacts to a minimum. Wildlife Department, Fed. Aid Project No. W-125-R-3, Job No. 30. 10 pp. Private landowners are encouraged to Ortego, B. 2003. Bald eagle nest survey and management. Texas Parks and report new Bald Eagle nests to Texas Wildlife Department, Fed. Aid Grant No. W-125-R-14, Project No. 10. 8 pp. Parks and Wildlife Department. Ortego, B., C. Greggory, and K. Herriman. 2003. Bald eagle nesting and winter- You can be involved in the ing surveys. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department 2002 Wildlife Research conservation of Texas’ nongame Highlights 6:? Porteous, P.L. 1992. “Eagles on the rise.” National Geographic Magazine, Novem- wildlife resources by supporting the ber, 1992. National Geographic Society. Special Nongame and Endangered U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1989. Southeastern states Bald eagle recovery Species Conservation Fund. Special plan. Atlanta Regional Office. 122 pp. nongame stamps and decals are avail- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). able at Texas Parks and Wildlife Biologue Series.

4 Bald Eagle Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Habitat Management Guidelines for Bald Eagles in Texas

The following guidelines were 4. Placement of above-ground the parents’ absence at these times developed to help landowners and electrical transmission or dis- can be particularly deadly for the managers maintain or improve their tribution lines. Since colli- eggs or young. land for the benefit of the Bald sion with powerlines and Eagle. Information is also provided electrocution on powerline Secondary Management Zone so that landowners may recognize structures remain an impor- For Nest Sites and avoid or minimize human-related tant cause of death, place- This zone encompasses an area disturbance to eagles, particularly ment of underground lines is extending outward from the primary nesting pairs. recommended near Bald zone an additional 750 feet to 1 mile. Eagle nests and winter con- Recommended restrictions in this Nesting Habitat centration sites. zone are intended to protect the The protection of an actual nest is 5. Helicopter or fixed-wing air- integrity of the primary zone and to important, but so is protection of the craft operation within protect important feeding areas, nest area and all the surrounding 500 feet vertical distance or including the eagle’s access to these habitat factors that attracted the nest- 1,000 feet horizontal distance areas. The following activities are ing pair to the area. Once the eagles of the nest site during the likely to be detrimental to Bald establish a suitable breeding territory, nesting season (October-July). Eagles at any time, and in most cases they will return to the same area year 6. Activities which create mini- should be avoided within the sec- after year, often using several nests mal disturbance, such as hik- ondary zone: within the territory during different ing, fishing, camping, and 1. Development of new commer- years. When a given nest or the tree bird-watching can be carried cial or industrial sites. that it is in falls, a pair generally out safely during the non- 2. Construction of multi-story returns to the same territory to begin nesting season if there is no buildings or high-density another nest. If one member of a pair physical alteration of the housing developments dies, the nest may go unused for sev- habitat within the zone. between the nest and the eral years and then be recolonized by Traditional farming, ranch- eagle’s feeding area. the surviving member returning with ing, and hunting activites 3. Placement of electrical trans- a new mate. Nesting territories can which are existing practices mission or distribution lines even be inherited by offspring. and have occurred histori- between the nest site and the Therefore, protection of nesting terri- cally on the site can be car- eagle’s feeding area. tories should apply to “abandoned” ried out safely during the 4. Construction of new roads, nests for at least five consecutive years non-nesting season as long as trails, canals, or rights-of-way of documented nonuse. habitat alteration is avoided. which would tend to facili- The following habitat manage- Human presence within this tate human access to the ment guidelines are based on two zone should be minimized during the eagle nest. management zones surrounding each nesting season, especially during the 5. Use of chemicals labeled as nest site, with certain restrictions rec- early nesting period from October- toxic to wildlife. ommended for each zone. April. Traditional agricultural activi- Certain activities that involve ties and low impact recreational only minimal alteration or distur- Primary Management Zone For activities are generally not a problem bance to the habitat can be carried Nest Sites even during the nesting season as out safely in the secondary zone dur- This zone includes an area long as they do not appear to be ing the non-nesting season. Examples extending 750 to 1,500 feet outward adversely affecting nesting success, of these activities include: minor log- in all directions from the nest site. It there is no increase in the level of ging or land clearing, minor construc- is recommended that the following disturbance from historic levels, and tion, seismographic exploration activities not occur within this zone: physical alteration of the habitat is employing explosives, oil well 1. Habitat alteration or change in avoided. However, activities of any drilling, and low-level aircraft opera- land use, such as would result kind should be stopped if it becomes tion. However, these activites should from residential, commercial, or apparent that the birds are suffering avoid major alteration or loss of Bald industrial development; con- from disturbance. The key point is Eagle habitat as much as possible. struction projects; or mining whether the activities keep the breed- If logging is done, it is best to operations. ing birds away from the nest, eggs, or retain as many large trees as possible 2. Tree cutting, logging, or young for extended periods of time. for roost and perch trees. Retention removal of trees, either living If they do, they are harmful. In gen- or dead. eral, it is important to protect the 3. Use of chemicals labeled as nest from human disturbance during Bald Eagle toxic to fish and wildlife. very hot or very cold weather, since Management Guidelines 1 of at least 10 to 15 live trees per acre Winter Roost is suggested. Ideally, the trees left Concentration Areas uncut should be the largest in the Logging or land clearing activity stand, preferably those with open should be avoided within 1,500 feet crowns and stout lateral limbs. of a roosting concentration area. Selective forestry practices such as Disruptive, noisy, or out-of-the-ordi- seedtree, shelterwood, and single tree nary land use activities should be selection are recommended over avoided near communal roost sites. clear-cutting. Normal agricultural activites which Minimal disturbance recreational have occurred traditionally on the activities (hiking, fishing, camping, land are generally acceptable near picnicking, bird-watching, hunting) these roost sites as long as they do and everyday farming and ranching not appear to be affecting roosting activities that cause no new alteration eagles. However, it is best to avoid of habitat can be safely carried out in even normal activities during the secondary zone at any time. evening, night, and early morning hours. Feeding Areas The use of toxic chemicals in water- For More Information sheds and rivers where Bald Eagles Landowners and managers can feed should be avoided as much as contact the Texas Parks and Wildlife possible. Where agricultural herbi- Department, U.S. Fish and Wildlife cides and pesticides are used within Service, U.S. Natural Resources the watershed, label directions should Conservation Service (formerly Soil be strictly followed, including those Conservation Service), or Texas describing proper disposal of rinse Agricultural Extension Service for water and containers. technical assistance in managing Alteration of natural shorelines habitat and protecting Bald Eagle where Bald Eagles feed should be nest sites. avoided or minimized as much as possible. Degraded or eroded shorelines should be revegetated whenever possible.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Bald Eagle 2 Management Guidelines Peregrine Falcon Scientific Name: Falco peregrinus Federal Status and State Status: the American Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) is endangered and the Arctic Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus tundrius) is threatened. Both of these subspecies occur in Texas.

Description are white to shades of buff, with fine of fat to continue their flight. They The use of falcons for hunting was black barring. The ends of the tail take advantage of the abundant prey developed around 2,000 B.C. in cen- feathers are tipped in light yellow along the open coastline and tidal tral Asia. By the twelfth century brown. The beak is slate blue, the flats. Some individuals have stayed A.D., falconry was widely practiced legs and feet are yellow, and the for as long as a month during either throughout Europe. Once reserved talons are blue-black. spring or fall. only for nobility, the falcon’s intelli- Immature birds have a dark The Peregrine Falcon nests on gence, strength, and amazing aerial brown head and neck with sandy coasts, mountains, and canyons of performance made it a highly prized streaking. The upper parts are dark most climatic zones, wherever it hunting bird. brown with light amber-brown locates a suitable high cliff ledge for A spectacular bird of prey, feather edging. They are white to its eyrie (nest site). Peregrines do Peregrine Falcons are 16 to 19 inches sandy underneath and heavily avoid some extremes for nesting, long, have a wingspan of 39 to marked with dark brown vertical however, such as very arid desert 42 inches, yet weigh only about streaks. The legs and feet are bluish- regions. 2 pounds. Females are slightly larger gray to greenish-yellow. American Peregrines in the The Arctic Peregrine tends to be Rocky Mountain and Southwest region smaller than the American Peregrine and is lighter in color. Immature Arc- Arctic Peregrine Falcon tic Peregrines have a lighter colored Wintering Range forehead and a thinner wedge on (migratory elsewhere in state) each side of the face. Peregrine Falcons can be distinguished from similar Prairie Falcons by the black “helmet” and, when in flight, by the lack of contrasting dark and light feathers on the underside or “armpit” of the wing. Distribution American Peregrine Falcon and Habitat Present Nesting Range The Peregrine Falcon is (migratory elsewhere noted for having a wide in state) and diverse distribution. The American Peregrine currently nests in the western United nest on mountain cliffs and river States, Canada, and Mexico. These gorges. Occupied eyries often exist on birds spend the nonbreeding season dominant cliffs which generally near their breeding areas or move only exceed 200 feet in height. Nests are moderately southward. In Texas, they situated on open ledges or potholes. are found primarily in the Trans-Pecos South facing cliffs are preferred in the region, including Big Bend National more northerly latitudes. In Alaska, Park, and the Chisos, Davis, and arctic Canada, and Greenland, Arctic Guadalupe mountain ranges. Peregrines nest on cliffs in mountain- The Arctic Peregrine nests in the ous regions, and along rivers and arctic islands and the tundra regions coastlines. Peregrine Falcon of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. In the western United States, © USFWS They are highly migratory, flying Peregrines nest from near sea level to than males. Their wings are long and over the United States to winter over 9,000 feet. Prey abundance and pointed. Adult Peregrines are slate mostly in South America. The Texas diversity is thought to be a major fac- gray to bluish-gray above. With a coastline plays an important role in tor in eyrie selection. Nest sites are black crown and nape and a black the survival of migrating peregrines. often adjacent to water courses and wedge extending below the eye, the During each migration, falcons assem- impoundments because of the abun- birds appear to be wearing a black ble on the Texas coast, especially on helmet. The throat and underparts Padre Island, and accumulate stores Peregrine Falcon 1 dance of avian prey attracted to birds. Falcons usually strike their these areas. prey from above at great speed. The Before 1950, a healthy but small prey is either struck to the ground or population of American Peregrines killed instantly by the blow from the nested in the eastern United States falcon’s talons. Prey species try to and Canada. The population centers evade the falcon’s attack by quick aer- were generally located in the moun- obatic maneuvers or by diving to tainous regions of the East Coast and cover. If the prey manages to stay along major waterways such as the above the falcon or reaches cover, it Mississippi, Hudson, Susquehanna, and will usually escape. Peregrines are Connecticut Rivers. Nest sites were excellent flyers, and rely on maneu- generally located on the ledge of a verability and surprise as well as rock cliff or escarpment that provided speed to capture prey. Young Peregrine Falcons a clear view of the surrounding area. American Peregrines nesting at © USFWS Despite sharp population declines dur- lower latitudes are usually present on years of age. Peregrines do not ing the 1950’s and 1960’s, efforts over nesting cliffs by March, while Arctic normally breed until at least 2 years the past 15 years to reintroduce Pere- Peregrines arrive at their nesting loca- of age. grines into former eastern nesting tions by late April or May. The male habitats are now paying off. Pere- or female may arrive at a suitable cliff Threats and Reasons grines are once again occupying cliffs site. While waiting for a member of for Decline in the eastern mountains and along the opposite sex to appear, the birds Although habitat loss, human distur- the coast where they have been absent drive away all other falcons of the bance, indiscriminant shooting, and for 30 years or more. same sex. Quiet perching of the pair illegal collection have been identified Western and eastern populations in close proximity to each other is an as contributing to local declines in of the American Peregrine are consid- early indication of successful pairing. Peregrine Falcon populations, world- ered relatively nonmigratory, moving The falcons soon begin to hunt wide declines have been attributed to short distances as compared to the together, with one bird flushing prey reproductive failure caused by the Arctic Peregrine. Some western fal- for the other to capture. widespread use of the pesticide DDT. cons can be seen in the vicinity of The courtship flights of Pere- The decline of the Peregrine their eyries throughout the year. grines are spectacular aerial displays Falcon began in the late 1940’s, coin- Others move short distances to winter of rapid climbing, spirals, and steep ciding with the introduction of DDT near large rivers or marshes where precision dives where the birds some- in 1947. The decline was first prey is abundant. There is also evi- times touch in mid-air. On the cliff, noticed in the northeastern United dence that some birds move farther courtship behavior includes touching States, with Peregrine Falcon produc- south to winter in Mexico. beaks, nibbling at the beak or feet of tivity dropping sharply between 1947 As in the west, movements of the mate, and mutual preening. Dur- and 1955. Along the Hudson River, eastern populations are probably ing courtship, the male offers food to which formerly supported one of the determined by the availability of the female, both at the cliff and when healthiest Peregrine populations prey. Movements of eastern falcons the pair is in flight. When the known, productivity essentially ceased are frequently east or west, from the female is receptive, she will accept by 1950, and most nest sites were mountains to the coast. the prey and mating soon follows. abandoned by the mid-1950’s. Sur- In Texas, American Peregrines In the United States and much of veys in the early 1960’s showed that once nested in suitable habitat Canada, a clutch of three or four eggs Peregrine productivity in the north- throughout the Trans-Pecos region and is laid in April. In Arctic latitudes, eastern United States was near zero. part of the Edwards Plateau. Although Peregrines lay eggs from late May By the 1950’s, it was apparent they no longer nest on the Edwards through late June. The female does that declines were also underway in Plateau, there are reports in the litera- most of the incubating and all of the many other parts of North America. ture (1941 and 1950) of Peregrine brooding, while the male does most Biologists reported widespread repro- Falcons preying on bats emerging from of the hunting. Incubation lasts ductive failure and eventual disap- a cave in south-central Texas. about 33 days. The young remain in pearance of breeding pairs. The the nest for five to six weeks, being decline appeared first in the southern Life History fed and cared for by the adults. After parts of the range and moved north. With a flight speed in excess of they leave the nest, the adults con- In the more remote Peregrine popula- 60 mph, Peregrines can hunt large tinue to feed and defend their young tions of Alaska and arctic Canada, a areas with little effort. Preferred for several weeks. more gradual decline took place. hunting habitats such as meadows, Scientists estimate that about Although the loss of breeding pairs in riverbottoms, croplands, marshes, and 20-25% of adult Peregrines and 55- these regions probably began in the lakes attract abundant bird life. Pere- 60% of juveniles die each year of nat- 1950’s, a dramatic collapse did not grines capture a wide variety of ural causes. The average life occur until 1970. birds, including blackbirds, jays, expectancy for those young that By 1969, the Peregrine was swifts, doves, shorebirds, and song- fledge is probably about 4 years, essentially gone east of the Missis- although maximum life spans of 13 sippi River in both the United States and 17 years have been recorded. In and Canada south of the boreal for- 2 Peregrine Falcon captivity, Peregrines have reached 20 est, and only 33% of all known nest occasionally causing death, DDE dynamics, movements, and contami- mainly affected reproduction. Some nation will provide wildlife managers birds affected by the chemical failed to with the information needed to assist lay eggs, or produced thin eggshells the Peregrine Falcon on its road to that broke during incubation. Eggs recovery. that did not break were often addled Since human disturbance can be (rotten) or contained dead embryos, a serious threat to reproductive suc- and the young that hatched often died. cess, parks such as Big Bend National Abnormal or inattentive behavior by Park have visitor use restrictions dur- adults sometimes resulted in nest ing the nesting season. Activities abandonment or loss of young. In such as rock-climbing can be particu- Peregrine Falcon nesting habitat at Black Gap WMA © Glen Mills 1972, the EPA banned the use of DDT larly disturbing to nesting Peregrines. in the United States. Since the ban, The Peregrine Fund, Inc. in coop- DDE residues in Peregrine Falcon eration with the U.S. Fish and eggshells have dropped significantly, Wildlife Service and state wildlife and a slow recovery of falcon produc- agencies, has released captive-reared tivity has occurred. Although most chicks into suitable unoccupied habi- populations in the United States now tat. A technique called “hacking” appear to be producing chicks at a places young birds on man-made tow- healthy rate, falcons in west Texas are ers in suitable habitat where popula- still reproducing at relatively low lev- tions are low. The nestlings are kept els. There is concern that high pesti- in an enclosure and fed by humans cide levels continue to affect Peregrine that stay out of sight. When they are Falcon reproduction in west Texas. able to fly, the enclosure is opened Prior to the mid-1940’s, it is and the birds are free to leave. Food estimated that the North American is still provided at the release site continent contained 7000-10,000 until no longer used or needed by the Peregrine nesting territories, of which young birds. Hacking has been used probably 80-90% were occupied in successfully in many areas, primarily any given year. Although never com- in the eastern United States, to mon when compared with other birds increase Peregrine numbers. of prey breeding in North America, In Texas, the greatest challenge Peregrine Falcons were much more for the future will be to protect numerous historically than they are breeding habitat in the western part today. of the state, and coastal habitat which Recent surveys have confirmed is so important to migrating Pere- the existence of at least 1,153 breed- grines. Texas Parks and Wildlife ing pairs on the continent, and many Department, in cooperation with the more probably exist in unsurveyed National Park Service and U.S. Fish Banding Peregrine Falcons portions of Alaska and northern and Wildlife Service, is continuing to © TPWD Frank Aquilar Canada. The 1992 breeding season monitor Peregrine Falcon populations sites in the Rocky Mountains were estimates for Arizona, California, and nesting success. Monitoring of still occupied. In the southwestern Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, nesting success is particularly impor- United States, pre-1947 populations New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Utah, tant in detecting any problems associ- were largely unknown, but similar Washington, and Wyoming show a ated with contaminants in the declines probably occurred. total of 591 breeding pairs. Although environment. The lowest point in most North Peregrines are recovering well in Finally, appropriate management American populations was reached in many areas, they are still largely of nesting and feeding habitat must the mid-1970’s. By 1975, only 324 absent from most of Canada south of be a priority if we are to achieve and nesting pairs of Peregrines could be the boreal forest, the Rocky maintain an upward trend in Pere- confirmed on the continent. After sev- Mountains of the northern United grine Falcon numbers in Texas. eral years of study, the low reproduc- States, the southern half of California, tion of Peregrine Falcons and other and the northern Pacific coast of Baja Where To See birds of prey was linked to widespread California. Peregrine Falcons use of insecticides such as DDT and The best place to see Peregrine Dieldren. These insecticides were used Recovery Efforts Falcons is along the Texas coast dur- extensively in agriculture and forestry Throughout the United States, scien- ing the spring or fall migrations of beginning in 1947. As DDT entered tists are conducting breeding and Arctic Peregrines. Mustang Island the environment, it became part of the population surveys to determine State Park and Padre Island National food chain, and was stored as DDE in occupancy of eyries and reproductive Seashore, in particular, are good the fatty tissue of animals. As Pere- success. Eggshells are being collected places to see Peregrines. The birds grine Falcons and other birds of prey and tested for thickness, and contami- fed on these animals, they accumu- nant levels are being assessed. Con- lated DDE in their systems. Although tinued research on population Peregrine Falcon 3 arrive by the hundreds, taking time For More Information to feed and rest before continuing Contact their lengthy migration. In fact, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Texas Gulf Coast is the only known Endangered Resources Branch spring staging area for Peregrine 4200 Smith School Road migration in the Western Hemisphere. Austin, Texas 78744 (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 How You Can Help or If you see a Peregrine Falcon or its U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service nest, remember that they are vulnera- Ecological Services Field Office ble to disturbance, particularly when 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 nesting or hunting. Observers should Austin, Texas 78758 remain a safe distance away from the (512) 490-0057 nest or perch (100 to 300 yards, Immature Peregrine Falcon feeding along the Texas coast © USFWS depending on the sensitivity of the individual bird) and keep noise and other human impacts to a minimum. Landowners and others are encouraged to report sightings or nests of Peregrine Falcons to Texas Parks and Wildlife Department or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at the numbers listed below. Since nesting in Texas is still quite rare, it is important to note the location (county and approximate distance and direction to nearest town), habitat type, behavior, and take a photograph if possible. Well- documented observations will help experts verify your sighting. You can be involved in the conservation of Texas’ nongame wildlife resources by supporting the Special Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation Fund. Special nongame stamps and decals are available at Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) Field Offices, most State Parks, and the License Branch of TPWD headquarters in Austin. Part of the proceeds from the sale of these Immature Peregrine Falcon © D. Keddy-Hector items are used for endangered species habitat management and public information. Conservation organizations in Texas also welcome your participation and support. History has taught a sobering lesson concerning the effects of pesti- References Burnham, W. (Ed.). 1989. The Peregrine Fund, Inc. operation report. World cide contamination on wildlife. You Center for Birds of Prey, Boise, ID. 229 pp. can help by doing your part to insure Cade, T.J., J.H. Enderson, C.G. Thelander, and C.M. White (Ed.). 1988. Peregrine that household and agricultural chem- falcon populations - their management and recovery. The Peregrine Fund, icals are used, and the containers and Inc. Boise, ID. 949 pp. rinse water disposed of, in accor- Maechtle, T.L. 1989. “Peregrine sojourn.” Texas Parks and Wildlife, Vol. 47, dance with label directions. No. 11, p. 4-13. Finally, you can encourage and Paredes, M., R. Skiles, and D. Neighbor. 1991. Peregrine falcon monitoring pro- support private landowners who are gram report - Big Bend National Park and Rio Grande Wild and Scenic managing their land to protect habi- River. National Park Service, Big Bend National Park, Texas. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. American Peregrine falcon recovery plan tat for Peregrine Falcons and other (Rocky Mountain/Southwest Population). Prepared in cooperation with the birds of prey. American Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team. USFWS, Denver, CO. 105 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Draft addendum to the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain/Southwest American Peregrine falcon recovery plans. Portland, Oregon. 20 pp.

