BETTER Practice in VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

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BETTER PRACTICE IN ARTS EDUCATION

VOLUME IV

BETTER practice in VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Karen Lee Carroll, EdD Maryland Institute College of Art

James L. Tucker, Jr. Series Editor

BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING THROUGH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BETTER PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Better Practice in Arts Education, Volume IV Building Effective Teaching Through Educational Research James L. Tucker, Jr. Series Editor Copyright © 2003 by the Maryland State Department of Education. All rights reserved. Published in 2007. Maryland State Department of Education 200 West Baltimore Street Baltimore, MD 21201-2595 Telephone: (410) 767-0352 or (410) 767-0100 Fax: (410) 333-1146 TTY/TDD: 410-333-6442 Web site: http://www.marylandpublicschools.org BETTER PRACTICE IN ARTS EDUCATION

VOLUME IV

BETTER practice in VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

MARYLAND STATE Karen Lee Carroll, EdD DEPARTMENT Maryland Institute College of Art OF EDUCATION James L. Tucker, Jr. Series Editor

BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING THROUGH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Maryland State Board of Education Edward L. Root, President Dunbar Brooks, Vice President Nancy S. Grasmick, Secretary/Treasurer Lelia T. Allen J. Henry Butta Beverly A. Cooper Calvin D. Disney Charlene M. Dukes Richard L. Goodall Karabelle Pizzigati Maria C. Torres-Queral David F. Tufaro Brian W. Frazee, Student Member

Maryland State Department of Education Nancy S. Grasmick, State Superintendent of Schools Ronald A. Peiffer, Deputy State Superintendent Office of Academic Policy A. Skipp Sanders, Deputy State Superintendent Office of Administration JoAnne L. Carter, Deputy State Superintendent Office of Instruction and Academic Acceleration Colleen Seremet, Assistant State Superintendent Division of Instruction Dixie Stack, Director of Curriculum Division of Instruction James L. Tucker, Jr., Coordinator of Fine Arts Division of Instruction

State of Maryland Martin O’Malley, Governor

The Maryland State Department of Education does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, sex, age, national origin, religion, disability, or sexual orientation in matters affecting employment or in providing access to programs. For inquiries related to departmental policies, contact the Equity Assurance and Compliance Office.

ii BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION FOREWORD

The State of Maryland is gaining increased recognition nationally for its education reform initiatives and its commitment to high standards of accountability in education. It further recognizes the need for high quality arts education as an essential part of our children’s education. In 1989, after a decade of requiring experiences in dance, music, theatre, and the visual arts for all students in grades K-8, Maryland became one of the first states to require that students earn a credit in the fine arts to receive the Maryland High School Diploma. Maryland’s reform initiatives have traditionally focused on envisioning what students should know and be able to do, providing resources and enhancing instructional practice, and documenting student learning. This particular project focuses on informing instructional practice.

In 1995, the Maryland State Board of Education adopted a goal that 100 percent of Maryland’s students will participate in fine arts programs that enable them to meet the content and achievement standards established by State standards for the arts. By 1997, K-12 standards for dance, music, theatre, and visual arts education, developed by a 38 member task force, were approved by the State Board. The following year Project BETTER was initiated to develop a resource tool that would inform instructional practice in each of the art forms.

The concept for Project BETTER – Building Effective Teaching Through Educational Research – was created by the Division of Instruction of the Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE) during the late 1980s as part of its mission to promote effective instruction. The development of the four volume publication for the current project was guided by the same three major objectives: 1) to identify current research on effective instruction, 2) to synthesize this research in the form of non-theoretical summaries, and 3) to deliver this information directly to practitioners.

The information in this publication is designed as a resource to assist teachers in expanding and refining their repertoire of teaching strategies and to guide instructional planning and decision-making that supports student achievement of State standards in the arts. It is not intended to prescribe a particular style of teaching or one “best” method. This resource provides a guide to teachers as they consider their curriculum objectives, the nature and needs of their students, their personal style of teaching, and their available instructional resources. The application of this knowledge will result in more effective teaching and more powerful learning.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION iii INTRODUCTION

Introduction

BETTER Visual Arts Education was initially written by Marilyn Price for the Maryland State Department of Education and published in 1991. This revised version was com- missioned a decade later with the goal of supporting the Maryland Essential Learner Outcomes in Art. It is restructured to feature entries that have particular relevance to these outcomes. All entries have been revised, consolidated and/or edited, or replaced to reflect contemporary developments in the practice and literature of art education.

Structural changes in the revised edition of Better Visual Arts Education reflect this author’s interest in embracing practice while qualifying what counts as research. Practice, as it is developed in the classroom by real teachers with real learners, provides a picture into the possibilities of teaching often accompanied by descriptive information and examples of student work. These accounts are reported through a number of avenues including magazines designed for teacher-to-teacher exchanges of ideas, presentations at state and national conferences, pre- and in-service training, and within the context of study groups of teachers. Beyond their initial value of illustrating “what works in practice,” these reports may also inform theory. Possibilities for better practice are also provided in many texts. Here models are provided, usually accompanied by examples.

All sources are included in the citations, divided into different kinds of sources and accompanied by an annotation. The annotations offer expanded information and so should be read as part of the whole text. References are identified that provide conceptual or theoretical background. Research highlights selected studies published in the field’s juried journals and/or reported at conferences. Reports from Practice provide a sampling of articles found in journals and magazines as well as teacher presentations. Models for Practice list selected resources found in texts and articles.

In organizing this report to support the Maryland Essential Learner Outcomes (ELOs), an effort was made to show how making art and critical response feed each other. Consistent with the ELOs, where the structure of outcomes cycles from one modality of inquiry to

iv BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION another, sets of entries are organized here to reflect the rich connections between the two. While Outcomes I and III are focused primarily on making art, Outcomes II and IV have critical response as their focus. Yet each of the outcome sections cycles back to the other mode of inquiry. Metaphorically, one might picture this interrelationship as similar to the spiraling and interlocking structure of DNA. Each outcome section also has its own developmental structure, moving increasingly toward higher levels of inquiry, application, synthesis, and reflection. These somewhat sequential structures are intended to help teachers identify a logical path for instruction, moving up from basic and initial encounters as more sophisticated skills and complex concepts are mastered.

Certain entries that have general or broad applicability are presented first in the section called Better General Practice in Visual Arts Education. Additional entries relevant to each of the four different, yet interrelated, sets of outcomes are presented in separate sections:

I Developing a Repertoire of Skills for Visual Perception and Artistic Response II Facilitating Investigations into Historical, Cultural, and Social Context III Facilitating Engagement with the Art-Making Process IV Facilitating Critical and Aesthetic Inquiry.

The goal of this publication is to identify a selection of better practices in visual arts education that may prove useful to art teachers in their efforts to shape teaching in response to the state’s desired outcomes. The selected practices are referenced to current literature in art education and related fields. Sources analyzed in the process of constructing this document include dissertation studies in art education since 1991, research articles reported in Studies in Art Education, the Journal of Aesthetic Education, and Visual Arts Research. Additional articles are also referenced including those identified through ERIC searches, cited in other studies, and published in Art Education and School Arts Magazine. Where appropriate, presentations from national and state conferences as well as pre-service and professional development, research studies conducted at the master’s level, and the findings of study groups have also been included. A special effort has been made to include contributions by Maryland art educators.

Some observations about the state of research in art education can be made as a result of this investigation. First of all, large-scale research is almost nonexistent, and where it exists, it is focused on how art affects learning in other content areas. Research directly related to practice is also a rare exception at the doctoral level. Here, the bulk of the research focuses on history, theory, philosophy, developmental issues, and other questions that have arisen out of practice. While such research may have implications for practice,

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION v INTRODUCTION

it is the exception to report findings that critically evaluate the outcomes of practice. When a practice is reported, it is more likely to have been tested at the college level with elementary education majors or pre-service art education students than in the context of K-12 schooling.

Investigations focused on practice are much more common at the master’s level. In general, research at either the master’s or doctoral level involves small-scale investigations. Case studies are usually limited to a handful of subjects, sometimes as few as one. Where groups of students are involved in a pilot treatment, studies tend to focus on one or two classes with fewer than a total of 40 participants. While some case studies are more longitudinal, most interventions are typically treatments lasting only a few weeks or so. A control group is rarely included. As well, the researcher is often an observer-participant in the study. Additionally, researchers may be reporting on their own practice. Altogether, these studies are typically idiosyncratic, isolated, unduplicated in another setting, infrequently reported in juried publications, and scattered across a broad landscape of issues. Thus it is difficult to stake claims based on such research.

In preparing this document, there is no claim that this search has been exhaustive. In truth, it could have gone on forever as new—and sometimes old—material (re)surfaced. Instead, predictable sources primarily within the field of art education have been reviewed. As such, this document represents a form of meta-research with the goal of unearthing a pattern of findings from a variety of sources and levels of the profession that appear to suggest how better practice in visual arts education might look. In other words, a practice was viewed as gaining credibility the more it was modeled, reported, and situated within a context. Using editorial prerogative, some practices have also been added because they are taken to be particularly worthwhile, even if research and reporting have not as yet validated them in concrete reports.

It is hoped that this document will be useful to teachers who, in planning and preparing to teach, would like an update on theory and practice with ideas of where to look for further information. Scanning the table of contents can help them find relevant entries. Rather than a book for cover-to-cover reading, it can function as a resource to be used as need arises. It should, however, make it clear that there is a wealth of information that can be tapped and that there are others working to understand and better shape practice.

As a “picture” of better practice, teachers interested in reporting their own practices or conducting research may be able to get a sense of what’s missing, misinterpreted, under- reported, and/or waiting to be researched. Those who see gaps (of which there are many)

vi BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION or find differences with what is reported here are encouraged to take on the challenge of sharing those insights through one or more of the avenues available in the field.

Those engaged in conducting research at any level of the field will notice that different people focus on different aspects of theory and practice. One can begin to get a broad picture of the field, the connections among voices speaking to certain issues, and the efforts of those puzzling through the problems of translating theory into practice. Teachers may also recognize how their own visceral practice fits within a larger context of theory and philosophy. They are especially encouraged to think about how practice might inform theory.

Certainly, practice, theory, and philosophy in visual arts education will continue to evolve. It is hoped that a third revision in another decade will reflect a concerted effort to build a stronger base for practice. Meanwhile, the contributions of many fine art educators are reflected in the contents of this report. The literature is rich with ideas, a passion for the teaching of art, and an ambitious agenda for art education. I acknowledge the special privilege I have had in working with inspired art teachers for the past 30 years, many of whom teach in the state of Maryland. In preparing this document, I am indebt- ed to them all. I hope that this report will help us see the whole of practice in a new light.

Karen Lee Carroll, EdD Maryland Institute College of Art 2003

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION vii viii BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Jay Tucker and the Maryland State Department of Education for inviting me to write this piece. With the generous support of a sabbatical from the Maryland Institute College of Art, I was able to get this project started. Near the completion, it benefited from the excellent editing of Cynthia I. Leitner.

This task set me on a mission to examine more carefully the work being done in the field of art education. I have been impressed with the range of our interests, our passion for the profession, and the quality of our writing. I have enjoyed getting to know many new writers as well as taking a closer look at those I have encountered before. I have held in my mind’s eye the many wonderful teachers with whom I have had the good fortune to know. Hopefully, many will recognize their voices in this document and feel I have given them appropriate recognition. I hope as well to have represented the ideas of others in an accurate manner and apologize to those I have not included. This is a project that could have gone on forever, and in fact, reached a point where I just had to stop. I hope it will be adapted to an interactive media so that additions can be made as practice and research continues to unfold. I give special thanks to my good colleagues and students who have encouraged and inspired me in this effort. It is dedicated to all those struggling to make the teaching of art an art form in itself.

Karen Lee Carroll Baltimore, 2003

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION ix TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents

Forword iii

Introduction iv

Better General Practice for Visual Arts Education

Attending to the Learner 2

Integrating Creative Expression with Critical Response 10

Designing Reflective and Holistic Instruction 14

Approaching Art from a Transcultural Perspective 18

Planning Instruction with Assessment and Reflection in Mind 24

Using Language to Support Inquiry-Based Learning 30

Developing Language Acquisition and Conceptual Development through Art 34

Enriching Art Content through Reading 38

Creating a Mutually Supportive Relationship between Art and Writing 42

Identifying Highly Able Students in the Visual Arts 48

Shaping Learning Experiences for Highly Able Students 52

Creating Supportive Conditions for Students with Special Needs 58

Shaping Learning Experiences for Students with Special Needs 62

Outcome I: Developing a Repertoire of Skills for Visual Perception and Artistic Response

Drawing on Imagination, Memory, and Experience 68

Tapping the Narrative Impulse 70

Working from Observation 74

Developing an Expanded Vocabulary for Visual Form 78

Expanding the Repertoire for Visual Perception and Artistic Response 82

Reflecting on Perceiving and Responding Visually 88

x BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Outcome II: Facilitating Investigations into Historical, Cultural, and Social Context

Constructing Art Historical Context 92

Studying Objects and Material Culture 96

Examining Visual Culture 100

Making Interdisciplinary Connections 104

Creating Art in Response to Contemporary Issues and Concerns 110

Outcome III: Facilitating Engagement with the Art-Making Process

Investigating Materials and Ideas 116

Structuring for Creative Thinking 120

Forming Elegant Problems 126

Designing Problems Based on the Real World of Work 130

Facilitating Dialogue and Discourse about Student Work 134

Outcome IV: Facilitating Critical and Aesthetic Inquiry

Engaging Students with Art Objects 140

Orchestrating Conversations about Art 144

Employing Storytelling and Puzzle Problems 150

Using Interpretive Strategies to Find Meaning 152

Promoting Critical Thinking through Problem-Based Inquiry 156

Facilitating Student-Curated Exhibitions 160

Using Models for Writing about Art 164

Making Art Inspired by the Study of Art 166

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION xi BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Better General Practice in Visual Arts Education

Attending to the Learner

Integrating Creative Expression with Critical Response

Designing Reflective and Holistic Instruction

Approaching Art from a Transcultural Perspective

Planning Instruction with Assessment and Reflection in Mind

Using Language to Support Inquiry-Based Learning

Developing Language Acquisition and Conceptual Development through Art

Enriching Art Content through Reading

Creating a Mutually Supportive Relationship between Art and Writing

Identifying Highly Able Students in the Visual Arts

Shaping Learning Experiences for Highly Able Students

Creating Supportive Conditions for Students with Special Needs

Shaping Learning Experiences for Students with Special Needs

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 1 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Attending to the Learner

THEORY Human growth and development represent a complex and multidimensional proposition. Human nature manifests itself in certain propensities and facilities, some of which are universal and others particular. The realization of each human’s potential is affected by behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and values experienced over time in relationships with family, community, culture, and most certainly education BETTER PRACTICE (Newton & Kantner, 1997). Apparent dimensions may have Teachers who attend to the an impact on artistic development, including biological developmental, contextual, and unfolding, cultural influences, development of mastery, and curricular needs of students, as well as personal predisposition (Wilson & Wilson, 1979; McGregor, their readiness for new learning, can 1997). Others claim that perceptual and cognitive growth make informed and productive have much to do with the course of development (Arnheim, instructional choices. 1997; Parsons, 1987; Reith, 1997). Brain research suggests that the emotions play a significant role in development (Sylwester, 1995; Goleman, 1995; Rettig & Rettig, 1999). Different metaphors have been used as well. Some liken development to a map (Kindler & Darras, 1997), while others see it as a river traveling in a direction over time (McGregor, 1997).

In attending to learners, certain theories shed light on what might be developmentally appropriate and personally relevant at different points. In its broadest sense, developmental theory concerns patterns in growth commonly experienced by human beings. In contrast, differential theory acknowledges general and specific characteristics that distinguish growth patterns of certain groups and individuals. Contemporary developmental theory accommodates notions of diverse paths to maturation and multiple endpoints (Wolf & Perry, 1988; Kindler, 1997). While developmental theory helps identify the promises of human potential (Wolf, 1988), research makes it clear that instruction has an important role to play in its realization (Parsons, 1987; Graham, 2001). Likewise, instruction is colored by artistic preferences, aesthetic theories, and notions about art and development held by those who teach art (Wilson, 1997).

2 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION DEVELOPMENTAL tion needed to identify the proximal zone of development for THEORY: FROM NATURE individual students and/or whole classes. With that zone in TO NURTURE mind, developmentally appropriate practice can be designed. While tasks that are too easy lead to boredom, those that are Patterns have been identified for several dimensions of human too hard will result in frustration. Tasks that are relevant and growth including cognitive (Piaget), psychological (Erickson), meaningful, as well as sufficiently challenging to engage the and moral (Kohlberg) development. Developmental theory learner, are likely to have the greatest value. “maintains that children reach maturity through predictable and sequential stages of growth and development” (Baker, 1984, p. Developmental sequences and patterns found in creative expres- 116). Further, learning at one stage is seen as critical in laying sion and critical response include the following findings: the foundation for the next stage. Developmental theory is loosely related to age yet maturation becomes increasingly The Development of Graphic Representation dependent on other factors as years accrue, including cognitive development, culture, and education. Developmental theory Early representational efforts can be thought of as involving at provides a guide for recognizing and anticipating typical and least four different types of problem solving. They include the atypical patterns in behaviors and achievements within a devel- development of (1) a repertoire of marks, lines, and shapes; (2) opmental framework. a structure for a schema or an equivalent for a variety of subject matter; (3) the depiction of detail; and (4) the organiza- The normal course of development related to graphic repre- tion of the picture plane (Carroll, 2001). sentation is well documented and researched (Lowenfeld, 1957; Kellogg, 1969; Goodnow, 1977; Gardner, 1980; Early representational efforts are intimately connected with the Golomb, 1992). However, it should be noted that assump- development of story and verbal language. Narrative intent tions about the course of graphic development are primarily remains a strong motivation, throughout the grades, for draw- based on drawing done from memory and imagination. How ing and image making (Gardner, 1980; Olson, 1992). the course of development is affected by other drawing strategies, such as working from observation, is less well reported in All children appear to begin to draw in a similar fashion. the literature. While somewhat tied to age (Willats, 1977), Drawing development appears to be pulled forward by the graphic development also appears to depend on opportunity, possibilities of representation (Golomb, 1992). pedagogy, models, and practice (Gardner, 1980; Smith, 1999; Graham, 2001). The course of development related to spatial It also appears that the development of graphic representation, representation is less well documented but suggests some par- except perhaps in the case of those who have exceptional inter- allels to graphic development (Golomb, 1974, 1997). est and ability, does not necessarily evolve on its own Developmental sequences have been identified for aesthetic (Golomb, 1992). responses that seem related to cognitive development yet dependent on knowledge base, strategies employed, and/or Learning to draw involves learning to master the conventions learner’s disposition (Koroscik, 1997; Parsons et al., 1978; of a visual language (Golomb, 1992). Parsons, 1987; Wolf, 1988). The development of drawing and representational skills Learning preferences or styles may play a significant role in appears to be cyclical in nature, moving to and from levels of learning. Exceptions to the normal course of development or mastery. As the need arises to express more sophisticated ideas instances of uneven development can occur with those who and images, the quality of representation may regress or experience various kinds of challenges or disabilities. decline until more advanced conventions are mastered (Baker, Exceptions are also evident among those who are develop- 1986; Wilson, 1997). mentally advanced and highly able in one or more areas. For more information on these two exceptionalities, see entries Simultaneous development of different drawing strategies, related to students with special needs and the highly able. including working from memory and imagination, from observation, and from works of art and popular sources, is evi- The “zone of proximal development” refers to the difference dent in the early works of major artists (Duncum, 1984; between what students can do on their own and what they can Pariser, 1985; Carroll, 1994). do with the benefit of instruction (Vygotsky, 1986). Thus, gathering evidence that reveals current levels of student per- Observational drawing can begin as early as kindergarten and formance and mastery and comparing it to possible levels of can be cultivated throughout the grades (Colbert & Taunton, performance predicted developmentally can provide informa- 1988; Smith et al., 1997).

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 3 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

The adolescent crisis refers to that point in drawing development where the need to achieve a reasonable likeness becomes a critical passage in artistic empowerment. It signals a readiness for the techniques of representational drawing. If the need goes unaddressed, interest and enthusiasm for drawing usually come to a standstill. However, if it is met with appropriate instructional interventions, it can mark the transition to more sophisticated, powerful, and creative modes of visual thought and expression (Lowenfeld, 1957; Edwards, 1989; Graham, 2001).

The Development of Three-Dimensional and Developmental theory provides a guide Spatial-Kinesthetic Representation for recognizing and anticipating typical Three-dimensional representation involves problem solving similar to that of two-dimensional representation. It requires learning conventions of a visual and spatial language as well as and atypical patterns mastery of three-dimensional media. For example, it involves developing a repertoire of shapes and textures, creating struc- in behaviors and achievements within tures and forms with a medium, finding ways to depict details, and organizing a three-dimensional space (Golomb, 1974; a developmental framework. Gardner, 1980; Carroll & Rastegar, in progress).

Children become representational in clay about the age of 5 and exhibit some understanding of the third dimension in attending to volume, upright stances, and multiple sides. “Children seem to approach modeling with an incipiently three-dimensional conception that becomes gradually refined and differentiated, provided the child is exposed to this medium and experiments with various tasks and possibilities” (Golomb, 1997, p. 139).

Some forms of representation are efforts to deal with action, interaction, and events played out in time. Different media and strategies are needed, such as diagrams, maps, visual records of movement, and documentation of gestures (Kindler, 1999).

The Development of Critical and Aesthetic Response

The ability to observe and inquire about images proceeds in a developmental fashion. From ages 4 to 7, children develop strong picture-reading skills and can form interpretations based on an event and knowledge of a scene. As well, they can pursue a long chain of questions about visual phenomena that puzzle them and make decisions about what they like. Inquiries are frequently limited to images as they are rather than how they might be (Wolf, 1988; Yenawine, n.d.).

From ages 8 to 12, students are capable of understanding visual systems. As observers, they can understand concepts of rendition and version (style, genre) and develop a pictorial attitude for looking at how a picture is made, not simply what it represents (Wolf, 1988).

4 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION From 13 to 18, students are capable of understanding artistic content in planning a comprehensive curriculum. Develop a choices and can think more abstractly, reason about ideas and repertoire of representational and thinking skills that will sup- principles, and identify how particular forms, materials, and port more advanced experiences later on. Develop a dialogue techniques suggest meaning. They are able to make the dis- with feeder schools about expectations, issues, and concerns. tinction between technical and expressive skills and can use Consider thinking developmentally about the elementary, artistic intention and message as criteria for judging artworks. middle, and high school levels as opportunities for familiariza- Students can begin to distinguish between what they like and tion, expansion, and application (McGregor, 1997). Initiate what is good art (Wolf, 1988; Yenawine, n.d.). opportunities for older students to work with younger ones.