4 Peregrine Falcon Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Northern Aplomado Falcon Scientific Name: Falco femoralis septentrionalis Federal Status: Endangered, 2/26/86 • State Status: Endangered

Description and dark tail with 6 to 8 narrow, regions in Texas. In western Texas, it A boldly-marked, colorful Neotropical white crossbars. Male and female are was associated with open desert falcon that fits into the body size scale similar in appearance except that the grasslands with scattered yuccas, of North American falcons between female is noticeably larger than the mesquite, and other shrubs; or oak the Merlin and Peregrine Falcon. male. Juveniles are similar to adults, woodlands and gallery forests sur- Measurements are: total length 15 to but with white facial and breast rounded by or intermingled with 18 inches, wingspan 32 to 36 inches, plumage suffused with buff or cinna- desert grasslands. In southern Texas, and weight 7.5 to 18 ounces – similar mon, other plumage areas not as coastal prairie and marsh habitats in size to the Cooper’s Hawk or Amer- richly colored, and the white upper that supported small islands of trees ican Crow. Aplomado means “steel- breast heavily dark streaked. and shrubs or that interfaced with gray” in Spanish in reference to the woodlands along freshwater adult’s dorsal plumage. Distribution drainages and estuaries were used. Distinguishing adult field marks and Habitat In Mexico, the Aplomado is found in include bold face markings; contrast- The Aplomado Falcon’s Neotropical a broad range of semi-open tropical distribution extends from southern Argentina northward through Mexico in to the southwestern United States. Three subspecies are recognized and the Northern Aplomado Falcon is the northernmost subspecies. It occurs locally throughout much of Mexico and historically reached the northern limits of its range in southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico, and western and southern Texas. Early naturalists (1878- 1925) noted that Aplomados bred in the Trans-Pecos and southern, coastal regions of Texas. However, historic status and trend in Texas is difficult to assess because of the general nature and the scarcity of historic records. In 1900, J. Strecker and subtropical habitat settings, observed three (3) active Aplomado including coastal prairies, wetlands, nests in the vicinity of Midland and savannas, and shrublands; cut-over stated that his collecting party “fre- rain forests, cleared pastureland and quently” saw this bird in the Trans- farmland; dry deciduous woodlands; Aplomado Falcon Pecos. It was variously described as upland pine woodlands; and open © TPWD Glen Mills “locally common,” “not very com- desert grasslands. ing breast, belly, and undertail mon,” and “uncommon” in southern, Aplomado Falcon habitat almost plumage; relatively long wings nar- coastal Texas. Aplomados declined always contains an open grassland rowing at the body; and long tail. throughout their U.S. range, including component with either scattered The face pattern consists of a blue- Texas, during the first half of the islands of shrubs or trees or wood- gray crown; broad, white eyebrow 20th century. The last breeding of land and forest borders. Landscapes over a blue-gray eyestripe; a white wild birds in Texas was reported in with these open characteristics proba- cheek, and prominent, blue-gray mus- 1941. Except for regular sightings on bly favor the falcon’s mode of spot- tache. A dark band or “cummerbund” the King Ranch (Kleberg County) as ting, chasing, and capturing avian extends across the belly separating a late as the 1950s, reports of the Aplo- prey. Shrubs and trees provide white breast and rich cinnamon lower mado Falcon were extremely rare in perching and nesting sites and may belly, flanks, and undertail. Fleshy the U.S. after the 1940s. In Mexico, enhance the diversity and abundance eyering and legs are yellow. In flight, however, it remains in much of its of potential prey species. the underside shows dark wing lin- historic range. Reliable sightings of Aplomados, ings that are bridged by a darker cum- Historically, the Aplomado Falcon usually single birds, have been berbund; white breast and throat; occurred in two distinctly different cinnamon lower belly and tail coverts; and widely separated ecological Northern Aplomado Falcon 1 reported with increasing frequency in Weights of avian prey range from southern New Mexico and western 0.12 ounce (hummingbird) to 19 Texas (Jeff Davis and Culberson coun- ounces (Plain Chachalaca), but most ties) since the 1990s. Two small birds taken weigh less than 3.5 breeding populations of falcons in ounces. Aplomados in coastal and north-central Chihuahua, Mexico, also tropical environments are highly insec- discovered in the 1990s, were probable tivorous, but insects contribute <3% by sources for the birds being reported in weight to the total diet. Insect prey the U.S. In 2002, a pair of wild Aplo- includes crickets, beetles, dragonflies, mado Falcons successfully reared butterflies, cicadas, locusts, wasps, young near Deming, New Mexico. moths, bees, and others. These events may represent the begin- Like most other falcons, Aploma- ning of natural recolonization by Aplo- dos are swift flyers. In full flight, mados into portions of their former they are probably slightly faster than U.S. range. Reintroductions of captive- Mourning and White-winged doves. Aplomado Falcon chicks reared falcons have been ongoing since They dive and execute aerobatic © Frid Fridrickson 1987 in southern Texas and were initi- maneuvers in their pursuit of prey, ated in western Texas in 2002. but also frequently hover and soar. They are agile afoot and will chase Life History prey in trees from limb to limb and The Aplomado is an aggressive preda- on the ground. tor that feeds mainly on other birds The vocal repertoire of Aplo- and insects, but also takes bats, small mado Falcons consists of 4 distinct rodents, lizards, and other animals. calls. The “kek” or “ki” call is given This falcon locates prey from observa- almost exclusively in agonistic con- tion posts or while in flight. Birds texts such as when adults recognize and insects may be taken on the wing potential predators or when they are or ambushed while on the ground. It being harassed by other birds. The “chip” is given as either a single note Male falcon providing food aggressively chases birds even pursu- © Noel Synder ing them through shrub and tree or as a 2 to 3 note series in a wide canopies and on the ground. Often range of contexts. “Wails” consists of may also nest in arboreal bromeliads mated pairs hunt cooperatively. In a 3 to 4 note series given at the nest or rarely on the ground. Egg laying these instances, one bird may flush by the female to initiate hunting for- usually occurs in March and April. the potential prey into a position ays by the male, but also by both Two to 3 eggs are laid and then coop- where it can be attacked by its mate. adults at the nest during courtship. eratively incubated for 31 to 32 days It hunts most often during daylight The “chittering” note consists of 7 or before hatching. Downy hatchlings hours, but also before sunrise and more notes and is given by adults are closely brooded by the female for after sunset taking advantage of cre- and young during feeding sessions. the first week and less frequently puscular birds, bats, and insects. It is presumed that Aplomados thereafter. The male does the major- Aplomados practice “kleptopara- are monogamous. Mated pairs ity of the hunting for the nestlings, sitism” – the act of commandeering remain together year-round. Pair but may be joined by the female in prey from other raptors and preda- bonding involves various courtship this pursuit. Food items brought to tory water birds such as herons and displays, including joint reconnais- the nest by the male are fed to the kingfishers. They sometimes “cache” sance flights of prospective territo- young by the female. Young leave the food items for later consumption and ries, perching, chasing, soaring, and nest at 4 to 5 weeks of age and the will aggressively defend caches. diving. Males may select the nest adults continue to feed the fledglings In eastern and southern Mexico, platform and solicit the female’s away from the nest until their flight 43 bird species were preyed on by attention by soaring above and then feathers are fully grown. Little is Aplomados, and birds comprised 97% landing at the nest and giving a known about the dispersal or survival of the diet by weight. Principal prey “chip” call. Once the female joins her of young; although, one juvenile species included the Great-tailed mate at the nest, both may give banded as a nestling in northern Chi- Grackle, Mourning Dove, White-winged “wail” and “chip” calls, squat, and huahua, Mexico, was observed approx- Dove, Grooved-billed Ani, Yellow-billed pick at nest sticks with their bills. imately 180 miles away in south- Cuckoo, meadowlarks, and Northern Copulation occurs in conjunction with central New Mexico. In eastern Bobwhite. In Chihuahua, Mexico, nest platform displays. Some evi- Mexico, 25 nests produced 38 nestlings meadowlarks, Common Nighthawk, dence suggests that females are capa- from an estimated 66 eggs. Similarly, Western Kingbird, Brown-headed Cow- ble of breeding at 11 to 12 months of in Chihuahua, Mexico, 7 nests pro- bird, Mourning Dove, Cactus Wren, age, but typically they do not success- duced 11 nestlings from 18 eggs. Pyrrhuloxia, Ash-throated Flycatcher, fully breed until 2 years of age. The population status and trend Blue Grosbeak, and Canyon Towhee There is no evidence that Aplo- and geographic distribution of the predominated in the avian diet. mados build their own nest, instead Aplomado Falcon in the U.S. is diffi- the pair takes over an old or newly cult to assess because of the sparse- constructed stick nest of another rap- ness of historical information, the 2 Northern Aplomado Falcon tor, large jay, or raven. Aplomados lack of recent, long-term population potential falcon prey species have never occurred during historic time also been suggested as a possible in southern Texas), matched closely. cause. However, a recent review of This has led to speculation that habi- the history of livestock trends and tat conditions generated by prairie practices and other ecological factors dogs may have benefited Aplomado in the Southwest in relation to the Falcons. It is reasoned that overall decline of Aplomados suggests differ- abundance, biomass, and catchability ent causes. of avian and small mammal prey In the late-1800s, large numbers were greater inside prairie dog towns Aplomado Falcon habitat in South Texas of cattle were introduced onto South- than in the surrounding grasslands. © USFWS Marie Fernandez west grasslands occupied by Aploma- At least some potentially important dos and their numbers remained high avian prey species, such as mead- through the 1920s. Decades of over- owlarks, some plovers, Mourning stocking had degraded desert grass- Dove, Horned Lark, and others, seem lands by the 1920s. Recognition of to respond positively to grazing. this led to reductions in cattle num- Others, like the Borrowing Owl, are bers by the late-1920s and 1930s, par- directly dependent on prairie dog ticularly after passage of the Taylor borrows and other prairie dog habitat Grazing Act in 1934. However, cattle features for optimal nesting and rear- stocking rates may have remained ing of young. Insects, reptiles, birds, comparatively high in western and and small mammals that used prairie southern Texas well into the late- dog colonies were probably easier to 1900s, since these ranges were mostly detect and catch by Aplomados than in private ownership and not subject in surrounding grasslands, where Adult Aplomado Falcon to regulation by the federal act. At herbaceous vegetation was denser © D. P. Keddy-Hector least at some Arizona and New Mexico and higher. In similar ways, cattle monitoring efforts, and because of sites where Aplomados occurred, grazing may have provided short-term the remoteness and inaccessibility of brush did not extensively invade into benefits to Aplomados. the bird’s habitat. In Chihuahua, grasslands until after the 1940s. The natural coincidence of Mexico, home ranges for 10 individu- There is some evidence from Aplomado and prairie dog distribu- als ranged from 1.3 to 8.1 square early naturalists to support the tions in the Southwest (outside south- miles. Causes of mortality in wild notion that prairie dogs greatly ern Texas) and their simultaneous adults are not well understood. How- expanded in the Southwest after the declines suggest that these events ever, Brown Jays are suspected nest introduction of large cattle herds. may have been related. Prairie dogs predators in eastern Mexico, and the Widespread and intensive grazing by were eradicated by strychnine poison- Harris’s Hawk and Great Horned Owl cattle may have stimulated such an ing. This method of control was non- have been known to prey on expansion, since prairie dogs require selective and undoubtedly killed released, captive-reared fledglings in low-stature grassland habitats. other wildlife in the vicinity of dog southern Texas. Regardless of the cause, prairie dog towns. Aplomado Falcons could have numbers and acreages occupied were been adversely affected by feeding on Threats and Reasons extremely high during the late-1800s poisoned birds and mammals through for Decline through about 1920. A U.S. govern- relay toxicity. Relay toxicity also The Northern Aplomado Falcon was ment campaign to control prairie could have killed other raptors and most commonly observed and col- dogs on publicly-owned lands in Ari- ravens that provided nest platforms lected in its U.S. range during the zona and New Mexico by use of for Aplomados. period 1870-1930. The falcon seem- strychnine poison began in 1912, and It appears that a majority of ingly disappeared in the U.S. after a similar state effort was initiated in historic encounters with Aplomado the 1930s for reasons that largely Texas in 1915. Prairie dogs were Falcons and high numbers and remain a mystery. It is noteworthy substantially reduced through poison- acreage of black-tailed prairie dogs to consider that the Aplomado Falcon ing by the 1920s, their decline coincided with historically high live- was at the northern limits of its con- peaked in the 1930s, and they were stock stocking rates on Southwest tinental range in southeastern Ari- virtually eliminated from southeast- grasslands (all between 1870 and zona, southern New Mexico, and ern Arizona and southwestern New 1920). Aplomado falcons and black- western and southern Texas; and, Mexico by the 1940s and 1950s, tailed prairie dogs, with overlapping therefore, possibly vulnerable to respectively. This pattern of decline distributions, disappeared from the small changes in habitat quality in was probably mirrored in western Southwest landscape in the 1930s. this region. Texas, except that prairie dogs were Although, it is clear that prairie dogs Severe overgrazing by domestic never completely eradicated and some were intentionally eradicated, causes livestock and resultant brush populations have persisted there of the Aplomados disappearance encroachment in the Southwest, through the present time. remain obscure. In Arizona and New including Texas, has been most fre- Historic ranges of the black- Mexico, large scale mesquite and quently implicated as the principal tailed prairie dog and the Northern other shrub invasion into grasslands cause for the species’ decline. Direct Aplomado Falcon in the Southwest, to adverse effects of livestock grazing on include western Texas (prairie dogs Northern Aplomado Falcon 3 appears to have occurred after the has been linked directly to the deaths demise of the falcon. of thousands of songbirds, waterfowl, Other factors could have affected and raptors in Argentina and parts of the decline. Aplomado Falcons disap- the U.S. Other threats include direct peared rapidly throughout their U.S. loss of habitat from various forms of range, which suggest that a wide- human development, secondary lead spread phenomenon such as climate poisoning through ingestion of game change could have been involved. birds (doves and quail), electrocution Throughout the U.S. and Mexican by improperly designed electrical range of the Northern Aplomado Fal- transmission lines, and human distur- con, the long-term, cumulative impact bance in breeding areas. of cattle grazing to the recovery of this subspecies probably has been Recovery Efforts negative, since it eventually con- In 1986, the Northern Aplomado tributed to the evident degradation of Falcon was federally listed as endan- Aplomado Falcon landing desert and coastal grasslands. Graz- gered in the U.S. and Mexico based © TPWD Glen Mills ing by cattle increases the spread of on evidence of population declines in mesquite, diminishes water retention the U.S. and threats to reproduction eastern Mexico. In the 1980s, this on rangelands through soil com- in eastern Mexico related to pesticide program was taken over and paction and loss of herbaceous plant contamination. Subsequently, the expanded by The Peregrine Fund, a cover, and interrupts natural fire northern subspecies was state-listed private organization focused on the regimes by reducing plant fuel loads. as endangered in Arizona, New worldwide conservation of birds of In southern Texas, relatively high Mexico, and Texas, and in 1990 a prey, with support from the U.S. Fish numbers of falcon eggs and speci- federal recovery plan was prepared. and Wildlife Service. An initial mens were collected by professional In the years since listing release of captive-reared young was collectors during the early-1900s and occurred, general awareness of the made on the King Ranch in Kleberg possibly contributed to the disappear- Aplomado’s peril has grown, surveil- County, Texas in 1985. Additional ance of Aplomados in that region. lance of the falcon has increased, con- release sites on the Texas Gulf Coast Particularly in southern Texas and sideration of and planning for were evaluated between 1985 and eastern Mexico, but also portions of Aplomado habitat requirements on 1987, and the release program was the Aplomado’s former desert range, public lands has improved; and new then refocused to Laguna Atascosa large tracts of native grassland have research, focused on the Aplomado’s National Wildlife Refuge and been converted to pasturelands and population ecology and habitat pref- Matagorda Island. The first breeding croplands, thereby further reducing erences and requirements, has been in the wild of released captive-reared the extent and quality of Aplomado initiated. In 1992, two small, iso- Aplomados occurred in 1995. Since Falcon habitat. lated populations of Aplomados were 1997, over 100 captive-reared young The pesticides DDT and DDE discovered in north-central Chi- have been released annually along were not factors in the Alpomado’s huahua, Mexico in close proximity to the Texas Gulf Coast. To date, this disappearance, since they were not the U.S. Ongoing monitoring and program has resulted in the establish- introduced into the environment research efforts at these sites are pro- ment of at least 37 Aplomado pairs until the late-1940s. Even though viding important insights into the that have produced over 92 young in these pesticides have been banned in desert grassland ecology of this the wild. In 2002, reintroductions the U.S. for over 30 years, heavy con- species. Recently, another research- were expanded to desert grasslands centrations of DDT and DDE persists management effort led by U.S. depart- in western Texas with the release of in potential prey species in the U.S. ments of Interior and Defense 36 captive-reared young and future and northern Mexico. Furthermore, characterized occupied Aplomado releases are being planned for south- these pesticides are still in use in Falcon habitat in northern Mexico ern New Mexico. The preliminary Mexico and other parts of Latin and then used that habitat “footprint” results of the reintroduction program America. In eastern Mexico, DDT and to identify potentially suitable falcon look promising; ultimately, however, DDE contamination has led to severe habitat in the U.S. The Turner its success will depend on the quality eggshell thinning in Aplomados. Endangered Species Fund also of these environments to support Birds and other organisms collected recently funded a historical review of wild Aplomado Falcons over time. over the past decade from the lower land use and ecological conditions Rio Grande, Laguna Madre, and other that surrounded the Aplomado in the Where To See southern Texas locations contained Southwest at the time of its decline. heavy loads of PBCs, heavy metals, Aplomado Falcons Reintroduction of captive-reared and organochlorine pesticides. At the present time, the only publicly- Aplomados into the historic U.S. Organophosphate pesticides are still accessible location in the U.S. where range was considered an essential heavily used throughout the range of Aplomado Falcons can be consistently step in the 1990 federal recovery the Aplomado Falcon, including in the observed is in the vicinity of Laguna plan. As early as 1977, the Chi- U.S., and remain a serious threat to Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge huahuan Desert Institute at Alpine, Aplomados. This group of pesticides near Rio Hondo, Texas. Opportunities Texas had begun a captive breeding to regularly see Aplomados may grad- program based on wild- captured ually increase with time in western 4 Northern Aplomado Falcon Aplomado breeding stock from south- Texas in the vicinity of Marfa and Valentine as result of The Peregrine verification. Observations should For More Information Fund’s ongoing reintroduction efforts include a detailed description of the Contact there. Wild Aplomados, presumably bird’s location, appearance, activity, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department dispersing from Chihuahua, Mexico, and surroundings. Verification of Diversity Resources Branch also were sporadically reported dur- sightings is extremely important in 4200 Smith School Road ing the 1990s in western Texas. the context of the Aplomado’s Austin, Texas 78744 Birders who pursue opportunities scarcity and future conservation. (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 to view an Aplomado Falcon should Ultimately, recovery of Aploma- 04 be equipped with a good quality dos in Texas will depend on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service binocular, bird identification guide, interest and direct involvement of pri- Ecological Services Field Office and lots of patience. Becoming famil- vate land owners since lands within 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 iar with the different raptor body the falcon’s former range are mostly Austin. Texas 78758 forms, styles of flight, behaviors, and in private ownership. Texas land (512) 490-0057 distinguishing field marks well before holders interested in promoting Aplo- or going into the field will greatly aid mado Falcon conservation measures U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service accurate identification of Aplomados should consult with experts in the Corpus Christi Ecological Services and other raptors. Desert grasslands Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Office with scattered yuccas and other U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or The c/o TAMU-CC, Campus Box 338 shrubs in western Texas and coastal Peregrine Fund for technical guidance 6300 Ocean Drive, Room 118 grasslands and wetlands in southern and other assistance. Texans can con- Corpus Christi, Texas 78412 Texas are the correct general habitat tribute to nongame wildlife resources (361) 994-9005 types for searches. Prime periods of conservation by supporting the Texas or Aplomado activity are two to three Parks and Wildlife Department’s “Spe- Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife hours after sunrise and before sunset. cial Nongame and Endangered Species Refuge If a visit to Laguna Atascosa National Conservation Fund” and by purchases P.O. Box 450 Wildlife Refuge is planned, call ahead of special nongame decals and stamps Rio Hondo, Texas 78583 to the refuge headquarters to obtain issued by the department. A set por- (956) 748-3607 current information concerning view- tion of the revenues generated by or ing and reporting guidelines as well these programs is used to purchase The Peregrine Fund as the whereabouts and habits of this endangered species habitats and to 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane falcon. Nature and birding club web support the publication of nongame- Boise, Idaho 83709 sites, local birding experts, and wildlife informational materials and (208) 362-3716 or (208) 362-8687 wildlife agency personnel are excel- other nongame activities. lent sources of information regarding the locations of past and recent rare bird sightings in Texas. References Cade, T.J. 1982. The falcons of the world. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New How You Can Help York. Aplomados can be sensitive to human Clark, W.S. and K.B. Wheeler. 1995. A photographic guide to North American raptors. Academic Press, New York. disturbance, especially during the Hector, D.P. 1985. “The diet of the Aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis) in eastern breeding season. Human activity, Mexico.” The Condor 87:336-342. including close or prolonged intru- Hector, D.P. 1987. “The decline of the Aplomado falcon in the United States.” sion in a bird’s territory, or loud and American Birds 41:381-389. unusual noises, can cause nest aban- Keddy-Hector, D.P. 200?. “Aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis)” in Birds of North donment. Human intrusions can also America, No. 549 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., make Aplomados more susceptible to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. detection and harm from potential Kiff, L.F., D.B. Peakell, and D.P. Hector. 1980. “Eggshell thinning and organochlo- predators. A safe viewing distance is rine residues in the bat and Aplomado falcons in Mexico.” Ornithological Con- 200 yards or more. Suitable viewing gress 17:949-952. at this or greater distance may Montoya, A.B., P.J. Zwank, and M. Cardenas. 1997. “Breeding biology of the Aplo- mado falcon in desert grasslands in Chihuahua, Mexico.” J. Field Ornithology require a spotting scope with 10 to 68:135-143. 15 X or greater magnification. Bird- Oberholser, H.C. 1974. The bird life of Texas. Vol. I. University of Texas Press, ers should always respect private Austin, Texas. property rights in Texas regardless of Perez, C.J., P.J. Zwank, and D.W. Smith. 1996. “Survival, movements, and habitat the species being pursued. use of Aplomado falcons released in southern Texas.” J. Raptor Research Birders should keep in mind that 30:175-182. Aplomados remain extremely rare in Strecker, J.K. 1930. “Field notes on western Texas birds.” Contributions to Baylor Texas and are federally- and state- University Museum 22:1-14. listed as endangered. Therefore, all Truett, J.C. 2002. “Aplomado falcons and grazing: invoking history to plan for reasonable and suspected sightings of restoration.” The Southwestern Naturalist 47:379-400. this bird should be reported immediately to an expert birder, Texas Parks Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. and Wildlife Department, or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for further Northern Aplomado Falcon 5 Mexican Spotted Owl Scientific Name: Strix occidentalis lucida Federal Status: Threatened, 3/16/93 • State Status: Threatened

Description can Spotted Owls are usually seen streams along canyon bottoms that The Mexican Spotted Owl is a medium- singly or in pairs. support vegetation such as box elder, sized owl, reaching nearly 17 inches cottonwood, and walnut also provide when perched. It has dark eyes and Distribution important habitat. white spotting on the head, back, and and Habitat Habitat use by Mexican Spotted under parts. It is somewhat similar to The Mexican Spotted Owl has the Owls appears to vary according to the Barred Owl, but with spots on the largest geographic range of the three activity. The owls roost and nest pri- breast rather than barring and streak- spotted owl subspecies. Its ranges marily in closed canopy forests with ing. The Mexican Spotted Owl is one from the southern Rocky Mountains in large trees, snags and many big logs, of three spotted owl subspecies occur- Colorado and southern Utah, south- or in cliff crevices adjacent to such ring in North America. It is distin- ward through Arizona, New Mexico vegetation. In a recent study in guished from the California and and Trans-Pecos Texas, to the Sierra northern Arizona, all the owls moni- Northern Spotted Owls primarily by Madre Occidental and Oriental moun- tored roosted primarily in virgin geographic distribution and plumage tains in Mexico. Although there are no mixed-conifer forests. Foraging owls estimates of the owl’s historic popula- appear to use a wider variety of habi- tion size, its historic range is thought tats, including mature mixed-conifer to be similar to its present distribution. and ponderosa pine forests. Mature The 1990 population estimate of Mexi- forests likely provide abundant habi- can Spotted Owls in the southwestern tat for foraging, nesting, and breed- United States was 806 pairs and 548 ing activities of the owls, including singles for a total of about 2,160 birds. ample perches and numerous downed An estimated 91% of Mexican Spotted logs. These habitat features, present Owls known to exist in the southwest in many foraging areas, are impor- at the end of 1990 occurred on tant in providing homes and protec- national forests; the other 9% occurred tive cover for the small mammals on on: Indian reservations (4%), national which the owls prey. parks (4%), BLM lands (1%), and pri- Mexican Spotted Owls nest on vate lands (less than 1%). stick platforms made by other birds In Texas, the Mexican Spotted (like hawks or ravens), in tree cavi- Owl occurs in the Guadalupe Moun- ties, and, especially in Texas, on cliff tains near the New Mexico border ledges. Nest trees selected by owls and the Davis Mountains. They were are of moderate to large diameter first observed in the Guadalupe and height for their species. Nest Mountains in 1901. One to about trees in Arizona are often located on 10 owls regularly occupy this moun- moderate to steep slopes at elevations tain range. It is possible that Mexi- ranging from 6,000 to 8,000 feet. can Spotted Owls exist in other Most nest trees occur on northern or mountain ranges of west Texas where eastern facing slopes, indicating a suitable habitat occurs, but are not preference for the cooler part of the known from the other higher moun- habitat. Cliff nests in Texas are at 5,000 to over 7,000 feet elevation in tains with evergreen forests, like the deep, cool canyons. Chisos or Chinatis. Characteristics of Mexican Spot- Mexican Spotted Owl © F. R. Gehlbach ted Owl habitat include a canopy Life History cover of mature trees. The owls pre- Limited information is available on differences. Although the background fer areas with a multi-layered canopy the reproductive biology of the Mexi- coloration of the Mexican Spotted Owl resulting from trees of different ages. can Spotted Owl. Generally, spotted is darker brown than the other sub- Other habitat characteristics, typical owls lay a clutch of 1 to 3 white, species, its spots are larger, more of old-growth stands, include downed unmarked eggs during March and numerous, and whiter, giving it a logs and snags. Much of the owl’s April. The female incubates the eggs lighter color overall. habitat is characterized by steep for about 30 days, and most eggs The owl’s call is usually four- slopes and canyons with rocky cliffs. hatch by the end of May. Broods gen- noted and rarely three-noted. The The vegetation in Mexican Spot- erally contain 1 or 2 owlets, although owl also utters what has been ted Owl habitat can be described as nests with 3 young have been found. described as a series of 3 or 4 hesi- mixed-conifer forests with overstory Males provide food for the female and tant, doglike barks and cries. Calls trees such as white pine, Douglas fir, young until the owlets are about 2 are most frequently heard throughout and ponderosa pine. Understory weeks old. After this, the females the breeding season (February- trees and shrubs include oaks, August). Like most other owls, Mexi- junipers, and maples. Mountain Mexican Spotted Owl 1 assist in capturing food for the cation of its habitat. Harvest of old- Owls to the Texas Parks and Wildlife young. Reproductive success of Mexi- growth timber stands, even-aged tim- Department, U.S. Fish and Wildlife can Spotted Owls is widely variable ber harvest systems, altered wildland Service, or the National Park Service. between years. Variation in rainfall fire regimes, and increased predation Be sure to record notes concerning and thus prey species abundance are associated with habitat fragmentation appearance, behavior, habitat being factors affecting reproductive success. are reasons for the decline of this used, and location. Take a photo- In some years when food is scarce, species. With increased awareness of graph if possible, or record the call. the birds do not nest. habitat requirements, public and pri- Observations should be made without Female owls roost at the nest vate land managers in Texas can disturbing the birds. until 3 to 6 days before the owlets insure the continued existence of the You can be involved in the con- leave the nest. Most owlets fledge Mexican Spotted Owl. servation of Texas’ nongame wildlife (leave the nest) in June, about 35 resources by supporting the Special days after hatching. Owlets are Recovery Efforts Nongame and Endangered Species unable to fly when they first leave Research is underway to answer Conservation Fund. Special nongame the nest, but become increasingly bet- questions concerning habitat use, stamps and decals are available at ter at flight throughout the summer. home range, reproductive biology, and Texas Parks and Wildlife Department By early October, the young are fully population dynamics of the Mexican (TPWD) Field Offices, most State independent. Spotted Owl. Population monitoring Parks, and the License Branch of Mexican Spotted Owls in north- will continue to provide information TPWD headquarters in Austin. Part ern Arizona were found to occupy concerning the status of this bird. of the proceeds from the sale of these areas (home ranges) varying in size Research is needed to better under- items is used for endangered species from 702 to 2,386 acres. The average stand the structural features needed habitat management and public infor- home range for a breeding pair aver- by Mexican Spotted Owls and how mation. Finally, you can encourage aged 2,092 acres. Within this large these features might be retained in and support efforts to conserve old- home range, the owls appeared to managed diverse and sustained forest growth forests of the southwestern have core areas or centers of activity stands. Efforts to inform land man- United States. that were consistently occupied. Core agers and the public about the habitat areas of individuals averaged 336 requirements and biology of the For More Information acres, and core areas for pairs aver- Mexican Spotted Owl are an important Contact aged 398 acres. The owls tended to part of the recovery process. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department favor areas with steep slopes. Most Wildlife Diversity Branch owls remained within their summer 4200 Smith School Road home range throughout the year. How You Can Help Public and private land managers in Austin, Texas 78744 Mexican Spotted Owls eat a vari- the Guadalupe Mountains and other (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 ety of mammals, birds, reptiles, and mountain ranges of west Texas and or insects, although rodents make up the New Mexico can help by protecting U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service bulk of the diet. The owls hunt at old-growth forest habitat, particularly Ecological Services Field Office night, capturing primarily rats (espe- areas associated with steep slopes 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 cially woodrats), mice, and pocket and moist, cool canyons. Landowners Austin, Texas 78758 gophers. They hunt mainly by mov- and park visitors are encouraged to (512) 490-0057 ing from tree to tree, pausing for a report sightings of Mexican Spotted few seconds to minutes, watching and listening for prey. Spotted Owls launch their attack at relatively short distances from their prey, so multi- layered forests with many potential perches are advantageous to owls hunting prey. Goshawks and other hawks, References along with Golden Eagles and Great Ganey, J.L., and R.P. Balda. 1989. “Home range characteristics of Spotted owls in Horned Owls, are potential predators northern Arizona.” J. Wildl. Manage. 53:1159-1165. of Mexican Spotted Owls. Although Ganey, J.L., and R.P. Balda. 1994. “Habitat selection by Mexican spotted owls in Great Horned Owls occur most often northern Arizona.” The Auk 111(1):162-169. Ganey, J.L. 1990. “Calling behavior of Spotted owls in northern Arizona.” in flatter, more open habitat, there is Condor 92:485-490. some overlap between the two Gehlbach, F.R. (in press). “Biogeographic controls of avifaunal richness in isolated species. Young owls are particularly coniferous forests of the Borderlands” in Storm Over a Mountain Island: Con- vulnerable. servation Biology and the Mount Graham Affair. C. Istock and R. Hoffman, eds. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Threats and Reasons Gutierrez, ______. 1995. Birds of North America, No. 179. for Decline U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. “Endangered and threatened wildlife and As an inhabitant of closed canopy, plants; final rule to list the Mexican spotted owl as a threatened species.” Fed- uneven-aged mature forests and eral Register 58(49):14248-14271. canyons, the Mexican Spotted Owl is threatened by destruction and modifi- Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

2 Mexican Spotted Owl Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle Scientific Name: Lepidochelys kempii Federal Status: Endangered, 12/2/70• State Status: Endangered

Description Distribution estuary for summer feeding. They The Kemp’s ridley is the smallest and Range occupied shallow foraging areas over extensive seagrass beds and fed member of the sea turtle family Che- Kemp’s ridley adults are generally mostly on blue crabs. In Texas, loniidae. Adults have a carapace only found in the Gulf of Mexico. Kemp’s ridley and loggerhead sea tur- (upper shell) length of up to 28 Juveniles have been reported most tles are thought to partition food inches and can weigh 75 to 100 commonly in the northern Gulf of resources: the ridleys forage on rela- pounds. Juvenile Kemp’s ridleys have Mexico between Texas and Florida. tively fast blue and spotted crabs, broad, heart-shaped, keeled carapaces Juveniles are also found along the whereas the loggerheads feed on that are serrated along the trailing eastern seaboard of the United States seapens and slow-moving crabs. edge. In adults, the carapace is as far north as Nova Scotia, Canada. The nesting beach at Rancho round and can be wider than it is Apparently, drifting hatchlings and Nuevo, in the Mexican State of long. Hatchlings and juveniles have a juveniles from the western Gulf enter Tamaulipas, is the primary land habi- dark-charcoal colored carapace, but as the eastern Gulf Loop Current and are tat (used only for nesting) for Kemp’s carried by the Florida Current and the ridley. This remote stretch of beach Gulf Stream up the eastern coast of the United States. Some juveniles even cross the Atlantic and have been reported from Ireland and the Azores. Habitat Shallow waters are preferred habitat for juvenile and adult Kemp’s ridleys. Satellite-tracked females migrating away from the nesting beach at Rancho Nuevo, Mexico and Padre Kemp’s Ridley turtle © TPWD Bill Reaves Island, Texas, generally remained in near shore waters less than 165 feet deep, and spent less than an hour each day at the surface. It is thought that juvenile and adult Kemp’s ridleys feed primarily near the bottom, although some items may be taken from the surface or water column. along the Gulf of Mexico is located Hatchlings spend many months about 100 miles north of Tampico, as surface drifters in the open ocean Mexico. It is the only known major (pelagic phase). Recent evidence sug- nesting beach for this species in the gests that they may be found in sur- world. However, lower levels of nest- face water areas where drifting ing also occur every year on other material, such as floating marine veg- beaches in Tamaulipas, the Mexican etation and debris, accumulate. state of Veracruz, and in Texas, par- These areas are called convergence ticularly in the southern part of the zones or drift lines. Little is known state. Nesting also occasionally regarding how long they drift, what occurs in other U.S. states along the Kemp’s Ridley hatchling they eat, or how they get back to the © TPWD Mary E. Candee Gulf and Atlantic coasts. coast. Studies have shown that, after they age this color changes to olive- the pelagic phase, body size of green or gray. The lower shell (plas- Kemp’s ridley is related to water Life History tron) is charcoal-colored in hatchlings depth. For example, the smallest The diet of juvenile and adult Kemp’s and later changes to a light cream juveniles are found in shallow waters ridley turtles consists primarily of color. Adult males often have a con- of bays or lagoons, often foraging in crabs, shrimp, snails, bivalves, sea cave plastron and long tails that less than 3 feet of water, whereas urchins, jellyfish, sea stars, fish, and extend beyond the rear of the cara- larger juveniles and adults are found occasionally marine plants. Crabs are pace. Kemp’s ridleys have large, in deeper water. somewhat triangular heads and pow- Juvenile Kemp’s ridleys studied erful, massive jaws. in the Chesapeake Bay area used the Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle 1 a preferred food and several species To escape a variety of land are eaten. In some regions, the blue predators, hatchlings move quickly crab is the most common food item. from the beach through the surf zone Although feeding habits of hatchlings and into open waters of the Gulf of have not been observed in the wild, Mexico. Scientists think the baby they are presumed to eat swimming turtles may remember or “imprint” and floating animal matter located at on the particular smell, chemical or near the surface of the open Gulf make-up, or magnetic location of the of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. beach where they hatched. Other Reproduction in Kemp’s ridley dif- predators await them in the water. fers from that of other sea turtles in Most breeding females return to the four important ways. First, most shallow waters of the western Gulf of female Kemp’s ridleys, along with their Mexico to nest at the same beach sister species Olive ridleys (Lepi- where they hatched. Wild Kemp’s Nesting female dochelys olivacea), arrive at nesting ridleys require 10 to 20 years to © NPS D. J. Shaver beaches in large groups. These nesting reach sexual maturity. events are called “arribazones.” Many females gather in the waters near the Threats and Reasons nesting beach and emerge to nest for Decline simultaneously over a period of several The Kemp’s ridley population crash hours or days. Second, Kemp’s ridleys that occurred between 1947 and the nest mainly during the daytime, early 1970’s was probably a result of whereas other sea turtles usually nest the combination of intensive annual at night. Third, most nesting occurs on harvest of eggs and mortality of juve- one stretch of beach, which is unique niles and adults in shrimp trawl nets. for sea turtles. Fourth, Kemp’s ridley Kemp’s ridley eggs were (and females nest every 1 to 3 years, with still are in many places) considered a an average of every 2 years, whereas delicacy. Between about 1947 and other sea turtles nest about every 2 to 1966 people dug up truckloads of Marine debris ingested by Kemp’s Ridley turtle 3 years. eggs and sold them in the towns and © NPS R. W. Wilder During the breeding season, cities of Texas and Mexico. Since female Kemp’s ridleys migrate toward many of the eggs were either taken human caused deaths of juvenile and the nesting beach. A large portion of by people or eaten by predators, adult loggerheads and Kemp’s ridleys the adult male population may remain there was a drastic decline in the tur- resulted from shrimp trawling. offshore from the nesting beach year- tle population. Also, prior to its Trash discarded at sea is another round. Courtship and mating occur being listed as endangered by the serious problem facing this species in nearby offshore waters several U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in and other marine animals. Some of weeks prior to and during the nesting 1970, Kemp’s ridleys, along with this debris never makes it to shore period. Nesting usually occurs during green and loggerhead turtles, were because it is eaten by fishes, sea tur- April, May, and June, although it can taken for meat by commercial fisher- tles, birds, and marine mammals that occur in July and August if cool spring men in the northern and northeast- mistake it for food. Postmortem weather delays the onset of the repro- ern Gulf of Mexico. Human examinations of sea turtles found ductive period. consumption of turtle eggs and meat stranded on the south Texas coast A well-defined and elevated dune has declined with national and inter- from 1986 through 1988 revealed area, above the tidal zone, is pre- national protection. Although nesting 54% (60 of the 111 examined) of the ferred for nesting. The female digs a turtles and nests are protected at sea turtles had eaten some type of hole in the sand, deposits her eggs, Rancho Nuevo, the harvest of eggs marine debris. Plastic materials were and returns to the sea, a process and slaughter of animals continue to most frequently ingested, and which takes about 45 minutes. be potential problems in other areas. included pieces of plastic bags, Styro- Females generally deposit one to Because the Kemp’s ridley sea foam, plastic pellets, balloons, rope, three clutches per season, laying an turtle is a shallow water inhabitant, it and fishing line. Non-plastic debris average of about 100 soft, leathery, is frequently caught in shrimp trawl such as glass, tar, and aluminum foil white eggs per clutch. After about 45 nets that may drown or exhaust the were also ingested by the sea turtles to 55 days of incubation in the sand, turtle. There is strong evidence that examined. Much of this debris comes the eggs hatch. The temperature of shrimp trawling is a primary agent from offshore oil rigs, cargo ships, the incubating eggs during the mid- for sea turtle mortality today. The commercial and recreational fishing dle third of the incubation period National Marine Fisheries Service esti- boats, research vessels, naval ships, determines the gender of the develop- mated that, prior to the 1990 law and other vessels operating in the ing embryo. Warmer temperatures requiring Turtle Excluder Devices Gulf of Mexico. Laws enacted during produce primarily females and colder (TEDs), about 12,000 sea turtles the late-1980’s prohibit the disposal temperatures primarily males. drowned each year in nets. The of all types of plastics, and regulates National Research Council’s Commit- the distance from shore that non-plas- tee on Sea Turtle Conservation esti- tic debris may be discarded. How- 2 Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle mated in 1990 that 86% of the ever, enforcement of these laws is size has been the annual count of behaviors and physiology, and sur- adult nesting females at Rancho vivorship of hatchlings. Nuevo. A film taken by a Mexican Regulations went into effect in businessman in 1947, and discovered the United States in 1990 and in by scientists in 1961, shows an esti- Mexico in 1993 which require com- mated 40,000 females nesting in one mercial trawlers to install Turtle day on the single known nesting Excluder Devices (TEDs) on their beach on the northeastern coast of boats. This device guides turtles and Mexico. Despite nest protection other large objects out of the net efforts in Mexico which began in through an escape opening in the 1966, the number of nests found each net. Hopefully, the use of these year continued to drop to a low of devices in the Gulf of Mexico by the 702 nests in 1985. Fortunately, shrimp fleets of the United States and increasing numbers of nests have Mexico will substantially reduce mor- been found during nearly every year tality associated with net entangle- since then. However, with only about ment. Additionally, in 2000, Texas 3,300 females nesting in one year in Parks and Wildlife Department 2003, today all conservation efforts revised their shrimp fishery manage- are desperately needed. ment plan to include measures that should, as a side-benefit, enhance sea Recovery Efforts turtle survival through a reduction in Since the principal nesting beach is entanglement death. in Mexico, the continued, long-term Finally, during each summer cooperation of two nations is neces- from 1978 to 1988, approximately sary to recover the species. A joint 2000 Kemp’s ridley eggs were shipped United States-Mexican management to Padre Island National Seashore program is underway which includes from Rancho Nuevo, Mexico in an nesting beach protection and incuba- attempt to establish a secondary Releasing “headstarted” Kemp’s Ridley turtles tion of eggs. The U.S. Fish and breeding colony of this species © TPWD Mario Gonzalez Wildlife Service has provided assis- through “experimental imprinting.” tance at the Rancho Nuevo nesting Eggs were incubated by the National beach since 1978. Continued assis- Park Service at Padre Island National tance to Mexico is needed to ensure Seashore. Hatchlings that emerged long-term protection of the major from these eggs were transferred to nesting beach, including protection of the National Marine Fisheries Labora- adult turtles and enhanced produc- tory in Galveston and held for 9 to 11 tion and survival of hatchlings. Edu- months before being released into the cation efforts and beach nest Gulf of Mexico. It was hoped that the protection work in Mexico is sup- larger size of the turtles after “head- ported by a partnership which starting” would increase survival in includes the Gladys Porter Zoo, U.S. the wild, and that imprinting on Fish and Wildlife Service, Texas Parks Padre Island beaches would establish and Wildlife Department, National a nesting colony at some time in the Marine Fisheries Service and the future. Additionally, a few thousand seafood industry, along with others hatchlings were taken directly from from the U.S. and Mexico. It is hoped Mexico for headstarting from 1978 that through education of children, through 1992. Some headstarted tur- National Park Service biologists with a nesting Kemp’s Ridley turtle the conservation message will be tles have been recorded nesting in the © NPS P. Eubank spread throughout local communities. wild since 1996, with most nests difficult over vast areas of water. In In the United States, the U.S. Fish and found at Padre Island National addition to trash, pollution from Wildlife Service, National Marine Seashore. Kemp’s ridley is a native heavy spills of oil or waste products Fisheries Service, National Park Ser- nester on the Texas coast and both poses additional threats. Other vice, Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- wild and headstarted turtles are now sources of mortality include dredging, ment, and Texas A&M Sea Grant nesting there. Attempts to search for entanglement in drift and gill nets, conduct programs to educate the pub- nesting of these turtles in Texas and collisions with boats, explosives used lic about sea turtle conservation. in Mexico continue. Now in Phase II, to remove oil rigs, entrapment in Research is underway to fill in the Kemp’s ridley headstart project is coastal power plant intake pipes, and gaps in knowledge that will result in looking for evidence that headstarted cold stunning in waters off the north- better management of these sea tur- turtles are reproducing. The project eastern U.S coast. tles. Research priorities include has produced useful information on Only 50 years ago, Kemp’s ridley determining distribution and habitat sea turtle behavior, husbandry, and was a very abundant sea turtle in the use for all life stages, migration Gulf of Mexico. The most reliable routes and foraging areas of adults, measure of Kemp’s ridley population critical mating and reproductive Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle 3 physiology. However, until the results hook if you can, or cut the line as of this experiment are better known, close to the hook as possible, since it is not yet considered to be a long- ingested fishing line and hooks are term management technique for often deadly to sea turtles. species recovery. Commercial fisherman can contact the National Marine Fisheries Ser- How You Can Help vice (409) 766-3500 or the Texas Visit Padre Island National Seashore A&M Marine Advisory Service (979) or the Texas State Aquarium in Cor- 345-6131 for technical assistance with pus Christi to learn more about sea design and use of TEDs. turtles. You can also contact the National Marine Fisheries Service For More Information office in Galveston (409) 766-3500. Contact If you see a sea turtle or its nest Texas Parks and Wildlife Department on the beach, do not disturb it. Wildlife Diversity Branch Report beach sightings of live or 4200 Smith School Road dead turtles to 866-TURTLE5 (866- Austin, Texas 78744 887-8535), Padre Island National (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 Seashore (361) 949-8173, ext. 226, or or Texas Parks and Wildlife Department U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Law Enforcement Office in Corpus Ecological Services Field Office Christi (361) 289-5566. Nesting tur- 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 tles and nests should be reported Austin, Texas 78758 immediately so that they can be pro- (512) 490-0057 tected and documented as quickly as or possible. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Do not discard trash of any type, Corpus Christi Ecological Services especially plastics, in the bays or Field Office Gulf. If you catch a sea turtle on a c/o TAMU-CC, Campus Box 338 hook and line, contact one of the 6300 Ocean Drive, Room 118 agencies listed above and wait for a Corpus Christi, Texas 78412 representative to pick up the turtle. (361) 994-9005 If you can’t call or wait, remove the

Nesting habitat © TPWD Glen Mills

References Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Dean, R., and D.W. Steinbach. 1981. Endangered marine turtles of the Gulf Coast. Texas Agri. Extension Service Pub. L-1867. Marquez-M., R. 1990. “An annotated and illustrated catalogue of sea turtle species known to date.” FAO Fisheries Synopsis Vol. 11, No. 125. FAO, Rome. 81 pp. National Research Council. 1990. Decline of the sea turtles, causes and prevention. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 259 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Selected vertebrate endangered species of the seacoast of United States - Kemp’s (Atlantic) ridley sea turtle. FWS/OBS- 80/01.30. Gainesville, FL. 9 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service. 1992. Recov- ery plan for the Kemp’s ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii). National Marine Fisheries Service, St. Petersburg, Florida.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

4 Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle Concho Water Snake Scientific Name: Nerodia paucimaculata Federal Status: Threatened, 9/3/1986, with federally-designated critical habitat • State Status: not listed