While even young children can be taught behaviors for recog- Maintain a dialogue with peers, sharing observations about nizing and categorizing artworks by such cues as style, cogni- student performance. Be an advocate for those students who tive understanding of art appears to be tied to cognitive devel- appear to be visual, spatial, and/or kinesthetic learners. opment. Parsons (1987) identifies five stages somewhat parallel to Kohlberg’s six stages of moral development. In each of Envision yourself as a mediator between the world of the the five stages, one central aspect reflects significant change. learner and the world of art in search of ways to bring those The five stages reflect, developmentally, how works of art are two worlds together in a meaningful way. understood as aesthetic objects. “Aesthetic development consists precisely in the gradual acquisition of…insights” (p. 27). Acknowledge the responsibility involved in determining what At each stage, certain criteria dominate. Stage 1: favoritism; art is encountered, how it is experienced, and what options for Stage 2: beauty and realism; Stage 3: expressiveness; Stage 4: art making are available. Be conscious of your own artistic style and form; and Stage 5: autonomy. According to Parsons, preferences and aesthetic theories that inform and shape your reaching maturation requires an education in which works of instructional choices and how the work of students is assessed art are encountered often and thought about seriously. (Wilson, 1997).

Recommendations Monitor your own teaching: Why should students be interested in doing what I have proposed? Where did these ideas Get to know who your students are, their abilities and interests, come from? What about this makes this a valuable use of concerns and issues, hopes and dreams. Use conversations, sur- instructional time? Are the tasks developmentally appropriate? veys, pre-tests or works of record, ongoing assessment and reflec- Are they meaningful and engaging? Am I providing enough tion, and open dialogue to develop an understanding of how art instruction and guidance? Are there opportunities here for experiences can serve their needs. Invite students to bring to deep learning? Is there room for personal expression? class spontaneous art done at home, collections they have assem- bled, artifacts that interest them, and information about their activities outside of school. Pay attention to the larger culture that learners experience on a daily basis. Allow students to have a voice in shaping the art agenda for the year. Encourage students to identify their own goals.

Get to know the community in which your students live and attend school. Involve students in helping you discover their heritage, cultural traditions, and values. Research community resources including after-school programs, artists, and arts organizations. Inquire about special school or community- based issues or projects.

Get to know the larger curriculum of the school. Invite colleagues into a dialogue about the role art can play in helping to expand, extend, and enhance learning across disciplinary boarders. Look for conceptual connections, themes, and other ways to connect with the broader learning agenda of the school. Provide others with information about the art program and its objectives.

Think developmentally about materials, processes, and art

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 5 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

REFERENCES dynamic visual-spatial repertories useful in portraying action, interaction, and events over time. Suggests that representational strategies should be expanded Arnheim, R. (1997). A look at a century of growth. In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), beyond static representations of objects. Child development in art, pp. 9-16. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Lowenfeld, V. (1957). Creative and mental growth, 3rd ed. New York: Arnheim revisits the development of ideas that shaped his work including the Macmillan. notion of thinking about children’s representations as “equivalents,” child art as The last of Lowenfeld’s solo editions, this text illustrates various stages of inseparable from good human functioning, and the relationship between percep- drawing development through examples, charts, and discussions. Lowenfeld tion and thinking. examines development from a number of points of view, including intellectual, emotional, social, perceptual, physical, and aesthetic. Baker, D. W. (1984). Rousseau’s children: An historical analysis of the romantic paradigm in art education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania McGregor, R. N. (1997). Development and practice: What can the literature State University. Available from University Microfilms International, # 3592. tell the teacher? In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. 183- Included in this study regarding the ascendancy of a child-centered philosophy 192). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. in art education is an account of the development of drawing pedagogy based A number of questions are revisited in this reflective essay, including notions on developmental theory. about what students are capable of achieving, what circumstances permit movement in desired directions, and how facilitative learning experiences may Baker, D. W. (1986). Lectures at Teachers College, Columbia University. be devised. Baker argues that development moves to and from levels of mastery. When ideas outpace drawing conventions, a period of exploration sets in. Drawing Rousseau, J. J. (1956). Trans. W. Boyd. The Emile of Jean Jacques Rousseau: instruction can facilitate higher levels of mastery, offsetting what some regard Selections. New York: Teachers College Press. First published in 1762. as the decline of drawing development. Rousseau’s fictional story of Emile’s and Sophie’s education set forth the prem- ises of developmental theory in 1762. It took a hundred years for Pestalozzi Burton, J. (2001). Lowenfeld: An(other) look. Art Education, 54 (6), 33-42. and Froebel to translate his theory into pedagogy and until the 20th century for Burton builds upon Lowenfeld’s work to offer a theory of artistic development. the field of developmental psychology to fully develop and test the theory in She argues that “It is through finding their own visual voices that youngsters research. Meanwhile, Rousseau envisioned fairly accurately the stages of can acquire the kind of knowledge they will need to interpret the intentions of development and described an education that emphasized learning through the others, to speak, challenge, critique, and give form and existence to new possi- senses and included an emphasis on drawing. bilities of being in the world” (p. 42).

Gardner, H. (1980). Artful scribbles. New York: Basic Books. Sylwester, R. (1995). A celebration of neurons: An educator’s guide to the As a developmental psychologist, Gardner explores the development of drawing human brain. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum from first scribbles through adolescence, examining the drawing behaviors and Development. products of his own children and others as well as the reports from other Book explores the organization of the brain; its interaction with the outside envi- sources. He raises questions regarding factors that shape the course of graphic ronment; how it determines what is important; how the brain learns, remembers, representation. and forgets; how it solves problems, and how it adapts itself to the environment.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Wolf, D. P. (1988). The growth of three aesthetic stances: What developmental Book covers the emotional brain, the nature of emotional intelligence, how it is psychology suggests about discipline-based art education. In Seminar applied, windows of opportunity for its development, and emotional literacy. Proceedings: Issues in Discipline-Based Art Education (pp. 85-100). Los Makes the case that the arts have a great deal to offer to the development of Angeles: Getty Center for Education in the Arts. emotional intelligence. This paper outlines three aesthetic stances—maker, observer, and inquirer— from ages 4 to 18. Wolf also observes that developmental studies suggest pos- Kerlavage, M. (1997). Understanding the learner. In J. Simpson, J. Delaney, K. sibilities and/or necessities for learning more than absolute sequences. L. Carroll, C. M. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. S. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, Creating meaning through art: Teacher as choice maker (pp. 23-72). Upper Saddle RESEARCH River, NJ: Merrill. This chapter reviews developmental stages from early childhood through adoles- Brown, E. V. (1984). Developmental characteristics of clay figures made by cence. Identifies the relationship between drawing development and cognitive, children: 1970-1981. Studies in Art Education, 26 (1), 56-60. emotional, moral, social, language, physical/perceptual, and aesthetic develop- Article reports a 1981 replication of a 1970 descriptive and correlational study ment. Includes a discussion of how contextual influences affect development and of clay figures made by 496 children 5 to 11 years old. Findings comparable to why a holistic conception of development is relevant to art education. the initial study in terms of the additive method of construction and amount of detail used. Kindler, A. M. (Ed.) (1997). Child development in art. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Carroll, K. (1994). Artistic beginnings: The work of young Edvard Munch. An anthology of current writing on child development. Collection includes Studies in Art Education, 36 (1), 7-17. essays by Arnheim, Kindler and Darras, Davis, Reith, Wilson, Freedman, Analysis of 500 works housed in the Munch Museum in Oslo that reveal repre- Duncum, Pariser, Golomb, Koroscik, Newton and Kantner, and McGregor. As an sentational strategies developed from the age of 11 to 21. update on contemporary thinking about development, this anthology suggests that it continues to be a fascinating topic and more complex than it was taken Carroll, K. (2001). Unpublished report on the Goals 2000 Grant: Developing to be 50 or 100 years ago. reading and writing readiness through the visual arts. Prepared for the Maryland State Department of Education. Kindler, A. M. (1999). “From endpoints to repertoires?”: A challenge to art education. Studies in Art Education, 40 (4), 330-349. Carroll, K., & Rastegar, M. (in progress). The emergence of three-dimensional Questions what a repertoire of representational strategies might entail. Uses ability in kindergarten. Unpublished paper available from the Center for Art drawings by a sports-minded (spatial, kinesthetic) child to illustrate a variety of Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art.

6 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Colbert, C. B., & Taunton, M. (1988). Problems of representation: Preschool Kellogg, R. (1969). Analyzing children’s art. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co. and third grade children’s observational drawings of a three dimensional model. Reports patterns in graphic representation emerging during early childhood Studies in Art Education, 29 (2), 103-114. based on the analysis of more than one million drawings collected in the San Reports discovery that the traditional stage theory is inadequate for explaining Francisco area from day care centers and kindergartens. Well illustrated with the performance of students on observational drawing tasks. examples.

Duncum, P. (1984). How 35 children, born between 1724 and 1900, learned to Koroscik, J. S. (1997). What potential do young people have for understanding draw. Studies in Art Education, 26 (1), 93-102. works of art? In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. 143-164). Study reveals that multiple strategies were used in learning to draw and among Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. them the most common was copying. Others included working from observa- Article describes a three-part framework for studying children’s understanding tion, imagination, and memory. of artworks. By focusing on misunderstandings, it is possible to ascertain insights about the learner’s knowledge base, the strategies that were used in Duncum, P. (1997). Subjects and themes in children’s unsolicited drawings interpreting works of art, and the learner’s disposition. Students’ interest in and gender socialization. In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. search strategies and transfer is discussed. Koroscik also draws upon novice- 107-114). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. expert studies in assessing understanding. Analyzing reports of themes in studies of children’s drawings representing the span of a century and representation from several Western countries, Duncum Newton, C., & Kantner, L. (1997). Cross-cultural research in aesthetic devel- reports “a remarkable consistency of subject preference, gender differences, and opment: A review. In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. 165- thematic concerns” (p. 107). 182). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Article offers reviews of several studies of aesthetic development drawn from Golomb, C. (1974). Young children’s sculpture and drawing: A study in rep- cross-cultural studies. The relationship to culture is considered from different resentational development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. points of view: interpretation of space in two-dimensional imagery, aesthetic An investigation into the development of three-dimensional representation, sensitivity, and aesthetic preferences. While these studies offer certain including the human figure with clay. Study reveals a pattern similar to that insights, very few have been concerned with developmental changes in aesthet- found in graphic development yet specific to the problems of working with ic responses. More study is needed. three-dimensional media. Olson, J. (1992). Envisioning writing: Toward the integration of drawing and Golomb, C. (1992). The child’s creation of a pictorial world. Berkeley, CA: writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. University of California Press. Reports a methodology for teaching narrative drawing implemented, K-8, in a A comprehensive review of existing research plus additional reports of research Brookline school. Discusses the relationship between the development of writ- studies conducted by the author exploring the manner in which drawing devel- ing and the development of drawing. ops during the early years. A well-illustrated book with specific examples of drawing prompts and responses by children. Also addresses exceptionalities Pariser, D. (1985). The juvenalia of Klee, Toulouse-Lautrec, and Picasso: A from the norm. report on the initial stages of research in the development of exceptional graphic artistry. In the proceedings of The History of Art Education, (pp. 192-202). Golomb, C. (1997). Representational concepts in clay: The development of State College, PA: The Pennsylvania State University. sculpture. In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. 131-141). An in-depth analysis of the early work of these three artists based on the study Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. of collections containing work from childhood and youth prior to the age of 21. Article frames the discussion of findings from a study in clay figuration with Report includes findings related to the young artists’ choices of themes, media, young children with observations about attention given drawing and subsequent styles of representation, and subject matter supplemented by contextual infor- lack of attention given three-dimensional developments. The study involved mation on their families and formative art-making experiences. eight tasks with children from ages 4 to 13. A recommendation for studies that consider representation in both drawing and modeling might provide a more Pariser, D. (1997). Graphic development in artistically exceptional children. In comprehensive account of both. A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. 115-130). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Goodnow, J. (1977). Children drawing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. An examination of aspects of graphic development focusing on three categories Begins with the question “Why study children’s drawings?” and proceeds to of exceptional children: child artists with neurological or psychological prob- examine drawings as patterns, sequence in children’s drawings, copying simple lems, children who demonstrated a surprising ability at an early age, and chil- shapes, developing conventional equivalents, and moving from old to new equiva- dren who were destined for significant artistic recognition. Csikszentmihalyi’s lents. Well illustrated with sample drawings gathered from research studies. systems model of creativity is used to frame the examination. Pariser concludes by identifying characteristics of graphic productions common to artisti- Graham, M. A. (2001). A case study of adolescent artistic development in a cally gifted children. discipline-based art education classroom. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College. Parsons, M. J. (1987). How we understand art: A cognitive developmental A qualitative case study suggesting that the abandonment of visual artistry account of aesthetic experience. New York: Cambridge University Press. among adolescents may be partly due to the neglect of instruction leading to the Book begins with a discussion of developmental theory and its relationship to development of representational strategies. how an understanding of art might progress from dependence to autonomy. Based on 10 years of interviews with subjects of all ages, Parsons reviews the Kindler, A. M., & Darras, B. (1997). Map of artistic development. In A. M. manner in which cognitive understanding appears to develop. Following an Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. 17-44). Reston, VA: National Art overview of the stages, a chapter each is devoted to examining development Education Association. related to understanding: The Subject, Expression, The Medium, Form and A theoretical model based on semiotic and sociocultural foundations and a Style, and Judgment. philosophical perspective. Introduces new language and ways of mapping ideas about artistic growth and development. Reith, E. (1997). Drawing development: The child’s understanding of the dual reality of pictorial representations. In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 7 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

art (pp. 59-80). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE The “naïve theory” from psychology is applied to the study of pictorial representations. Naïve theory assumes that mental models govern conceptual chil- Burton, J. (1980, September). Beginnings of artistic language. School Arts, pp. dren’s understanding. Naïve theory appears adequate in explaining develop- 6-12. ments in children’s drawings as well as their work in other media and in understanding works of art. Burton, J. (1980, October). First symbols. School Arts, pp. 60-65.

Thompson, P. I. (2001). Visual images that are significant to four early adolescent Burton, J. (1980, November). Visual events. School Arts, pp. 58-64. urban learners: An analysis of their selected photographs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. DAI, 62, n. 03A, p. 882. Burton, J. (1980, December). Representing experience from imagination and Study involved four middle school subjects invited to document visual experi- observation. School Arts, pp. 26-30. ences they considered important. Study suggests that their experiences provide important contextual information, including how they see the world and the Burton, J. (1981, January). Representing experiences: Ideas in search of meanings they find in their visual experiences. forms. School Arts, pp. 58-64.

Willats, J. (1977). How children learn to draw realistic pictures. Quarterly Burton, J. (1981, February). With three dimensions in view. School Arts, pp. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 367-682. 76-80. Children of different ages, 6 and up, were asked to draw a table set with In this series entitled “Developing Minds,” Burton provides a developmental objects. Willats divided the work into six groups, each suggesting yet another model but does not label stages. Rather, her descriptions provide an insight step in the process of creating an illusion to the third dimension using the con- into essential learning about the developing relationship between ideas, conventions of Western perspective. He concluded that progress was, in part, cepts, and materials. Descriptions are accompanied by scripts that illustrate a developmental and, in part, familiarity with graphic models for solving the prob- dialogue between the teacher and groups of learners that range from preschool lems of perspective. children through young adolescents.

Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1979). Figure structure, figure action, and framing in Edwards, B. (1989). Drawing on the right side of the brain. Los Angeles: drawing of American and Egyptian children. Studies in Art Education, 21 (1), Tarcher. 36-43. Discusses early schematic drawing and the myths that prevent people from The study of children’s story drawings suggests that four dimensions impact on drawing realistically. Includes a developmental sequential course of study in drawing development: biological unfolding, cultural influences, development of observational drawing that addresses the “representational crisis.” mastery, and personal predisposition. Rettig, P. R., & Rettig, J. L. (1999). Linking brain research to art education. Art Wilson, B. (1997). Child art, multiple interpretations, and conflicts of interest. . Education, 52 (6), 19-24. In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. 81-94). Reston, VA: Implications of brain research for K-5 art education are identified with sugges- National Art Education Association. tions for using the emotions, using all the senses, promoting self-direction, A discussion illustrated by examples of student work from Japanese students enabling social learning, and encouraging pattern finding. involved in manga, the U.S. Indian School in Carlisle, Pa., and Lowenfeld’s assignments. Suggests that given the almost complete control teachers exer- Smith, N., and the Drawing Study Group (1999). Observational drawing with cise over instructional choices, they need to be conscious of the artistic prefer- children. New York: Teachers College Press. ences and aesthetic theories that color their teaching. Developmental profiles of students from kindergarten through Grade 6 are offered as part of this report on observational drawing. Includes a dialogic Wolf, D., & Perry, M. (1988). From endpoints to repertoires: New conclusions method, examples of subject matter, and samples of student work. about drawing development. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 22 (1), 17-35. A portrait of drawing development informed by research at Harvard’s Project Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1982). Teaching children to draw: A guide for Zero. Begins with the assumption that drawing development in Western culture teachers and parents. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. is primarily about the acquisition of pictorial realism. In contrast, Project Zero Although out of print, this book contains a chapter on “Learning to draw: nurtur- found evidence as early as 12 to 15 months of the appearance and use of dis- ing the natural” that explains why children’s drawings look as they do. Another tinguishable drawing systems. Suggests the development of drawing skills chapter explores the question of why children draw, the different realities they should be thought of as generating repertoires of visual languages along with may depict, and suggestions for talking with children about their drawings. ideas about how to apply them to different situations. Three endpoints are discussed: the onset of representational skills, the emergence of distinct genres, Yenawine, P. (n.d.). What do you see? Video produced by the Art Institute of and the appearance of renditions. Chicago. Demonstrates the use of a discovery method wherein novice learners make connections between their lived knowledge and art. Novice learners are more likely to make connections by finding stories related to their own lives whereas more experienced and older students are more willing to move beyond concrete reality to symbolic ideas.

8 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 9 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Integrating Creative Expression with Critical Response

THEORY Integrating creative expression with critical response and a cycling back and forth between the two was envisioned in the development of the Maryland Essential Learner Outcomes. An integrated approach to creative expression and critical response allows each experience to inform the other (Chapman, 1978; Mittler, 1986; Tollifson, 1988). Grounding instruction in artworks BETTER PRACTICE from history and contemporary art Teachers who integrate studio practice and gives studio problems validity creative expression with art history and critical (Irvine, 1984). Further, engaging response promote greater learning in both students in the study of artworks areas of performance. allows them to glean insights that will inform their studio investigations (Cherry & Mellendick, 2002; Mann, 2002; Pistolesi, 2001). In all, a broad exposure to art helps develop a repertoire of ideas about the forms art can take and the manner in which ideas and materials work together for expressive purposes.

Different models have been provided for structuring integrated approaches to curriculum. Chapman (1978) illustrated how to address both critical response and creative expression investigating personal development, the role of art in society, and artistic heritage. In a Discipline-Based approach to art education, four areas of study are identified: art history, criticism, aesthetics, and studio production. An art-centered art curriculum might involve a number of approaches for integrating works of art into a studio curriculum (Irvine, 1984). Arts Propel models how production, perception, and reflection can be interwoven (Gardner, 1989). Broad-based structures, derived from the study of contemporary works of art, can suggest ways to integrate multiple points of view into media-based studio investigations (Sessions, 1998).

10 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE

A study conducted with high school students was designed to examine the notion, often held by art teachers, that devoting time to art historical and critical investigations will diminish studio practice. Tomhave (1999) concluded that students who had the advantages of a studio experience enriched by art history, criticism, and aesthetics produced studio work commensurate with a control group that had a more traditional program focused primarily on studio work. Bodenhamer (1991) found that high school students in Art III and IV demonstrated heightened critical judgment and better comprehension as a result of an integrated approach to studio investigations. In A broad exposure to art helps develop a this study, critical thinking, writing, and production were integrated with a study of the visual arts within society and a his- repertoire of ideas about the forms art torical context. Although the quantity of student artworks dropped significantly, the quality remained high and possibly improved (p. 24). can take and the manner in which

Conversely, connecting studio practice to the study of art his- ideas and materials work together for tory results in more in-depth understanding of works of art. Day (1969, 1973, 1976, 1988) reported that secondary stu- expressive purposes. dents who explored related art concepts through studio activities learned more about a given period of art history than when they received art historical material alone. Day suggests four reasons justify these findings. First, when art history instruction is infused with art making, learning becomes active rather than passive. Second, as students attempt to resolve problems in making art similar to those confronted by the artists of the period being studied, they may reexamine the artwork of that period with fresh eyes. Third, art-making activities typically encourage informal student discussion. Properly directed, these discussions provide opportunities for the reinforcement of what has been learned from the art historical material. Fourth, through their own artistic efforts, students may discover the nature and magnitude of the artists’ contributions of the period and discover new affinities for and relationships with artists and movements.

Beyond the integration of studio practice with art appreciation, an even broader foundation for art education methodology may exist. Sessions (1998) makes the case that relevant and comprehensive education for students engaged in studio practice, specifically in this case with ceramics, might draw on as many as eight contextual avenues. Based on an analysis of contemporary works in ceramics, she identifies these avenues as including Cultural/Historical Foundations, Function, Philo- sophical Issues, Visual Qualities, Art World Connections, Production Conditions, Technical Components, and Sociological/ Ideological Issues.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 11 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Recommended Strategies The following recommendations are noted in an article by Pistolesi (2001) in which contemporary postmodern works The following strategies can be deduced from Day’s informed the art-making investigations of her art education (1969/1988) conclusions: students:

Design subject matter presentations tailored to the stu- Teach with ideas: Without content, art and art education dents’ optimum attention span. become visual expressions of superficial, vacuous one-liners.

Engage students with aesthetic problems similar to prob- Aim for masterful delivery of ideas: Visual ideas must be lems explored by the artists under study. delivered in powerful, masterful ways and may have everything or nothing whatever to do with traditional Reinforce subject matter or art historical concepts forms. through casual discussion while students are engaged with their own original artwork. The following insight can be drawn from Mann (2002) and Cherry and Mellendick (2002): Encourage students to reexamine artwork that inspired the studio investigation to identify what they have dis- Works of art, from the history of art and its contempo- covered or realized about those artworks from engaging rary forms and by individual artists, inform students with a similar problem. about the possibilities of dealing with themes, media, stylistic conventions, and ideas. The following approaches for choosing artworks, each with its own purposes, are identified by Irvine (1984):

Referential, chronological, stylistic, topical, specific interest, specific artist, collection related, integration with a theme from another art work, multidisciplinary in relating to another discipline, and cultural enrichment (p. 17).

The following is suggested by Sessions’ (1998) study:

Analysis of contemporary works in a given medium may reveal dimensions of learning and substantial information that can be used in curricular planning.

Craft programs can be revised to include educational concerns beyond the conventional focus on techniques and self-expression.