Description whereas water snakes usually do not. stream to the FM 45 bridge over the The Concho Water Snake is small Also, an aroused cottonmouth will Colorado River (Mills and San Saba compared to most other water snakes, sometimes stand its ground, throw its Counties). This is a distance of about with adults rarely exceeding 3 feet in head upward and backward, and hold 233 river-miles. total length. This nonvenomous its mouth wide open, revealing a Apparently isolated lake popula- snake has four rows of alternating white “cotton-like” interior. tions have been found in E.V. Spence dark brown spots or blotches on its Reservoir and Ballinger Municipal back, two rows on each side. The Distribution Lake (formerly Lake Moonen). Con- coloration on its back is similar to a Historically, the Concho Water Snake cho Water Snakes have also been checkerboard of dark brown spots on occurred over about 276 river miles found at a number of sites in O.H. a gray, brown, or reddish-brown of the Colorado and Concho Rivers in Ivie Reservoir, and there are indica- color. The Concho Water Snake has a central Texas. The snake was first tions that this population is reproduc- light pinkish or orange belly that is collected from the South Concho ing. Scattered river populations unmarked or has somewhat indistinct River and Dove Creek, which are trib- occur along the Colorado River above spots along the sides. utaries to the Concho River west of Lake Buchanan, near the towns of San Angelo, Texas. When the sub- Regency, Harmony Ridge, Adams, and species was described in 1961, these records and one other on the Col- orado River south of Robert Lee in Coke County were the only known localities for this snake. The Concho Water Snake is endemic to Texas, which means it lives nowhere else in the world. It has one of the smallest distributions of any North American snake. The Concho Water Snake may once have been more widely distributed, but the E.V. Spence Reservoir upstream and Lake Buchanan Concho Water Snake © N. Scott downstream have inundated many Two other water snakes occur miles of river habitat at both ends of within the range of the Concho Water the current range. Scientists have Snake. Both the Diamondbacked Water estimated the historic range of the Snake (Nerodia rhombifer rhombifer) subspecies based on museum records and the Blotched Water Snake (Nero- and unpublished records supported by dia erythrogaster transversa) have specimens. The probable historic Bend. Recently, Concho Water Snakes dark markings on the back. However, range of this snake is estimated to have been found at all six artificial adult Diamondbacked and Blotched include, at a minimum, the Colorado riffles (fast-flowing, shallow water Water Snakes may be distinguished River from Spence Reservoir down- over a rocky bottom) constructed in from adult Concho Water Snakes by stream to the vicinity of Lake 1989 in the 17-mile stretch of the their larger size. The Diamondbacked Buchanan, Elm, Bluff, and Coyote Colorado River between the Robert Water Snake has a distinct black chain- Creeks (Runnels County), and the Lee Dam and Bronte. like pattern on its back. The Blotched entire Concho River (Tom Green and Although the Concho River has Water Snake has three rows of large Concho Counties) and its headwater been dammed and channelized within squarish blotches on the back, which tributaries, Dove Creek, Spring Creek, the City of San Angelo, a population are especially prominent in juveniles. and the South Concho River (Irion of Concho Water Snakes persists just As Blotched Water Snakes age, they and Tom Green Counties). below the Bell Street Bridge. They become darker in color and may Today, the Concho Water Snake have also been found about 4 river- appear to lack markings. occupies a restricted geographic range miles downstream from Bell Street The cottonmouth is another large in the Concho and Colorado River Dam. From this point they are pre- aquatic snake that may be confused Basins. The current distribution sent in all suitable habitats to the with the Concho Water Snake. The includes relatively continuous occupa- confluence with Ivie Reservoir, a dis- cottonmouth, a venomous snake, is tion of riverine habitat of the Col- tance of about 43 river-miles. usually uniformly black or dark brown orado River below the town of Bronte with little or no trace of a pattern, (Coke County), of Elm, Coyote, and Habitat although both neonates and juveniles Bluff creeks below Winters (Runnels Optimal habitat for the Concho Water are banded; neonates have a yellow or County), and of the Concho River Snake consists of free-flowing streams gold-colored tail tip, juveniles retain it from San Angelo (Tom Green County) but not as distinct. Cottonmouths downstream to its confluence with often vibrate their tails when excited, the Colorado River, and then down- Concho Water Snake 1 over rocky substrates, abundant rock Snakes. Although the type of vegeta- debris and crevices for shelter, and tion does not appear to be important, shallow riffles. Periodic scouring by its use depends on vegetation density floods is important in providing rela- and orientation. For example, preg- tively sediment free rock rubble and nant females seek basking sites pro- open banks. tected by thick vegetation. Larger Riffles, considered critical to trees and shrubs, such as pecan, juvenile survival, are characterized by cedar elm, and willow, with limbs shallow, fast-flowing water connecting that hang over water, provide basking deeper areas of quiet water. Riffles sites for juveniles and adults. Com- begin when the upper pool overflows mon bank and shoreline vegetation at a change in slope and forms used for cover and basking sites rapids. They end when the rapids include switchgrass, devil-weed aster, enter the next downstream pool. Rif- greenbrier, poison ivy, willow, salt fles often contain bars, shoals, or cedar, button bush, hackberry, pecan, islands separated by flowing water. cedar elm, and mesquite. Limestone bedrock shelves in Concho Water Snakes hibernate and along the stream channel seem to during the winter, either singly or in support the largest snake populations. small groups. Adults use a variety of The snakes forage and seek cover sites for hibernation, including cray- among the numerous splits, crevices, fish burrows, rock ledges, debris cracks, and jumbled stream cobble of piles, and concrete low water cross- shelf rock. Other rock, such as lime- ings. These sites are usually within stone boulders, can also provide suit- 20 feet of the water. Newborn snakes able habitat. have been found hibernating in areas Juvenile snakes are generally of loose rock and moist soil. restricted to rocky riffles. Neonates (newborn snakes) are most often Life History found in gravel bars or along the Concho Water Snakes are active pri- shoreline in areas where rocks range marily from March through October. Concho Water Snake river habitat in size from small cobbles to small Adult activity gradually decreases © USFWS Pat Connor boulders. However, some habitats during June and remains low until with thriving populations lack typical mid-September. Activity levels gravel bars. In these areas, juveniles increase again during late September use boulders and shelf rock for cover. and October. The snakes enter the During their second year, snakes hibernation site (hibernacula) during begin to use larger rocks, usually late October, although they can occa- medium to large boulders. sionally be seen on warm winter days Mature snakes use a much wider basking in the open. Newborn Con- range of habitats than juveniles. cho Water Snakes, born in August and Although adults forage in riffles, they September, are commonly found are known to use a variety of cover under rocks in late summer and early sites for resting, including exposed fall. In the heat of the summer, Con- bedrock, thick herbaceous vegetation, cho Water Snakes are active primarily debris piles, and crayfish burrows. Habitat along the shoreline of Spence Reservoir in the early morning and evening © UWFWS Alisa Shull During the latter stages of gestation, until about 9 p.m. gravid females occupy dense patches Research indicates that adult to minnows, large snakes consume of vegetation and brush piles. males move an average of 141 to mosquitofish, channel catfish, flat- In lake habitats, Concho Water 325 ft/day. Pregnant females move head catfish, gizzard shad, and sev- Snakes occupy areas of broken rock less, averaging 62 to 131 ft/day, with eral species of sunfish. The bullhead along the shoreline. Although they distances decreasing as parturition minnow, sheepshead minnow, and seem to prefer the shallower areas, approaches, and increasing again bigscale logperch were found to be they are occasionally found on steeper after the young are born. Linear dis- the dominant prey of snakes in shorelines where rock is present. As tances of river habitat occupied by Ballinger Municipal Lake. in river habitats, first-year snakes use individual snakes range from 689 to Concho Water Snakes catch prey smaller rocks for cover, while mature 1,542 feet. by remaining stationary near fish snakes use medium to large rocks. Long range movements of 3.1 and concentrations or by actively search- When available, dead shrubs and 4.5 miles have been recorded for juve- ing under and around rocks in riffles. trees killed by fluctuating water levels nile snakes dispersing from their birth- Juveniles are most often seen using are used as basking sites by juveniles place. In one instance, a snake moved the “sit-and-wait” strategy. and adults. At Spence Reservoir, 12 river-miles over a four-year period. Mating occurs predominantly in where there are almost no dead trees The diet of the Concho Water April and early May, and sometimes or shrubs, snakes bask on the ground Snake is composed almost entirely of again in October. Litter sizes average among the protection of rocks. fish. In river habitats, minnows are 10 embryos per female, and births Bank and shoreline vegetation is most often consumed. Neonates occur from late July through Septem- important in providing cover and (newborn snakes) feed almost exclu- ber. As females increase in size dur- basking sites for Concho Water sively on minnows, particularly the ing their lifetimes, their litter size red shiner and bullhead minnow. also increases. Their diet becomes more varied as Concho Water Snakes grow 2 Concho Water Snake their body size increases. In addition rapidly and mature early, at about scouring have resulted in siltation of maintenance of high quality surface rocky streambeds, encroaching vege- waters. Enrollment in the CRP of the tation, and loss of riffle habitat primary areas contributing to sedi- required by young snakes. Loss of mentation in the watershed may sig- adequate instream flow due to nat- nificantly reduce the threat of ural conditions (drought) and water sedimentation of riffle habitat. diversion is also a concern. Finally, in an effort to restore Pollution and degradation of former habitat heavily degraded by water quality in the Concho and Col- siltation and vegetation encroach- orado Rivers or their tributaries is ment, six artificial riffles were built another potential threat in certain in 1989 in an unoccupied stretch of portions of the snake’s range. Non- the Colorado River below Spence point source pollution in the vicinity Reservoir. Though this area once of San Angelo, petroleum production, contained excellent habitat and dense Habitat on the Concho River refining, and transportation in the populations of Concho Water Snakes, © USFWS Alisa Shull watershed, treated sewage disposal, none were found in surveys done in pesticide use, and feedlot activities the late 1980’s. In 1991, four of the have been identified as water quality artificial riffles were found to be concerns that could affect habitat. occupied by Concho Water Snakes, These same water quality issues affect and by 1992, all six were occupied. municipal water supplies and recre- Future restoration efforts will likely ational use of lakes and rivers. Keep- involve construction of more riffles ing the water clean benefits people as in river habitat. The use of various well as the Concho Water Snake and man-made structures by Concho other wildlife. Water Snakes indicates high potential Finally, fragmentation and isola- for success with habitat enhancement. tion of populations following various Conservation education that pro- habitat alterations remain a concern. vides information and raises public The full effects of recent habitat mod- awareness is also important. ifications and natural events are Although the number of Concho unknown. water snakes killed intentionally or Artificial riff le habitat inadvertently by people is not known, © USFWS Pat Connor Recovery Efforts public outreach may help reduce Several ongoing and recently com- adverse impacts to this snake. 11 to 12 months of age. Females pro- pleted studies are leading to a better The Concho Water Snake duce their first litters at 2 or 3 years understanding of the habitat require- controversy provides a good example of age. Females grow more rapidly ments, life history, and genetic struc- of an effective compromise between and mature at larger sizes than males, ture of Concho Water Snake human resources needs and endan- with adult females reaching a length populations. During the period 1987 gered species management; objectives on average 30% greater than adult through 1996, the Colorado River which are not necessarily mutually males. Differences in growth rates Municipal Water District (CRMWD) exclusive. Efforts by numerous indi- and mature sizes have been observed monitored Concho Water Snake popu- viduals representing various universi- between populations, suggesting dif- lations at 15 sites three times each ties and local, state, and federal ferences in food availability. year. Physical aspects of the habitat agencies, serve as a model of cooper- Survivorship of Concho Water were recorded and changes noted. ation and compromise. The future of Snakes is directly related to age. Fish populations were surveyed at the the Concho Water Snake is not as Only about 20% of Concho Water monitoring sites each fall. In addi- bleak as once thought. If habitat con- Snakes survive their first year. The tion, potential habitat along the ditions remain stable and adequate adult survival rate is estimated to be shoreline of Ivie Reservoir has been instream flows are maintained, the about 50 percent. Population studies characterized, and researchers are Concho Water Snake will remain a have shown that most adults are less documenting the reservoir’s Concho part of the diversity of Texas for than 4 years old, and only one snake Water Snake distribution. many years to come. in 100 exceeds 5 years of age. Preda- As a condition of building Ivie tion is considered to be a significant Reservoir, the CRMWD is required to Where To See source of mortality. Major natural release water from both Spence and Concho Water Snakes predators include kingsnakes, Coach- Ivie Reservoirs according to a sched- Concho Water Snakes can sometimes whip Snakes, racers, Raccoons, Great ule which scientists hope will main- be found along rocky shorelines of Blue Herons, and various hawks and tain suitable habitat for the Concho Ivie and Spence Reservoirs and owls. Water Snake. These water releases Ballinger Municipal Lake. They may include both continuous daily flows also be seen on the Concho and Threats and Reasons and flushing flows designed to main- Colorado Rivers. If you see one of for Decline tain stream channels. these snakes, remember that they are Habitat loss and degradation has The Conservation Reserve Pro- protected by federal and state laws. been identified as the greatest gen- gram (CRP) of the U.S. Department of Do not disturb them or the surround- eral threat to Concho Water Snake Agriculture provides incentives to set ing area in any way. populations. Reservoir construction aside highly erodible lands and estab- has flooded many miles of former lishing these areas to perennial stream habitat above the dams. native vegetation. The program bene- Below the dams, restriction of stream fits the Concho Water Snake by reduc- flow and prevention of floodwater ing soil erosion and contributing to Concho Water Snake 3 How You Can Help immense impact on the rivers. For More Information You can encourage and support pri- Responsible recreational use should include proper disposal of trash and Contact vate landowners who are managing Texas Parks and Wildlife Department their land to protect the rivers, other potential pollutants, respect for Wildlife Diversity Branch streams, and lakes that serve as habi- private property rights, preventing tat for the Concho Water Snake. Con- harm to plants and wildlife, and gen- 4200 Smith School Road cho water snakes and their prey base erally keeping human impacts to a Austin, Texas 78744 need adequate instream flows. If you minimum. (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 are a landowner along one of the Finally, you can be involved in or rivers or streams that serve as habi- the conservation of Texas’ nongame U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service tat, we encourage you to learn about wildlife resources by supporting the Ecological Services Field Office Special Nongame and Endangered the habitat requirements of the Con- 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 cho Water Snake and other species Species Conservation Fund. Special nongame stamps are available at Austin, Texas 78758 that depend on these waterways. (512) 490-0057 Landowners can help by maintaining Texas Parks and Wildlife Department clear free-flowing streams over rocks, (TPWD) field offices, most state rock debris and crevices for shelter, parks, and the License Branch of shallow riffle areas, and basking TPWD headquarters in Austin. Con- sites, and by being careful with pesti- tributions to this fund help TPWD cides and other potential pollutants. conduct research, manage habitat and Alternatives such as integrated pest develop informational materials and management, organic gardening, and programs for the benefit of nongame the use and management of native and endangered wildlife. Conserva- plants can help reduce reliance on tion organizations in Texas also wel- chemicals and can often save money. come your participation and support. Do what you can as an individual to conserve water, particularly Concho Water Snake moving over rocky streambed during drought periods. In the home, © TPWD Martin Whiting you can save water by installing fixtures, appliances, and toilets designed to use less water, repairing leaky faucets, and turning off the tap while brushing teeth or doing dishes. Landscaping with native, drought tolerant plants, watering lawns in the early morning or evening to reduce References evaporation, and installing a rainwa- Dixon, J.R., B.D. Greene, and M.J. Whiting. 1992. 1992 Annual report Concho ter collection system for your home water snake natural history study, Big Spring, Texas. Colorado River Munici- are other effective ways to conserve pal Water District. 128 pp. water. By protecting the natural Dixon, J.R. 1987. Amphibians and reptiles of Texas. Texas A&M University Press, beauty, flow, and water quality of the College Station. 434 pp. Colorado and Concho Rivers, Greene, B.D., J.R. Dixon, M.J. Whiting, and J.M. Mueller. 1999. “Reproductive ecol- landowners can play a role in assur- ogy of the Concho water snake, Nerodia harteri paucimaculata.” Copeia 701- ing that future generations of Texans 709. have the chance to enjoy the rich Greene, B.D. J.R. Dixon, J.M. Mueller, M.J. Whiting, and O.W. Thornton, Jr. 1994. diversity of life these rivers support. “Feeding ecology of the Concho water snake, Nerodia harteri paucimaculata.” Concho water snakes feed almost Journal of Herpetology 28(2):165-172. exclusively on smaller fish. Trot lines Greene, B.D. 1993. Life history and ecology of the Concho water, Nerodia harteri may result in death of Concho water paucimaculata. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Texas A&M University. snakes. If you fish, do not use trot 128 pp. lines in the following lakes and Mathews, A.E. 1989. “Conflict, controversy, and compromise: the Concho water rivers: Spence Reservoir; Ivie Reser- snake (Nerodia harteri paucimaculata) versus the Stacy Dam and Reservoir.” voir; Ballinger Municipal Lake; Con- Env. Management 13(3):297-307. cho River in San Angelo and Rose, F.L. 1989. “Aspects of the biology of the Concho watersnake (Nerodia har- downstream to Ivie Reservoir; Col- teri paucimaculata).” Texas J. Science 41(2):115-130. orado River between Spence and Ivie Scott, Jr., N.J., T.C. Maxwell, O.W. Thornton, Jr., L.A. Fitzgerald, and J.W. Flury. 1989. Reservoirs; Colorado River between “Distribution, habitat, and future of Harter’s water snake, Nerodia harteri, in Ivie Reservoir and Farm to Market Texas.” Journal of Herpetology 23:373-389. Road 45 (near Regency); Colorado Tinkle, D.W. and R. Conant. 1961. “The rediscovery of the water snake, Natrix River in the vicinity of Gorman Falls, harteri, in western Texas, with the description of a new subspecies.” South- Bend and Colorado Bend State Park. western Naturalist 6(1):33-44 If you are a boater or enjoy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Concho water snake recovery plan. swimming in the Concho or Colorado Albuquerque, New Mexico. 66 pp. Rivers and their tributaries, remem- Werler, J.E. and J.R. Dixon. 2000. Texas snakes: identification, distribution, and ber that your actions, especially when natural history. University Texas Press, Austin, Texas multiplied by thousands of other Whiting, M.J. 1993. “Population ecology of the Concho water snake, Nerodia recreational users, can have an harteri paucimaculata, in artificial habitats.” Unpublished M.S. thesis. Texas A&M University. 137 pp.

4 Concho Water Snake Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Edwards Aquifer Species Scientific Name: San Marcos Salamander – Eurycea nana, Texas Blind Salamander – Typhlomolge rathbuni, San Marcos Gambusia – Gambusia georgei, Fountain Darter – Etheostoma fonticola, Peck’s Cave Amphipod – Stygobromus pecki, Comal Springs Riffle Beetle – Heterelmis comalensis, Comal Springs Dryopid Beetle – Stygoparnus comalensis Federal Status: Endangered except for the San Marcos Salamander, which is listed as Threatened • State Status: Endangered except for the San Marcos Salamander, which is listed as Threatened

Description of Species, stant temperature is required for suit- Habitats and Life able habitat. San Marcos Salamanders feed on History amphipods (tiny aquatic crustaceans), The San Marcos Salamander is aquatic insects, and small aquatic small and slender, with a total length snails. Breeding is thought to occur of about 2.5 inches. It is uniformly throughout the year with a possible light brown to golden brown, with peak in May and June. small yellow flecks along each side of The Texas Blind Salamander the back. The underside of its body occurs only in the subterranean is yellowish-white. A member of the waters of the Edwards aquifer near brook salamander group, the San San Marcos Salamander San Marcos, Texas. Because it is © ?????????? Marcos Salamander has external gills, adapted to living in a subterranean which are retained throughout life. environment, it lacks eyes and has lit- It has relatively short slender legs, tle skin pigment. It is all white, with with four toes on the fore feet and blood-red external gills and toothpick- five on the hind feet. It has a slender tail with a well developed and dorsal or top fin. Present Range for The San Marcos Fountain Darter Salamander occurs only in Spring Lake and an adjacent downstream portion Texas Blind Salamander © ????????? of the upper San Marcos River. They are most often found in spring areas with a substrate of sand and gravel, and larger rocks interspersed with large limestone Present Range for Texas Blind Salamander, San boulders. These boul- Marcos Salamander and ders in shallow water San Marcos Gambusia support a lush growth of aquatic moss. like legs. The head and snout of this Interspersed with the moss and cover- salamander are strongly flattened, San Marcos Gambusias ing the shallow sandy substrate are © Bob Edwards with two vestigial eyes (appearing as thick mats of coarse filamentous blue- black dots) beneath the skin. Its green algae. The dark reddish-brown total length is about 5 inches. color of this alga almost perfectly This salamander is strictly matches the dark dorsal color of the aquatic, and lives in the water-filled San Marcos salamander. Vegetative caverns in the San Marcos Pool of cover is important for protection and the Edwards aquifer. It requires for providing habitat for living organ- clean water of relatively constant isms that serve as food for the sala- temperature. mander. This species does not The Texas Blind Salamander inhabit areas with a sandy bottom feeds on a variety of small subter- devoid of vegetation, nor do they ranean aquatic organisms, including occur where the bottom is muddy,