12 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION REFERENCES Day, M. D. (1976). Effects of instruction on high school students’ preferences and judgment. Studies in Art Education, 19, 25-39. Chapman, L. (1978). Approaches to art in education. New York: Harcourt, This is a research report of the above dissertation study. Brace, Jovanovich. A classic methods text containing philosophy, theory, and models for practice Day, M. D. (1969/1988). Art history and studio art in the junior high program. emphasizing a comprehensive and integrated curriculum. Based on critical In S. M. Dobbs (Ed.), Research Readings for Discipline-Based Art Education: response and creative expression, it is designed to accommodate self-expres- A Journey Beyond Creating (pp. 32-41). Reston, VA: National Art Education sion, study of the role of art in society, and art historical investigations. Association. Reprinted from Studies in Art Education, 10 (2), 57-65. This paper reports the results of a research study that implemented art history Gardner, H. (1989). Zero-based arts education: An introduction to Arts Propel. into the junior high school art curricula under two treatment conditions: lec- Studies in Art Education, 30 (2), 71-83. ture-slides alone (control group) and lecture-slides integrated with art-making Article introduces the Arts Propel approach to curriculum and assessment in the activities (experimental group). Tests of art history showed the experimental arts in terms of its intellectual origins and its particular mix of components. group scored higher than the control group. Discusses Goodman’s philosophical theory of symbols and research in cognition associated with science and problem solving as well as psychological issues. Sessions, B. P. (1998). A new case for clay: Multidimensional high school Acknowledges developmental assumptions and restates origins of Gardner’s ceramics education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State theory of multiple intelligences. Presents, in contrast to DBAE, assumptions that University. DAI # AAG9836761. underpin an approach based on the development of three kinds of competen- Study is based on the analysis of five contemporary works in ceramics yielding cies: Production, Perception, and Reflection integrated into domain projects. insights about a structure for the world of ceramics. Included in the investigation was a case study of a high school discipline-based art education ceramics Hurwitz, A., & Madeja, S. S. (1977). The joyous vision: A source book for ele- curriculum that illustrated the difficulty of carrying out a smooth translation of mentary art appreciation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. curricular models based on two-dimensional European fine art. Although this book addresses elementary students, its pragmatic section on combining studio and art history (Chapter 2) is equally applicable to secondary Tomhave, R. D. (1999). Portfolio assessment in the visual arts: A comparison students. (A sequel to this book, reporting on 25 years of art appreciation prac- of advanced secondary art education strategies (Advanced Placement, tice since 1977, has been written by the original authors, and publication is International Baccalaureate, Secondary Education). Unpublished doctoral dis- anticipated.) sertation, University of Minnesota. DAI # AAG9935008. The study was designed to determine whether time devoted to art history would Irvine, H. (1984). An art centered art curriculum. Art Education 37, (3), weaken studio performance on Advanced Placement exams. Data base includ- 16-19. ed 120 students. Tomhave found that students who experienced a studio pro- Connects 10 different approaches for choosing artworks for specific purposes gram enriched by art history, criticism, and aesthetics scored as well as those ranging from inspiring the creation of art to understanding art, artists, collec- who received a studio-based program not so enriched. tors, cultures, and relationships between art and other art forms as well as other disciplines. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Mittler, G. A. (1986). Toward a more complete introduction to art in the high Cherry, S., & Mellendick, L. (2002, April). Artful collaborations: artist as school. Art Education, 39 (6), 10-13. teacher and teacher as artist. School Arts, pp. xx-xx (special pullout without Article argues for and describes an approach that integrates response and pro- page numbers). duction. Article offers accounts of a collaboration by an artist and an art teacher. “Out of the Box” is described as an investigation inspired by Cherry and his sculpture Tollifson, J. (1988). A balanced comprehensive art curriculum makes sense. and conducted with Mellendick’s middle school students. The collaboration Educational Leadership 45 (40), 18-22. was designed to meet the countywide curriculum mandate for eighth grade of As the state supervisor for art who oversaw the development and implementa- refining aesthetic judgments through master approaches. tion of the Ohio Curriculum, Tollifson discusses the rationale for a comprehensive approach that embraces both critical response and creative expression. Mann, J. (2002, January). September 11, 2001: A student and teacher response. School Arts, pp. 29-31. RESEARCH Mann describes how turning to the history of art for examples of how artists have dealt with tragedy and war provided students with ideas about how they Bodenhamer, V. S. (1991). Opening windows: Heightening critical judgment might process, through individual digital works and a collaborative installation, and changing student attitudes through the integration of studio art, critical their reactions to 9/11. thinking and appreciation. New York: National Arts Education Research Center at New York University. Pistolesi, E. (2001). Good art education is good art. Art Education, 54, (5), In this observer-participant study, the database consisted of two classes of Art 11-18. III and IV. Difficulties reported included student resistance to art appreciation Article reports how a study of contemporary artists inspired student collabora- and study in a studio art class. In the end, students produced less work tions and installations in response to the earthquakes that leveled the campus (approximately 50%) yet maintained a high quality in the work they did. Some at California State University, Northridge. indicated that they learned more about art through this integrated approach and urged the teacher to continue using it. Schectman, R. (2000, March). Food for thought. School Arts, p. 47. A seasoned teacher reflects on the balance and integration needed for good Day, M. D. (1973). Teach for art appreciation: A study of effects of instruction instruction. Finds that a healthy mix of interesting subject matter, challenging on high school students’ preferences and judgments. Dissertation Abstracts but not too difficult media, famous artists and styles, and an appetite for cre- International, 34, 4370A-4371A. ativity contribute to a good lesson and sustainable teaching. Students in high school art classes were given art-making, art history, and art criticism instruction focusing on three art styles: Impressionism, Abstract Expressionism, and Op Art. As a result of the instruction, students’ preferences and judgments (measured separately) increased for the art styles about which they had learned.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 13 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Designing Reflective and Holistic Instruction

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who develop reflective and holistic practices help students THEORY understand critical and creative Learning is a complex process. What students processes and promote self- learn is shaped not only by the content and awareness and deep learning. avenues of investigation offered through instruction but also by the degree to which reflective behaviors are developed (Martens, 1992) and by the way learning agendas are formed (Staggenborg, 1991). Further, finding ways to align students’ mind, body, and spirit in the process of making art may promote deeper learning and personal growth (London, 1989, 2003; Dodson, 1998; London, Castro, & McKenna, 2002; McKenna, in press a, in press b; Castro, in press). A learner- centered approach invites reflection and deep and personal engagement, employing the arts and the imagination in opening up new insights and connections (Burton, 2000).

14 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE Martens (1992) suggests that a thinking skills taxonomy, as a Further, insights from reflective practices tool for reflective practices, has the potential to positively affect students’ perceptions of their own learning. Those students allowed students to push the learning who became effective in using reflective processes grew in their ability to control their own capacities as learners. Specifically, students took ownership of their work, deciding when it was process of the studio experience beyond successful and how it met the criteria of the problem. Further, insights from reflective practices allowed students to push the the limits of the subject matter of art. learning process of the studio experience beyond the limits of the subject matter of art. In contrast, those students who were reluctant to engage in reflective behaviors seemed unable to make a serious commitment to their own learning process, appeared to be interested primarily in immediate gratification, and were dysfunctional in their total education experience.

Staggenborg (1991) suggests that deeply held student agendas and interpretive strategies seem to determine the degree to which they learn, make connections, take risks, and think about ends served by the creative process. He notes that certain aesthetic stances and learning styles as well as pedagogical choices can make an impact on creative growth and development. Recommended Strategies Studies of holistically conceived encounters suggest that deep learning, through art, is possible through a holistic approach The following strategies can be deduced from the study by (London, Castro, & McKenna, 2002; McKenna, in press a, in Martens (1992): press b; Castro, in press). Such an approach usually involves an introductory activity that is centering in nature; it calls Clarify expectations regarding the teacher’s role and the attention to the body, the mind, and the spirit using warm-ups student’s role at the beginning so that verbal reminders of or exercises to bring all aspects of the self into the creative responsibilities are unnecessary. process. Music, movement, breathing exercises, silence, and simple tasks that call for reflection and choice making can be Focus on thinking, problem solving, and decision making; used. Attention is drawn to the sensory qualities of materials. share one’s own thinking process and encourage a dialogue Existential questions can be used to shape creative responses. using the Socratic method: Ask students to think through Examples might include: Who am I? What path did I take to a problem rather than giving them the answer. get here? Where am I going? How do I see the world? and How might I make an homage to another? Processes for shar- Use a thinking skills taxonomy that emphasizes recall, ing and responding to work are reflective, dialogic, and dis- analysis, comparison, inference, and evaluation. cursive, rather than critical. As a result, visual form usually (Martens used Measuring Thinking Skills in the takes care of itself and a conversation about composition and Classroom by Rick Stiggens of the Northwest Regional design is deferred in light of other, more personal and signifi- Educational Laboratory.) cant discoveries and responses. Encourage the use of student and teacher journals for reflection.

Discuss a schoolwide commitment to reflection on creative and critical thinking with colleagues and school instructional leaders.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 15 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

The following strategies might be drawn from the studies by Create opportunities to reflect on the work, including McKenna (in press), London, Castro, & McKenna (2002 a in class discussions and modeling a dialogue with an indi- press, b in press), and Castro (in press): vidual student as a preface to small peer group discussions. Invite students to indicate what kind of feedback or Begin by establishing an atmosphere of trust and regard response they are seeking. for each individual. The following insights can be drawn from Staggenborg’s 1991 Develop ways of stimulating reflective personal engage- inquiry: ment in conjunction with an artistic problem. Model that engagement for students. To make a commitment to fostering a student’s holistic growth, teachers need to adapt insights from contemporary Use an existential question to launch a studio investiga- aesthetics into actual pedagogical evaluation and practice. tion, one that is self-referential and will make students stop and think before proceeding. The formation of an aesthetically enlightened curriculum and pedagogical practice will have to champion respect Work to create a community of supportive artists rather for each student’s individuality at every moment. than a competitive environment in the classroom. Such a curriculum will begin with an awareness of each stu- Coach and support students through the process of mak- dent’s repertoire of interpretive strategies and proceed from ing work that is personally meaningful. there, seeking to expand, not replace, that repertoire.

REFERENCES nonjudgmental atmosphere. Findings suggest the approach is viable and effective, offering unique opportunities for students to experience art’s original and Burton, J. M. (2000). The configuration of meaning: Learner-centered art edu- deeper functions. cation revisited. Studies in Art Education, 41 (4), 330-345. Burton argues for a learner-centered approach to education in which students Leal, E. (2001). Art as a vehicle for inner transformation. In J. Kellman (Ed.), are invited to bring their own experiences into the arena of learning and asked SRAE Abstracts 2001. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Seminar for to reflect on and explore possibilities that engage their thinking. Further, they Research in Art Education. should be offered skills and insights in the arts where imagination can open up Abstract of paper presented at the 2001 NAEA conference. Describes a qualita- new corners of reality, helping them construct continuity between their creative tive study comparing the nature of peak experiences in art with Wilber’s con- efforts and the culture in which they live. cept of levels of consciousness and Jung’s principle of Synchronicity to identify how transpersonal and elevated experiences take place through art. London, P. (1989). No more secondhand art: Awakening the artist within. Boston: Shambala. Martens, K. (1992). Critical/creative thinking skills and the studio art class- Theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of a holistic approach are dis- room.New York: National Arts Education Research Center at New York University. cussed. Book includes 12 encounters that model the approach with adult This observer-participant study was designed to investigate the relationship of learners who range from novices to artists. critical/creative thinking skills to a student’s understanding of process in the production of art. The data base consisted of eight students in the second London, P. (2003). Drawing closer to nature. Boston: Shambala. semester of an Art 3-8 class; all showed significant increases in posttest A recounting of methods and observations drawn from workshops conducted responses demonstrating recall, analysis, comparison, inference, and evalua- with adult learners testing the possibilities of drawing closer to nature. tion. Martens concluded that this taxonomy was simple enough for high school students to understand and apply and that the visual arts tap all levels of the RESEARCH taxonomy. Further, the activities caused students to think about their own creative decision making and problem solving. Evidence suggests that reflective Dodson, S. W. (1998). An examination of the sources and practice of art as processes help students grow in their ability to control their own capacities as transformation: A case study of Peter London’s philosophy and teaching learners and provide insights useful beyond the subject matter of art. process. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri. DAI, 60, no. 04A, p. 0982. Staggenborg, R. (1991). The differences between a formalistic and humanis- A qualitative study examining how cohesive, highly structured art encounters tic approach to aesthetic education. New York: National Arts Education based on existential questions work to address issues of ultimate concern in a Research Center at New York University.

16 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION As an English teacher, Staggenborg followed eight seniors taking Advanced McKenna, S. (in press, b). Changing the mood: How to add personal meaning Placement Senior English including music, theater, and dance majors at the to an ordinary design problem. In P. London (Ed.), A report from the study Milwaukee High School of the Arts. While none of the case studies involved group for holistic art education. Baltimore: Center for Art Education at the visual arts students, the findings have relevance for all students engaged in the Maryland Institute College of Art. arts. Staggenborg voices a concern for student development through ever more Here McKenna reports a holistic approach that transforms “an ordinary color mature processes of artistic envisioning. Employing a hierarchy of sequential and mood” exercise into a more personally meaningful experience by simulating stages found in aesthetic understanding and artistic creation, he discovered an extraordinary context and creating conditions for self-referential choices that that the rigidity of a student’s critical stance could severely limit a student’s are ultimately reflected in color studies. aesthetic and creative growth. Students who made significant strides in terms of critical skills placed a high priority on daydreaming and empathic relationships with other people. Further, a change in pedagogical approaches, such as switching from a traditional quantitative grading system to a qualitative one, proved beneficial in freeing students to take more risks.

REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Castro, J. C. (in press). Responding to existential questions: An holistic approach to teaching photography. In P. London (Ed.), A report from the study group for holistic art education. Baltimore: Center for Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art. Article recounts an effort to use holistic methods in the teaching of high school photography. Noting the challenges of working with a highly technical medium, Castro reports personally meaningful work resulted from the use of existential questions, causing students to think more deeply before initiating work. Further, he notes the development of a supportive community among students as a special dimension of a holistic approach.

Davidson, M., Casier, K., & Albertson, C. (2001). Toward a pedagogy of care in art education. Presentation, NAEA Conference, New York City. Presented ways in which art becomes a pathway to engagement, how dialogic teaching can make connections between art teachers and learners, and how one approach to ceramics proved successful for students with learning disabilities, creating a healthier, more nurturing, and more holistic environment for learning.

London, P. (Ed.) (in press). A report from the study group for holistic art education. Baltimore: Center for Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art. (A limited number of copies of the monograph are available through the Center.) A monograph with a preface by London and articles generated from the first year’s inquiry by art teachers participating in a study group. London provides an introduction to theory and practice related to holistic art education. Participating teachers experimented with various holistic approaches, drawing insights for K-12 practice from their inquiries.

London, P., Castro, J., & McKenna, S. (2002). Holistic art education: A progress report from the Study Group for Holistic Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art. SRAE Abstracts (p. 15). Presentation, NAEA Conference, Miami Beach. London provides an overview of the characteristics of a holistic approach to art education followed by examples from the practice of two high school teachers, illustrating ways to integrate various holistic strategies and the highly personal and aesthetic student work produced as a result.

McKenna, S. (in press, a). Assignment: Make art, make friends. In P. London (Ed.), A report from the study group for holistic art education. Baltimore: Center for Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art. McKenna realized advanced students did not know each other well and invented an artful problem that required peers to develop new relationships and then to pay homage to the person they discovered through a three-dimensional portrait. To model the questioning process she wanted pairs of students to engage in, McKenna offered to answer questions about her professional and personal life that students were curious about. Questions were respectful and allowed her to share her life as an artist, traveler, and teacher. The resulting work was pursued with enthusiasm, creative in the use of materials and form, and of a high quality. New connections were made among the group and a stronger sense of community developed in the class.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 17 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Approaching Art from a Transcultural Perspective

THEORY The term “transcultural” suggests human values and beliefs, questions and concerns, transcend individual cultures. Dissanayake (1988, 1991, 1992, 2000) provides a bio-behavioral view of the arts that supports a transcultural approach. She makes the case that the arts originated with early humans who needed to develop a sense of “grouponeheartedness.” Making objects and rituals special gave visual and dramatic form to beliefs and values. BETTER PRACTICE Further, doing so appears to have contributed to Teachers who use a transcultural perspective in survival through solidarity and a unified sense of selecting artworks for study can affirm mission. She notes that only in most recent modern students’ own cultural heritage, develop times have the arts become the domain of appreciation of different cultures, and examine specialists, removed from everyday life, often questions, needs, propensities, and behaviors preoccupied with creating works that serve personal common to all members of the human race. or even ambiguous ends. For most of human history, the arts served common needs and developed out of human propensities that all races and cultures share, such as an interest in the use of tools, responsiveness to novelty, a desire to communicate and engage in activities that strengthen the bond with others, a fascination with elaboration, a capacity to think about the past and future as well as the present, and an interest in passing on beliefs and values to future generations.

Lippard (1990), in looking across cultures at non-mainstream artists, and particularly at artists who had moved from one culture to another, discovered some common needs addressed through the arts. Among broad purposes served by art she found the following: finding and claiming self-identity, mapping one’s journey, telling one’s stories, understanding where one has landed, mixing with others, turning around ideas, and dreaming. Given that the developmental social and emotional needs of students are often similar to those of artists who are women and persons of color, Lippard’s research suggests the merits of drawing on a broad range of artworks from the “hiddenstream” as well as classics from the mainstream.

18 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION It may be insufficient and even problematic to study the art of “others” without somehow finding commonalities in needs and purposes (McFee, 1961). Only then can the creative solutions that arise out of diverse conditions, needs, and possibilities be appreciated at a transformative level. If “multicultural” is intended to mean “success for all,” it cannot afford to deal only with diversity and differences. Real success for all may require a transcultural approach in which the development of tolerance, acceptance, curiosity, and respect for the entire human race is an important goal.

Collins and Sandell (1992) caution against simplistic or romantic approaches that ignore the notion that all cultures have positive and negative aspects and that art often reveals inequities in power relationships. They offer examples of efforts in which the arts play a significant role in the critique of culture and its transformation. A “transformative response envisions a new common culture, one without violence, oppression, and inequality—a culture which would not only tolerate but welcome the definitive cultural participation of individuals and groups with disparate cultural heritages” (p. 12).

Multiculturalism, cross-cultural studies, and transcultural approaches, by their very nature, aim to go well beyond making surface adjustments in images that are shown to students. Many concerns have been voiced. For example, cultures must not be trivialized by projects that reduce meaningful objects and rituals to formal qualities, simple materials, and mimicry. Information needs to be accurate and drawn from appropriate spokespersons and authorities.

There are constraints and problematic issues to be confronted. For example, the world of art is so large and complex that one can hardly to hope to be an expert on even a small portion of it. Much of the existing information needs to be reviewed with a critical eye for its biases and accuracy. Just the language alone suggests that unequal power relationships and inequities related to gender, class, race, and ethnicity are at work here. It is loaded with opposites such as mainstream vs. hiddenstream; high art versus low art; dominant versus oppressed; empowered versus silenced; majority versus minority. In contrast, the goals associated with a transcultural approach speak of affirmation, acceptance, enculturation, tolerance, empowerment, social democracy, social action, and reconstruction.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 19 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

PRACTICE

For most of human history, the arts Often the imagery shown to students is determined less by purpose than by what is actually available. Very practical mat- served common needs and developed ters enter into this proposition: what images are available in the school, what funds teachers have to purchase additional out of human propensities that all races reproductions, what teachers have in their own personal collections, and what is available from publishers. Lack of funds and cultures share. for visual resources and shortage of artworks that “look like” or represent a given student population play a major role in limiting the study of visual images as well as the goals that can be achieved (Gaither, 1998).

Reports from practice suggest that deliberate choices and processes can affirm students’ own cultural heritage through the process of recalling, transferring, and synthesizing (Hendricks, 2001). It also is possible to help students develop an appreciation for cultures different from their own (Fehrs- Rammpolla, 1990). An in-depth exploration of a specific culture and its artistic traditions through art and social studies also appears to help students retain both details and concepts (Webster, 1991 Fall).

The following suggestions are based on the writings of several authors including Anderson (1995), Tomhave (1992), Stuhr, (1994), and Wasson et al. (1990):

Be aware of your own cultural and social biases, and recognize that teaching inherently involves cultural and social intervention. Examine your own attitudes toward gender, race, socioeconomic class, age, religion, ethnicity, and mental and physical abilities.

Be aware of different agendas, identify intentions, and select strategies that will help achieve them.

The following strategies can be drawn from Gaither (1998):

Conduct an analysis of existing visuals and references available to students.

Scrutinize commercially produced materials for the presence of stereotypes.

Consider the effects of habituation, the result of seeing the same material over an extended period.

Conduct research and develop ways to expand the repertoire of images for learners to encounter.

Replace improbable, inaccurate signage for displays such as “African masks made by (American) fifth graders.” Reconsider the practice of having students make objects based on borrowed formal qualities using simple materi-

20 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION als and minimal understanding of the significance of the ate their own heritage and how it is manifest in objects, beliefs, values, and purposes involved by the originating rituals, beliefs, and values. culture. Broaden exposure to a variety of cultures to cause students Consider identifying students’ needs first and then find- to appreciate the unique and special ways human beings ing models that might inspire them to make objects that have used their creativity and resources in artful ways. have meaning to them. Direct students to compare and contrast their own cul- Consider thematic approaches to the selection of works ture with others so that they might see “across” many cul- that allow for a transcultural selection; choose works that tures to discern attributes common to all people. focus on common human needs, concerns, and questions while highlighting the resourcefulness and creativity of Strategies recommended by Deasi (2000): specific peoples. Discuss the inability to understand all aspects of a differ- Conduct research to enhance your knowledge and under- ent culture despite accurate and authentic representations standing before making the choice to study given cul- of that culture. tures, objects, rituals, and traditions with students. Strategies suggested by Collins and Sandell (1992): The following strategies can be drawn from Stuhr, Petrovich- Mwaniki, and Wasson (1992): Incorporate the use of works that model the transformative potential of art to explore our common anotherness. Involve students in a culturally responsive situation analysis. Rely on the students and the community for information. Look to local sources for information including people, places, organizations, and objects. Develop inventories and questions for gathering information.

Choose content that is culturally relevant and has the potential to provoke social and critical inquiry.

Involve students in identifying important social issues, gathering data, clarifying and challenging their values, making reflective decisions, and taking action to implement their decisions.

Evaluate the implementation and outcomes of the curriculum.

The following strategies are suggested by Purcell (1991):

Scrutinize textbook information for insufficient, outdated information and the presence of stereotypical models and suggestions.

Make use of outside speakers and community resources.

Find opportunities to engage in in-service programs or travel-study programs.

Develop oral and written facility with relevant foreign languages.