Fountain Darters whether or not vegetation is present. © Glenn Longley Clean, clear, flowing water of con- Edwards Aquifer Species 1 tiny snails, amphipods, and shrimp. The San Marcos Gambusia When feeding, the salamanders probe prefers shallow, quiet waters adjacent the bottom using lateral movements to sections of flowing water. of the head. When anything living is Constant water temperature is also encountered, the mouth quickly opens very important. This fish prefers a and the food item is immediately muddy, but not silted, bottom. Partial sucked into the mouth. Numerous shade from bridges or overhanging sharp teeth prevent the prey from vegetation also seems to be an impor- escaping. It is thought that sensitivity tant habitat factor. to water vibrations also helps these There is little information on the salamanders locate food. food habits or reproduction of this Although courtship and repro- species. It is thought that insect lar- Peck’s Cave Amphipod ductive behavior have been observed vae and other invertebrates comprise © Jean Krejca and recorded for captive specimens, most of the diet. little information exists regarding The Fountain Darter is a small reproduction of the Texas Blind fish, usually about 1 to 2 inches in Salamander in its natural habitat. length, found only in the San Marcos Females with eggs and juveniles have and Comal River headwaters. It is been observed throughout the year, reddish-brown with fine specks in the so it is thought that reproduction dorsal region. A series of horizontal occurs year-round. stitch-like dark lines occur along the The Texas Blind Salamander is middle of the sides, forming an inter- at the top of the food chain in a very rupted lateral streak. There are three unique community of subterranean small dark spots on the base of the organisms living in the Edwards tail, and one on the opercle (flap Aquifer. This aquifer has exhibited covering the gills). Dark bars appear the greatest diversity of any know in front of, below, and behind the aquifer system. There are forty plus eye. The lower half of the dorsal fin species living in the aquifer with the is black, above this is a broad red Comal Springs Riff le Beetle salamander, and most of them are band, and above this the fin is edged © Jean Krejca just as endangered as the salamander. in black. If any of the species are lost from the The Fountain Darter prefers system it will have an effect on the vegetated stream-floor habitats with a Texas Blind Salamander. One of the constant water temperature. They are greatest threats to the Aquifer system most often found in and among is the potential for over pumping rooted aquatic plants, mosses, and which may allow saline water to algae. They are occasionally found in enter areas that are now fresh water. areas lacking vegetation. Young One of the rarest animals of the Fountain Darters are found in heavily San Marcos River, and one which may vegetated, backwater areas of the San already be extinct, is the San Marcos Marcos and Comal Rivers where there Gambusia. Last collected in the wild are low water velocities. Adults occur in 1983, this fish is a member of a in all suitable habitats, including genus having more than 30 species of riffles. Fountain Darters feed on cope- live bearing freshwater fishes. It is a pods (tiny aquatic crustaceans) and small fish, about 1 inch in length, mayfly larvae. They feed primarily known only from the upper San during the day, and show selective Marcos River. This species is plainly feeding behavior. Observations sug- Comal Springs Dryopid Beetle marked and similar in appearance to © Jean Krejca gest that darters feed on small mov- the western mosquitofish (Gambusia ing aquatic animals, while ignoring additional collections of this species affinis). It has a prominent dark immobile ones. have not been made at this location. stripe along the upper edges of the The adult Comal Springs Riffle Comal Springs riffle beetle is highly dorsal fin. The unpaired fins tend to Beetle has a narrow body about dependent on the constant and nar- be yellow or yellowish-orange. A 2 mm long, and it is reddish-brown in row range of habitat conditions associ- bluish sheen is evident near the head, color. The larva has an elongate, ated with the springs-flows issuing especially in more darkly pigmented tubular body and can be up to 10 mm from the Edwards Aquifer. Larval and adult females. The anal fin of in length. The Comal Springs riffle adult riffle beetles both feed on Gambusia males is modified into a beetle is known primarily from Comal microorganisms and debris scraped tube-like structure called a Springs where it has been collected from the substrate. However, the spe- gonopodium. The gonopodium is from only the primary spring-runs cific feeding habits of this riffle beetle used to transfer sperm from the male and from up-wellings underlying are unknown. All beetles (Coleoptera) to the female. Landa Lake. A single specimen of this are holometabolous and have com- species was taken from the plete life cycles consisting of an egg, 2 Edwards Aquifer Species impounded San Marcos Springs, but larva with multiple instars, pupa, and associated habitats at Comal Springs, requirements for these listed species. New Braunfels, Texas, and Fern Bank The danger of reduced spring flow is Springs near Wimberley, Texas. Some the most serious threat to the contin- specimens have been found in the ued existence of the San Marcos and upper spring-runs at Comal Springs, Comal Rivers and their endemic but they are thought to have been plants and animals. flushed from the Aquifer. Adults and The effects of periodic drought larvae of this species have been col- coupled with increased groundwater lected with drift nets placed over the use are a serious threat. For exam- springs sources at Comal Springs and ple, a severe drought from 1950-1956 in the upper portions of each spring- greatly reduced the aquifer level and run. The specific micro-habitat this spring discharges. During 1956, species inhabits is unknown. Comal Springs ceased to flow for five However, larvae of other dryopid months. Less severe droughts in species are semi-aquatic or terrestrial 1984 and 1990 resulted in minimum and the larvae of the Comal Springs daily flows at Comal Springs of 24 dryopid beetle may inhabit the ceil- cfs (cubic feet per second) and 46 cfs, ings of the spring openings. These respectively, compared to the mean spring openings typically have soil, spring flow discharge (1933-1990) of roots and debris exposed above the 293 cfs. water line that may serve as habitat Other threats associated with for the larvae. Adults by comparison increased urbanization include are fully aquatic. The feeding habits increased flooding and erosion, pollu- of these beetles are unknown as is tion, siltation, and storm water the life history and reproductive biol- runoff. All of these factors can ogy. All other dryopid beetles are adversely affect the listed species and detritivores and possibly herbivorous. their habitats. Also, exotic species Captive adults have been observed pose a threat because they may: (1) apparently grazing on the surface parasitize or prey on these endan- San Marcos River © TPWD Leroy Williamson of rocks. gered species, (2) compete with them The Peck’s Cave Amphipod is for food resources, (3) displace or a small crustacean known only from destroy aquatic vegetation including the Edwards Aquifer. Like most other Texas wild-rice, or (4) otherwise subterranean amphipods, this species degrade habitat quality. In addition, is unpigmented and lacks eyes. conservation efforts for these species Numerous examples of this species must include protection and conserva- have been collected only from the tion of the Edwards Aquifer to the Edwards Aquifer at Comal Springs in extent that water quality and a range Landa Park, New Braunfels, Texas, of spring-flows are maintained at his- and a single specimen was taken at toric levels. Reduced spring-flows Hueco Springs, Texas in 1992. may result in drying of subterranean Specimens of this species were col- cavities and spring-runs that provide lected near a spring opening follow- habitat to this species and could ing a heavy rain, and an additional result in appreciable mortality and/or San Marcos River © Leroy Williamson specimen was collected from just extinction. Development and maintenance adult. All life stages, except eggs, of inside a “cave-like” spring opening of refugia stocks for endangered Comal Springs riffle beetle are pre- under a rock. Nothing is known species is an important recovery goal. sent throughout the year. Several lar- about the reproduction biology, life However, captive breeding stocks for val instars have been observed in history or feeding habits of the Peck’s all these species, exclusive of fountain collections taken throughout the year cave amphipod. darter, are not reliable or have not indication that the Comal Springs rif- yet been established because their fle beetle has overlapping, asynchro- Threats and Reasons habitat requirements are extremely nous generations. for Decline difficult to emulate under artificial Adult Comal Springs Dryopid Both the San Marcos and Comal conditions. This is especially true for Beetles are oblong, slender insects Rivers originate from springs fed by the invertebrate species. with elongate legs and a length typi- the Edwards Aquifer. Because the cally around 3 to 4 mm. The cuticle is flow of these springs is intimately thin and translucent giving the bee- tied to water usage over the entire Recovery Efforts tles a reddish-brown color. Larvae Edwards Aquifer region, human popu- Monitoring existing populations and are elongate and cylindrical is shape lation growth and increased use of habitats is important in understand- and yellowish-brown in color. Neither groundwater resources throughout ing the factors affecting the listed the adult or immature stages have the region are likely to decrease eyes. This species has been collected spring flow. Relatively constant only from the Edwards Aquifer and water temperatures and flows are Edwards Aquifer Species 3 species and their habitats. Basic bio- ing waters and diversity of plant and logical research addressing habitat animal life of the San Marcos and requirements and aspects of life his- Comal River ecosystems. tory, such as food habits, reproduction, diseases and parasites, and For More Information predation and competition, is cur- Contact rently underway to better understand Texas Parks and Wildlife Department the survival needs of each species. Wildlife Diversity Branch The U.S. Fish and Wildlife 4200 Smith School Road Service, Texas Parks and Wildlife Austin, Texas 78744 Department and other cooperators (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 are engaged in a multi-year study to or assess spring flow and stream flow U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service needs of the threatened and endan- Ecological Services Field Office gered species of the Comal and San 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Marcos springs ecosystems. The U.S. Austin, Texas 78758 Fish and Wildlife Service is also (512) 490-0057 working with the City of New Braunfels to ensure that the manage- Management guidelines are available ment of city properties such as parks from the Texas Parks and Wildlife is compatible with the conservation Department and U.S. Fish and of the Comal Springs/River Ecosystem Wildlife Service for landowners and and the endangered species it sup- Urban development along the San Marcos River managers wishing to protect the © TPWD Leroy Williamson ports. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Edwards Aquifer and their associated Service is working with the City of threatened and endangered species. San Marcos and Southwest Texas State University on a habitat conservation plan (under section 10(a)1(B) of the Endangered Species Act) to minimize adverse effects to the endangered and threatened species and provide ongoing stewardship of the Fountain Darter, San Marcos Gambusia, San Marcos Salamander, and Texas Blind Salamander and their habitats. Finally, providing information to the public regarding protection of the River pollution San Marcos and Comal River ecosys- © TPWD Bill Reaves tems, and the unique plant and animal species dependent on them, also is vital to the recovery of the listed species. How You Can Help Support conservation efforts to protect the San Marcos and Comal River ecosystems and their associated native species. Conservation of these spring ecosystems will result in the continued ability to use water in areas downstream from their habitats. Stay informed about conservation issues relating to the quality and quantity of groundwater and surface Sampling Fountain Darters in the Comal River water in the Edwards Aquifer region. © TPWD Do your part to conserve water, prevent pollution and introduction of exotic species, and preserve streambed vegetation so that Texans can continue to enjoy the clean, flow-

4 Edwards Aquifer Species References References Barr, C.B. 1993. Survey for two Edwards Aquifer invertebrates: Comal Springs dryopid beetle Stygoparnus comalensis Barr and Spangler (Coleoptera: Dryopidae) and Peck’s cave amphipod Stygobromus pecki Holsinger (Amphipoda: Crangonyctidae). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Austin, TX. Barr, C.B. and P.J. Spangler. 1992. A new genus and species of stygobiontic dryopid beetle, Stygoparnus comalenis (Coleoptera: Dryopidae), from Comal Springs, Texas. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 105:40-54. Bosse, L.S., D.W. Tuff, and H.P. Brown. 1988. “A new species of Heterelmis from Texas (Coleoptera: Elmidae).” Southwestern Naturalist 33:199-203 Bowles, D.E. and T.L. Arsuffi. 1993. Karst aquatic ecosystems of the Edwards Plateau region of central Texas, U.S.A.: a consideration of their importance, threats to their existence, and efforts for their conservation. Aquatic Conservation: Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems 3:317-329. Bowles, D.E., C.B. Barr, and R. Stanford. 2003 (In press). Habitat and phenology of the endangered riff le beetle Heterelmis comalensis and a coexisting species, Microcylloepus pusillus, (Coleoptera: Elmidae) at Comal Springs, Texas, USA. Archiv für Hydrobiologie. 156:361-384. Bowman, Thomas E. and G. Longley. 1976. Redescription and assignment to the new genus Lircelous of the Texas troglobitic water slater, Asellus smithii (Ulrich) (Crustacea: Isopoda: Asellidae). Proceedings Biological Society of Washington. 88(45) :489-496. Cooper, J.E. and G. Longley. 1980. Trogloglanis pattersoni Eigenmann. Page 474 in Lee, D.S. et al, eds. Atlas of North American Freshwater Fishes. North Carolina Biological Survey Pub. 1980-12. Cooper, J.E. and G. Longley. 1980. Satan eurystomus Hubbs and Bailey. Page 473 in Lee, D.S. et al, eds. Atlas of North American Freshwater Fishes. North Carolina Biological Survey Pub. 1980-12. Edwards, R.J., E. Marsh, and C. Hubbs. 1980. The San Marcos gambusia status report. Endangered Species Report 9. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, NM. 34 pp. Edwards, J., G. Longley, R. Moss, J. Ward, R. Matthews, and B. Stewart. 1989. A classification of Texas aquatic communities with special consideration toward the conservation of endangered and threatened taxa. The Texas Journal of Science 41(3):231-240. Hershler, R. and G. Longley. 1986. Phreatic hydrobiids (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia) from the Edwards (Balcones Fault Zone) Aquifer Region, South-Central Texas. Malacologia 27(1):127-172. Hershler, R. and G. Longley. 1986. Hadocerus taylori, a new genus and species of phreatic Hydrobiidae (Gastropoda: Rissoacea) from South-Central Texas. Proc. Biological Society of Washington 99(1):121-136. Hershler, R. and G. Longley. 1987. Phreatoceras, a new name for Hadoceras Hershler and Longley, 1986 (Gastropoda non Strand, 1934 (Cephalopoda). Proceedings of the Biological Society Wash. 100(2) p. 402. Hershler, R. and G. Longley. 1987. “Phreatodrobia coronae, a new species of cavesnail from southwestern Texas.” The Nautilus 101(3):133-139. Holsinger, J. and G. Longley. 1980. The subterranean amphipod crustacean fauna of an artesian well in Texas. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. No. 308 pp. 1-62. Langecker,T.G. and Longley, G. 1992. Blind catfish (Trogloglanis pattersoni and Satan eurystomus) from deep artesian waters. Trends Icth. Langecker, T.G. and G. Longley. 1993. “Morphological adaptations of the Texas blind catfishes Trogloglanis pattersoni and Satan eurystomus (Siluriformes: Ictaluridae) to their underground environment.” Copeia. 93(4): 976-986. Longley, G. and P.J. Spangler. 1977. The larva of a new subterranean water beetle, Haideoporus texanus (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae: Hydroporinae). Proceedings Biological Society of Washington. 90(3):532-535. Longley, G. 1977. Typhlomolge (=Eurycea) rathbuni. Section contributed to publication entitled Endangered and Threatened Amphibians and Reptiles in the United States. Catalog of Amphibians and Reptiles. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. 6 pp. Longley, G. 1978. Status of Typhlomolge (=Eurycea) rathbuni, the Texas blind salamander. Endangered Species Report No. 2, Special Publication, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, N.M. 45 pp.

Edwards Aquifer Species 5 Longley, G. and H. Karnei. 1979. Status of Trogloglanis pattersoni Eigenmann, The Toothless Blindcat. Endangered Species Report 5 (Part 1), Special Publication, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, N.M. 54 pp. Longley, G. and H. Karnei. 1979. Status of Satan eurystomus Hubbs and Bailey, The Widemouth Blindcat. Endangered Species Report 5 (Part 2), Special Publication, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, N.M. 48 pp. Longley, G. 1981. The Edwards Aquifer: Earth’s most diverse groundwater ecosystem? International Journal Speleology 11(1-2):123-128. Longley, G. 1986. The biota of the Edwards Aquifer and the implications for paleo- zoogeography in Abbott, P.L. and Woodruff, C.M. Jr., eds. The Balcones Escarpment, Central Texas: Geological Society of America. pp. 51-54. Longley, G. 1992. The subterranean aquatic ecosystem of the Balcones Fault Zone Edwards Aquifer in Texas - Threats from over pumping. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ground Water Ecology. April, Tampa, Fla. Amer. Water Resources Association pp. 291-300. Longley, G. 1993. The importance of the U.S. Endangered Species Act in protecting Central Texas species and ecosystems and assuring management that will provide for future good quality water for the Edwards Aquifer region. (pp. 112- 123) in Hearing before the subcommittee on Environment and Natural Resources of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress. Endangered Species Act Reauthorization - San Antonio July 6, 1993. USGPO Serial No. 103-37. 222 p. Longley, G. 1994. The ecology and biota of the Balcones Fault Zone Edwards Aquifer in Texas. Pages 279-289 in A.R. Dutton, ed. Toxic substances and the hydrologic sciences. American Institute of Hydrology, Minneapolis, MN. Longley, G. 1996. Texas Blind Salamander (in The New Handbook of Texas Vol. 6). Texas State Historical Association. p. 296. Longley, G. 1996. Toothless Blindcat (in The New Handbook of Texas Vol. 6). Texas State Historical Association. pp. 528-529. Longley, G. 1996. Widemouth Blindcat (in The New Handbook of Texas Vol. 6). Texas State Historical Association. p. 961. Longley, G. and W. R. Jordan. 1996. Water resources management in the Edwards Aquifer region — How the Endangered Species Act influenced action. Water Resources Update. Univ. Council on Water Resources, Southern Ill. Univ. 106: Winter, pp. 53-61. Longley, G. 2001. Aquatic ecosystem of the Edwards Aquifer in Texas. Encyclopedia of Cave and Karst Science. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. London. Accepted 12/2001. Linam G.W., Mayes, K., Saunders, K., Linam, L.A.J., and D.R. Hernandez. 1993. Conservation of the upper San Marcos and Comal ecosystems. Endangered Species Section 6 Project No. E-1-4, Job No. 2.5. Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept. 34 pp. Stock, J.H. and G. Longley. 1981. The generic status and distribution of Monodella texana Maguire, the only known North American Thermosbaeneacean. Proceedings Biological Society of Washington 94(2):569-578. Strenth, N., J. Norton and G. Longley. 1989. The larval development of the subterranean shrimp Palaemonetes antrorum Benedict (Decapoda, Palaemonidae) from Central Texas, Stygologia 4(4):363-377. Strenth, N. and G. Longley. 1990. Reproductive patterns of the subterranean shrimp Palaemonetes antrorum Benedict (Decapoda, Palaemonidae) from Central Texas. Stygologia 5(4): 221-224. Thurow, T.L., W.H. Blackburn, and C.A. Taylor, Jr. 1986. “Hydrologic characteristics of vegetation types as affected by livestock grazing systems, Edwards Plateau, Texas.” J. Range Manage. 39(6):505-509. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. San Marcos River recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, N.M. 109 pp. Welch, T.G., R.W. Knight, D. Caudle, A. Garza, and J.M. Sweeten. 1991. Impact of grazing management on nonpoint source pollution. Texas Agr. Extension Service Pub. L-5002. 4 pp. Young, Frank N. and G. Longley. 1976. A new subterranean aquatic beetle from Texas (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae-Hydroporinae). Annals of Entomological Society of America. 69(5):787-792.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

6 Edwards Aquifer Species Management Guidelines for Endangered and Threatened Species of the Edwards Aquifer

Conserve Water them. Dispose of rinse water and Motor oil, gasoline, and radiator Do what you can as an individual to empty containers in strict accordance and brake fluids all contain toxic conserve water, particularly during with label directions. Contact the compounds. These compounds tend drought periods. In the home, you Texas Department of Agriculture or to stick to porous limestone, releasing can save water by installing fixtures, the USDA Natural Resources Conser- polluting chemicals over a long appliances, and toilets designed to vation Service for guidance on ways period of time. Many common house- use less water, repairing leaky to minimize the environmental effects hold items such as paints, paint thin- faucets, and turning off the tap while of agricultural chemicals. ners, cleaning fluids, drain cleaners, brushing teeth or doing dishes. On-site sewage disposal systems tires, and batteries also contain haz- Landscaping with native, drought tol- (septic systems, cesspools, and sewage ardous compounds which can pollute erant plants (xeriscaping), watering disposal wells) have been documented the aquifer if disposed of improperly. lawns in the early morning or to have caused groundwater contami- Never dump these materials down the evening to reduce evaporation, and nation in 47 separate counties in drain or on the ground. Used auto- installing a rainwater collection sys- Texas. Improperly treated household motive fluids and hazardous house- tem for your home are other effective waste water contains viruses, bacteria, hold wastes should be stored until ways to conserve water. and a variety of organic and inorganic they can be recycled or disposed of contaminants. The life of a septic properly. Most service stations and drain field varies depending on the auto maintenance businesses will soil’s capability to filter and remove take used motor oil to be recycled. impurities. Check your septic system Many cities and towns have desig- regularly and pump out solids every 3 nated collection facilities for haz- to 5 years to help prevent overflows. ardous waste products. Residents in Do not pour toxic chemicals down the Austin area can contact the household or storm water drains. Household Hazardous Waste Collec- Leaking sewer lines should be rehabil- tion Facility at (512) 416-8998 for itated or replaced as soon as possible, more information. For additional especially in the Edwards aquifer information on ways to prevent recharge zone. water pollution, call the Clean Texas If you have caves or sinkholes on 2000 Hotline of the Texas Commis- your property or in your neighbor- sion on Environmental Quality at hood, protect them from development, (800) 64-TEXAS, or the Lower dumping and vandalism. Remember Colorado River Authority (LCRA) at Texas wild-rice in the San Marcos River that these areas harbor sensitive (800) 776-5272. Also, contact the © Jackie M. Poole underground species and are direct Texas Water Development Board conduits to your water supply. If you (512) 463-7847 for water conserva- Prevent Water graze livestock on your property, keep tion tips or the Edwards Aquifer Pollution them out of creeks and streams by Authority (800) 292-1047 for specific Some herbicides, insecticides, and providing permanent, clean water information concerning the Edwards other chemicals can impact water sources away from natural waterways. aquifer. quality and adversely affect the listed This not only prevents water pollution species. Alternatives, such as inte- but can also improve animal health Prevent Damage To grated pest management, organic gar- and management Streambed Vegetation dening, and the use and proper Urban and suburban homeowners or Bottom Substrates management of native vegetation can help prevent water pollution by The Fountain Darter and San Marcos reduce reliance on chemicals. These reducing the use of chemicals in lawn Salamander, in particular, are depen- practices help reduce the risks of and landscape care. Landscaping dent on bottom vegetation to provide environmental contamination and can with native plants requires much less food and protection from predators. often save money. When insecticide water and little or no fertilizers or Do not pull up, trim, or otherwise or herbicide treatments must be used, pesticides. Using native plants saves damage streambed vegetation. You label directions must be carefully fol- you money on water bills and lawn could be damaging Fountain Darter lowed. Help prevent contamination chemicals, and fewer chemicals means habitat, including the endangered of the Comal and San Marcos rivers a healthier home environment for Texas wild-rice. and their tributaries by avoiding the children, pets, and backyard wildlife. use of these products near them. Contact a native plant nursery or Avoid contamination of rivers, organic gardening center near you for streams, and other natural wetlands more information on chemical-free Edwards Aquifer Species by limiting use of these products near lawn and garden care. Management Guidelines 1 Barton Springs Salamander Scientific Name: Eurycea sosorum Federal Status: Proposed for listing as Endangered

Description are often found under rocks or in of the quality and quantity of water A slender, long-limbed salamander, gravel in water several inches to 15 flowing from Barton Springs is essen- about 2.5 inches in total length, with feet deep. They can also be found tial for its survival. Threats to water a small narrow head and greatly hiding in aquatic plants and algae. quality such as urban runoff, reduced eyes. They vary in color, They rely on a clear, clean, continu- increased development in the Barton and can be dark gray, gray, purplish- ous flow of spring water. The Barton Creek watershed, and the risks of a gray, gray-brown, or yellowish-brown. Springs Salamander is clearly capable toxic chemical spill or sewer line Most individuals have a dark “salt- of living underground, but also breakage in the urban zone surround- and-pepper” mottling on their back. inhabits surface environments. ing Barton Springs remain a concern. These salamanders have external gills Although not known for certain, Also of concern are reduced ground- which are red in color. The Barton some scientists believe the salaman- water supplies due to increased Springs Salamander is entirely der is primarily a surface-dweller that urban water use. aquatic throughout its life. is adapted for life underground when Prior to 1989, aquatic plants surface conditions become unsuitable. were abundant in Barton Springs Pool. Surveys in the early 1970s Distribution showed that the Barton Springs Sala- Spring outlets at Barton Springs in Life History mander was quite abundant, and Austin, Texas. Although relatively little is known about the biology of the Barton many could be found by searching Springs Salamander, new information through submerged leaves in Eliza Habitat is rapidly becoming available. Springs. From 1970 to 1992 the pop- The Barton Springs Salamander Recently hatched young have been ulation of this species dropped occurs only at the spring outflows of found in November, March, and April, sharply. We now know that certain Barton Springs. These salamanders and females with well-developed eggs pool maintenance practices, such as have been found in September the use of high-pressure hoses, hot through January. They are known to water, and chemicals were harmful to eat amphipods (tiny aquatic crus- the salamanders and the aquatic taceans) and other small, aquatic ani- plants in the pool and nearby spring mals. Captive specimens feed on outlets that provide their habitat. amphipods, earthworms, white Today, the pool is maintained in worms, and brine shrimp. ways that minimize damage to the salamander and its habitat. The City Threats and Reasons of Austin’s Environmental and Con- servation Services Department also for Decline has planted aquatic vegetation in the Because the Barton Springs Salaman- deep end of the pool to restore habi- der relies on the clear, pure water of tat and more plant restoration is Barton Springs Salamander the Barton Springs Aquifer, protection © USFWS planned for this area. Since the new pool maintenance practices began, the habitat in the pool and nearby springs has rapidly improved. Although the salamander has expanded into its former range in the Barton Springs Pool, scientists believe it probably has not reached the extent of its pre-1970 distribution. Residents and visitors to Austin will be happy to know that swimming in Barton Springs Pool does not pose a threat to the salamander or its habitat. With proper management, the pool will continue to provide refresh- ing enjoyment for people and habitat for the Barton Springs Salamander. Recovery Efforts The population level of the Barton Springs Salamander will be routinely

Known distribution of the Barton Springs Salamander. Solid dots mark spring outf lows. Barton Springs Salamander 1 monitored to assess the effects of other pollutants out of our natural For More Information new pool maintenance practices and waters. Contact other factors impacting the habitat. Do what you can as an individ- Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Austin’s Parks and Recreation Depart- ual to conserve water, particularly Wildlife Diversity Branch ment has established an advisory during drought periods. In the home, 4200 Smith School Road team to review and coordinate all you can save water by installing fix- Austin, Texas 78744 pool maintenance procedures that tures, appliances, and toilets designed (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 could affect the Barton Springs Sala- to use less water, repairing leaky or mander. The City of Austin is con- faucets, and turning off the tap while U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ducting monthly surveys to assess the brushing teeth or doing dishes. Ecological Services Field Office population status of the salamander Landscaping with native, drought tol- 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 at each of the four springs where the erant plants (xeriscaping), watering Austin, Texas 78758 salamander is known to occur. lawns in the evening or early morn- (512) 490-0057 Finally, research is underway to bet- ing to reduce evaporation, and ter understand the life history and installing a rainwater collection sys- habitat needs of this species. tem for your home, are other effec- The City of Austin is currently tive ways to conserve water. working to acquire land in the Bar- The Barton Springs Salamander ton Springs contributing and is dependent on vegetation to pro- recharge zones through purchases vide food and cover. Do not pull up and conservation easements. Over or otherwise damage aquatic plants 15,000 acres of open space have at Barton Springs. Also, exotic already been protected. These acqui- species often pose significant threats sitions will protect the salamander to native wildlife and plants, includ- through the preservation of open ing listed species. Do not release space, and therefore, protection of aquatic animals or plants into waters water quality. The Austin Nature and they did not come from originally. Science Center has developed an out- Soil erosion and runoff which reach program that involves activities causes siltation of streams is a seri- designed to educate the public about ous threat to water quality and a the Barton Springs salamander and healthy aquatic ecosystem. Manage- its habitat. The Center also directs ment of surface vegetation is the key the SPLASH! Exhibit to raise public to preventing soil erosion and runoff, awareness about the Edwards Aquifer. and encouraging rainfall infiltration Finally, City of Austin biologists are and aquifer recharge. currently working to develop meth- Finally, you can support the ods to increase the accuracy of sala- city’s efforts to protect the salaman- mander population estimates. der by being tolerant of changes that are occurring at Barton Springs Pool. How You Can Help Swimmers can continue to enjoy a Keeping our springs, creeks and more natural Barton Springs Pool underground water clean benefits the and the ecosystem of plants and ani- people and wildlife of the Austin mals, including the salamander that it area. Lawn and agricultural chemi- supports. Visit Zilker Park in Austin cals and pesticides should be used to learn more about the Barton sparingly and only according to label Springs Salamander. directions, particularly within the recharge zone of the aquifer. Care- fully follow recommended procedures References for disposing of containers and rinse Chippindale, P.T., A.H. Price, and D.M. Hillis. 1993. A new species of perenni- water. Take used motor oil to auto branchiate salamander (Eurycea, Plethodontidae) from Austin, Texas. Her- maintenance businesses that can use petologica 49(2):248-259. or dispose of it properly. Be careful Martyn-Baker, J., R. Fieseler, and B. Smith (Eds.). 1992. Hill Country Oasis: Barton with household chemicals and dispose Springs-Barton Creek-Edwards Aquifer. Austin Parks and Recreation Depart- ment, Edwards Aquifer Conservation District, and Save Barton Creek Associa- of the containers according to label tion, Austin, Texas. directions. The City of Austin has a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992. Endangered and threatened wildlife and designated drop off location for haz- plants; notice of finding on petition to list Barton Springs Salamander. Fed- ardous household material. Call the eral Register 57(239):58779-58781. Household Hazardous Waste Collec- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Endangered and threatened wildlife and tion Facility at (512) 416-8998 for plants; proposal to list the Barton Springs Salamander as endangered. Fed- more information. Keep trash and eral Register 59(33):7968-7978.