Engage students with a range of objects beginning with an investigation of their own culture, learning to appreci-

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 21 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

REFERENCES The above four publications by Dissanayake present an unfolding investigation Anderson, T. (1995). Toward a cross-cultural approach to art criticism. of the origins of the arts and their significance as a human behavior. Art and Studies in Art Education, 36 (4), 198-209. intimacy includes a section, “Taking the Arts Seriously,” which discusses impli- Paper proposes a model for cross-cultural art criticism drawing on anthropolo- cations relevant to visual arts education. gy. Rather than asking questions about what something is, what it means, and what’s its value, he suggests the question should be “What is it for?” Here an Lippard, L. R. (1990). Mixed blessings: New art in a multicultural America. object would be examined in relation to practical functions, social functions, New York: Pantheon Books. and belief systems. He identifies four typologies of objects: ceremonial, utili- Discusses the cross-cultural process taking place in the work of Latino, Native- tarian, decorative/aesthetic, and play/fantasy/education. He also recounts vari- , African-, and Asian-American artists. Illustrated with examples of artwork ous functions of objects as they are related to food, shelter, social relationships, framed by a discussion of cultural concepts, ideas, and meanings. symbolic communication, territory, cosmology/religion, health/healing, leisure, fertility, labor/work, relationship to natural environment, protection, McFee, J. K. (1961). Preparation in art. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. commerce/trade, and education/training. Anderson concludes that the value Classic methods text that explores convergence of two notions: the variables of cross-cultural criticism lies as much in the act of doing it as in what is dis- within a group of students and an interest in art as a human behavior. Explores covered. Examining the ways others do things may also shed light on unexam- art in culture, children’s individual differences in art and development in art, ined cultural assumptions of one’s own. environmental factors in children’s work, the creative process, and theories of child art. All are presented as preparation for developing an elementary art cur- Collins, G., & Sandell, R. (1984). Women, art and education. Reston, VA: riculum. Book includes a discussion of McFee’s perception-delineation theory National Art Education Association. in which a child’s readiness for art is related to a number of variables, all with Reference that provides a context for the concept of the “hiddenstream” of art. implications for practice. Such variables include the child’s flexibility or rigidi- Explores issues related to art education and sex equity, the Women’s ty, orientation to space, perception and organization of information, attitudes Movement, and Feminist Art Education. Also examines women’s achievements and values about art absorbed from the child’s culture, and prior learning. in both the mainstream and the hiddenstream as well as practical strategies and resources for teaching. Offers source lists of women artists and related Saunders, R. J. (Ed.) (1998). Beyond the traditional in art: Facing a pluralis- publications. tic society, Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. This book contains essays presented at a 1991 symposium held in Columbus, Collins, G., & Sandell, R. (1992). The politics of multicultural art education. Ohio, by the United States Society for Education through Art. Includes a major Art Education, 45 (6), 8-13. address by Suzi Gablik as well as discussions that range from clarifying multi- Article considers three stances in multicultural education: the attach response, cultural terminology to the problem of authenticity and simulation in student- the escape response, and the repair response as a preface to considering the made and commercially produced ethnic and multicultural art. merits and challenges of a pluralist response, which would contribute to the development of a new and better common culture. Stuhr, P. L. (1994). Multicultural art education and social reconstruction. Studies in Art Education, 35 (3), 171-178. Congdon, K. G. (1989). Multi-cultural approaches to art criticism. Studies in Five forms of multiculturalism are explained in relationship to art education in Art Education, 30 (3), 176-184. order to distinguish goals ranging from improved performance of disenfran- Rather than work from the notion of art as communication, Congdon suggests chised ethnic students to improved human relations to social reconstruction. an alternative approach that takes into consideration how members of the cul- She notes that some approaches are consistent with maintaining the political, ture viewed and experienced the world. She also recommends drawing art criti- economic, and social order as it exists while only two (or three) “offer a possi- cism formats from varying cultural groups to find ways of interacting with bility for social reconstruction that would affect sociocultural groups in an equi- objects and artists that are more appropriate than models invented by Western table and positive manner” (p. 177). A vision of each of the five approaches as academics. She concludes that the study of language systems and art objects it might be realized in art education is offered. as they represent ways of viewing the world is a direction worth taking. Article contains discussions related to various objects from different cultures. Stuhr, P., Petrovich-Mwaniki, L., & Wasson, R. (1992). Curriculum guidelines for the multicultural classroom. Art Education, 45 (1), 16-24. Deasi, D. (2000). Imaging difference: The politics of representation in multi- Article offers six position statements for implementing a multicultural approach. cultural art education. Studies in Art Education, 41 (2), 114-129. Begins with the assumption that many teachers may lack the experience of Paper discusses the direct connection between the issues of power and domi- operating in the many cultures in which their students participate. Provides nance and the role of representation in shaping an understanding of other cul- practical guidelines including suggestions, an inventory of where to find infor- tures. Suggests that teachers discuss the inability to understand all aspects of mation in a local community, and questions for interviewing artists and studying a different culture, despite accurate and authentic representations of the cul- art forms. Also includes steps for students to use in studying the art of various ture. sociocultural groups, including their own.

Dissanayake, E. (1988). What is art for? Seattle: University of Washington Wasson, R. F., Stuhr, P. L., Petrovich-Mwaniki, L. (1990). Teaching art in the Press. multicultural classroom: Six position statements. Studies in Art Education, 31 (4), 234-246. Dissanayake, E. (1991). Art for Life’s Sake. In K. Carroll (Ed.), Keynote Recommends a socio-anthropological basis for studying the aesthetic produc- Addresses, 31st Annual Convention (pp. 15-26). Reston, VA: National Art tion and experience of cultures, focusing on the maker as well as the context, Education Association. using a student/community-centered educational process and anthropological methods, choices that democratically reflect and represent sociocultural and Dissanayake, E. (1992). Homoaestheticus: Where art came from and why. ethnic diversity, and a focus on the complex factors that affect human interac- New York: The Free Press. tion. They also stress that teachers should be aware of their own cultural and social biases as teaching itself constitutes cultural and social intervention. Dissanayake, E. (2000). Art and intimacy: How the arts began. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

22 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Wolff, J. (1990). Questioning the curriculum: Arts, education and ideology. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Studies in Art Education, 31 (4), 198-206. Essay raises questions regarding simplistic solutions to constructing a cultural Hendricks, S. (2001). A.R.T.S.: A model for multicultural art education. education. Cautions that “institutions of culture and of education are founded Presentation for the National Art Education Annual Convention in New York City. in basic inequalities and power relations in society, and in various complex (and Reported positive results from multicultural instruction in art focused on stu- sometimes contradictory) ways, they confirm and maintain those inequalities dents’ own heritage and cultural perspective as a focus. Hendricks (2001) and relations” (p. 198). Argues that a heritage pervaded by inequalities of reported that students used their own cultural perspectives, ideas, and experi- class, gender, race, and ethnicity requires arts educators to encourage a cultur- ences to analyze works of art, recall past experiences, transfer, and synthesize. al perspective that relates contemporary values to the historical forces that shaped them. Purcell, D. M. (1991). Integrating Japanese theoretical art in the middle school visual arts program. Unpublished master’s research project, Towson State University. RESEARCH Information gathered from travel-study in Japan and research on Kabuki, Noh, Davenport, M. G. (2001). Opening up the world: A portrait of an intercultural and Bunraku theaters was used to develop and implement a series of lessons art teacher. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University. DAI, 62, no. with seventh-grade classes in Baltimore County. Concluded the integrated 08A, p. 2663. approach was sufficiently rich to show a great deal of retention of details as Case study designed to examine traits evident in a teacher with experience well as concepts. Noted the amount of preparation needed to successfully teaching and living abroad. Noted were a sense of cultural relativism, ways to teach with depth and the need to develop written and oral facility with language use technology to cross borders, a passion for other cultures, compassion for and vocabulary relevant to the culture under investigation. Suggested use of students, and an informed respect for local cultural traditions. outside speakers, in-service, and travel-study tours for teachers. Cautioned teachers to carefully scrutinize textbook information for insufficient, outdated Fehrs-Rammpolla, B. (1990). Affecting student critical thinking and aesthetic information and the presence of stereotypical models and suggestions. attitudes utilizing the ceramic arts of non-western cultures. New York: National Arts Education Research Center at New York University. Webster, D. M. (1991, Fall). Do we really mean “multicultural”? Gazette. Reports the findings from an experimental, observer-participant study in which Baltimore, MD: Maryland Art Education Association. a unit of Japanese pottery was taught in an Art I high school class. A pre-post Reflective article raising questions about the term “multicultural” and propos- method of evaluation yielded findings of increased responses toward and ing, instead, the adoption of the term “transcultural” with the goal of helping acceptance of non-Western works as well as an increase in the amount of time students see “across” cultures, discerning attributes common to all people, as students invested in written assessments. a way of developing tolerance and a global view. Fehrs-Rampolla (1990) found that introducing students to objects from a non- Western culture positively affected students’ critical thinking and aesthetic attitudes. In this example, a unit on Japanese pottery was incorporated into an Art I class that resulted in more positive responses toward and acceptance of non- Western artworks.

Gaither, J. M. E. (1998). With good intentions and unintentional results: An analysis of images presented in the environment of six Midwestern urban elementary public schools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee. DAI # AAG9918120. A five-month study involving observations, photographic documentation, interviews, and reflections. Explores related issues of habituation and the psychological basis of perception as well as the criteria used in choosing visual material for the learning and teaching environment. Reports, among other findings, a high percentage of commercially produced and highly stereotypical images in contrast to a low percentage of student-generated images.

Stout, C. J. (1997). Multicultural reasoning and the appreciation of art. Studies in Art Education, 38 (2), 96-111. A postsecondary case study discussing how critical thinking and constructivist theory foster multilogical reasoning in art. The synergistic relationship between cognitive abilities and affective dimensions in critical thinking is illustrated. Author maintains that critical thinking is necessary for the development of diversity appreciation and multicultural awareness. The viewer’s story as well as the story of the artist and the work appear as an important strategy in unlocking feeling and meaning.

Tomhave, R. D. (1992). Value bases underlying conceptions of multi-cultural education: An analysis of selected literature in art education. Studies in Art Education, 34 (1), 48-50. Using six conceptions drawn from general education, art education literature was analyzed in order to separate, clarify, and analyze positions that have been posed within art education. Each conception, with its goal and strategies as well as negative liabilities that should be avoided, is discussed. The reference list is an extensive compilation of related readings and sources examined in the study.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 23 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Planning Instruction with Assessment and Reflection in Mind

THEORY

Assessment has different ends. Its primary goal is to improve learning (Wolf & Pistone,

1995). Effectively used, assessment explores questions at the very heart of the

purposes and processes of schooling (Jamentz, 1994). It can also clarify expectations

for students so that evaluation is specific, fair, and equitable. Different kinds of

assessment strategies can reinforce steps in a process, allowing students to monitor

and improve their own work and to reflect on BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who plan for assessment reinforce learning. Assessment in the arts can vary from process, clarify expectations and criteria for traditional forms such as quizzes and tests to evaluation, and promote reflective thinking. checklists, rubrics, and reflective questions. If

students participate in evaluating themselves, assessment allows them to take

ownership of their products, behaviors, attitudes, and insights.

24 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE from processes and techniques to investment, risk-taking, problem solving, craftsmanship, design, and overall quality. Planning for assessment causes teachers to examine the kinds Critical examination of exemplars and/or examples of student of learning they value and to find ways to evaluate develop- work, in order to construct a rubric, can be an instructive ments in attitudes and behaviors as well as skills and knowl- experience for students as well as teachers. Rubrics are useful edge. Assessment helps teachers communicate goals and crite- for self-evaluation, peer evaluation, or evaluation by the ria for evaluation with students and others, including admin- instructor. A comparison of student and teacher judgments istrators and parents, and supports grading decisions (Jasa & can also reveal how students inflate, diminish, or see their Enger, 1994). If teachers share samples of student work across efforts accurately, thus informing response and guidance. different sections of the same course, developmentally within a program, or from different schools, they can gain a fuller Assessment of portfolios or bodies of work is common practice sense of what can be achieved developmentally, contextually, among art educators. Portfolios commonly are used to pres- and through different methods of instruction (Dorn, 1999). ent, for review, the best works produced over a period of time. This kind of collaboration among colleagues can then inform Project Propel brought attention to a process-folio that docu- departmental and program missions and standards. ments process over time and reveals, among other things, the level of investment made by the student. Insights about how Assessment may also be designed using district, state, or and when creative breakthroughs occurred can be gleaned national standards as a guide (Bates, 2000; Dorn, 1999; from examination of a process-folio. Analyzing the process-to- NAEA, 1994). Large-scale assessments raise financial, practi- product sequence is thus a valuable experience for the learner cal, theoretical, and philosophical questions. While results as well as an opportunity for dialogue among peers and from large-scale assessments will most likely need qualification between student and teacher (Wolf & Pistone, 1995, p. 59). to have real value, teachers can develop local outcomes and Advanced Placement exams in the visual arts have demon- expectations for ongoing, authentic assessment integrated into strated rater reliability on judgments of portfolios given that their instructional plan (London, 1996; Marzano, 1994). readers have appropriate training and periodic review during the assessment project (Dorn, 1999, p. 237). Different kinds of assessment tasks can be employed to determine the effects of instruction. Pre-tests or pre-instruction Reflective questions and critical discussions can be used for the work samples that identify where students are at the beginning purpose of synthesizing new information with previous can then be compared with post-instruction work to make knowledge and/or for evaluating process, product, and learn- developments clear to students as well as teachers and other ing. Reflective thinking, often required in a written form, can observers. Certain tasks can check for short- and long-term double the information a teacher has to use in grading. As retention of facts and appropriate use of vocabulary, concepts, true with professional works of art, many products may not and information. Other tasks may invite students to apply speak for themselves. Questions can be asked about inten- their knowledge and understanding to familiar as well as new tions, trial and error experimentations, connections made or contexts. Many forms of authentic assessment can be built discovered, research, challenges, successes and failures, break- into the instructional process, while other forms, based on throughs, technical or conceptual problems encountered, the shared assumptions about the content of curriculum, can be development of ideas that inspire new work, and what stu- administered within or outside of the instructional setting. dents learned or would do differently next time.

Ongoing Assessments that Promote Learning Performance Tasks

In-progress assessments assist teachers in monitoring instruc- Both creative expression and critical response yield products as tion, help keep students on track, and provide feedback at a result of engagement with a problem. Authentic performance points where the work or performance can be improved. A tasks emerge as a result of challenging problems and encounters process checklist can be as simple as a list of steps or require- with art. Some performance tasks have been designed to assess ments to follow in doing the work. Self-reflective questions, achievement across a grade, program, district, or state. asking students to check their work against suggested strategies, Evidence suggests that students will perform at higher levels if considerations, or requirements is useful as both an instruc- the tasks are authentic, personally relevant, and embedded in tional tool and a self-evaluation. Simple checklists can also be instruction. Arbitrary tasks, conceived as final exams or for used to generate peer feedback and constructive suggestions. broad application and subject to time constraints and highly controlled conditions, may not reflect the level of performance Rubrics, which clearly identify criteria for evaluation alongside students demonstrate when they are personally motivated and levels of achievement, can deal with a broad range of issues offered opportunities to be coached and supported with a time

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 25 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

within each outcome around which assessment, curriculum, and instruction were organized, forming the basis for out- Planning for assessment causes teachers come-based performance assessments. Once a task was constructed, rubrics could be designed for the various proficien- to examine the kinds of learning they cies embedded in the task. Constructed with or presented to students before they begin the task, the rubric identifies char- value and to find ways to evaluate acteristics of performance along a fixed scale. developments in attitudes and behaviors Developing course outcomes takes considerable time and energy, writing and rewriting. One arts high school used criteria in creating its set of outcomes. The school saw an out- as well as skills and knowledge. come as providing a picture of the student behavior that would result from learning; describing long-term learning; reflecting Assessment helps teachers communicate discipline standards beyond the school setting; acknowledging different learning styles and forms of intelligence; understand- goals and criteria for evaluation with able for students, parents, and community; developmentally appropriate; addressing higher-order thinking skills; and students and others, including directly or indirectly assessable (Jasa & Enger, 1994, p. 31). administrators and parents, and National Assessments supports grading decisions Two forms of assessments for art involve the scoring of artwork and have long track records for rater reliability. Both Advanced Placement (AP) in art and International (Jasa & Enger, 1994). Baccalaureate (IB) assess student work created in high school. Each has its own process and criteria for evaluation. Advanced Placement has an art history exam and several versions of the studio portfolio exam. AP uses three general criteria for evaluating work: basic skills, concentration, and quality. IB evaluates for imaginative and creative thinking and expression, persistence in research, technical skill, understanding of fundamentals of design, and understanding of the char- frame that allows for reflection and revision (Marzano, 1994; acteristics and function of chosen media (Brown, 1998). Guskey, 1994). While certain information can be gleaned from these more arbitrary assessments, results should be com- Research in the Classroom pared with more long-term performance to see if they are representative of, higher, or lower than levels typically demonstrat- Day (1985) identifies other methods of assessment that might ed or achieved. As motivation clearly affects a student’s level of be tied to more comprehensive investigations and research in investment and engagement, an alternative method is recom- the classroom. These include observations, interviews, discus- mended by Dorn (1999). He suggests that teachers receive sions, performances, checklist questionnaires, tests, essays, training in evaluating performance on authentic tasks embed- visual identification, attitude measurement, and aesthetic ded in the curriculum during a course of study (2002). judgment. In addition, other forms of assessment can be used, including analysis of work samples, case studies, comparisons Outcomes Assessment of control and experimental groups, and more. Research in the classroom can be conducted by individual teachers, teams Outcomes are broad-based expectations that provide the over- or cadres of teachers, study groups, and research specialists. all framework for instruction. Eight common ones were identified in a study of schools (Marzano, 1994), including knowl- Recommended Strategies edgeable person, complex thinker, skilled information proces- sor, effective communicator/producer, collaborative/coopera- Review current methods of assessment. Consider ways to tive worker, self-regulated learner, community make expectations clearer through rubrics. Help students contributor/responsible citizen, and tolerant learner/culturally monitor their own progress with checklists and learning logs diverse learner (p. 45). Dorn found subsets of proficiencies and by keeping a developmental portfolio of dated work and

26 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION periodic reflective commentary and/or a process-folio docu- levels of performance. Note that the easiest levels are the high- menting the development of ideas, experiments, plans, and est and lowest (one can start with these) and that the more working up to a final product. Check to see if assessment cri- challenging levels to describe are at mid-level and subject to teria are aligned with intended outcomes. Revise or strength- inconsistencies and variables in performance (Jasa & Enger, en as needed (Dorn, 1999, 2002; Dodson, 1985; Edwards, 1994, p. 32). 1989; Hicks et al., 1996; Wolf, 1988; Wolf & Pistone, 1995). Use assessments in the context of specific performance tasks as Embrace the opportunity and challenge to revisit educational these promise to be more valid than retrospective judgments, goals. Most of the benefits of assessment come in the dialogue which appear to be highly influenced by students’ overall aca- and process that surround the act of creating them (Jamentz, demic performance (Marzano, 1994, pp. 48-49). 1994, pp. 56-57). Develop the capacity to evaluate work. Think about what stu- Participate in a recursive series of activities--designing assessments, dents know and what they still need to learn (Jamentz, 1994, testing them, and revising them. Check to make sure what is pp. 56-57). being evaluated is important (Jamentz, 1994, pp. 56-57). Collaborate with peers on the analysis of student work, and Look for opportunities to translate standards into instruction- plan instructional improvements (Jamentz, 1994, pp. 56-57). al plans tailored to a given student population (Jamentz, 1994, pp. 56-57). Build students’ capacity to use assessment in their learning. Check to see that criteria and standards are clearly understood Design assessments that provide clear guidelines for students by students. Give them practice in using assessment, and pro- about teacher expectations, reflect real-life authentic challenges, vide opportunities to revisit and revise work (Jamentz, 1994, make effective use of teachers’ judgment, and allow for student pp. 56-57). differences in style and interests (Marzano, 1994, p. 44). Consider how to vary the assessment process to make it more Look beyond product to other dimensions of performance for engaging. For example, have students construct and adminis- proficiencies to evaluate (MacDonald, 1993). Consider ter the test to the teacher (Galvin, 1999). demonstrated attitudes, behaviors, effort and investment, cooperation, responsibility, leadership, acceptance of construc- Avoid using performance assessment as a final exam where tive criticism or direction, offers of constructive feedback to there is no opportunity to make use of the data or outcomes peers, creative thinking, risk-taking, experimentation, and or to get individual feedback (Guskey, 1994, pp. 53-54). problem solving. Give the process of assessment development enough time to Look at different models to get ideas for outcomes and profi- consider how curriculum might be reorganized along with an ciencies. For example, Arts Propel identified three major out- overhauling of assessment and reporting schemes to reflect comes, each with its own subset of proficiencies: Production new, higher outcomes (O’Neil, 1994). included craftsmanship, understanding, inventiveness, commitment, and expression; Reflection focused on the self as artist, critique, and ability to make use of feedback; and Perception involved the abilities to discern qualities in artwork, visual sensory perception of the environment, and cultural awareness (Wolf & Pistone, 1995, pp. 59-60). Different kinds of programs offer ideas for affective indicators such as “joy” (Bedwell, 2000).

Develop rubrics that are specific as these are more reliable than more general ones (Marzano, 1994, pp. 47-48). Decide on age-appropriate terminology for the number and descriptors for levels of achievement. Younger children need three levels whereas more complex performances of older learners may use four or five levels and range from unsatisfactory to distin- guished. To make the arduous task of constructing a rubric easier, recall specific students or use work samples to envision

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 27 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

REFERENCES MacDonald, W. M. (1993). Student assessment in the elementary intermediate visual arts program: A closer look at teacher assessment methods. Armstrong, C. L. (1994). Designing assessment in art. Reston, VA: National Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Canada. DAI # Art Education Association. AAGNN82935. Comprehensive discussion of issues related to assessment in art. Study examines the difference between theory and practice using a case study approach with seventh and eighth grades. Reports that eight major categories Bates, J. J. (2000). Becoming an art teacher. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. of issues surfaced in the discussion of teacher assessment methods in visual Chapter 14 provides an overview of the National Visual Arts Standards with arts: technique and product, marks and grades, philosophy and value of their application to different grade levels. Use of portfolios and assessing out- assessment, teacher-student relationships, creativity, self-evaluation and peer comes is discussed. assessment, consistency, and teacher organization. His strongest finding indi- Beattie, D. K. (1997). Assessment in art education. Worcester, MA: Davis. cates that assessment is predominately focused on a discussion of student One of a series of publications focused on translating research and theory into products and that teachers and administrators need to know more about what practical classroom strategies. Explores portfolios, art journals, and other inte- constitutes sound practices in assessment and how to develop a more encom- grated performance options. Also addresses traditional methods, scoring and passing assessment model. judging strategies, and formative and summative assessment styles. Sabol, F. R. (1994). A critical examination of visual arts achievement tests from Dorn, C. M. (1999). Mind in art: Cognitive foundations in art education. state departments of education in the United States. Unpublished doctoral dis- Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. sertation, Indiana University. DAI # AAI9518525. Chapter 7 is devoted to art learning and its assessment. Explores the need to This study was conducted to describe, examine, and critique current state-level assess, art program standards, assessing student performances, and planning testing practices and to provide information for future creation and revision of program assessment. Includes a section on assessing student performances state and local curricula and testing instruments. and designing an authentic assessment. Tomhave, R. (1999). Portfolio assessment in the visual arts: A comparison of London, P. (1966). National standards, no; local standards, yes. Presentation advanced secondary art education strategies (Advanced Placement, delivered at the National Art Education Convention. International Baccalaureate, Secondary Education). Unpublished doctoral dis- Discusses deep reservations about imposed and nationalized standards and sertation, University of Minnesota. DAI, 60, no. O6A (1999), p. 1870. argues for standards that emerge from the particulars of locale that employ and One group (the control group) received the Advanced Placement Studio Art celebrate the genius of the place. course of study while another (the experimental group) received the International Baccalaureate Art/Design course of study. The scores resulting NAEA (1994). The national visual arts standards. Reston, VA: National Art from these external evaluations as well as longitudinal data collected during the Education Association. course of the 1997-1998 school year were examined and analyzed in order to compare the two instructional methods. The time students in the experimental Wolf, D. P. (1988). Opening up assessment--Arts Propel. Educational group spent practicing oral and written presentation skills, researching artists Leadership, 45 (4), 24-29. and their works throughout history, critiquing their own work as well as the work Article recounts the beginnings of Project Propel, a multiyear collaboration of others, and grappling with aesthetic issues did not diminish the quality and involving the Rockefeller Foundation, Project Zero, the Educational Testing quantity of the work in their portfolios as assessed by Advanced Placement Service, and the Pittsburgh Public Schools. The objective was to develop quali- examiners. tative measures of assessment using models from the arts and humanities. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Wolf, D. P., & Pistone, N. (1995). Taking full measure: Rethinking assessment Bedwell, D. (2000). Measuring joy: Evaluation at Baltimore Clayworks. through the arts. New York: The College Entrance Examination Board. National Arts Stabilization Journal (5), 5-7. Book explores how arts teachers use varied and progressive approaches to Article reports the development of assessment for a community-based ceram- enhance the thinking skills of their students. The basic premise of the book, ics program. A rubric for evaluating joy offers eight criteria to be rated on a 1 to intended for a broad audience, is that the arts break open the definition of 5 scale: shows work to peers; concentrates on techniques; talks about work to “thinking.” Here critique and assessment are not afterthoughts but absolute others; talks to artist/teacher; holds work close to body; uses clay vocabulary; ingredients of thought. has completed pieces; is working on a group project.

RESEARCH Brown, L. (1998, November). Art assessment and the International Dorn, C. M. (2002). The teacher as stakeholder in student art assessment and Baccalaureate Portfolio. School Arts, pp. 40-42. art program evaluation. Art Education 55 (4), 40-45. Criteria and descriptors for scoring work are detailed in this article, which dis- In contrast to the call for standardized tests, Dorn argues for authentic assess- cusses the goals of an IB art program. Some illustrations of student work are ment conducted at the local level by teachers. The Models for Assessing Art included. Performances Project is discussed wherein 70 art teachers in three states were trained in authentic art assessment. Data from adjudication of nearly 2,000 port- Day, M. (1985). Evaluating student achievement in discipline-based art pro- folios and 16,000 student artworks suggests that teachers who are so trained can grams. Studies in Art Education 26 (4), 232-240. produce quantifiable and reliable estimates of student performance in making Discussion of methods for evaluating DBAE programs. expressive objects. Further, such teachers can set their own standards, create rubrics, and accommodate for contextual and developmental differences. Guskey, T. R. (1994). What you assess may not be what you get. Educational Leadership, 51 (6), 51-54. Dorn, C., Madeja, S., & Sabol, R. (2002). Assessing expressive learning. Makes the argument that performance-based assessments may not bring about Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates Publishers (in press). significant change in instructional practice without substantial investment of Detailed reports of the findings from the Models for Assessing Art Performances time, resources, and training opportunities. Project (discussed in the previous citation). Jamentz, K. (1994). Making sure that assessment improves performance.

28 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Educational Leadership, 51 (6), 55-57. Galvin, S. M. (1999). An inverted test: Students turn the tables and give the Article reports insights from a California study on assessment. Identifies key test. Art Education, 52 (3), 14-18. practices that have an impact on how assessment serves instruction. Suggests This middle school art teacher reports on an experiment in which teams of stu- that instructional benefits come not only from having new assessment tools but dents were invited to give the teacher the test. A reward system was created for also from having created them oneself. the quality of questions and students’ ability to evaluate the teacher’s answers, keeping an eye out for correct, incorrect, and partially correct answers. Jasa, S., & Enger, L. (1994). Applying OBE to arts education. Educational Leadership, 51 (6), 30-32. Hicks, J. M., Hicks, M. S., Powell, J., & Simonton, L. (1996). Evaluation: Need Reports Minnesota’s State Arts High School implementation of an outcome- for a new landscape. Art Education, 49 (3), 51-57. based education and authentic performance assessment. Article includes a Suggests a shift from teacher-directed questions to student-directed ones so sample outcome and assessment criteria from the literary arts program. that students can move toward self-evaluation. Offers two examples from practice, student-generated questions in English at the middle school level and Marzano, R. J. (1994). Lessons from the field on outcome-based performance a learning log used in a second-grade class. assessments. Educational Leadership, 51 (6), 44-50. Article offers insights from three years of experience working with schools, dis- Sandell, R. (1999). Assessment, Grade M, Portfolios. Barrett Kendall tricts, and states. Suggests that outcome-based performance tasks have Publishers, Ltd. promise if schools proceed cautiously. Discusses how performance assess- A model for developing a variety of assessment tasks in the visual arts for mid- ments are important, why students don’t always do well on them, why teachers dle school. Specifically designed to evaluate learning resulting from the Portfolios find them helpful, the reliability of specific rubrics in comparison to retrospec- curriculum materials, it includes tasks that involve reflective statements about tive judgments, and the validity of these assessments. works of art, prompts for generating ideas for new studio work, identification of steps in a process, and use of analogies, as well as tasks for making connec- McConaughy, L. M. (2001). Assessment: Theory and practice in art education. tions between ideas, explanations of terminology, matching techniques, demon- Master’s thesis project, Towson University. strating technical skills, explaining differences, reflecting on problem-solving, Models for assessment were used to design an art test for eighth graders and designing and planning creative work, and ordering events in time. to pilot it in one middle school. Results suggest that students with more instruction in art score at higher levels, although some evidence suggests that Wolf, D. P., & Pistone, N. (1995). Taking full measure: Rethinking assessment students with no instruction and 70 or fewer hours a year achieve similar through the arts. New York: The College Entrance Examination Board. scores in the low range. More study is recommended. Models are drawn from all the arts to illustrate how assessment can be an episode of learning when it insists on excellence, judgment, the importance of O’Neil, J. (1994). Aiming for new outcomes: The promise and the reality. self-assessment, the use of multiple forms of assessment, and ongoing Educational Leadership, 51 (6), 6-10. assessment. Some of the models in the book are drawn from art teachers in Explores reasons why a sensible-sounding proposition such as outcomes-based Pittsburgh and the Arts Propel Project. education has proved to be so controversial. Suggests that future efforts to develop outcomes will be defined in terms of traditional subject areas rather than transformation ones that cross the disciplines. Also projects that states will move slowly on attaching high stakes to outcomes-based education plans and that the public, while interested in school improvement, may not necessarily be looking for major sweeping changes.

Spady, W. (1994). Choosing outcomes of significance. Educational Leadership, 51 (6), 18-22. Discusses what qualifies as an outcome and describes a model based on a constellation of 10 life performance roles.

MODELS FOR PRACTICE Armstrong, C. L. (1994). Designing assessment in art. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Contains models and criteria for evaluation, including aesthetic dialogue.

Dodson, B. (1985). Keys to drawing. Cincinnati, OH: Northlight. This richly illustrated drawing book has process checklists at the end of each chapter and, as such, provides an excellent model for assessing the development of habits and behaviors that contribute to better drawing skills.

Dorn, C. M. (1999). Mind in art: Cognitive foundations in art education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Chapter 7 contains models for Performance-Based Holistic Rubrics for Standards-Based Assessment in the Arts, sample scoring rubrics from Advanced Placement, rating scales for portfolio assessment, and others.

Edwards, B. (1989). Drawing on the right side of the brain. Los Angeles: Tarcher. Presents a model for doing pre-instructional drawings followed by saving and dating all work for a developmental portfolio as documentation of growth.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 29 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Using Language to Support Inquiry-based Learning

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who use language in precise ways purposefully direct, enrich, THEORY extend, and support inquiry-based Promoting student learning is a complex learning. proposition. Research suggests that the small details in the teaching and learning process are as important as larger choices. Good teaching requires a high level of conscious attention to what both teachers and students say and do. Developing a repertoire of particular behaviors may also ensure that responses, especially under pressure, are as equitable and fair as possible. Developmental appropriateness of language appears as an important consideration, but more so, it is the precision with which language is used that determines the extent to which it can enrich, extend, and support inquiry and the teaching-learning process.

30 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE Colbert (1996) calls attention to another dimension of interaction and response. In addressing gender differences in the class- Armstrong’s (1986) model for stages of inquiry in producing room with young children, she reports that research studies art identified a number of behaviors used by artists that can be conducted in the 1990s still suggest that a number of teacher employed by art teachers. All involve precise use of language. behaviors treat boys and girls differently. For example, teachers tend to show boys how to do things, empowering them, while In “setting a direction,” language can be used to stimulate, they tend to do things for girls. Girls tend to be rewarded for engage, identify a problem or a conflict, and/or channel pre- passive behaviors, do not get equal opportunities to speak, and existing interests in the direction of the lesson. receive less attention and constructive feedback than boys do. Boys tend to dominate classroom discussions, have more inter- Language can be used to prompt “discovery.” action with teachers, and receive more constructive criticism along with more time to answer questions. A specific problem “Visual analysis” questions can be used to prolong specific, that appears in art classes has to do with the time allotted to detailed information gathering. work. While some girls may want more time to develop more elaborate responses to art problems, they are often hurried “Classification” can be used to organize new information, along because some boys are working faster, possibly because group facts, and react to and grasp interrelationships. they take art less seriously. Other issues arise when students choose to sit in all-girl or all-boy groups or when girls are pun- Questions that encourage students to pause and reflect on ished by being used as a buffer between disruptive boys. their process and preferences can help “personalize” encounters Resisting the notion that behaviors and responses are gender with making and responding to art. based, Colbert suggests that art teachers should pay attention to behaviors that inadvertently cause them to respond in a “Hypothesizing” questions can help students review attributes manner that diminishes either girls or boys (pp. 65-66). of concepts formed, recall relevant concepts, relate them to each other, and personally interpret gathered information as they work to solve their art problems effectively and uniquely.

“Reordering” questions cause students to avoid premature closure and reach creative potential. They keep what students In “setting a direction,” language can know and intend at the surface of consciousness while they consider the changes and developments occurring in their work. be used to stimulate, engage, identify a Synthesizing questions encourage students to determine when to stop work and/or what kinds of finishing touches are needed. problem or a conflict, and/or channel

“Evaluative” questions can guide students’ reflections, focusing pre-existing interests in the on process, effective relationships, personally unique solutions, unanticipated positive results, and future directions. direction of the lesson.

Burton’s 1998 research update from the Task Force on Student Learning reports that language and verbal cues are used to direct attention, guide art making and inquiry, reinforce art vocabulary and concepts, pose questions, and cause students to pause and reflect. Students use language in a number of ways during the learning process including asking for help, information, directions, and/or ideas; airing frustration or doubt; telling stories and sharing ideas; and responding to the work of others. As teachers interact with the responses of students, teachable moments occur. As the teacher reads a student’s signal for help or willingness to think or share, language is one of the important tools, combined with body language, voice level, and level of trust, in creating a positive, constructive, productive interaction.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 31 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Recommended Strategies Attend to how students signal their need for help, advice, and attention and how they interact. Watch for verbal and The following list of strategies, based on the 1998 research nonverbal responses and behaviors. Think about how to update by Burton as well as Armstrong’s (1986) and Colbert’s shape students’ interaction as they solicit help from each (1996) reports, includes a number of ways to promote learning. other and respond to each other in a variety of ways.

Consider how students will be invited into the learning Consider ways to empower students’ ownership of ideas, process. For example, attention might be focused on thoughts, actions, and accomplishments as opposed to materials, art concepts, artworks, techniques, the experi- holding on to or controlling the evolution of ideas. ential life of students, or other issues. Learn to recognize and respond to “teachable moments.” Choose motivational strategies that will lead to the Strive to read these signals accurately and respond appro- desired kind of interaction, dialogues, engagement in priately. reflection, attitudes toward inquiry, aesthetic merit, and student behaviors toward teacher and peers. Establish an ambience for learning. Use body language, voice level, rituals, and peer interaction that contribute to Be aware of gender equity as well as the way learning is a sense of trust, cooperation, and community. Set up the promoted. Consider how to encourage exploration and room and organize materials to accommodate movement reflection, promote inquiry and elicitation of ideas, con- and accessibility. firm by repeating and/or acknowledging, make meaning out of complexity, give directions or instructions, list Consider inviting a peer or a supervisor to give feedback things to consider or include, tell about process or out- on interaction and response. Or videotape a lesson and comes, invite reflection, coach, discuss, stress continuity, analyze interaction and response from the tape. Observe indicate approval, and give time to students for response. master teachers to learn more about how positive and Take time to observe students working to see what addi- productive interaction and responses can be used to pro- tional responses might be productive. mote learning.

Consider how responses to students will be set in motion and played out in the course of a lesson. Think through where you want to meet students and responses to use as they enter the room. Consider responses that might be useful for motivation at the beginning of the lesson as well as how to respond to the whole group, small groups, and individuals during the lesson and at its close.

32 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION REFERENCES Armstrong, C. L. (1986). Stages of inquiry in producing art: Model, rationale and application to a teacher questioning strategy. Studies in Art Education 28 (1), 37-48. Author proposes an inquiry model in which language is used to achieve a variety of ends, including setting a direction, discovery, visual analysis, classification, personalization, hypothesizing, reordering, synthesizing, and evaluating.

RESEARCH Armstrong, C. L. (1993). Effect of training in an art production questioning method on teacher questioning and student responses. Studies in Art Education 34 (4), 209-221. A study comparing pre- and post-training use of questioning strategies reporting that an inquiry model (see Armstrong citation under references) increased thoughtful student responses.

Burton, J. M. (Team Leader) (1997, September). NAEA Task Force on Student Learning Research Update. Unpublished report to the NAEA Task Force on Research.

Burton, J. M. (Team Leader) (1998, February). NAEA Task Force on Student Learning Research Update. Unpublished report presented at the 1998 National Art Education Association Convention. A task force of some 17 teacher-researchers, from all levels of education and in a variety of settings, are involved in a project to gain insight into how teachers recognize or “read” development in children’s artistic endeavors (1998, p. 1). The primary method of collecting data is by videotaping classroom interactions for analysis. The review process includes looking at the tapes as a study group, first taking notice of what they are seeing followed by development of categories and identification of various indicators of interaction and response among teachers and students. As the research study group continues, it will turn its focus to case studies of investigations led by participants.

Colbert, C. (1996). Issues of gender in the visual arts education of young children. In G. Collins & R. Sandell (Eds.), Gender Issues in Art Education: Content, Contexts, and Strategies (pp. 61-69). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Included in this article on gender issues is data from recent studies and practical suggestions for teachers. Although the focus is on early childhood, many of the studies suggest the importance of monitoring gender issues throughout the grades.

Hafeli, M. (2000). Negotiating “fit” in student art work: Classroom conversations. Studies in Art Education, 41 (2), 130-145. A qualitative study conducted in two middle school art classrooms over a four- week period. Data collection focused on the ways in which students interpret lesson guidelines and the manner in which they both resist and respond to teachers’ responses. Hafeli suggests that the conversations that take place during the art-making process contribute to or influence the “meaning” of the work. Study suggests “that teacher-student conversations have the potential to be more than checking for adherence to guidelines or coaching technique or conveying aesthetic preferences” (p. 143).

REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Burton, J. (1980-81, Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec., Jan.). Developing minds. School Arts. A developmental series of articles beginning with preschoolers and concluding with adolescents, which focuses on art making as a process of developing visual, expressive, and cognitive concepts. Models language used to promote engagement and learning with examples of teacher-student dialogues.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 33 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Developing Language Acquisition and Conceptual Development Through Art

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who use language-rich explorations of visual concepts, themes, and materials, connecting visual form to feeling and meaning, THEORY can foster cognitive development in early While vision develops biologically as a means of childhood. orientation, its function is more than mechanical recording. Vision, in which generalities and differences can be recognized, requires memory and concept formation (Arnheim, 1989, p. 15). Cognition starts with the most general aspects of things and proceeds from there to the particular. In short, vision involves thinking (p. 7).

The acquisition of language facilitates thought. The ability to differentiate and integrate perceptual concepts makes it possible to grasp the meaning of words, and, in turn, language acquisition supports the development of both broader associations and more precise differentiations. In short, the process of concept development is ultimately a process of abstraction (Dorn, 1999, pp. 124-125).

The following terminology is related to cognitive growth and development:

Cognition is a class of symbolic mental activities such as thinking, reasoning, problem solving, memory search, and so forth.

Perceptual awareness means to take notice of, observe, or detect, and to achieve understanding of that which is perceived directly through the senses, especially through seeing, touch, and hearing.

Seeing intelligently involves seeing forms and structure, relationships, and patterns, making note of prominent and subtle qualities.

Cognitive concepts are generalizations derived from classifying, sorting, comparing, and contrasting qualities and attributes; as such, cognitive concepts provide a way of thinking about similarities and differences as well as associated feelings and meanings.

Art and art-like activities can play an important role in the process of developing cognitive concepts. The roots of the arts can be seen in the activities of young children (Hurwitz, 1994). The process of “making special” appears to promote

34 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION child-centered, meaningful, and artistically authentic early childhood art education (Giles, 2000). Drawing and modeling behaviors ground children in the forms and processes of their culture and appear to contribute to the development of cognitive processes (Baker, 1990). Knowledge is retained longer if children connect not only aurally but emotionally and physically to ideas (Goleman, 1995). Through the arts, thought is integrated with action, form, and feeling (Wilkinson, 1993). Connecting feeling and meaning to visual form fosters the development of cognitive concepts (Burton, 1980; Townley, 1983).

The use of contrasting opposites in the investigation of visual form develops perceptual awareness (Itten, 1963; Townley, 1978). A pedagogical approach for exploring visual concepts through the use of contrasting opposites, multisensory investigations, and practice with language can be designed to support development of perceptual awareness, cognitive development, and language acquisition (Townley, 1978).

Sorting, classifying, and differentiating increase spatial PRACTICE reasoning and the development of cognitive concepts.

Research suggests that young children who have access to basic Finding samenesses among differences develops higher- art materials such as paper, crayons, markers, glue, tape, paint, order thinking skills, reasoning, and perceptual discrimi- play dough, etc., may perform better academically in the early nation. years of school (Baker, 1994). Specifically, explorations that include both two- and three-dimensional materials, a con- Thinking about how the whole confers meaning on the trasting-opposites approach to visual concepts, and applica- parts and how the parts confer meaning on the whole tions of concepts to themes contribute to the development of contributes to the development of spatial-temporal rea- language, fine motor skills, and mastery of cognitive concepts soning, which is also fundamental in math, science, and among kindergarten children (Carroll, 2000). Drawing and reading. the use of relevant works of art appear to develop vocabulary, perceptual awareness, mastery of visual concepts, and complex Associating feeling, movement, sound, and meaning cognitive connections among students who are deaf or hard of with visual form develops cognitive concepts, higher- hearing (Eubanks, 1995; Greene, 1981). order thinking, analytical skills, and imagination.

The following strategies are suggested for the development of visual concepts using a language-rich program of instruction (Carroll, 2000):

Naming, identifying, and describing affect the development of language and increase vocabulary.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 35 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

REFERENCES RESEARCH Ackerman, D. (1990). A natural history of the senses. New York: Vintage Baker, D. W. (1994). Toward a sensible education: Inquiring into the role of the Books/Random House. visual arts in early childhood education. Visual Arts Research 20, (2), 92-104. Book explores, chapter by chapter, the various senses. Ackerman, a poet, Reports a study funded by Binney and Smith conducted in the Milwaukee area draws on multiple fields, including the arts and sciences, to construct a vivid investigating the nature of art-like activities in day-care centers and nursery image of touch, taste, vision, hearing, and smell. schools, recognition of academic and drawing success in schooling, and materials for art activities made available by parents. Study involved 100 preschool Arnheim, R. (1989). Thoughts on art education. Los Angeles: The Getty 3-year-olds, 50 4-year-olds enrolled in preschools, and 100 public school stu- Center for Education in the Arts. dents in each grade, kindergarten through Grade 3. Methodology involved site A series of short articles exploring visual thinking, intuition and intellect, visual visits, inventories, teacher evaluations of student performance, and phone form and materials, content and meaning, and other topics relevant to ques- interviews with parents. Findings suggest a strong positive correlation linking tions in art education. Book includes a foreword by Eliott Eisner who offers an involvement with art-like activities and materials, drawing development, and introduction to the work of this psychologist and educator. academic success in early childhood.