2 Barton Springs Salamander Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. The type of substrate is also an the key to preventing soil erosion important habitat component. For and runoff, and encouraging rainfall example, the San Marcos Gambusia infiltration and aquifer recharge. prefers mud but not silt, whereas the Vegetation cover is important in pre- San Marcos Salamander inhabits vege- venting nonpoint source pollution tated areas of sand and gravel. Avoid because of its impact on falling rain- any activity that alters the bottom drops and surface runoff. Raindrops sediments, such as removing or falling on the soil surface dislodge adding fill material, or scraping/ soil particles and can move them a trampling the bottom. considerable distance. This splash erosion creates a suspension of soil Avoid Introduction of and water which is moved in surface Non-native Plants or runoff. Suspended soil particles also Animals plug soil pores, reducing the downward movement of water into the soil Because of similarities in habitat and (infiltration). Standing vegetation diet, predatory effects, and habitat and mulch on the soil surface inter- modifications, exotic species pose a cept raindrops and reduce their significant threat to the listed species. splash effect. Do not release snails, fish, or other Proper grazing management, aquatic animals or plants into our which includes moderate stocking lakes, creeks, or rivers. Aquarium and rotational grazing, maintains releases have already resulted in the rangelands with good vegetative establishment of a number of harm- cover and soil surface conditions, ful non-native plants, mollusks, and thus minimizing erosion and runoff. fish species in the Comal and San Research has shown that central Marcos spring systems. Texas rangelands with abundant Manage Surface cover of deep-rooted tall and mid- height bunchgrasses, such as little Vegetation to Prevent bluestem, Indiangrass and sideoats Erosion and Runoff grama, are better able to absorb rain- Siltation and pollution from urban fall and hold soil than rangelands and rural runoff is a serious threat to dominated by shallow-rooted short- water quality and a healthy aquatic grasses, such as common curly- ecosystem. On agricultural land, mesquite and buffalograss. management of surface vegetation is

References Texas Water Commission. 1989. Ground-water quality of Texas – an overview of natural and man-affected conditions. Report 89-01. 197 pp.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Edwards Aquifer Species 2 Management Guidelines Houston Toad Scientific Name: Bufo houstonensis Federal Status: Endangered, 10/13/70 • State Status: Endangered

Description include ephemeral (temporary) rain toadlets) between 15 and 100 days, The Houston Toad is 2 to 3.5 inches pools, flooded fields, blocked depending on the water temperature. long and similar in appearance drainages of upper creek reaches, wet Young toadlets are about the size of to Woodhouse’s Toad (Bufo woodhou- areas associated with seeps or one’s pinkie fingernail when they sei), but smaller. General coloration springs, or more permanent ponds complete metamorphosis. They then varies from tan to brownish-black. containing shallow water. Shallow leave the pond and spend their time The pale ventral surfaces often have areas of deep water, such as the feeding and growing in preparation small, dark spots. Males have a dark coves and inflow to Bastrop State for the next breeding season. Males throat, which appears bluish when Park Lake, are also used. The source generally breed when they are a year distended. of ephemeral or permanent water old, but females may not breed until should be located within one-half to they are two years old. three-quarters mile of the toad’s hibernation/foraging habitat (deep sands supporting woodland or savannah). Recent research indicates that mortality in toadlets is 100% if their ponds are in open pastures more than 55 yards from woodland habitat. The toads do best in ponds without predatory fish. Life History The Houston Toad is a year- round resident where found, although its presence can Houston Toad © Bruce G. Stewart most easily be detected during the breeding season, when males may be Habitat heard calling. Males usually call in The Houston Toad is a terrestrial or near shallow water, from small amphibian associated with deep sandy mounds of soil or grass surrounded soils within the Post Oak Savannah by water, or from floating objects vegetational area of east central such as logs or algae mats. Males Houston Toads, especially first- Texas. Since Houston Toads are poor occasionally call from wooded habitat year toadlets and juveniles, are active burrowers, loose friable soils are located within about a 100-yard year round under suitable tempera- required for burrowing. The toads radius of breeding ponds. The call is ture and moisture conditions. Their burrow into the sand for protection a high clear trill that lasts an average diet consists mainly of insects and from cold weather in the winter of 14 seconds. The call is much like other invertebrates. (hibernation) and hot, dry conditions that of the American Toad (Bufo in the summer (aestivation). Large americanus), but usually slightly Threats and areas of predominantly sandy soils higher in pitch. The American Toad greater than 40 inches deep are char- occurs in Texas, but north of the Reasons for Decline acteristic of habitat. The vegetation range of the Houston Toad. Habitat loss and alteration are the type of currently known Houston Houston Toads may call from most serious threats facing the Hous- Toad sites can typically be described December through June. Most breed- ton Toad. Alteration of ephemeral as pine or oak woodland or savannah, ing activity takes place in February and permanent natural wetlands for with native bunchgrasses and forbs and March, and is stimulated by urban and agricultural uses elimi- (flowering plants) present in open warm evenings and high humidity. nates breeding sites. Draining a wet- areas. Plants that are often present Toads emerge from hibernation to land, or converting an ephemeral in Houston Toad habitat include breed only if moisture and tempera- wetland to a permanent pond, can loblolly pine, post oak, bluejack or ture conditions are favorable. eventually cause the Houston toad to sandjack oak, yaupon, curly threeawn Females, responding to calling males, decline or be eliminated entirely. and little bluestem. move toward the water to mate. The Conversion to permanent water not For breeding, including egg and female lays her eggs as long strings only makes them more vulnerable to tadpole development, Houston Toads in the water, where they are fertilized predation by snakes, fish, and other also require still or slow-flowing bod- by the male as they are laid. The ies of water that persist for at least eggs hatch within seven days and tad- 30 days. These water sources may poles metamorphose (turn into Houston Toad 1 predators; but also increases competi- determine the effects of various pre- tion and hybridization with closely scribed burning programs. related species of toads. The invasion of the Red Periodic drought is also a threat, Imported Fire Ant makes it harder to particularly long-term drought such ensure the long-term survival of the as that experienced during the 1950s. Houston Toad. These toads occur in Drought may result in the loss or small, scattered populations, and may reduction of breeding sites as well as be more seriously affected by fire enhanced mortality of toadlets and ants than species that are more com- adults. mon and widespread. Fire ants kill Extensive clearing of native young toadlets (less than 7-10 days vegetation near breeding ponds and old) moving out of the breeding pond on the uplands adjacent to these into the surrounding land habitat. ponds reduces the quality of breed- Current research shows that fire ants ing, foraging, and resting habitat, and have a devastating impact on local increases the chances of predation arthropod communities, and thus and hybridization. Conversion of may also limit the toad’s food supply. native grassland and woodland savan- There is no specific information Calling male nah to sod-forming introduced on the effects of various chemicals on © Bruce G. Stewart grasses, such as bermudagrass and the Houston Toad, but it is known bahiagrass, eliminates habitat because that amphibians in general are very grass growth is generally too dense sensitive to many pollutants, includ- for the toad to move freely. Dense ing pesticides and other organic com- sod also inhibits burrowing. pounds. These chemicals may affect High traffic roads are a barrier the toad directly, particularly in the to Houston Toad movement, and tadpole stage, or indirectly by lower- toads are sometimes killed on roads. ing the abundance and diversity of its Other linear features such as food supply. Widespread use of pesti- pipelines and transmission lines can cides and herbicides from about 1950 create barriers between foraging, to 1975 may also have contributed to hibernating, and breeding sites, espe- declining populations. During this cially if native vegetation has been period, DDT and similar non-specific removed. chemicals accumulated in the environ- Continuous grazing (not rotating ment, affecting a wide variety of ani- cattle), heavy stocking rates, and long mal life. Although threats from Toads in amplexus term fire suppression have caused persistent, non-specific chemicals are © Jim Godwin loss of habitat in a significant part of not as serious today as in the past, and landowners regarding life history the toad’s range. Historically, peri- the use of pesticides and herbicides and habitat requirements of the toad odic fire played an important role in for agricultural and residential pur- are a vital part of the recovery maintaining native bunchgrass com- poses may still pose a danger for the process. munities in loblolly pine and post oak Houston Toad. savannah. Due to poor grazing man- Although Houston Toad popula- Where To See agement practices and fire suppres- tions are inherently separated The Houston Toad sion since the arrival of European because they exist only in areas of The best place to visit if you want to man, much of the former savannah deep sandy soil, further fragmenta- see and learn about the Houston grasslands of the Post Oak region tion of habitat due to human activity Toad is Bastrop State Park near Bas- have grown into brush thickets can be a problem. Widely scattered trop, Texas. The largest known popu- devoid of herbaceous vegetation. parcels of habitat may not easily be lation of the toad exists in the park Houston Toads need the herbaceous re-colonized by toads from nearby and surrounding areas. For more layer of bunchgrasses for cover and populations if extensive areas of information, contact Bastrop State foraging habitat. unsuitable habitat exist between Park at (512) 321-2101. Although the toad is believed to them, or human impacts eliminate a be adapted to fire regimes, prescribed population. How You Can Help burning may result in toad mortality. You can help by protecting pond Frequent and/or severe burns may be Recovery Efforts habitat. Conservation and wise man- detrimental to the toad, particularly Research is continuing into the life agement of native vegetation is for small, fragmented populations. history, habitat requirements, and important in preserving Houston However, increased fuel loads due to land management practices affecting Toad habitat. You can also help by prolonged periods of fire prevention the Houston Toad. Population sur- landscaping with native plants to may result in very hot wildfires. veys are being conducted in areas reduce water and pesticide use, and Additional research is needed to where toads have been found and in by proper storage and disposal of potential habitat areas. Efforts to household, gardening, and agricul- provide information and educational tural chemicals. Hopefully, thought- 2 Houston Toad opportunities to the general public ful and effective compromises For More Information Contact Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Wildlife Diversity Branch 4200 Smith School Road Austin, Texas 78744 (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 or U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Ecological Services Field Office 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Austin, Texas 78758 Breeding pond in Milam County (512) 490-0057 © TPWD Andrew Price Management guidelines are available from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for landowners and managers wishing to protect and improve habitat for the Houston Toad.

Breeding pond in Bastrop State Park © TPWD Andrew Price between human resource needs and habitat management will allow for the continued survival and recovery of the Houston Toad. You can be involved with the conservation of Texas’ nongame wildlife resources by supporting the Special Nongame and Endangered Species Conservation Fund. Special nongame stamps and decals are available at Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) field offices, most state parks, and the License Branch of TPWD headquarters in Austin. Conservation organizations in Texas also welcome your participation and support.

References Garrett, J. and D.G. Barker. 1987. A field guide to the reptiles and amphibians of Texas. Texas Monthly Press, Austin, TX. 225pp. Hatch, S.L., K.N. Gandhi, and L.E. Brown. 1990. Checklist of the vascular plants of Texas. Texas Agr. Exp. Station Pub. MP-1655. Texas A&M Univ., College Sta- tion, TX. 158 pp.. Price, A. 1990. Houston toad status report. Prepared for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, NM. Price, A.H. 2003. The Houston toad in Bastrop State Park 1990-2002: a narra- tive. Occ. Pap. Wildlife Div. Texas Parks Wildlife Dept. (1):1-21. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1984. Houston toad recovery plan. USFWS, Endangered Species Office, Albuquerque, NM.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Houston Toad 3 Management Guidelines for the Houston Toad

The following guidelines address land seeps that could serve as breeding Parks and Wildlife Department or management practices that can be habitat. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for used to maintain existing Houston Since predation can be an further information concerning pre- Toad habitat or enhance degraded important factor in reducing Houston scribed burning in Houston Toad habitat. They are intended primarily Toad populations, predatory fish habitat. to serve as general guidance for should not be introduced into breed- Clearing of trees and brush landowners and managers in Texas. ing ponds. In addition, a fungus should be limited to reducing woody The guidelines are based on our cur- commonly found in hatchery raised canopy enough to allow sufficient rent understanding of the biology of fish has been shown to be harmful to sunlight to reach the ground for this species. the eggs of other toad species and herbaceous plant production. Initial could be a potential problem. brush management can then be followed by prescribed burning to main- Conserve and Manage tain more open savannah grassland. Existing Post Oak or Loblolly Pine Reduce Loss of Woodland and Habitat Due to Savannah and the Pasture Establishment The introduction of sod-forming Associated Native grasses, such as bermudagrass and Plant Communities bahiagrass, on deep sandy soils has Conservation and wise management reduced habitat for the Houston Toad of rangeland and native grassland in the Post Oak Savannah region. pasture in the Post Oak Savannah Ideally, areas of potential habitat region are the keys to preserving should be managed as native range- Post Oak Savannah vegetation on deep sandy soil Houston Toad habitat. Preventing land pasture for the production of © NRCS Mike Stellbauer overuse by livestock is important. native bunchgrasses and forbs. If Maintaining and improving range improved forage production through Protect Pond Habitat condition through moderate stocking, pasture establishment is an objective, Avoid modification or disturbance of rotational grazing, and prescribed it is better to plant high quality temporary wet-weather ponds and burning, will help restore the plant native bunchgrasses that are adapted other small natural ponds located communities with which the Houston to local conditions and sandy soils, within one-half mile of deep sandy Toad evolved and upon which it is such as Indiangrass and little soils supporting post oak or loblolly dependent. Good range management bluestem. pine woodland or savannah. These practices such as these will also bene- small ephemeral wetlands are prime fit livestock, deer, and other wildlife. Use Safe, Effective breeding habitat for the Houston Prescribed burning is an impor- Alternatives to Toad. Extensive clearing of native tant management tool for maintain- vegetation and alteration of drainage ing the open woodland savannah Chemicals Whenever patterns should be avoided in and preferred by the Houston Toad. Possible around these ponds. Periodic burning (every 3 to 5 years) Amphibians such as the Houston Toad Because predators and other will stimulate native bunchgrasses, are susceptible to chemical contami- toad species live in and near perma- improve plant diversity, and reduce nation. The toads can be affected nent ponds, it is important that these excessive mulch buildup. Prescribed either directly, or through reduction ponds be located away from breeding burning also improves forage quality in their food supply. Some pesticides ponds. To reduce predation and and availability for livestock and can impact water quality and hybridization between Houston Toads enhances habitat for deer, quail, adversely affect the Houston Toad and other toads, permanent ponds for turkey and other wildlife. and other species. Alternatives, such livestock water should be located as At this time, little is known con- as integrated pest management, far as possible from any existing tem- cerning the effects of prescribed organic gardening, and the use and porary or natural pond. Also, perma- burning on Houston Toads. Studies proper management of native vegeta- nent ponds should not impound are being conducted to address question reduce reliance on chemicals and ephemeral ponds or wetlands, in tions concerning how prescribed can improve cost effectiveness. order to discourage predation and burning affects Houston Toads and When insecticide or herbicide hybridization. Alternatives for live- their habitat. Because prescribed treatments must be used, label direc- stock water, such as pipelines and burning could result in the death or windmills, should be considered in injury of individual toads, landown- Houston Toad lieu of disturbing natural ponds and ers are advised to contact the Texas Management Guidelines 1 tions should be carefully followed. Where fire ant control is needed, Avoid contamination of temporary the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service rec- ponds and other natural wetlands by ommend treatment of individual fire limiting use of these products near ant mounds with commercial fire ant them. Dispose of rinse water and bait. Bait should be placed only near empty containers in strict accordance fire ant mounds and not near the with label directions. Contact the mounds of native ant species. To Texas Department of Agriculture or avoid affects on non-target species the USDA Natural Resources apply bait when ants are actively for- Conservation Service for guidance on aging and prevent accumulations of ways to minimize the environmental excess bait. effects of agricultural chemicals. For More Information Control Fire Ants Technical assistance in range and Although the full impact of fire ants wildlife management, including man- on the Houston Toad is not known, agement for endangered species, is fire ants are believed to be a serious available to landowners and man- and increasingly important threat. agers by contacting the Texas Parks You can help control fire ant infesta- and Wildlife Department, USDA tions by limiting soil disturbance, Natural Resources Conservation inspecting imported soil and nursery Service, or Texas Cooperative products thoroughly for fire ants, and Extension. Further guidance and spe- properly disposing of trash. cific questions concerning landowner Controlling heavy fire ant infesta- responsibilities under the Endangered tions in Houston Toad habitat may Species Act, should be directed to the help minimize their impact. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Houston Toad 2 Management Guidelines Clear Creek Gambusia Scientific Name: Gambusia heterochir Federal Status: Endangered, 3/11/67 • State Status: Endangered

Description greater temperature fluctuations. tolerant of variable water tempera- The Clear Creek gambusia is a small, This habitat is less suitable for the tures. These eurythermal (wide tem- stocky fish, about 1.2 to 1.3 inches in spring-dwelling Clear Creek gambu- perature tolerance) organisms soon length, with a metallic sheen. Scat- sia, and more suitable for the western overwhelmed the springrun animals tered dark markings on some scales mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis), a that were not isolated upstream from form distinctive crescent-shaped pat- major competitor. the first dam (Dam 1). terns. Unlike some other Gambusia Since the only habitat for the species, this fish has no speckling on Life History Clear Creek gambusia exists upstream the tail or yellow pigment on the dor- The Clear Creek gambusia is vivipa- from Dam 1, this dam is vital for pro- sal or anal fins. Females have a pro- rous (bears living young). Once fer- tecting an environment isolated from nounced anal spot, especially when tilized, females can store sperm for invasion by the western mosquitofish. pregnant, and males have a deep several months, and they may pro- In 1979, Dam 1 was in serious disre- notch at the top of the pectoral fin. duce several broods of young from pair due to age, the effects of tunnel- Like other live-bearers, the male’s March through September. Factors ing by nutria (a large introduced anal fin is modified into a tube-like such as day length, temperature, and rodent), and the expansion of root structure called a gonopodium for food availability have been shown to systems of trees. Hybridization transferring sperm to the female. influence reproductive success. between the Clear Creek gambusia The Clear Creek gambusia is and western mosquitofish had closely associated with coontail occurred in the vicinity of the dam. (Ceratophyllum sp.), an aquatic plant, This hybridization problem was the and an endemic amphipod (small crustacean), Hyalella texana. The plant supports the amphipod, which in turn serves as a primary food source for the fish. Other fishes inhabiting the

Clear Creek Gambusia upper pool include the roundnose © TPWD Glen Mills minnow (Dionda episcopa) and the greenthroat darter (Etheostoma lep- Habitat idum). These small fishes The Clear Creek gambusia is restricted do not compete with the to the springfed headwaters of Clear Clear Creek gambusia Creek, a tributary of the San Saba because of different food River in Menard County in central preferences and feeding locations. Texas. This fish was first discovered Maintenance of submerged aquatic in February, 1953. Upper Clear plants, which provide protective cover Creek consists of a series of lime- from predators such as bass and sun- stone springs (Wilkinson Springs) fish, is important for both the Clear originating from the Edwards Trinity Creek gambusia and its prey. Aquifer. Prior to 1890, a low, result of mosquitofish juvenile earthen-concrete dam was built about females moving to the upper pool 80 yards downstream from the head- Threats and Reasons through damaged portions of the springs. In the 1930s, three addi- for Decline dam. If allowed to continue, tional dams were built downstream Originally, Clear Creek was a clear hybridization and competition from from the original dam, ponding water springrun that flowed freely for the western mosquitofish may have to the base of each dam. Extensive about 3 miles to its confluence with eliminated the Clear Creek gambusia. collecting of fish in 1956 and 1957 the San Saba River. Most or all of the In the summer of 1979, Dam 1 was showed that the Clear Creek gambu- creek was probably inhabited by rebuilt, securing the upper pool habi- sia was restricted to the springfed springrun species such as the Clear tat for the Clear Creek gambusia. uppermost pool. This area, about Creek gambusia and associated plants In 1985, researchers found an 2.5 acres in size, provides clear and animals. A series of dams, the increased number of Clear Creek gam- spring water of constant temperature first one built in the 1880s and the busia downstream from the recon- and low pH (slightly acidic), with others during the 1930s, were constructed dam. Soon after the dam abundant aquatic vegetation. Below structed to provide irrigation to culti- the first dam, the habitat changes vated fields. The resulting changes in abruptly, with higher pH (more alka- habitat encouraged population line), different vegetation, and buildup of plants and animals more Clear Creek Gambusia 1 was rebuilt, rainwater killifish (Luca- avoid reduction in recharge to the nia parva) were found in Clear Creek aquifer. Limestone aquifers are vul- below the dam. This fish is not nerable to pollution and measures to native to the Edwards Plateau and prevent aquifer contamination are may have been released into Clear urged. Land managers can help by Creek by someone discarding leftover implementing sound range manage- bait. Rainwater killifish and western ment practices designed to protect mosquitofish, although not closely vegetative cover, improve range con- related, are very similar with respect dition, and prevent soil erosion and to food habits, habitat preferences, runoff. Good vegetation management and tendency to move seasonally to will help to ensure optimum aquifer areas of warmer water. Thus, rainwa- recharge and the continuous flow of ter killifish compete directly with Wilkinson Springs and others like it. western mosquitofish. Reduction in Since competition and/or Clear Creek spring the numbers of western mosquitofish hybridization with closely related or © Gary Garrett apparently allowed the Clear Creek introduced species is a major threat gambusia to survive in greater num- to endangered fishes, never release bers below the upper dam. fish into natural waters from which Finally, the continued existence they didn’t originate. Although an of the Clear Creek gambusia depends exception occurred in the case of the on continued flow of Wilkinson rainwater killifish at Clear Creek, Springs. Protection of the Edwards- beneficial impacts resulting from Trinity recharge zone is essential. introductions of exotic species are Any changes which reduce water flow the exception and not the rule. or deteriorate water quality in Finally, you can support the Spe- Wilkinson Springs could have disas- cial Nongame and Endangered Species trous consequences for the Clear Conservation Fund by purchasing a Creek gambusia. stamp, available at the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) Recovery Efforts headquarters in Austin or at most Continuous monitoring is ongoing to State Parks. Part of the proceeds detect factors that may affect the Clear from the sale of these items is used Biologists using a seine net to sample fish © Gary Garrett Creek gambusia population and deter- to conserve habitat and provide infor- mine the current genetic status of the mation concerning rare and endan- population. The owners of Wilkinson gered species. Springs have been instrumental in protecting the species’ habitat. Provid- For More Information ing information to landowners and the Contact general public concerning habitat Texas Parks and Wildlife DTexas requirements for rare and endangered Parks and Wildlife Department fishes is an important part of the Wildlife Diversity Branch recovery process. 4200 Smith School Road Austin, Texas 78744 How You Can Help (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 Area landowners can help by protect- or ing the groundwater of the Edwards- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Trinity Aquifer. Do what you can as Ecological Services Field Office an individual to conserve water and 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 prevent pollutants from entering the Austin, Texas 78758 aquifer. Care should be taken to (512) 490-0057

References Edwards, R.J., and C. Hubbs. 1985. Temporal changes in the Gambusia heterochir x G. affinis Hybrid Swarm Following Dam Reconstruction. USFWS, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 31 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Clear Creek Gambusia (Gambusia heterochir) Recovery Plan. USFWS, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 29 pp.