Baker, D. W. (1990, July-August). The visual arts in early childhood education. Carroll, K. L. (2000). Report from the Study Group for Art in Early Childhood, Design for Arts in Education (pp. 21-25). 1999-2000. Prepared for the Maryland State Department of Education. Article makes the case that drawing and modeling behaviors and skills ground Unpublished grant report addressing the correlation of drawing level with read- the ability of children to comprehend, understand, and master cognitive ing and writing readiness among kindergarten children. Data base included processes related to letters and numbers. Further that art and art-like activities more than 400 children attending city and county schools and receiving a cur- ground children in the forms and processes of their culture. riculum taught by art and kindergarten teachers adapted from Mary Ross Townley’s Another Look curriculum. Data suggests that kindergarten children Dorn, C. (1999). Mind in art: Cognitive foundations in art education. can master sophisticated visual concepts through instruction based on con- Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. Inc., Publisher. trasting opposites and multisensory investigations including practice with mate- A review of philosophy, theory, and research related to cognition with implica- rials, language, and thematic applications. tions for curriculum and assessment. Chapter 5 focuses on conceptual behaviors in art and offers the following insights about concepts and concept forma- Eubanks, P. (1995). Art as a visual language in support of verbal language tion: a concept is defined as a mental interpretation of two or more perceptive development in young children who are deaf and hard of hearing. Unpublished units possessing the same character but with their measurements omitted. doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia. DAI, 56, no. 0BA, (1995): 2974. Concepts are identified through perceptual data, vary according to the age of the The study focused primarily on practices in two classrooms, second grade and percipient, are measurable, consist of wider or narrower perceptual evidence, are kindergarten, in an oral school for D/HH children. Participant observation and aided by speech, and are developed through the process of discovery. key-informant interviews were used as data-collection strategies. Research findings, reported as a series of brief narratives, indicate that teachers who Eisner, E. (1989). Foreword in R. Arnheim, Thoughts on art education. Los serve these children make extensive use of the children’s drawings to develop Angeles: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts. vocabulary, correct syntax, and check student understanding. These drawings Introductory essay that provides a concise overview of Arnheim’s contributions are a pathway into the cognitive life of these children, allowing their teachers to including the following ideas: that the sensory system is a primary resource in identify incomplete or misunderstood concepts. Though other kinds of visual our cognitive life, that perception is a cognitive event, that the eye is part of the images were frequently used, works of art were not. When made available, rele- mind, and that interpretation and meaning are an indivisible aspect of seeing. vant works of art were used to develop vocabulary, increase perceptual awareness, teach concepts, and make complex cognitive and visual connections. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam. Sets forth a discussion of the emotional brain, the nature of emotional intelli- Giles, A. R. W. (2000). “Making special”: Child-centered, meaningful, and gence and how it affects the quality of one’s life, and the ways in which emo- artistically authentic early childhood art education. Unpublished dissertation, tional intelligence can be nurtured in the family and at school. Identifies the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. DAI, 61, no. 05A, p. 1715. arts as a significant way of developing emotional intelligence wherein feelings A qualitative study involving interviews with parents and teachers as well as are associated with thought, action, and creative expression. videotaped observations of children and teachers in a particular kindergarten and first-grade classroom. Factors encourage children to experience “making Hurwitz, A. (Ed.) (1994). The arts in their infancy. Baltimore: Center for Art special,” a term borrowed from Dissanayake and used to describe authentic Education, Maryland Institute College of Art. and artful activities. The effects of “making special” were examined to deter- Monograph contains talks and reflections from the conference of the same title. mine if it is an important part of art education in early childhood. Includes essays by Ellen Winner, Judith Burton, Geraldine Dimondstein, and Patricia Pinciotti, all of which lend credibility and substance to the notion that Greene, J. C. (1981). The acquisition of language concepts by hearing impaired the roots of the arts are found in the behaviors of infants and young children. A children through selected aspects of an experimental core art curriculum. limited number of copies are available from the Center at MICA. Studies in Art Education, 22 (2), 32-37. Reports on an experimental and correlational study with kindergarten and Grade Wilkinson, J. A. (Ed.) (1993). The symbolic dramatic play-literacy connection: 1 pre-lingually deaf children who were engaged with a combination of visual, Whole brain, whole body, whole learning. Needham Heights, MA: Ginn Press. tactile, and linguistic modes of art activity that resulted in greater concept According to Patterson’s 1994 review published in Studies in Art Education (Vol. attainment. 36, 1), this book makes the case that the arts are “holistic activities involving an intelligent engagement with life.” The roots of literacy are found in dramatic play, REPORTS FROM PRACTICE and the manner in which professional guidance can foster language acquisition in the early years before schooling is discussed. Symbolic dramatic play is identified Burton, J. (1980-81, Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec., Jan.). Developing Minds. School Arts. as a “first order literacy” and connected to meaning making. Supports the notion A developmental series of articles, beginning with preschoolers and concluding that the arts can play an integral part in early childhood development because with adolescents, which focuses on art making as a process for developing they integrate “thought with action, form with feeling” (pp.63-64). visual, expressive, and cognitive concepts. Models the use of language in dialogues of teachers with students.

36 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Eubanks, P. (1998, Summer). Art and language development. In A. L. Nyman cepts with materials and to themes in art. Emphasis on language acquisition, (Ed.), NAEA Advisory. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. letter recognition, and concept development is at the center of this curriculum. Identifies additional studies, references, and strategies related to art and Currently out of print. For more information, contact the Center for Art language. Education at MICA.

Townley, M. R. (1983, September). Taking another look: Comparing forms. School Arts (pp. 48-51). Illustrates ways students can group forms, discuss art, respond to art and visual form through words and action, and use visual forms to express ideas. Examples are taken from Townley’s teaching and her series, Another Look. (For a fuller description, see Models for Practice in this entry.)

MODELS FOR PRACTICE Developing language through the arts, an early learning program, part I. (1996). Towson, MD: Baltimore County Public Schools, Office of Art and Office of Elementary Education and Title I, and the Baltimore Museum of Art.

Developing language and literacy through the arts, an early learning program using selected works from the Baltimore Museum of Art. (1997). Towson, MD: Baltimore County Public Schools, Office of Art and Office of Elementary Education and Title I, and the Baltimore Museum of Art. Program originally designed for language-delayed children in early childhood programs that uses specific artworks for in-class study and a museum visit. Activities are language intensive.

Herman, G. N., & Hollingsworth, P. (1992). Kinetic kaleidoscope: Exploring movement and energy in the visual arts. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. Presents a vocabulary for describing and acting out movement and energy that has correspondence with the theory of contrasting opposites, i.e., high/low; sud- den/sustained; slow/quick, gentle/firm, free/bound, etc. Movement concepts are based on Laban’s language for dance notation. Book illustrates through many examples how movement can be used to respond to visual art forms. As such, it offers a nonverbal form of interaction with and response to art.

Itten, J. (1963). Design and form: The basic course at the Bauhaus. Trans. by John Maass. New York: Reinhold. Itten’s curriculum for the basic course, which integrated a number of teaching strategies including the theory of contrasting opposites in the study of visual form, visual analysis of artworks, alternating explorations of materials between two and three dimensions, kinesthetic exercises in preparation for drawing, and opportunities to apply visual concepts to expressive themes and ideas. Illustrated with examples of student work.

Roukes, N. (1988). Design synectics. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Art Director Roukes provides rich language for thinking conceptually about visual form. While he offers a review of the elements of art and principles of organization, he also extends that language to vocabulary drawn from nature and science, thus providing language useful in describing and understanding contemporary art and visual culture.

Townley, M. R. (1978). Another Look, Levels A, B, and C. Menlo Park, CA.: Addison Wesley Publishers. A series of lessons designed to develop perceptual awareness and an exploration of visual concepts, themes, and materials in the visual arts. Employs “contrasting opposites” as a developmentally appropriate instructional device for young learners in which one visual concept is understood in relationship to its opposite, i.e., open/closed, straight/curved, smooth/rough, etc. Suggests a developmental instructional sequence in which one or more visual concepts are explored, first in their more simple form and then later in more complex combinations, in preparation for working with themes that can be correlated with the general curriculum while moving between two- and three-dimensional materials. Uses an integrated multisensory approach in which children are guided through looking at visuals and objects, sorting and classification activities, dramatic play, word association, talking about art and artists, and applying con-

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 37 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Enriching Art Content Through Reading

THEORY While research has yet to confirm that art, by itself, improves reading, it does appear that certain visual skills are directly related to reading and may contribute to reading readiness. Further, it is clear that engaging subject matter, such as art, can motivate learners to read (Burger & Winner, 2000). In the larger sense, reading can be thought of as a process for creating and constructing meaning in and from a variety of forms. Given the human drive to make meaning out of the BETTER PRACTICE world of experience, this process constitutes much Teachers who incorporate purposeful and of what both education and life are about (Eisner, appropriate reading into art instruction help 1978, pp. 14-15). develop reading skills while enriching subject Reading to learn about art can enrich the matter content in art. instructional process. The specialized terminology related to art is a rich opportunity to build vocabulary. Descriptive language, developed through art, can help students master norm-referenced vocabulary commensurate with their grade level. There are strong parallels between visual literacy, critical thinking, and reading: locating the main idea, identifying sequence, locating details, comparing and contrasting, predicting what will happen next, and making connections between cause and effect. In addition, the reading of images and texts requires the development of interpretive skills, making connections with feeling and prior knowledge. Critical skills include discriminating between fact and opinion, reality and fiction; identifying point of view; and articulating reasons for response (O’Brien, 2000). (For more on critical thinking, see Perkins, 1994.)

Beyond words and images, used separately or in conjunction with each other, is the increasing advent of multisensory media wherein one mode of expression “anchors” or qualifies the meaning communicated by other modes of expression (Duncum, 2002). In such an example, sounds or music might change the meaning of an image or an image might be used to qualify the meaning of text. Duncum argues for more than multiple forms of literacy that apply to different forms of expression in isolation from each other. Critical to the construction of meaning in the contemporary world would be a form of multiliteracy that would take into account the interaction of different forms of expression with each other.

38 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE Grades 4-8

Certain study skills related to reading also have their place in the Reading for comprehension becomes a central task in these art class. These include following directions, classifying, com- years. Thus, selected readings relevant to vocabulary develop- paring, note taking, using dictionaries, consulting reference ment, directions, and supplemental information about artists books, and recognizing different genres (poetry, letters, criti- are appropriate to incorporate into art instruction. cism, commentary, and different styles and subject matter in art). In addition, the use of graphic organizers to structure, find Teachers who read important information or text while stu- relationships, make connections, compare, and analyze helps dents silently read along find this to be more successful than learners to visually construct meaning from text and image. having a student read the same information out loud. Scaffolding, or building on prior knowledge, is also a key study skill as is practice with recall of information (O’Brien, 2000). Silent reading is best done in short segments. Dividing read- (For more on graphic organizers, see Hamilton, 1998.) ings among table groups and generating answers to guiding questions, reported to the class, make up an excellent strategy Speed and efficiency, in reading text and/or images, can be for gathering a lot of information from reading in a short peri- practiced by scanning for specific pieces of information and od of time. (See Ruopp, 1996, for a unit involving this read- skimming for general information, such as looking for bold ing strategy.) print, summaries, and visual information (O’Brien, 2000). Enabling students to read image and text for interest, pleasure, Reading can be supported by more technical approaches that information, and appreciation is the larger goal of both visual focus on phonics and sounding out words as well as more and verbal literacy. The functions of reading within the con- holistic approaches that use context to help decode words and tent area of art include: construct meaning. Reading images might involve similar approaches. Transfer between the two modes of expression is Reading to Perform a Task more likely if teachers identify and reinforce the similarities in the processes of reading words and images. A developmental In Grades K-2, students read illustrations or diagrams to fol- approach is suggested by these strategies tested in practice low directions, read labels in sorting and categorizing, and read (Ruopp, 2001): single words identified as key vocabulary related to tasks they will perform. Teaching visuals should be simple and highly Kindergarten to Third Grade visual in nature.

Drawing, writing, and reading have similar roots in mark- In Grades 3-5, students read materials that explain a process or making, storytelling, and the relationship between image and to follow simple step-by-step directions. Diagrams and images text. A variety of tasks can assist students in becoming read- that support the text are useful. Teaching visuals can be more ing ready. Practice in identifying letter forms, recognizing complex. words, and sounding out words is an appropriate task. Young students may respond more favorably to symbols and may In Grades 6-8, teaching visuals can emphasize vocabulary and appear to comprehend them better than words. (See Carroll, definitions as well as steps in a process. Rubrics, distributed at 2000, for more information.) the beginning of projects, clearly set expectations for task performance and learning. Discussion, in which the teacher Art curricula that emphasize letter recognition side by side checks for understanding, reinforces both reading skills and with visual concepts help develop visual discrimination. the meaning of expectations.

Vocabulary and concept development that is approached Reading to Be Informed through a variety of strategies, including touch, movement, sound, sorting and classifying, word association, and practice In Grades K-2, children are building a vocabulary of visual with art materials, reinforces the process through which mean- symbols as well as words and concepts. Exploring concepts ing is communicated through words, images, movements, and embedded in concrete form and experienced through touch, sound. Such strategies are especially helpful for students who sight, hearing, or movement can help develop a vocabulary for are primarily kinesthetic, spatial, and/or visual learners. (See describing and understanding their world of experience. Carroll, 2000, for more information.)

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 39 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

In Grades 3-5, students can read about art from selections that are age appropriate. Key words should be highlighted and dis- Transfer between the two modes of cussed. Students can be asked to identify something they did not already know but learned from the reading. Asking stu- expression is more likely if teachers dents to consider what they need to know prior to reading can focus their search for information.

identify and reinforce the similarities Process-centered projects that require students to evaluate themselves after each step invite them to think about what in the processes of reading words their next step will be and what they need to know to get there. They can come to some conclusions by visually reading and images. the progress of their projects. When they realize they need to gather additional information from text sources to continue, they know what they are looking to find out—whether they gather it through their own reading or from being read to by the teacher.

In Grades 6-8, students need to gather materials and ideas from different sources, including text and print resources. Reading, summarizing, combing through materials, and using information are integral to the process of formulating their own thoughts, reactions, and ideas for art.

Reading for Literary Experience

From K-8, narrative projects that move to and from the written word bring reading, writing, and visual storytelling into a close relationship (Olson, 1992). Artwork can be inspired by stories, fairy tales, myths, legends, poems, and other literary forms.

Likewise, artwork can generate written text. Image and text can work together. Propositions such as “What happens next?” and “What would you do if it were you?” are examples of prompts for visual responses to visual and verbal imagery. (See Olson, 1992, for specific examples.)

Illustrating text, translating the verbal into the visual, is another way of having students attend to the meanings embedded in text, looking for visual cues about setting, weather, time of day, environment, characters, action, and props that might make for illustrations depicting the progress of a story. (See Wolf, 1999, for an example.)

40 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION REFERENCES MODELS FOR PRACTICE Adler, M., & van Doren, C. (1972). How to read a book. New York: Hamilton, C. (1998). Using artistic strategies. In J. Simpson, J. Delaney, K. L. Touchstone Books. Carroll, C. M. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. S. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, Creating mean- A basic reference with a comprehensive guide to reading. ing through art: Teacher as choice maker (pp. 207-257). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Alvermann, D. E., & Phelps, S. F. Content reading and literacy: Succeeding in Defines an artistic strategy as a combination of seeing and doing. Provides today’s diverse classrooms. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. visual strategies for gathering ideas and planning, observing and recording, and reflecting and assessing. College text designed for teachers in all content areas. Includes chapters that define content literacy and ways of thinking about the reading process, present O’Brien, B. C. (1992) Learning to read through the arts: A practical guide. issues related to diversity and culture, provide guidelines for planning instruc- Revised edition. Ridgewood, NJ: OCE Consultants. (Contact OCE at P.O. Box tion and assessment, and suggest ways to make reading an effective compo- 1211, Ridgewood, NJ 07451.) nent of all content areas. Program guide presenting background and strategies for implementation.

Duncum, P. (2002). Visual culture: Multimodality and meaning. Presentation Olson, J. (1992). Envisioning writing: Toward the integration of drawing and at the National Art Education Conference, Miami Beach, FL. writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. Duncum argued for art educators to rethink an exclusive focus on things visual Contains numerous strategies for generating visual narratives, some based on and consider how different modalities interact with each other. He argued for literary texts and musical source material. Well illustrated with examples of multiliteracy as a poststructural construct in which any text has multiple read- student work. Includes a discussion of the relationship between visual and ver- ings and noted that literacy is being reconceptualized as a social phenomenon. bal forms of expression as well as a section of visual learners who struggle with More than just decoding and encoding, it is a highly dynamic social practice, the language arts. changing over time and profoundly political. Perkins, D. N. (1994). The intelligent eye: Learning to think by looking at art. Eisner, E. W. (Ed.) (1978). Reading, the arts, and the creation of meaning. Santa Monica, CA: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Perkins explains why looking at art requires thinking and proceeds to describe Includes papers presented at a symposium exploring the topic from a variety of and illustrate ways to make looking broad and adventurous, clear and deep, viewpoints such as Kenneth Marantz’s argument to consider illustrated chil- organized, and mind-building. dren’s books works of art and Edmund Burke Feldman’s thoughts on art, criticism, and reading. Rowell, E. H. (1983). Developing reading skills through the study of great art. In J. E. Cowen (Ed.), Teaching reading through the arts. Newark, DE: O’Brien, B. (2000). Teaching reading in the content area of art. Presentation International Reading Association (pp. 55-67). for the Center for Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art. Personal notes. Ruopp, A. (1996, April). Narrative drawing: A study in personal histories. School Arts, 20-21. RESEARCH Describes middle school narrative unit incorporating reading about art. Burger, K., & Winner, E. (2000). Visual arts and reading. Journal of Aesthetic Suggests a number of practical strategies such as using an art interest invento- Education, 34 (3-4), 277-293. ry and starting with images that are of interest to learners, drawing on chil- A critique of existing research investigating the relationship between the visual dren’s books that are artfully illustrated, and increasing vocabulary while study- arts and reading. Suggests more about what has not been examined through ing art. A model is provided for developing comprehension skills through art research than actual insights but does conclude that the visual arts may con- appreciation that motivates, possibly through guiding questions, and allows tribute to reading readiness and that the arts are one of many vehicles that can time for initial reactions, presents new vocabulary and concepts, involves motivate learners to read because of their engaging nature. directed viewing, and concludes with follow-up activities.

Carroll, K. L. (2000). Report on the Goals 2000 Grant: Developing Reading Ruopp, A. (1996, April). Narrative drawing: A study in personal histories. and Writing Readiness through the Visual Arts. Unpublished report prepared for School Arts, 20-21. the Maryland State Department of Education. Describes middle school narrative unit incorporating reading about art. Reports that reading readiness at the kindergarten level is supported by increased time in art with a curriculum modeled after the Another Look series Wolf, B. (1999, December). Visualizing text: Illustrating a class book. School developed by Mary Ross Townley in 1979. This curriculum uses a language of Arts, 15-19. contrasting visual concepts that are explored through multiple modes of experi- Illustrates how seventh-grade students took on the task of making a class book ence (touch, sight, sound, classifying, movement, word play, and with both two- illustrating The Call of the Wild, which they were reading in language arts. dimensional and three-dimensional materials). The curriculum builds certain Every student was assigned an excerpted passage so that the entire book could visual concepts and then applies them to themes drawn from the larger cur- be illustrated. Students grew in their drawing skills, and their understanding of riculum. the book developed by having to visualize and represent characters, settings, action, and plot developments described in words. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Ruopp, A. (2001). Implementation of Reading Strategies in Art, N-8. Unpublished Independent Study Report for the Maryland Institute, College of Art Center for Art Education.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 41 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Creating a Mutually Supportive Relationship Between Art and Writing

THEORY While more attention has been given to reading in the content area, writing across the curriculum has its own advocates, issues, questions, and challenges. A developmental view of writing begins with the observation that drawing and writing have the same roots and develop side by side in early childhood (Baker, 1985; Yanin, 1985; Edmonds, 2002). The child’s discovery BETTER PRACTICE that marks can carry meaning, be they Teachers who employ writing to letters, numbers, or figures, provides the enrich art learning support and conceptual basis for all symbolic languages develop, through application and including mathematics, writing, and drawing. practice, writing and thinking skills. Further, it appears that the development of fine motor skills in mark making equally funds both the early drawing and letter-writing efforts of young children. The degree to which the child has developed control with mark making and a repertoire of marks and shapes is likely to consistently show itself in early efforts to draw both schemata and letters (Carroll, 2000). One might conclude that, at least at the early stages of schooling (preschool, kindergarten, Grade 1), practice in drawing contributes to both drawing and writing readiness.

At a second level, image making can take up another role in the development of writing. Strong parallels exist between visual and verbal forms of narrative. Common to both are characters; settings; props; stories with beginnings, middles, and ends; sequence; cause and effect; conflict and resolution. Reports from practice suggest that nurturing both visual and verbal forms of expression, continuing that original reciprocal relationship, results in gains in both modes of expression (Olson, 1987; Carroll, 1996; Ernst, 1993; Hubbard & Ernst, 1996). Thus, combining and/or alternating between text and image throughout the K-12 curriculum surfaces as a significant instructional strategy (Fountas & Olson, 1996). In particular, some have noted the manner in which such a strategy serves students who are primarily visual learners and others who are challenged academically (Olson, 1992; Thacker, 1996).

42 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION While drawing may provide a visual and alternative way to plan or rehearse for writing (Calkins, 1986; Caldwell & Moore, 1991), writing can also serve as a way of planning or preparing to make art (Galvin, 1997). Information can be gathered about students through inventories or surveys, and questions can be constructed to help students identify their own interests, experiences, beliefs, and assumptions (Ayres, 1998). Ideas can be generated through mapping, diagramming, brainstorming, recall, and reflection (Hamilton, 1998). Mastery of vocabulary and attention to steps in various processes, as well as synthesizing findings from readings or research, can be supported through regular writing practice (O’Brien, 1992).

Critical and reflective writing also harnesses writing in the service of learning and thinking about art (Susi, 1999). Writing develops through practice with vocabulary, description, and analysis; raising and responding to guiding questions; making connections; and revisiting processes, thoughts, feelings, and responses. Assessment of art learning may also benefit from discussions (Hafeli, 2001) and written reflections. Often, reflective writing can reveal as much (or more) about what has been learned in the process of making art as can be gathered from what is seen in the product.

Becoming a good writer in any discipline requires practice. The development of writing is closely connected with the development of thinking. Important to writing are the form, the message, and the intended audience. Writers often envision the reader and attend to the purpose of the act. Different forms may serve different purposes. For example, a poem or a letter may provide a reflective structure for responding to a work of art or for sharing personal insights and discoveries. A journal entry, recording goals and/or accomplishments for the day or week, may take one of many forms depending on what needs to be The child’s discovery that marks can recorded. Reporting on an artist, comparing works carry meaning, be they letters, numbers, of art, summarizing readings, or writing essay responses on examinations may require a more or figures, provides the conceptual basis academic form of written response (Barnet, 2000). for all symbolic languages including Developing an artist’s statement is a particular kind of writing task. Critical writing about art also mathematics, writing, and drawing. has its own demands (Barrett, 2000). In all cases, examples of good writing can play an important role. (See entries under Outcome IV for more on modeling for critical writing.)

Writing is also rewriting (Barnet, 2000). Rewriting, as a second step, is an issue of craft and another opportunity for learning. Writing requires attention to technical issues such as spelling and

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 43 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

grammar as well as a more holistic concern for personal voice, ownership of content and style, and the development of ideas. As with reading, writing can be thought of as a process for the construction of meaning in which both form and content matter.

Writing into art, that is, making text part or all of an image, is yet another form writing takes in the world of contemporary art. Text can complement, enhance, extend, or qualify the meaning of an image, take the form of response or commentary, or operate as an element within the work playing dominant or minor roles providing juxtaposition, contrast, or humor. Image and text may be presented by the artist or be generated from participants and viewers. In this sense, text and image play with and against each other, a reminder that they once began side by side.