2 Clear Creek Gambusia Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act. Desert Spring Fishes Scientific Name: Comanche Springs Pupfish – Cyprinodon elegans, Leon Springs Pupfish – Cyprinodon bovinus, Pecos Gambusia – Gambusia nobilis, Big Bend Gambusia – Gambusia gaigei Federal Status: All Endangered; 3/11/67, 8/15/80, 10/13/70, and 3/11/67, respectively • State Status: All Endangered

Description of At present, the species occurs pri- and Species, Habitats, and marily in aquatic habitat fed by Present range for spring flow from Giffin, and San Pecos Gambusia Life History Solomon springs near Balmorhea, Comanche Springs pupfish Texas. The population at Phantom The Comanche Springs pupfish Lake Springs has been almost totally seldom exceeds 2 inches in total lost due to loss of length. It is gray-green above and spring flow. The pale yellow to white below, with clear areas of greatest to light orange fins. The sides are sil- abundance are in very white with blue-black blotches Balmorhea State forming a “stripe” along the side Park in the (often faint on the male). Males have refugium canal Present range for black speckling on the side and a (constructed in Comanche Springs Pupfish black edge on the caudal (tail) fin. 1974) and in San Present range for In contrast to other Cyprinodon Solomon Ciénega Leon Springs Pupfish species, this pupfish has a slender (created in 1996). Present range for Big Bend Gambusia body and lacks vertical bars. Additional habitat consists mostly of a system of concrete and earthen irri- grayish-brown on top, and lighter gation canals. The pupfish are often below. abundant in earthen ditches and con- The Leon Springs pupfish was crete flumes 4 inches or more deep first discovered in 1851 by members with bottoms covered with debris of the U.S. and Mexican Boundary and vegetation, such as muskgrass Survey. The fish was originally found (Chara spp.). They are rarely found at Leon Springs, a spring system that in concrete flumes where water depth once flowed in the Leon Creek is less than 4 inches and/or the bot- drainage about 6 miles west of Fort tom is scoured of debris. Stockton in Pecos County. Its historic Comanche Springs Pupfish The Comanche Springs pupfish range probably included all permanent © J.E. Johnson is known only from freshwater to waters within Leon Creek and the slightly saline habitats. The springs associated springs. In 1918, the area near Balmorhea have low salinities, where the fish was first collected was as did the now dry Comanche inundated by Lake Leon, an irrigation Springs. Other species of pupfish in and fishing impoundment. By 1938, the Pecos River system inhabit more the Leon Springs pupfish could no saline waters. Breeding is thought to longer be found in the area where it occur during most months of the was first discovered. Although Leon year, and spawning (egg-laying) Springs once produced a flow of about occurs in areas of flowing water as 20 cfs (cubic feet per second), the well as in stagnant pools. In irriga- springs produced no measurable flow tion canals, the pupfish prefer shal- by 1958 due to groundwater pumping Leon Springs Pupfish low areas with low current velocities. © TPWD in excess of aquifer recharge. Although they feed mostly on the bot- From 1958 until 1965, the Leon Historically, this pupfish tom, they also feed at the surface and Springs pupfish was thought to be occurred in two separate spring sys- at other levels in the water column. extinct. The fish were rediscovered tems of the Pecos River drainage. in 1965, when they were collected One was Comanche Springs, with Leon Springs pupfish from Diamond Y Spring, located headwaters (now almost always dry) The Leon Springs pupfish is a about 10 miles north of Fort within the city limits of Fort small (about 2 inches), robust pup- Stockton. The fish have since been Stockton, Texas, and the other was a fish, with a wider head and body found in Leon Creek, downstream group of springs near Balmorhea. than most pupfish. Breeding males from Diamond Y Spring in waters The pupfish population at Comanche are powdery blue-gray with fins of Springs were extirpated (lost) when varying shades of yellow edged with the springs first went dry in 1955. black. Females are grayish-yellow or Desert Spring Fishes 1 that are quite saline. The recent used for internal fertilization of localities are about 15 miles down- the female. stream from where the fish was origi- Historically, the Pecos gambusia nally found. was restricted to the Pecos River The Leon Springs pupfish basin in southeastern New Mexico presently occurs within two 3-mile and western Texas. The species spring-fed segments of Leon Creek occurred from as far south as Fort and Diamond Y Spring. Diamond Y Stockton, Texas to as far north as Draw is a tributary to Leon Creek. Fort Sumner, New Mexico. The popu- Pecos Gambusia These spring-fed segments are sepa- lations of Pecos gambusia that once © Dave Schleser rated by about one mile of usually existed at Leon Springs and dry stream bed. The fish prefer Comanche Springs were lost when slow-flowing stretches of water, with these springs went dry during the a substrate of mud and aquatic plant mid-1950s. Presently in Texas, popu- roots. They are also abundant in lations of the Pecos gambusia occur natural spring-fed marshes (ciéne- near Balmorhea in aquatic habitat gas), channels, and pools along this supported by spring flow from watercourse. Phantom Lake, Giffin, San Solomon, The Leon Springs pupfish feeds and East Sandia springs. The largest primarily on the bottom, ingesting population is in San Solomon Ciénega Big Bend Gambusia large amounts of detritus (decom- at Balmorhea State Park. A substan- © TPWD posed organic material) and mud. tial population also occurs in Leon Food items include diatoms, algae, Creek and in Diamond Y Spring out- The Pecos gambusia is an oppor- and small invertebrates. “Pit dig- flow north of Fort Stockton. The tunistic feeder. Primarily a surface ging” has been observed, where the species also occurs in a limited num- feeder, major food items include fish (mostly males) rest on the bot- ber of locations in New Mexico. insects, other small invertebrates, and tom of the pool and undulate their The Pecos gambusia occurs abun- some filamentous algae. bodies to churn up the substrate. dantly in spring-fed pools, spring Competition with other This behavior is thought to be associ- runs, and downstream areas having Gambusia species is important in ated with locating buried food items. relatively constant temperatures, determining the relative abundance The Leon Springs pupfish abundant overhead cover, sedge-cov- of the Pecos gambusia. Studies have spawns throughout the year, with ered marshes, and in gypsum sink- shown that, over a period of years, females laying up to 10 eggs per day. holes with no surface flow. It is the western mosquitofish outcom- Spawning occurs on the bottom sub- capable of occupying a variety of petes the Pecos gambusia in isolated strate in territories aggressively habitats if factors such as tempera- pools and downstream waters well defended by individual males. ture and salinity are suitable. removed from spring influence. Shallow shelf areas with slow cur- The closest relatives of the Pecos Salinity seems to be important in rents, warmer than the deeper chan- gambusia are found in south Texas determining the influence of an nels, are preferred for spawning. and Mexico, so the species has a long introduced competitor, the large- This species is known to tolerate an history of adaptation to warmer cli- spring gambusia (Gambusia geiseri). unusually wide range of salinities and mates. The fish does not occur even Since the Pecos gambusia is tolerant temperatures. However, studies sug- in spring-fed waters at higher eleva- of a wide range of salinities, it can gest that the temperature range tions, presumably because water tem- outcompete the largespring gambusia required for successful reproduction peratures are too cold. Maximum in the saline waters of Leon Creek, may be quite narrow. The extended temperature is also important in while the largespring gambusia seems breeding season, wide salinity and determining suitable habitat. The competitively superior in the freshwa- temperature tolerances, and broad Pecos gambusia seems to be less toler- ters of the Balmorhea area. In areas food habits suggest that the Leon ant of variable temperatures than the where the two species are found Springs pupfish is a generalist that western mosquitofish (Gambusia affi- together, the Pecos gambusia inhabits does best in simple communities with nis), a major competitor. Studies indi- mid-water and bottom habitats and few competing species. cate that the Pecos gambusia is more the largepring gambusia is more abundant in spring-fed waters, but it often found at the surface near vege- Pecos gambusia may also do well in less spring-like tation. The Pecos gambusia is a small waters if there is enough cover from 1 (1 /2 inches long), live-bearing fish above to buffer temperature changes. Big Bend gambusia with a dark lateral stripe and a metal- Predation by green sunfish The Big Bend gambusia lic gray-blue color. Females have a (Lepomis cyanellus) and largemouth (Gambusia gaigei) is a small, live- black area on the abdomen that sur- bass (Micropterus salmoides) can bearing fish which reaches a maxi- rounds the anal fin and anus. The 1 become a major limiting factor in mum length of about 1 /2 inches. anal fin of males is modified into a areas where there is no submerged The fish is yellowish in color, with a gonopodium, a tube-like structure vegetation or enough shallow water faint lateral stripe and orange to yel- to provide protection from predators. low dorsal and anal fins. Other Females produce up to 40 young markings include a bar beneath the 2 Desert Spring Fishes every 4 to 5 days. eye, and a faint, dark chin bar. Males lation include competition with the Texas, more water is being with- western mosquitofish and lack of drawn from aquifers by pumping thermal stability. All present popula- than is being replaced by rainfall. In tions of Big Bend gambusia consist of addition, surface waters are being descendants of three fish (two males diverted from aquifer recharge zones. and one female) taken from the This continued mining of aquifers declining Rio Grande Village popula- could eventually cause the demise of tion in 1956. The fish are now being spring systems throughout west maintained in a refugium pond Texas, and with them the extinction located in Big Bend National Park. of a whole array of unique fishes and Small populations also exist at the aquatic plants and animals. This Diamond-Y Spring © TPWD Dexter National Fish Hatchery and would also have serious consequences Technology Center in New Mexico. for Texans of the Trans-Pecos, who The habitats originally occupied would lose a valuable water supply. by the Big Bend gambusia were marshes and natural pools, with Recovery Efforts clear, shallow water fed by warm Research is ongoing to better under- springs. Dense aquatic vegetation stand the life history, habitat require- presumably occurred in these areas. ments, and limiting factors affecting Although the present refugium has the endangered fishes of west Texas. open water in excess of 3 feet, the Continued monitoring of endangered Big Bend gambusia are most abun- fish populations and habitat is very dant among the cattails and important. muskgrass near the shore. A man-made, but biologically The Big Bend gambusia preys A spring-fed creek in Big Bend Ranch State Natural Area functional desert ciénega or marsh at © Matt Wagner on aquatic invertebrates. Little is Balmorhea State Park has been estab- known concerning factors limiting lished and the endangered fishes are reproduction in this species, but tem- prospering in this new refugium. perature, daylight hours, and food This project, sponsored by Texas availability are known to affect repro- Parks and Wildlife Department, the ductive success in related species. Educational Foundation of America, Competition with the western mos- and the National Fish and Wildlife quitofish is thought to be a major fac- Foundation, not only creates habitat tor affecting the survival of the Big for the Comanche Springs pupfish Bend gambusia. and the Pecos gambusia, but also provides spring-fed habitat for a wide Threats and Reasons variety of native plants and animals. for Decline It is an excellent opportunity for The major threats to the survival of school children and park visitors to Phantom Lake cienega and spring © TPWD Andrew Price the desert spring fishes are habitat learn about this unique ecosystem. loss from declining springflows and A refugium canal within the are smaller than females, and as with reduced surface waters, competition Balmorhea State Park supports sev- other gambusia species, the male’s with introduced species, and loss of eral thousand Comanche Springs pup- anal fin is modified into a tube-like genetic integrity due to hybridization fish and Pecos gambusia. A similar gonopodium for fertilizing the female. with introduced species. refugium canal, constructed by the The Big Bend gambusia is known Introductions of fish and mol- Bureau of Reclamation, was com- only from spring habitats in the lusk species from inland rivers, the pleted at Phantom Lake Spring. This vicinity of Boquillas Crossing and Rio Gulf Coast, and other sources pose a canal supported abundant, healthy Grande Village in Big Bend National serious threat to these fishes. Almost populations of these fishes. However, Park. Historically, the fish may have any co-occurring species of fish, the refugium failed when the spring existed in other springs in the vicin- either indigenous or introduced, flow declined in the late 1990s. ity of Rio Grande Village. The popu- would potentially exert some compet- In 1990, The Nature lation at Boquillas Spring (located itive pressure on populations of these Conservancy of Texas purchased the about 660 ft. north of Boquillas fishes. Competition with introduced land encompassing Diamond Y Crossing) became extinct when spring species that are ecologically similar Spring, and the portion of Leon flow ceased in 1954. The population poses an especially serious threat. Creek designated as critical habitat at the spring located near Rio Grande Large artesian springs, such as for the Leon Springs pupfish. In the Village drastically declined between those in the Balmorhea area, are 1970s, a portion of Leon Creek was 1954 and 1956, after the spring out- diminishing in flow. Phantom Lake renovated, significantly reducing the flow was altered to provide a fishing Spring, near Balmorhea, is particu- problems of competition and pool for the park campground. The larly vulnerable because it is at a hybridization. Future scientific man- Big Bend gambusia was extirpated higher elevation and thus was the from this location by 1960. Two pos- first of these larger springs to stop sible factors in the loss of this popu- flowing. In many parts of west Desert Spring Fishes 3 agement of this habitat will provide resulted from people releasing non- protection for the Pecos gambusia as native fishes (especially by emptying well as the Leon Springs pupfish. bait buckets or releasing aquarium A small population of Comanche fish) into streams and springs, or Springs pupfish is held at the intentionally releasing fish into state National Fish Hatchery in Uvalde, waters in an effort to improve fish- Texas. Likewise, small populations of ing. Texas Parks and Wildlife regula- Big Bend gambusia and Leon Springs tions restrict these activities. pupfish are being held at the Dexter Be careful with the application National Fish Hatchery in New of pesticides (insecticides and herbi- Mexico. These populations provide cides) and other agricultural chemi- an opportunity for researchers to cals. Improper use of chemicals can Phantom Lake canal and refugium obtain specimens for study without have devastating effects on aquatic © USFWS Ruth Stanford affecting wild populations, and pro- systems. Always follow label precau- vide stocks for reintroductions in the tions carefully, including instructions event of the loss of a population. concerning proper disposal of rinse water and containers. Check with the Where To See The Texas Department of Agriculture Desert Spring Fishes (TDA) for information concerning The best places to see and learn more proper use of herbicides and pesti- about these fishes are Balmorhea cides and licensing requirements. State Park and Big Bend National Due to the toxicity of some pesti- Park. At Balmorhea State Park, visi- cides to aquatic life, special manage- tors can cool off in the world’s ment methods are needed for certain largest spring-fed swimming pool, chemicals to help prevent possible where the Comanche Springs pupfish harm to protected species. Local rep- and the Pecos gambusia can some- resentatives of wildlife, agriculture, Biologists using a seine net to sample fish in Leon Creek times be seen hiding in the shallow, and conservation groups are working © Gary Garrett grassy areas of the pool. Also, the with landowners to develop measures two refugia at Balmorhea State Park that will allow normal agricultural spring-fed creeks and marshes. These are excellent places to observe these production to coexist with the desert precious water resources provide fish. A refugium pond near the Rio fishes. Farmers, ranchers, and pesti- unique areas of plant and animal life. Grande Village Campground in Big cide applicators can contact their Their protection is vital to the diver- Bend National Park offers visitors a local county extension agent, or sity of life which they support. chance to see the Big Bend gambusia Coordinator, Endangered Species Finally, you can support the and its habitat. Pesticide Protection, Texas Special Nongame and Endangered Department of Agriculture in Austin Species Conservation Fund by pur- How You Can Help (512-463-7476) to find out about cur- chasing a stamp, available at the Do what you can as an individual to rent recommendations in your area. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department conserve water. Comanche Springs, A portion of the remaining habi- headquarters in Austin or at most Leon Springs and others have gone tat for the Comanche Springs pupfish state parks. Part of the proceeds dry because more water is being used and Pecos gambusia consists of the from the sale of these items is used than is replaced by rainfall. When irrigation canals in the Balmorhea- to provide information to park visi- springs dry up, a whole host of plant Toyahvale area of Reeves and Jeff tors concerning endangered species. and animal life disappears with them. Davis counties. Conservation of Texas Parks and Wildlife also offers a The competition for water has taken these two endangered fishes can be wildlife conservation license plate a toll on the wetland plants and ani- enhanced by ensuring that water featuring the Texas Horned Lizard, mals of west Texas. The existence of quality in the canals supports a func- which benefits wildlife diversity these endangered fishes, and other tional aquatic community. Farmers efforts in Texas. The Conservation aquatic animals and plants which can help by careful handling of all “Keep Texas Wild” (Horned Lizard) share their habitat, depends on the fuels, oils, and hydraulic fluids so plate costs just $25 in addition to reg- continued flow of the springs near that canals are not contaminated. ular vehicle registration fees, with Balmorhea, Leon Creek, and in Big Also, maintaining a water depth $20 used to support conservation of Bend. Conservation of these spring greater than 1 foot in canals occupied wildlife diversity and habitat in ecosystems will result in the contin- by these fishes is desirable. Texas. ued ability to use water in areas West Texas landowners with downstream from their habitats. springs and associated surface water For More Information Since introduced species are a resources can provide additional pro- Contact major threat to these endangered tection to various populations of rare Texas Parks and Wildlife Department fishes, never release any fish into nat- fishes by limiting habitat disruption, Wildlife Diversity Branch ural waters. Serious problems have preventing introduction of exotic 4200 Smith School Road species, and implementing conserva- Austin, Texas 78744 tion measures designed to maintain (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 4 Desert Spring Fishes spring flow and water quality in or U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Ecological Services Field Office 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 Austin, Texas 78758 (512) 490-0057 or Texas Department of Agriculture P.O. Box 12847 Austin, Texas 78711 (512) 463-7476

References Hubbs, C., R.J. Edwards, and G.P. Garrett. 1991. An annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of Texas, with keys to identification of species. The Texas Journal of Science, suppl., Vol. 43, No. 4. 56 pp. Page, L.M. and B.M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes. The Peterson Field Guide Series. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA. 432 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Comanche Springs Pupfish (Cyprinodon elegans) recovery plan. USFWS, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 25 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Leon Springs Pupfish (Cyprinodon bovinus) recovery plan. USFWS, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 26 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Pecos Gambusia (Gambusia nobilis) recovery plan. USFWS, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 41 pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Big Bend Gambusia (Gambusia gaigei) recovery plan. USFWS, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 43 pp.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Desert Spring Fishes 5 Karst Invertebrates Scientific Name: Bee Creek Cave Harvestman – Texella reddelli, Bone Cave Harvestman – Texella reyesi, Tooth Cave Pseudoscorpion – Tartarocreagris texana, Tooth Cave Spider – Neoleptoneta myopica, Tooth Cave Ground Beetle – Rhadine persephone, Kretschmarr Cave Mold Beetle – Texamaurops reddelli, Coffin Cave Mold Beetle – Batrisodes texanus Federal Status: Endangered, 9/16/88 • State Status: Endangered

Description of Species eyes entirely, long and and Life History appendages, reduced Present range for Tooth pigmentation and Present range Cave Ground Beetle and Of these species, three are insects (one Bone Cave Harvestman other adaptations to for Coffin ground beetle and two mold beetles) a subterranean Cave Mold and four are arachnids (one pseu- Beetle environment. doscorpion, one spider, and two har- Most of the vestmen). All are troglobites, which endangered karst are animals that are specially adapted invertebrates are to subterranean existence and spend believed to be their entire lives underground. Troglo- predators of bites usually have small eyes or lack microarthropods (tiny insects). Most troglobites eat a Present range for Tooth variety of foods Cave Pseudoscorpion, Tooth Cave Spider, (food generalists), Kretschmarr Cave Mold although some Beetle and Bee Creek degree of prey spe- Cave Harvestman cialization probably exists in some species. While there is The Tooth Cave Pseudoscor- little information on the biology or pion grows to about 4 mm and life cycles of these karst species, col- resembles a tiny, tailless scorpion lections made throughout the years without eyes. Pseudoscorpions use suggest that, unlike their surface- their pinchers to catch prey, and are dwelling relatives, cave species do not thought to be predators of have distinct seasonal cycles. They are microarthropods. Usually found also believed to live more than a year under rocks, this species is quite rare based, in part, on the amount of time and little is known of its habits. some juveniles have been kept in cap- The Tooth Cave Spider is the tivity without maturing. smallest of the listed invertebrates, The Bee Creek Cave Harvest- about 1.6 mm in length. It is a pale man, or daddy-longlegs, has a body cream-colored spider with relatively about 2 to 3 mm in length and rela- long legs. Although it is restricted tively long legs. Its body color is entirely to caves, it does possess rudi- light yellowish-brown, and it has no mentary eyes. A minute and delicate Bone Cave Harvestman © USFWS Wyman Meinzer eyes. It is found under rocks in dark- predator of microarthropods, the Tooth ness or in dim light, and preys on Cave spider is a sedentary aerial spider tiny, hopping insects called collem- that hangs from a small tangle or sheet bolans. This species, like other small web on long, thin legs and waits for harvestmen, tend to walk rather prey to become entangled in its web. slowly and deliberately, unlike spi- The Tooth Cave Ground Beetle ders, which tend to move faster. is a slender, reddish-brown beetle with The Bone Cave Harvestman is reduced eyes. It attains a length of 7 a long-legged, blind, pale orange har- to 8 mm at maturity. This is the vestman, with a body length of about largest, most visible, and most active of 1.4 to 2.7 mm. This species is espe- the karst species. It is usually found cially sensitive to humidities below under rocks, but has been seen walk- saturation. They are most often ing on damp rocks and silt when con- found under large rocks, but are occa- ditions are favorable. It runs rapidly sionally seen walking on moist floors. as it searches the cave floor for prey. In the hottest part of the summer This species appears to be restricted to when small caves warm up and become drier, they can be found only Tooth Cave Pseudoscorpion © USFWS Wyman Meinzer in the coolest, dampest spots. Karst Invertebrates 1 areas of deep, uncompacted silt, where These karst invertebrates require it digs holes to feed on cave cricket stable temperatures and constant, eggs deposited into the silt. high humidity because they are vul- The Kretschmarr Cave Mold nerable to desiccation in drier habi- Beetle has short wings and long legs, tats and/or cannot detect or cope and is less than 3 mm long. It is with more extreme temperatures. dark brown and eyeless. This mold During temperature extremes, troglo- beetle is found in total darkness bites may retreat into small human- under and among rocks and organic inaccessible spaces within and/or debris and buried in silt. Although connected to the cave, where temper- food preferences are unknown, it is ature and humidity are more suitable. Tooth Cave Spider © USFWS Wyman Meinzer believed to be a predator. These species may spend the majority The Coffin Cave Mold Beetle is of their time in such retreats, only a small, long-legged beetle with short leaving them to find food in the wings. Its body length is about 2.6 larger passages. to 2.9 mm and it is eyeless. This Because there is little light and species is also found in total darkness limited capacity for photosynthesis by under rocks. Its food preferences are plants, karst ecosystems depend unknown. The Coffin Cave mold bee- almost entirely on surface plant and tle is the only one of the endangered animal communities for nutrients and invertebrates found exclusively in energy. Caves receive nutrients from Williamson County. the surface in the form of leaf mulch, plant roots, and other organic debris Habitat that washes or falls into the cave. “Karst” is a term used by geologists Cave crickets are especially important to describe a type of terrain formed because many invertebrates are when calcium carbonate from lime- known to feed on their eggs, feces, stone bedrock is slowly dissolved by nymphs, and dead body parts. Cave mildly acidic groundwater. This crickets roost and lay eggs in caves process creates numerous caves, sink- during the day and leave the cave at holes, fractures, and interconnections night to feed on the surface. Rac- so that in places the bedrock resem- coons and other small mammals are bles a honeycomb. Many of the karst also important in many cave commu- features occupied by the listed species nities because their feces provide a were formed at or below the water rich medium for the growth of fungi table, and thus were once filled with and, subsequently, tiny insects that water. As the water table lowered, become prey for troglobites. Most of the caves inhabited by these features dried out and are now Tooth Cave Ground Beetle © USFWS Wyman Meinzer air-filled. The natural lowering of the the listed species were not significant groundwater table, over time, led to bat roosts in the past. Studies indi- ceiling collapse in some cavities, cate that although most karst systems forming caves and sinkholes. Some containing the listed animals do not karst features act as important depend on bats for nutrient input, recharge structures to underground some of these invertebrates can live streams and aquifers. in caves with small bat colonies and During the course of climatic may benefit from the increased input changes during the Pleistocene epoch of nutrients found in bat guano. (2 million to 10 thousand years ago), Surface plant communities sur- the ancestors of these animals rounding karst features range from retreated from the soil surface and pastureland to mature oak-juniper Kretschmarr Cave Mold Beetle © USFWS R. W. Mitchell mulch into the more stable cave envi- woodland. In addition to providing ronments. Subsequently, these animals nutrients to the karst system, main- became adapted to cave environments. taining adequate plant cover is Through faulting and down-cut- important in minimizing temperature ting by water in stream channels, the fluctuations and drying within the karst terrain along the Balcones Fault cave, and filtering pollutants before Zone became increasingly dissected, they enter the karst ecosystem as creating “islands” of karst that are groundwater contamination. barriers to dispersal of the troglobites. This led to increasing isolation Threats and Reasons of troglobite populations and the sub- for Decline sequent evolution of distinct species. The primary threat to the listed species is loss of habitat due to urban

2 Karst Invertebrates development. The continued urban Cave Cricket © USFWS Wyman Meinzer expansion in Travis and Williamson conservation and eventual recovery counties has negatively impacted of the three endangered karst inver- numerous caves. Most of the species tebrates found in the county. Along are located in areas adjacent to or with TPWD and the U.S. Fish and near residential subdivisions, schools, Wildlife Service, many local entities golf courses, roads, and commercial and private landowners are also and industrial facilities. Threats from actively involved in conserving these urban development include filling in species and the unique karst habitats or collapse of caves, alteration of which they inhabit for the benefit of drainage patterns, alteration of sur- future generations. face plant and animal communities, contamination by pollutants, and How You Can Help detrimental impacts caused by human Individuals and private groups can visitation. support efforts in Travis and The introduction of non-native Williamson counties to conserve and predators and competitors also poses manage habitat for endangered a major threat to the karst inverte- species, and prevent ground and sur- brates. For example, the Red face water pollution. Conservation Imported Fire Ant is an increasingly organizations can provide additional serious threat. Fires ants eat the information, and they welcome your invertebrates directly, or impact cave support. systems by preying on or competing with other species that are important For More Information for nutrient input. Contact Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Recovery Efforts Wildlife Diversity Branch A number of surveys and research 4200 Smith School Road projects are underway to better Austin, Texas 78744 define the taxonomy and distribution (512) 912-7011 or (800) 792-1112 Limestone cave in Travis county of karst fauna in Travis and © USFWS Wyman Meinzer or Williamson counties. Many of these U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service studies are associated with areas pro- Ecological Services Field Office posed for development. Fire ant con- 10711 Burnet Road, Suite 200 trol studies have also been conducted Austin, Texas 78758 to determine the effectiveness of vari- (512) 490-0057 ous treatments on fire ants. Efforts are also underway to protect many of Management guidelines are available the caves known to contain endan- from Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- gered invertebrates. For example, in ment and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife December 2002, Williamson County Service for landowners and managers established the Williamson County interested in protecting karst ecosys- Karst Foundation for the purpose of tems underlying their property. providing a long-term method for the

Cave formations References © George Veni Slack, Doug et al. 1990. Austin regional habitat conservation plan. Comprehen- sive Report of the Biological Advisory Team. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Draft recovery plan for endangered karst invertebrates in Travis and Williamson counties, Texas. 133 pp.

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Karst Invertebrates 3 Management Guidelines for Karst Invertebrates

Preserve Known conditions and stable temperatures in Preserve Native Cave Sites the air spaces; maintaining an ade- Vegetation quate nutrient supply; preventing The karst features inhabitated by Maintaining native vegetation in areas contamination of the water entering these species and the ecosystems on containing karst features is important. the system; and preventing or con- which they depend have evolved Surface vegetation provides nutrients trolling invasion of exotic species, slowly over millions of years. Once to the cave ecosystem 1) directly such as red imported fire ants. destroyed, they cannot be recreated. through plant material being washed Preservation of known caves and Protection of these ecosystems will into the karst with water and 2) indi- other karst features, as well as the require maintaining moist, humid rectly by providing habitat and food subsurface interconnections between for the animal communities that con- them, is important to maintaining tribute nutrients to the karst ecosys- this unique ecosystem and the ani- tem (such as cave crickets, small mals that live there. Building and mammals, and other vertebrates). A road construction should be avoided healthy vegetative community also in the vicinity of known caves and protects the karst environment from cave entrances. These entrances contaminates and may also help con- should not be filled because input of trol the spread of exotic species such nutrients and surface water is impor- as red imported fire ants. Loss of the tant in maintaining the system. Along vegetation community could lead to with protecting the cave entrance(s), nutrient depletion. By maintaining protecting the animal and plant com- native surface vegetation in the vicin- munity and the surface/subsurface ity of karst features, landowners can drainage basins associated with an also help minimize temperature fluc- occupied cave is essential to main- tuations, maintain moisture regimes, taining adequate nutrient and water reduce potential for contamination, input to support cave-adapted species and reduce sedimentation from soil as well as to maintain stable tempera- erosion. tures and high humidity in the cave Cave entrance © USFWS Ruth Stanford environment. Where cave entrances Prevent Groundwater are large enough to pose a hazard to humans or livestock, they can be Contamination fenced or gated to restrict access yet Once contaminated groundwater allow movement of plant material, enters the karst environment, it is water, and animals such as raccoons, transported rapidly into the Edwards bats and other small mammals, cave Aquifer, with little or no purification. crickets, and other insects, into the Therefore, the proper use and dis- cave. Animals, especially cave crick- posal of chemicals such as pesticides, ets, are an important nutrient source, motor oil, and household chemicals is contributing eggs, feces, and car- very important. The use of broadcast casses to the cave environment. pesticides, either liquid or granular, should be avoided in areas near Avoid Altering Surface known cave entrances or other karst features. (for recommendations on Drainage Patterns pesticide use, see “Control Non-native Landowners should avoid altering Fire Ants” below). surface drainage patterns in the vicinity of known caves. Because Restrict Human karst ecosystems depend on air spaces with some water infiltration, Visitation diverting water away from a cave Landowners can protect cave systems could result in drying and death for by restricting access and thereby the cave and for many cave animals. reducing human visitation and Also, too much water can lead to impacts. Detrimental human impacts flooding and loss of air-breathing include habitat disturbance or loss species. Altering the quantity of due to soil compaction, changes in water inflow can also result in changes in the nutrient input. Cave entrance Karst Invertebrates © George Veni Management Guidelines 1 temperature and humidity, vandalism, controlled manner to minimize effects abandonment of the cave by associ- on non-target species. ated surface animals, and accumula- Bait should be placed only near tion of toxic trash such as alkaline fire ant mounds and not near the batteries. mounds of native ant species. The bait should be applied before noon if Control Fire Ants possible to allow time for the ants to Although the full impact of non-native gather most of it before nightfall, fire ants on the karst ecosystems is when cave crickets come out to for- not known, red imported fire ants age. Care should be taken to prevent (RIFA) are believed to be a serious excess bait from remaining on the and increasingly important threat to ground after allowing time for the the karst fauna. Controlling RIFA in ants to forage. It is important that areas surrounding cave entrances the ground be dry (no morning dew) may help minimize their impact on and the weather be clear and dry, the cave fauna. Effective treatments with no forecast of rain in the next include hot water and commercial fire few hours. Also, bait is more effec- ant baits. tive if the ants are actively foraging. At present, there is little infor- To test for this, put out a little bit of mation available on the impacts that cheese, tuna fish, or peanut butter, chemical methods of RIFA control and go back and check it in 15 to 20 used on the surface have on species minutes. If it is covered with fire that live exclusively underground. ants, they are foraging and it is a Because of this lack of information, good time to treat. By following the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service these recommendations, you can help (USFWS) recommends that only boil- prevent the active ingredients in fire ing water treatments be used on RIFA ant control chemicals from entering mounds within 164 feet (50 m) (the the food chain either directly or approximate cave cricket foraging dis- through cave crickets foraging on the tance) of the cave entrance. This surface at night. treatment involves pouring 1 to 4 gal- The USFWS recommends the lons of hot water directly on the above strategy for treatment of fire mound. The colony should be ants near endangered species caves. drenched with enough liquid so that In addition, any significant karst fea- the mound caves in on top of itself. tures in the vicinity of a cave with Drenching is most effective during listed species, or that lie over the mid-morning, when the sun has subterranean extent of a cave with started to warm up the mound. At listed species, should be treated this time, the colony should be according to the above recommenda- located just under the upper crust on tions. The USFWS recognizes that the side of the mound facing the sun. there may be instances where more Do not in any way disturb the mound intensive treatment is needed. prior to treatment, since this causes Landowners and managers who the colony to take the queens to believe more intensive treatment is safety deep down in the mound or to necessary should contact the USFWS a satellite mound. before proceeding, since permits may For areas beyond 164 feet (50m) be required. from the cave opening, the USFWS More information concerning recommends treatment with boiling management to protect caves and water or small amounts of fire ant karst systems is available from the bait. Since commercial fire ant baits Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, such as Logic and Amdro may be U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or harmful if ingested by other arthro- Texas Cave Management Association. pods, they should be applied in a

Funds for the production of this leaflet were provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

Karst Invertebrates 2 Management Guidelines Appendix 1 The Endangered Species Process

The Listing Process and the public has 45 days to action “may affect” the listed To list a species, the U.S. Fish and request a public hearing. species. They may prepare a Wildlife Service follows a strict Within one year of publication biological assessment to help legal process to propose and later of a listing proposal, one of three make this determination. to adopt regulations that have the possible courses of action must be • If it is determined by the fed- effect of law. The USFWS publishes taken: eral agency or agent (and notices of review that identify U.S. 1) A final listing rule is pub- agreed upon by the USFWS) species considered as “candidates” lished; that the action would have no for listing. A priority system (based 2) If the available biological effect on the listed species, on degree and immediacy of threat information does not sup- then no further consultation is and taxonomic factors) has been port the listing, the pro- necessary. developed to direct efforts toward posal is withdrawn; or • If it is determined that the pro- plants and animals with the great- 3) If, at the end of one year, posed action may affect listed est need for protection. there is substantial dis- species, then the federal action By law, listing decisions must agreement within the scien- agency must initiate formal be based solely on the best avail- tific community concerning consultation with the USFWS. able biological data. Generally the the biological justification USFWS requires information on a of the listing, the proposal Formal Consultation Steps species distribution, biology and may be extended for a max- • The federal action agency initi- threats in order to make a listing imum of six months. After ates formal consultation with decision. that time, a decision must the USFWS in writing, and In addition to USFWS initiation be made on the basis of the includes a description of the of listing proposals, such actions best scientific information proposed action, the specific may also start as a recommendation available. area of the proposed action, or petition from individuals or If approved, the final listing any federally listed species organizations. Any person may sug- rule generally becomes effective that may be affected by the gest that a species be listed, but 30 days after publication in the action, how the proposed adequate information must be pre- Federal Register. After a species is action may affect the listed sented for the USFWS to make a listed, its status is reviewed at least species, and any other infor- positive listing decision. As part of every five years to determine if fed- mation available. the listing process, the USFWS must eral protection is still warranted. • The USFWS has up to 90 days decide if a species should be pro- to complete a biological opin- posed for listing as endangered or The Consultation ion on the effects of the action threatened. An endangered species Process on listed species. The purpose is one in danger of extinction Section 7 of the Endangered of the biological opinion is to throughout all or a significant por- Species Act requires that all federal determine whether or not the tion of its range. A threatened agencies consult with the USFWS project will jeopardize the con- species is one likely to become on endangered and threatened tinued existence of a listed endangered within the foreseeable species. This consultation require- species or adversely modify its future. ment involves all actions autho- critical habitat. Formal consul- Once a species has been cho- rized, funded, or carried out by tation concludes at the end of sen for possible listing, preproposal federal agencies. There are two cat- the 90 days, unless the consul- letters of inquiry are sent to species egories of consultations – informal tation period is extended by experts, federal and state agencies, and formal. mutual agreement with the fed- and other interested organizations eral action agency and the and individuals. If biological infor- Informal Consultation Steps USFWS. mation supports the decision to • Federal agency (or designated continue the listing process, a pro- agent) contacts the USFWS for The Recovery Process posed rule is then published in the a list of endangered or threat- Recovery is the process by which Federal Register. All interested par- ened species in the project the decline of an endangered or ties are encouraged to comment area and/or for information on threatened species is stopped or and provide additional information the species. reversed (and threats to its and submit statements at any public • Federal agency (or designated survival are removed so that its hearings that may be held. The agent) then makes a determina- long-term survival in nature can be comment period is usually 60 days, tion on whether the proposed assured). The primary goal of this

125 process is the maintenance of those that (if successful) are likely secure, self-sustaining wild to permit reclassification or delist- populations of species to the point ing of the species. These recovery where they no longer require the plans present an overview of recov- protection of the Endangered ery actions needed for a species Species Act. and associated cost estimates by all The steps in the USFWS’ recov- cooperating agencies. However, they ery program are: do not obligate any agency, entity, 1) Identify those ecosystems or persons to implement the vari- and organisms that face the ous tasks listed in the plan. They highest degree of threat. serve as a blueprint for private, fed- 2) Determine tasks necessary eral and state interagency coopera- to reduce or eliminate the tion in the implementation of threats. recovery actions. 3) Apply the resources avail- Coordination among federal, able to the highest recovery state, and local agencies; academic tasks. researchers; conservation organiza- 4) Reclassify and delist the tions; private individuals; and species as appropriate. major land users is perhaps the The first step in the recovery most essential ingredient for the process is the development of development and implementation of species-specific recovery goals and an effective recovery program. In the identification and ranking of its role as coordinator of the recov- species information and manage- ery process, the USFWS must ment needs in terms of their rela- emphasize cooperation and team- tive importance and timing for work among all involved parties. recovery. This information is usu- The recovery planning process ally set forth in a recovery plan for provides opportunities for public each listed species. participation, since commitments A recovery plan is a broad and partnerships from various seg- planning document that outlines ments of society are needed in the tasks that will contribute to the order for the process to succeed. recovery of the species, including

126 Appendix 2 State Listed Endangered and Threatened Species

Endangered Common Name Scientific Name American Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus anatum Atlantic Hawksbill Sea Turtle Erethmochelys imbricata imbricata Attwater’s Greater Prairie-Chicken Tympanuchus cupido attwateri Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus Big Bend Gambusia Gambusia gaigei Black Bear Ursus americanus Black Right Whale Eubalaena glacialis Black-capped Vireo Vireo atricapillus Black-footed Ferret Mustela nigripes Black-spotted Newt Notophthalmus meridionalis Blackfin Goby Gobionellus atripinnis Blanco Blind Salamander Eurycea robusta Blotched Gambusia Gambusia senilis Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus Bluntnose Shiner Notropis simus Brown Pelican Pelecanus occidentalis Chihuahuan Mud Turtle Kinosternon hirtipes murrayi Clear Creek Gambusia Gambusia heterochir Comal Springs Dryopid Beetle Stygoparnus comalensis Comal Springs Riffle Beetle Heterelmis comalensis Comanche Springs Pupfish Cyprinodon elegans Concho Water Snake Nerodia paucimaculata Eskimo Curlew Numenius borealis Finback Whale Balaenoptera physalus Fountain Darter Etheostoma fonticola Golden-cheeked Warbler Dendroica chrysoparia Gray Wolf Canis lupus Houston Toad Bufo houstonensis Interior Least Tern Sterna antillarum athalassos Ivory-billed Woodpecker Campephilus principalis Jaguar Panthera onca Jaguarundi Felis yaguarondi Jaguarundi Felis yaguarondi cacomitli Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle Lepidochelys kempii Leatherback Sea Turtle Dermochelys coriacea Leon Springs Pupfish Cyprinodon bovinus Lesser Siren (Rio Grande Population) Siren intermedia (Pop 1) Loggerhead Sea Turtle Caretta caretta Louisiana Black Bear Ursus americanus luteolus Louisiana Pine Snake Pituophis melanoleucus ruthveni Margay Felis wiedii Mexican Long-nosed Bat Leptonycteris nivalis Mexican Wolf Canis lupus baileyi Northern Aplomado Falcon Falco femoralis septentrionalis Northern Cat-eyed Snake Leptodeira septentrionalis septentrionalis Ocelot Leopardus pardalis Paddlefish Polyodon spathula Peck’s Cave Amphipod Stygobromus pecki Pecos Gambusia Gambusia nobilis Phantom Shiner Notropis orca

127 Common Name Scientific Name Red Wolf Canis rufus Red-cockaded Woodpecker Picoides borealis San Marcos Gambusia Gambusia georgei Shovelnose Sturgeon Scaphirhynchus platorynchus Smooth Green Snake Liochlorophis vernalis Speckled Racer Drymobius margaritiferus Sperm Whale Physeter macrocephalus Texas Blind Salamander Eurycea rathbuni West Indian Manatee Trichechus manatus White-lipped Frog Leptodactylus labialis White-nosed Coati Nasua narica Whooping Crane Grus americana

Threatened Common Name Scientific Name Alligator Snapping Turtle Macroclemys temminckii American Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides forficatus Arctic Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus tundrius Atlantic Spotted Dolphin Stenella frontalis Bachman’s Sparrow Aimophila aestivalis Big Bend Blackhead Snake Tantilla rubra Black-striped Snake Coniophanes imperialis Blackside Darter Percina maculata Blue Sucker Cycleptus elongatus Bluehead Shiner Notropis hubbsi Brazos Water Snake Nerodia harteri harteri Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl Glaucidium brasilianum cactorum Cascade Caverns Salamander Eurycea latitans Chihuahua Shiner Notropis chihuahua Comal Blind Salamander Eurycea tridentifera Common Black-Hawk Buteogallus anthracinus Conchos Pupfish Cyprinodon eximius Coues’ Rice Rat Oryzomys couesi aquaticus Creek Chubscuker Erimyzon oblongus Devils River Minnow Dionda diaboli Dwarf Sperm Whale Kogia simus False Killer Whale Pseudorca crassidens Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl Glaucidium brasilianum Gervais’ Beaked Whale Mesoplodon europaeus Goose-beaked Whale Ziphius cavirostris Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas Indigo Snake Drymarchon corais Killer Whale Orcinus orca Louisiana Black Bear Ursus americanus luteolus Mexican Burrowing Toad Rhinophrynus dorsalis Mexican Stoneroller Campostoma ornatum Mexican Treefrog Smilisca baudinii Mountain Short-horned Lizard Phrynosoma douglasi hernandesi Northern Beardless-Tyrannulet Camptostoma imberbe Northern Gray Hawk Buteo nitidus maximus Northern Scarlet Snake Cemophora coccinea copei Opossum Pipefish Microphis brachyurus Palo Duro Mouse Peromyscus truei comanche Pecos Pupfish Cyprinodon pecosensis Piping Plover Charadrius melodus Proserpine Shiner Cyprinella proserpina Pygmy Killer Whale Feresa attenuata

128 Common Name Scientific Name Pygmy Sperm Whale Kogia breviceps Rafinesque’s Big-eared Bat Corynorhinus (=Plecotus) rafinesquii Reddish Egret Egretta rufescens Reticulate Collared Lizard Crotaphytus reticulatus Reticulated Gecko Coleonyx reticulatus Rio Grande Chub Gila pandora Rio Grande Darter Etheostoma grahami River Goby Awaous tajasica Rose-throated Becard Pachyramphus aglaiae Rough-toothed Dolphin Steno bredanensis San Marcos Salamander Eurycea nana Sheep Frog Hypopachus variolosus Short-finned Pilot Whale Globicephala macrorhynchus Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata Southern Yellow Bat Lasiurus ega Spotted Bat Euderma maculatum Texas Botteri’s Sparrow Aimophila botterii texana Texas Horned Lizard Phrynosoma cornutum Texas Kangaroo Rat Dipodomys elator Texas Lyre Snake Trimorphodon biscutatus vilkinsoni Texas Scarlet Snake Cemophora coccinea lineri Texas Tortoise Gopherus berlandieri Timber Rattlesnake Crotalus horridus Toothless Blindcat Trogloglanis pattersoni Tropical Parula Parula pitiayumi nigrilora White-faced Ibis Plegadis chihi White-tailed Hawk Buteo albicaudatus Widemouth Blindcat Satan eurystomus Wood Stork Mycteria americana Zone-tailed Hawk Buteo albonotatus

129 Front cover photographs: Scenic of grassland near Van Horn, Texas: Glen Mills, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Attwater’s Prairie Chicken: Ben Brown Ocelot: Tom Smylie, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle: Bill Reaves, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department

Back cover photographs: Whooping Crane: Bill Reaves, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Fountain Darters: Glenn Longley, Southwest Texas State University Houston Toad: Glen Mills, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department

Project Coordinators: Lee Ann Johnson Linam and Patricia Morton

Endangered and Threatened Animals of Texas – Their Life History and Management was funded in part by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, under Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act.

PWD BK W7000-013