While art teachers recognize as part of their mission the identification of students who are Encouraging movement among modes of highly able in making art, Hurwitz (1983) suggests that art teachers should also be on thought and expression should help ideas the lookout for those who demonstrate high sensitivity in critical performance. The grow and develop. In the process, students development of critical response, and the should come to know more about how they integration of writing into the art curriculum, will help these students stand out. learn and think.

44 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE plan, give peer feedback, and offer opportunities to reflect on encounters with art. Such examples include drills, peer-feed- Integrating writing into the art curriculum can serve many back forms, and self-assessments. ends. In general, the functions of writing within the content area of art include writing to record steps in a task; writing to Have students make and use journals that accommodate both own information and develop ideas; and writing for insight, drawing and writing to provide opportunities for students to understanding, and appreciation. On another level, writing consider their own thoughts (Carroll, 1996). and making art should feed each other. Encouraging movement among modes of thought and expression should help Students can generate signage and text to accompany their ideas grow and develop. In the process, students should come own individual work and/or class exhibits of their artwork. to know more about how they learn and think. Collaboration with colleagues in the identification of themes or RECOMMENDED concepts can make connections between writing in the other STRATEGIES content areas and art. For example, students might write a story, poem, report on a scientific study, an account of a historical Note: Some of these strategies emerge from the literature; oth- event, or another piece that could then be used as the basis for ers, not yet reported in the literature yet observed as effective image making. Exemplars or student artwork might be used as in practice, are reported here. the prompt for creative, descriptive, or interpretive writing.

Kindergarten to Third Grade Grades 9-12

Emerging literacy can be supported by the interplay of the dis- Written assignments can be integrated into high school art ciplines of reading, writing, and art (Ernst, 1992). courses. Guiding questions can help focus attention.

Opportunities for young children to generate stories related to Examination of good models of critical writing helps students their images can be integrated into lessons and practice ses- understand what constitutes good writing about art. sions. Pre-writers can dictate stories stimulated by their artwork and copy from an adult-written version as they practice Practice comparing and analyzing works, as well as writing writing their own words. Narrative formats and especially research papers, is particularly relevant to courses in art histo- book forms provide opportunities to write stories. A fill-in- ry and Advanced Placement in art. the-blank story, for early writers, provides a structure with, at the same time, an opportunity to enter creative and original Time taken in giving feedback on both form and content in ideas into a basic story line. Stories drafted in relation to nar- writing, while working from drafts to produce a polished piece rative imagery can be corrected and rewritten so that text, of writing, helps develop the depth of comprehension as well which functions as part of an image or as a companion piece, as skill in writing. Good polished works can then be shared demonstrates proper spelling and sentence structure. through publications and exhibitions.

Writing can be used to generate ideas for making art. The use Concrete tasks such as preparing text and materials to accom- of visual organizers and generating lists through brainstorming pany an exhibit can motivate students, sharpen skills, and can be modeled with a class. maximize learning.

Matching games with words and images, which check for comprehension, can give students practice in writing art words.

Grades 4-8

A variety of written tasks, selected for their appropriateness, can help generate ideas, record information from readings,

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 45 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

REFERENCES experimental group featured two different kinds of teacher modeling in a series of seven lessons once a week. In the experimental group, the teacher modeled th Barnet, S. (2000). A short guide to writing about art, 6 ed. New York: drawing a picture in her journal before writing; the control group model did not Longman. use a drawing. Findings suggest that initially the drawing strategy correlated Guide covers writing about art, analysis, writing a comparison, and composing with higher numbers of words written, but after the third lesson, students tend- an effective essay, as well as issues of style and different critical approaches, ed to rely less on the pictures and more on their own writing. reading and taking notes, manuscript form, and essay examinations. Includes a section on using the library catalog and other sources, along with one on Carroll, K. L. (2000). Report on the Goals 2000 Grant: Developing Reading using the Internet with recommendations for conducting a search, evaluating a and Writing Readiness through the Visual Arts. Unpublished report prepared for source, and making a citation. Contains checklists and helpful hints for writing. the Maryland State Department of Education. Reports that writing readiness at the kindergarten level is supported by nd Barrett, T. (2000). Criticizing art: Understanding the contemporary, 2 ed. increased time in art with a curriculum modeled after the Another Look series Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing. developed by Mary Ross Townley in 1979. This curriculum uses a language of Chapter 6 focuses on writing and talking about art including technicalities and contrasting visual concepts that are explored through multiple modes of experi- procedures of writing and suggestions for writing art criticism. In general, the ence (touch, sight, sound, classifying, movement, word play, and with both two- book is rich with examples of criticism, some by noteworthy critics and others dimensional and three-dimensional materials); the curriculum builds certain that deal with specific critical problems that arise in contemporary art. It visual concepts and then applies them to themes drawn from the larger cur- includes reproductions of the art discussed. riculum.

Hurwitz, A. (1983). The gifted and talented in art: A guide to programming. Edmonds, S. J. (2002). Every story tells a picture: The co-construction of Worcester, MA: Davis Press. meaning with words and pictures in the drawings of young children. In the first section on defining artistic giftedness, Hurwitz devotes a chapter to Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College. DAI, those students who have critical sensitivity. He calls this an unexplored dimen- 63, no. 02A, p. 466. sion of giftedness that has been largely ignored. A quasi-experimental study observing inclusion of words in drawings among children from kindergarten through second grade. Database included drawings Perkins, D. N. (1994). The intelligent eye: Learning to think by looking at art. from 770 students and interviews with selected groups. Findings suggest that Santa Monica, CA: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts. between the ages of 5 and 7, children frequently use words and pictures The major premise of this book is that thinking about art can develop the mind. together. Further, this combining of symbols systems provides an important tool Perkins introduces four major dispositions for developing thoughts about art: for the co-construction of meaning. giving looking time, making looking broad and adventurous, making looking clear and deep, and making looking organized. His methods may apply as well Hafeli, M. (2001). Encountering student learning. Art Education, 54 (6), 19-24. to the process of preparing to write about art. As an observer, Hafeli culls the reflective comments of an eighth-grade class debriefing on self-portrait drawings. She identifies six major insights about th Strunk, W. Jr., & White, E. B. (2000). The elements of style, 4 ed. Boston: drawing that emerged from conversations with and among students, supporting Allyn and Bacon. the notion that art learning is more than just appears in the product. Covers elementary rules of usage, principles of composition, and an approach to style. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE RESEARCH Ernst, K. (1994). Picturing Learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. Ernst tells how, as a former middle-school English teacher (also certified in Baker, D. W. (1985, March). Onfim’s drawings. School Arts, (p. 6). art), she integrated reading and writing into an elementary art program. Her approach includes literature and writing, student choice and collaboration, port- Yanin, V. (1985, March). The drawings of Onfim. School Arts, (pp. 6-8). folio as a means of assessment, and exhibition. The book is richly illustrated Baker provides the introduction for Yanin’s report on a child’s drawings done on with drawings and writings by students. birch bark and discovered in an archaeological excavation in Novgorod, Russia. These drawings, done between 1224 and 1238, are the earliest known child Fountas, I. C., & Olson, J. L. (1996). Reading the image and viewing the words: drawings in existence. Baker points out that young Onfim (possibly age 6 or 7) Languages intertwined. In R. S. Hubbard & K. Ernst (Eds.), New entries: was moving back and forth from his letters to his schema, both exercised side Learning by writing and drawing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press (pp. 84-96). by side. Article reports on a collaboration investigating the relationship between verbal and visual languages. Using pre and post samples of work, two strategies were Caldwell, H., & Moore, B. H. The art of writing: Drawing as preparation for nar- tested. Close viewing of an artwork resulted in improved writing, while a close rative writing in the primary grades. Studies in Art Education, 32 (4), 207-219. reading of a text resulted in improved drawing. The authors offer a diagram to In a study with 42 second and third graders, two different preparations were explain the dynamic relationship between visual and verbal forms of expres- used prior to writing. One group used discussion, the other used drawing. The sion and conclude that the forms naturally entwine, each informing the other, quality of the drawing group was significantly higher than that of the control resulting in fuller and more complete meaning. group. The researchers concluded that drawing to plan and assemble ideas for writing offers several advantages to the novice writer: it facilitates the explo- Grauer, K. (1984). Art and writing: Enhancing expression in images and ration of ideas, reduces cognitive demands through close ties with narrative words. Art Education, 36 (5), 32-34. form, and, as an alternative symbol system, has certain structural advantages Reports on a curricular linkage between art and language arts at the elementary over writing. level, which appears to enhance both forms of communication.

Carroll, C. J. (1996). Draw first, then write: Kindergarten students as begin- Hubbard, R. S., & Ernst, K. (Eds.) (1996). New entries: Learning by writing and ning writers (drawers). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of drawing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. Memphis. In order for teachers to infuse drawing into their curriculum, they must take up In a study conducted with 111 kindergarten children, a control group and an

46 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION where they left off with drawing in childhood. Through case studies and writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. reports, this book provides evidence that visual expression is a human capacity Olson introduces the problem of visual or verbal learners and offers a model for possessed by everyone. The volume offers effective ways to integrate drawing an art education program that emphasizes narrative drawing. Book includes into math, science, and language arts curriculum. Student range from elemen- sections of the language arts-program, the special-education program, and the- tary students to high school special education students and adult learners. oretical implications for visual and verbal learners. The book is well illustrated Illustrations of drawings and writing samples are included. with examples of drawings by her students.

Olson, J. (1987, September). Drawing to write. School Arts, 25-27. Susi, F. D. (1999, Winter). The potential of written reflection by art students. In Olson reports that students who are visual learners often get stuck in their writ- C. Davis, (Ed.), NAEA Advisory. Reston, VA: National Art Education ing. Given the opportunity to draw first, then discuss and subsequently return Association. to their writing, such students show marked improvement in their writing. Pre Discusses the value of reflective writing in reconstructing, analyzing, and evalu- and post samples indicate that the process of drawing and talking about the ating what happened after the fact. Lists categories of reflective questions and image produces written work that is richer in detail, loaded with more feeling, examples of questions that cause students to elaborate on their responses. and freer from error. Includes suggestions for evaluating and responding to reflective writings.

Thacker, P. (1996). Opening up to art: Imagery and story in a high school reading class. In R. S. Hubbard & K. Ernst (Eds.), New entries: Learning by writing and drawing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press (pp. 39-47). Thacker reports on his own discovery of drawing and the role drawing and visual imagery can play in helping unearth personal stories in writings by high school students, many of whom are ESL. Makes special note of how much learning to draw changed him as a teacher.

MODELS FOR PRACTICE Ayres, J. C. (1998). Drawing as a way of thinking: Developing visual thinking skills in the adolescent learner. Unpublished master’s thesis, Towson University. As a pre-instructional strategy, Ayres uses a survey with her middle school students to generate data concerning their interests in drawing, their beliefs about what it takes to be able to draw, and their drawing goals. The data is used to address myths and motivate students to try new drawing strategies related to observational drawing.

Calkins, L.M. (1986). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. Text on the teaching of writing that endorses drawing as a form of rehearsal for writing, especially for those who have found writing difficult for many years.

Craig, C. (1994, Fall). Writing across the disciplines in the art room. In A. N. Johnson, (Ed.), NAEA Advisory. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Lists a number of writing activities applicable for Grades K-12.

Galvin, S. M. (1997). Scent memories: Crossing the curriculum with writing and painting. Art Education, 50 (2), 6012. Report on a ninth grade in which memories connected with smell served to generate ideas and reflective writing was used to develop them. “KISS” directions guided the writing (keep it simple and short). The resulting artwork integrated text with the image to reflect memories of highly personal experiences and relationships.

Hamilton, C. (1998). Using artistic strategies. In J. Simpson, J. Delaney, K. L. Carroll, C. M. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. S. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, Creating meaning through art: Teacher as choice maker (pp. 207-257). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Defines an artistic strategy as a combination of seeing and doing. Provides visual strategies for gathering ideas and planning, observing and recording, and reflecting and assessing.

O’Brien, B. C. (1992). Learning to read through the arts: A practical guide. Revised edition. Ridgewood, NJ: OCE Consultants. (Contact OCE at P.O. Box 1211, Ridgewood, NJ 07451.) Program guide presenting background and strategies for implementation.

Olson, J. (1992). Envisioning writing: Toward an integration of drawing and

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 47 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Identifying Highly Able Students in the Visual Arts

THEORY Research has not as yet revealed how to predict who will become an artist. Perhaps this is because being an artist has only partially to do with natural or even developed abilities. Some suggest the most salient predictor is a “burning desire to work in the arts” (Clark, 1991, p. 63). Yet becoming an artist may have as much to do with personal needs for visual forms of thought and expression that arise out of life’s circumstances as it does with ability. So why should art teachers be concerned about serving highly able students? The answer lies in evidence suggesting that many students at all levels of the K-12 spectrum want, require, and deserve a differentiated program in the visual arts (Hurwitz, 1983; Clark & Zimmerman, 1984). Research shows that it is possible to successfully BETTER PRACTICE identify students who are ready for, and will do well Teachers who are informed about variations in in, a differentiated program of instruction (Clark, the ways high ability in the visual arts 1991; Clark & Wilson, 1991). The obvious place to manifests itself can help identify those who begin is in thinking about who those students might would benefit from differentiated instruction. be and how they might be identified.

Highly able students in the visual arts include those who are developmentally advanced in their expressive and/or critical skills and who express a hunger to know more, do more, accomplish more, and immerse themselves further in the study of art (Carroll, 1994; Clark, 1991; Golomb, 1992, 1995; Hurwitz, 1983; Pariser, 1985). Often these students are aware of their own talents, recount positive experiences in making art, and report they find pleasure in devoting a lot of time and energy to their art (Clark & Zimmerman, 1991). Not so obvious is another possibility: that those who demonstrate high ability in the academics may be fast learners when offered the opportunity to study art and may find the visual arts an area in which they can excel and which they want to embrace (Carroll, 1987). Some students report that “they decided to study the visual arts because it interested them although they could have studied other subjects as well” (Clark & Zimmerman, 1991, p. 63). Yet another possibility exists: that many young people do not know enough about their abilities in the visual arts, or about art itself, to have a sense of either their own potential or the potential that art might have to serve their expressive needs.

Theory, research, and reports from practice suggest several ways highly able students in the visual arts may be alike and different. For example:

48 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Clark and Zimmerman (1991) conducted a survey in which artistically talented students self-reported themselves to be “very good in academic subjects and talented in many other areas than the visual arts” (p. 63).

Some highly able students are spatial thinkers and kinesthetic thinkers. They may exhibit ability with three-dimensional form, have an innate feel for materials, and/or demonstrate an interest in taking things apart and putting them back together again. These abilities may or may not correlate with high ability in two-dimensional tasks such as observational drawing, high performance on academic tests, or indeed, success in an academic environment (Dixon, 1983).

Highly able students drawn to photography or computer graphics may be similarly uncomfortable with observational drawing. On the other hand, those comfortable with two-dimensional forms of representation may perform well with three-dimensional materials (Clark & Wilson, 1991), although they might not.

Highly able students may demonstrate specific aesthetic sensibilities or preferences for media, style, subject matter, or themes early on in their development (Carroll, 1994; Kay, 1999a; Pariser, 1985; Zurmuehlen, 1991).

Kay (1999a) suggests that “high technical proficiency may be necessary but is insufficient for talent development” and directs attention to affective qualities such as emotional engagement, aesthetic sensibility, and problem-finding ability (p. 381).

Some highly able students may not see themselves so much as “gifted or talented” but simply as “different” (Gaither, in progress).

In some cases, students’ abilities may not be obvious from artwork done in school. For example, there are reports of students for whom art is a serious endeavor absorbing much of their free time who perform only at the level of their peers in response to school art tasks, particularly if they find them limiting (Wilson, 1974; Wilson & Wilson, 1980; Kay, in progress). Thus school art, especially that which does not leave room for individual choices or is confined by short work periods, may not reveal avid interests in art or even advanced abilities.

Developmental student profiles that record abilities and achievements, in and outside of school, can assist all members of an educational community in recognizing gifts and talents of individual students. It may also provide a basis for differentiating the curriculum in ways that will serve the special needs of those with high ability (Kay, 1999b, 1999c).

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 49 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

PRACTICE specific art problems, portfolios (where students have had sufficient instruction from which to create a body of presentable Given such challenges, identification of highly able and arts- work), and testing. motivated students poses some interesting challenges. Some basic guidelines follow: Develop student profiles that record different kinds of abilities and achievements in the visual arts as well as multiple interests Design basic art instruction for all students to be sufficiently var- in different art forms and/or academic disciplines (Kay, 1999). ied in media and form; develop rich opportunities to build skills and find meaning through making art and responding to art. Within the visual arts, students may exhibit differences of ability related to two-dimensional expression, three-dimensional Include opportunities to work with both two- and three- expression, a feel for materials, creative problem solving, and dimensional materials, different forms of representation such aesthetic response. They may also have abilities related to the as narrative, observational, symbolic, and metamorphic; performing arts and/or academic strengths. engage learners in different kinds of problem solving and provide room for personal choices (Carroll, 1987). Become an advocate for those who express high interest and/or demonstrate unusual ability. Solicit work done at home and inquire about art-related interests and achievements outside of school (Kay, 1999; Wilson, Share information with colleagues who may not have noticed 1974; Wilson & Wilson, 1980). students’ special interests or abilities related to the visual arts. Talk to the students’ parents. Invite students to bring in work done at home and make a special place for its display. Use surveys to gather information Participate in the development of services that address these from students on their interests as well as how they perceive special needs (Clark & Zimmerman, 1984, 1986, 1995; their abilities. Ask questions: What opportunities do you Hurwitz, 1983). have for drawing, making things, or doing art outside of school? How much time do you spend on your art? Is this Inventory options, inside and beyond school, that might serve interest shared with other family members and, if so, with the needs of high-ability students. At the elementary or mid- whom? Have you taken special classes outside of school? dle school level, highly able learners may require differentiated Have you ever received special recognition for achievements in instruction within or beyond the regular art curriculum. At art or other areas? the secondary level, a good comprehensive program can lead to advanced courses or specialized programs whereby a differ- Use multiple criteria in the identification of highly able stu- entiated curriculum can be made available to highly able students (Hurwitz, 1983; Clark & Zimmerman, 1991; Clark & dents seeking both the opportunity and the challenge. Local Wilson, 1991). museums, colleges, and other organizations outside school may also have opportunities highly able students can access. Common strategies include self-nomination, interviews, letters of reference, auditions in which students are engaged in

REFERENCES ented students based on Feldman’s and Clark and Zimmerman’s models. Studies in Art Education, 27 (3), 115-122. Carroll, K. L. (1998). Cultivating artistic behaviors. In Simpson et al., Creating David Feldman’s Universal to Unique Continuum is integrated with Clark and meaning through art. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, Prentice-Hall (pp. 75-114). Zimmerman’s Naive to Sophisticated Art Content Model. The resulting frame- Chapter explores how art can be thought of as behavior. Illustrations and work is related to the education of artistically talented students on several examples show how instruction can facilitate exploration of visual and spatial dimensions. form and material, development of symbolic language, and expression of thoughts, feelings, and ideas through art. Dixon, J. P. (1983). The spatial child. Springfield, IL: C. C. Thomas, Publishers. Clark, G., & Zimmerman, E. (1984). Educating artistically talented students. Research on spatial ability organized into two sections: understanding the spa- Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. tial child and working with the spatial child. Includes biographical studies with Comprehensive text dealing with issues of identification, testing, and program- children as well as the famous (Picasso, Einstein, Woolf, and Rodin). ming. Second edition with updated material is in press. Golomb, C. (1992). A child’s creation of a pictorial world. Berkeley, CA: Clark, G., & Zimmerman, E. (1986). A framework for educating artistically tal- University of California Press.

50 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION A comprehensive review of theory and research related to the course of chil- report on the initial stages of research in the development of exceptional graph- dren’s graphic development from the view of a psychologist of art. Includes ic artistry. In the proceedings of The History of Art Education (pp. 192-202). illustrated examples of typical graphic developments, results from specific stud- State College, PA: The Pennsylvania State University. ies, and case studies of four gifted child artists. An in-depth analysis of the early work of these three artists based on the study of collections containing work from childhood and youth prior to the age of 21. Hurwitz, A. (1983). The gifted and talented in art. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Report includes findings related to the young artists’ choices of themes, media, Reference addressing questions regarding the definition of artistic giftedness styles of representation, and subject matter supplemented by contextual infor- and planning programs. Includes three model programs, sample identification mation on their families and formative art-making experiences. forms, and organizations for the gifted. Zurmuehlen, M. (1991). A summer art workshop for high school students with RESEARCH special interest in art. Roeper Review, 13 (2), 64-68. Reports findings from a survey conducted with 20 high school students attend- Carroll, K. L. (1987). Towards a fuller conception of giftedness: Art in gifted ing a summer program. It includes information about early art experiences, education and the gifted in art education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, identification with media, subject matter choices, environmental influences, and Teachers College, Columbia University. recommendations.

A comparison of beliefs, values, and strategies regarding the visual arts in gift- REPORTS FROM PRACTICE ed education and the gifted in art education. Concludes that the fields of gifted education and art education operate on very different conceptions of giftedness Gaither, J. (in progress). A developmental case study: From “not talented just yet have the potential of informing each other given more dialogue. different” in high school to professional artist. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education. Carroll, K. L. (1994). Artistic Beginnings: The work of young Edvard Munch. Describes a personal course of artistic development as reflected upon by a Studies in Art Education 36 (1), 7-17. highly able student who became a professional artist. Her reflections are set An analysis of the collection at the Munch Museum in Oslo including work by into context by her high school art teacher. the artist, his mother, aunt, and siblings. Identifies simultaneous efforts between ages 11 and 21 to master narrative conventions and observational Kay, S. (1999b). Profiling creative talent development. In M. I. Stein (Ed.), Creati- techniques, work from master works, and incorporate visual material from pop- vity’s Global Correspondents–1999, (pp. 181-184). New York: Winslow Press. ular culture. Article illustrates how teachers can begin to envision ways to differentiate curriculum for individual students when provided a fuller accounting of their talents Clark, G., & Wilson, T. (1991). Screening and identifying gifted/talented stu- and achievements. Endorses the development of a cumulative talent profile for dents in the visual arts with Clark’s drawing abilities test. Roeper Review, 13 all students. (2), 92-96 Reports on a study evaluating the correspondence of Clark’s drawing test with Wilson, B. (1974). The Superheroes of J.C. Holz plus an outline of a theory of performance in a summer program for high school students. Includes a child art. Art Education, 27 (8), 2-9. description of the four items used in the test (all from memory and imagination) and criteria for scoring the drawings. Includes data from original study in 1984 Wilson, B. & Wilson, M. (October, 1980). Beyond Marvelous: Conventions and and replications in subsequent years validating significant correspondence of inventions in Scott’s Gemini. School Arts, 20-26. performance on drawing tasks with performance in two-dimensional courses as well as three-dimensional and more kinesthetic experiences. Zimmerman, E., & Clark, G. (1991). What we learned about artistically talented students from the Indiana University (IU) summer arts institute: What experi- Clark, G., & Zimmerman, E. (1995). Programming Opportunities for Students ences should we be providing students displaying high artistic ability in the Gifted and Talented in the Visual Arts. Translations: From Theory to Practice, 5 visual arts? Roeper Review, 13 (2), 63-64. (1). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Session I synopsis from the 1989 Indiana Symposium. Includes identification In this edition of Translations, Clark and Zimmerman offer a review of the of three studies conducted by the authors and their students plus background research on programming opportunities. They conclude that ability grouping, information on the topic of identification of the highly able in the visual arts and however that is accomplished, appears to be the more effective choice for pro- responses by participants. viding special services to those with high ability in the visual arts. They identify several ways in which ability grouping can be achieved—options that range MODELS FOR PRACTICE from pull-out programs to full-scale residential schools focused on the arts. Includes recommendations and an extensive bibliography of references. Kay, S. (1999c). The talent profile as a curricular tool for academics, the arts, and athletics. In S. Cline & K. T. Hegerman (Eds.). Gifted education in the twen- Golomb, C. (1995). The development of gifted child artists: Selected case ty-first century: Issues and concerns (pp. 47-59). New York: Winslow Press. studies. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlhaum. Provides a rationale and a design for a cumulative talent profile for use in K-12 Includes reports from a number of developmental studies conducted with artis- school districts. Includes a method for recognizing achievements and their level tically gifted children. of significance.

Kay, S. (1999a). Developing talent and talent developed: Assessing qualities London, P. (2000). Workshop for Teachers, Maryland Institute College of Art. of artistic talent. In N. Colangelo & S. Assouline (Eds.), Talent development III In his teaching, London uses a number of strategies specifically employed to (pp. 349-382). Scottsdale, AZ: Gifted Psychology Press. empower the student to make choices that range from selecting and setting up Affective factors such as artistic spirit and aesthetic sensitivity are reported to a personal work area and preferences for media, format, and scale of work to appear in studies of young precocious children, master artists, and empirical indicating preferences for feedback on work. research. Proposes a more inclusive approach to identification of special aptitudes in the visual arts.

Pariser, D. (1985). The juvenalia of Klee, Toulouse-Lautrec and Picasso: A

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 51 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Shaping Learning Experiences for Highly Able Students

PRACTICE

Kanevsky (2001) reported the findings of a master’s thesis conducted under her advisement (Keigley, 1996). Students were asked to identify factors seen as contributing to academic achievement. In the initial analysis, Keigley BETTER PRACTICE found four factors and Kanevsky helped iden- Teachers with differentiated programs of tify a fifth. All begin with Cs: Care, Challenge, Choice, Control, and Complexity. instruction marked by certain characteristics Research conducted by art educators and provide the kinds of experiences the highly reports from practice in the visual arts validate able seek in the visual arts. these findings yet suggest that these five initial Cs could be expanded to include three more “Cs”: Critical Feedback, Community, and Continuity. The list that follows translates each qualifier into terms meaningful THEORY to art educators and references research findings. Although developmentally advanced and highly Care able students often appear to be self-directed and self-motivated, it cannot be assumed that “Teaching is about relating to people,” says one artist who sees they can function on their own. They need and the responsibility as larger than just teaching about art. “Teachers are responsible for helping students learn both deserve the benefit of strong support, good about themselves and their artwork” (Zimmerman, 1991, p. instruction, and an environment that nurtures 77). Further, it seems that teachers who care deeply about and challenges their abilities and interests. their students, who empathize with the struggle, practice, and hard work involved in developing artistic skill and behaviors, develop a repertoire of strategies including humor, encouragement, praise, and storytelling to use in their teaching (p. 78). In addition, they are likely to have well-developed diplomatic skills for coaching students (Carr, 1991).

Sometimes, care is expressed in terms of faith in a personal journey made possible by the art, acknowledging that the search for meaningful imagery is one that requires patience, dialogue, encouragement, support, time, and reflection (Johnson, 2001).

Care is also very visible in the level of support invested in students’ development. Making connections, finding resources, searching for opportunities, coaching students, talking to parents—all take time and energy, often beyond the normal class schedule. Yet they can make a tremendous difference in a student’s life. For example, acting on a sense that exposure to certain art will help students find solutions to their own visual problems is important (Gaither, in progress). Attending to larger goals, such as help in entering competitions as well as developing and documenting portfolios, represents another example of the care highly able students seek. Others include

52 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION making connections with opportunities outside of school such choices may prevent frustration and result in work that will as Saturday classes, summer programs, night classes at com- have continuity with work made previously or become a tran- munity colleges, portfolio days, and scholarship opportunities. sition to new developments. Welcome as well are efforts to bring in speakers who can inform students about program opportunities at the next level, Finding a personal voice is another dimension of choice that careers in the visual arts, and the expectations of colleges and can be facilitated through elegant problems and opportunities art schools. to set (or find) one’s own problems (Kay, 1998). Carr (1991) suggests that developing creativity “involves helping students Good care may also take the form of finding an appropriate become aware of unconsciously held beliefs and expectations balance between hard work and joy. While it takes a high level and leading them from stereotypical or borrowed thinking to of investment for students to discover the joy in work, too what is truly personal and meaningful” (p. 70). much pressure to perform and produce can have the opposite effect of sacrificing the joy to be found in making art. Control

Challenge Having a sense of control over their education and development is vitally important to highly able students. Teachers can Highly able students want teachers who are knowledgeable promote student control by inviting them to help shape the about art skills and concepts. They value teachers who will course of events, encouraging them to set their own goals and pass on secrets of the trade, introduce them to systems and problems, and asking them to set the criteria against which best practices, provide direct instruction, and demonstrate they want their work assessed (Gaither, in progress). These how to approach representational and technical problems steps also foster responsibility and accountability. (Zimmerman, 1991). Complexity Using elegant problems that call for higher-level thinking, while leaving room for personal meaning, is another way to Research suggests that artistic development often moves for- challenge students (Kay, 1998). These open-ended problems ward on multiple tracks simultaneously. For example, Munch challenge students to be elaborators of both ideas and form pursued multiple avenues of expression during his adoles- and to be fluent in the generation of ideas, flexible in their cence: visual narratives, observational drawing, studies from thinking, original in developing solutions, and personally master works of art, and adapting imagery from popular responsible for making meaningful choices. sources. Each of these avenues involved a self-structured path of disciplined practice with challenges that increased as he Challenging students to find out more about art and to exam- gained mastery of skills and techniques. This repertoire pro- ine their assumptions can be accomplished through research vided the foundation for a lifetime of work (Carroll, 1994). requirements, exposure to current literature and contemporary Others, including Picasso and Toulouse-Lautrec, have pursued forms of art, outside experiences such as attending lectures and exhibitions, and class time devoted to discussion and critique (McDaniel, in progress). They need and deserve the benefit of As an artist working with concepts of the mind and familiar with the notion that challenging work produces endorphins in the brain that bring a sense of well-being, one artist put “chal- strong support, good instruction, and lenge” into a new light. His primary curricular goal for highly able students in the media arts reflected this idea: “I want an environment that nurtures and students to know adults do mentally challenging things because it makes them feel good” (Boot, 1995). challenges their abilities and interests.

Choice

Research suggests that highly able students often identify with particular art media and/or subject matter. Further, they enjoy taking responsibility for the content of their work (Zurmuehlen, 1991). They may also have developed, at a relatively young age, their own aesthetic sensibilities and/or preferences (Kay, 1999). Thus giving permission to make artistic

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a very structured approach to the development of foundation skills and techniques (Carroll, 2001). An additional study Highly able students want teachers who suggests that at times during the course of artistic development expanding a knowledge base causes personal aesthetic prefer- are knowledgeable about art skills and ences and creativity to take a back seat to the development of skills or techniques (Kay, 2000).

concepts. They value teachers who will A developmental curriculum designed specifically for the highly able can be structured similarly to that of art colleges, pass on secrets of the trade, introduce moving from foundation skills toward personal expression. For example, visibly significant leaps appear in student exam- them to systems and best practices, ples illustrating assignments, problems, and products in the drawing curriculum at the Carver High School for Arts and provide direct instruction, and Technology where drawing has been integrated in all media explorations including photography and sculpture (Carroll & demonstrate how to approach Gaither, 2000, 2001). The Advanced Placement exams and the International Baccalaureate programs present models for representational and technical problems. structuring curricula that move from basic skills and concepts progressively to more sophisticated ones (Tomhave, in progress). All of these suggest ways that a curriculum can move from structure to freedom.

Context is another way of thinking about complexity. Highly able students want to know the reasoning behind certain practices. For example, explaining concepts and ideas related to different practices can set drawing instruction into context (Root-Bernstein et al., 1991). In reflecting on successful teachers he has had, Carr (1991) suggests that teachers who present “a context and a direction for the response of the unformed visual desires of their talented young students (widen the) context of art that successfully generates further inquiry into art.” Otherwise, he notes, the work would stay “amateurish, naïve, provincial, or stereotypic instead of work that encompasses or generates a new context” (p. 71).

Critical Feedback

Research (Zimmerman, 1991) and reports from practice (Gaither, in progress; McDaniel, in progress) suggest that teachers of the highly able devote almost half of their instructional time to critical feedback and dialogue. The majority of this feedback may take the form of brief personal consultations. Such teachers often begin with the positive and/or ask questions before they offer suggestions on how to improve the work or offer a demonstration (Zimmerman, 1991, p. 79). As well, timing, phrasing, and message are all important as teachers who have gone back into the studio through an MFA program report; returning to the role of “student artist” made them rethink how language can be used to provide constructive criticism (Carroll, 1996).

Critical dialogue can take many forms. Useful strategies

54 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION engage the group actively in critical discussion. Dialogue early Group participation in special events such as trips to muse- or midway in the process can focus on goals and processes of ums, gallery openings, and lectures in the community provid- the artist whereas response to a finished work might focus on ed a social dimension to the group while stimulating creative the work. Teachers may ask students what kind of feedback ideas. McDaniel concludes that a sense of community takes they are seeking and how they might like to engage in that dia- time, sometimes years, to develop. Students begin to sense that logue. For example, students may want to tell the “story” of they belong to a group that not only shares specific values and how a work evolved or they might prefer to have the work interests but affirms them in the process. Other reports affirm “read” back to them as a way of understanding how and what the importance of spaces and facilities and time devoted to it communicates (London, 2000). Guest critics can also sup- developing community and critical dialogue (Root-Bernstein plement the critical feedback students desire. et al., 1991; Zimmerman, 1991; Zurmuehlen, 1991).

Community Continuity

Developing a community supportive to creative work requires In addition to a good curriculum, Zimmerman (1995) notes, spaces, facilities, resources, and strategies that will cause the intensive and prolonged instruction plays a critical role in group members to bond with each other. Ability grouping, by artistic development. Schedules that create longer class peri- its very nature, puts students into contact with others like them- ods or blocks of concentrated time are strongly recommended selves, but it takes more than mere grouping to achieve a sense (Zurmuehlen, 1991). Longer uninterrupted periods for stu- of community with an identity and shared values. McDaniel dio work can also be created through art nights, after-school (in progress) reports that a coffeepot, sofa, and regular group cri- hours, and “in-school field trips” where a day can be devoted tiques helped promote a sense of community in her art program to art. Options such as Saturday painting trips, bus trips to while individual studio areas encouraged students to develop museums and artists’ studios, Saturday classes, and summer independent bodies of work. The coffeepot made students feel gatherings or programs present alternative ways to create like adults and artists. With a place furnished for discussion and intensive work experiences within a calendar year. Continuity dialogue, students were able to gather together socially to discuss of instruction over the course of years offers even greater sup- work and engage in regular critiques. port for artistic development.

The feeling of community was reinforced by display spaces where group members could see the ongoing work of peers. Group exhibitions gave the community visibility and identity while one- and two-person shows gave individuals a goal to target and further enhanced the community’s credibility.

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REFERENCES Data base containing a survey of 50 alumni of a GT visual arts program. Findings suggest that students saw studio experiences as most important, art Carr, J. (1991). Four types of art teachers for talented art students. Roeper history as beneficial, and art criticism and aesthetics as moderately beneficial. Review, 13 (2), 71-73. Being in a program with talented peers prepared them well and enhanced their Drawing on historical models of artist-teachers, Carr discusses the advantages artistic development and current successes. They appreciated faculty dedica- and limitations of four kinds of art teachers: the artist, the exponent of a sys- tion and willingness to recognize advanced students as fellow artists, not just tem, the lover, and the nurturer of young talent. students.

Clark, G., & Zimmerman, E. (1984). Educating artistically talented students. Kanevsky, L. (2001). Keynote address presented at the Biennial World Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Conference of the World Council for Gifted and Talented Children, Barcelona, Text covers topics including identification, teacher characteristics and teaching Spain. strategies, curriculum content, and educational settings and administrative Presentation accompanied by annotated stories illustrating how certain factors arrangements. make for effective, student-centered teaching for the gifted.

Hurwitz, A. (1983). The gifted and talented in art. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Kay, S. (2000). On the nature of expertise in visual art. In R. C. Friedman & B. Reference addressing questions regarding the definition of artistic giftedness M. Shore (Eds.), Talents unfolding (pp. 217-232). Washington, DC: American and planning programs. Includes three model programs, sample identification Psychological Association. forms, and organizations for the gifted. Reports on a research study that compared the performance of professional artists, semi-professionals, and novices to determine problem finding skills. Kay, S. I. (1998). Shaping elegant problems for visual thinking. In Simpson et Also discusses the notion of a personal aesthetic bias that seems to function in al., Creating meaning through art (pp. 260-288). Upper Saddle River, NJ: guiding the work of professional artists. Merrill, Prentice-Hall. Chapter reviews creativity research and theory and introduces the characteris- Kay, S. (1999). Developing talent and talent developed: Assessing qualities of tics of an elegant problem. Text mentions sufficient flexibility for learners of all artistic talent. In N. Colangelo & S. Assouline (Eds.), Talent development III levels of ability to engage with the problem, the possibilities of generating lots of (pp. 349-382). Scottsdale, AZ: Gifted Psychology Press. ideas, and opportunities for original thinking and elaboration, as well as intrin- Affective factors such as artistic spirit or sensitivity are reported to appear in sic value and worth in doing. studies of young precocious children, master artists, and empirical research. Proposes a more inclusive approach to identification of special aptitudes in the Snelson, K., Siler, T., Schwartz, L., Carr, J., & Strange, G. (1991). Essential visual arts. components for a visual arts curriculum for highly talented high school-age students. Roeper Review, 13 (2), 69-71. Keigley, T. (1996). The odyssey: Reaching an understanding of academically Session II from the 1989 Indiana Symposium. Panel of artists reflected on fac- underachieving students’ perceptions of boredom. Unpublished master’s the- tors that were pivotal in their careers. Panelists mentioned motivation, confi- sis, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. dence, discipline, learning basic skills, finding structure, and studying with gift- Pilot study conducted with a group of secondary academically gifted students. ed teachers. Findings reported by thesis adviser, L. Kanevsky.

RESEARCH Tomhave, R. (1999). Portfolio assessment in the visual arts: A comparison of advanced secondary art education strategies (Advanced Placement, Carroll, K. L. (1994). Artistic Beginnings: The work of young Edvard Munch. International Baccalaureate, Secondary Education). Unpublished doctoral dis- Studies in Art Education 36 (1), 7-17. sertation, University of Minnesota. DAI, 60, no. o6A (1999); P. 1870. An analysis of the collection at the Munch Museum in Oslo including work by One group (the control group) received the Advanced Placement Studio Art the artist, his mother, aunt, and siblings. Identifies simultaneous efforts course of study while another (the experimental group) received the between ages 11and 21 to master narrative conventions and observational International Baccalaureate Art/Design course of study. The scores resulting techniques, work from master works, and incorporate visual material from pop- from these external evaluations as well as longitudinal data collected during the ular culture. course of the 1997-1998 school year were examined and analyzed in order to compare the two instructional methods. The time students in the experimental Carroll, K. L. (2001). The early work of visual artists: Case studies in artistic group spent practicing oral and written presentation skills, researching artists development. Paper presented at the Biennial World Conference of the World and their works throughout history, critiquing their own work as well as the work Council for Gifted and Talented Children, Barcelona, Spain. of others, and grappling with aesthetic issues did not diminish the quality and Analysis of development as evidenced in early works by Picasso, Toulouse- quantity of the work in their portfolios as assessed by Advanced Placement Lautrec, and Munch. examiners.

Golomb, C. (1995). The development of gifted child artists: Selected case Zimmerman, E. (1991). Rembrandt to Rembrandt: A case study of a memo- studies. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlhaum. rable painting teacher of artistically talented 13-26 year old students. Roeper Includes reports from a number of developmental studies conducted with artis- Review, 13 (2), 76-81. tically gifted children. A profile gathered from classroom observations, interviews with students and the teacher, time sampling, and analysis of students’ application forms and two Johnson, S. (2001). The narrative process in adolescent art: A case study. observer journals. Discussion includes the teacher’s philosophy, curricular con- Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. cerns, teaching content, individual and group critiques, classroom management, An in-depth analysis of artwork revealing the story of the journey traveled by student responses, and adult observer responses. one male high school student. Includes a review of the literature and theory regarding the importance of narrative process in adolescent development. Zimmerman, E. (1995). A case study of the impact of educational opportunities on a talented student’s development. In C. Golomb (Ed.), The development Jones, M. A. (1995). A retrospective student evaluation of a gifted and talent- of gifted child artists: Selected case studies (pp. 135-170). Hillsdale, NJ: ed visual arts program. Unpublished dissertation, University of Missouri- Lawrence Erlhaum. Columbia. DA# 9705352.

56 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Case study of the author’s son analyzing the impact of in-school and out-of- school educational opportunities.

Zurmuehlen, M. (1991). A summer art workshop for high school students with special interest in art. Roeper Review, 13 (2), 64-68. Reports findings from a survey conducted with 20 high school students attending a summer program. It includes information about early art experiences, identification with media, subject matter choices, environmental influences, and recommendations.

REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Boot, L. (1995). Personal conversation while developing a media arts curriculum for a specialized arts high school.

Carroll, K., & Gaither, J., Eds. (2000, 2001). Researching Drawing. Annual monograph published by the Center for Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art. This annual report includes documentation of the drawing curriculum as taught at the Carver High School for the Arts and Technology. Chair Joe Giordano describes a strong drawing curriculum that permeates all foundation work in photography, sculpture, and painting. Report contains examples and reports on drawings completed by freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors that illustrate the developmental nature of the drawing program.

Gaither, J. (in progress). A developmental case study: From high school to professional artist. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education. Describes a personal course of artistic development as reflected upon by a highly able student who became a professional artist. Her reflections are set into context by her high school art teacher.

McDaniel, T. (in progress). How an art program in a comprehensive high school came to produce an exceptional number of Presidential Scholars. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education. A reflective discussion of the environment that supported high school students in their artistic development, including a developmental program, studio space, critical discussions, research on art and artists, sense of community, and mentorship.

MODELS FOR PRACTICE London, P. (2000). Workshop for Teachers, Maryland Institute College of Art. In his teaching, London uses a number of strategies specifically employed to empower the student to make choices that range from selecting and setting up a personal work area and preferences for media, format, and scale of work to indicating preferences for feedback on work.

Root-Bernstein, R., Siler, T., Zurmuehlen, M., Clark, G., Strange, G., Rishpon, M., Snelson, K., Schwartz, L., & Royce, A. P. (1991). Strategies for developing and nurturing students’ abilities and creativity. Roeper Review, 13 (2), 74-75. Session III from the 1989 Indiana Symposium. Thoughts from a panel discussing the role of curriculum in providing structure and/or freedom as well as the need for appropriate physical spaces for study and the purposes of having art and music students work together.

Passow, H., Carr, J., Strange, G., Zurmuehlen, M., Siler, T., Clark, G., Amram, R., Root-Bernstein, R., & Zimmerman, E. (1991). The components of a visual arts curriculum for non-art and art majors. Roeper Review, 13 (2), 83-84. Session IV from the 1989 Indiana Symposium. Thoughts from a panel discussing and comparing directed instruction with problem-solving methods.

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Creating Supportive Conditions for Students with Special Needs

THEORY Visual arts experiences develop intellectual and visual sensitivity as well as problem- solving skills for all students, including those who are disabled. Creative expression and critical response open the horizons for all learners, helping them to live fully in the schools and communities (Pappalardo, 1999). Henley (1992) recounts Lowenfeld’s vision for art education as “facilitating self-expression, promoting independence, encouraging flexible thinking and facilitating social interactions, as well as developing aesthetic awareness” (p. 12). In a similar fashion, BETTER PRACTICE Henley envisions “therapeutic art education” as an Through planning, collaboration, and specific instructional approach where the art process serves strategies, art teachers can create conditions as a medium for addressing the various concerns of whereby all students, including those with learners while promoting other dimensions of their special needs, focus on creative expression and growth and development (p. 16). critical response. Inclusion, “stated simply, consists of including all children in activities of the mainstream environment” (Schiller, 1999, p. 9). It requires some advance planning and collaboration with other professionals as well as certain strategies such as cooperative learning, individual contracts, and communication with teacher aides. Familiarity with current research can help anticipate potential areas of strength as well as challenge (Golomb, 1996). Teachers who proactively employ certain strategies can make informed and appropriate instructional decisions.

Normalizing instruction in art for students with special needs keeps the focus on the teaching of art content and gives students a voice in shaping the course of their education. As such, normalization differs from the medical-prescriptive approach, which promotes labeling individuals, equates disability with sickness and deviancy, and may reinforce negative stigmas and stereotypes (Blandy, 1989).

58 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE Share information, particularly benchmark successes, with the student, parents, and educational personnel responsible for “By far, the most important thing to keep in mind is that the implementing the learner’s IEP. student is an individual first—an individual who just happens to have a disability; you are dealing with a person, not a Normalize instruction for special-needs students as much as label….The teacher should treat them as any other students possible (Blandy, 1989). deemed more ‘able,” concentrating on their strengths rather than their weaknesses; be positive and honest” (Pappalardo, While inclusion means including the student with disabilities 1999, p. 43). in all phases of the ongoing art program, normalization means not only keeping the curriculum for special-needs students as Recommended Strategies close as possible to the regular curriculum but setting high expectations as well. Avoid temptations to isolate the student Interview the exceptional student as well as the educator who or to over-manage artistic output. Model respect and praise is responsible for implementing the student’s educational plan student problem solving to provide behavioral cues to class- (Guay, 1999; Loesl, 1999). mates. Teach in a way that allows special-needs students to act and appear in ways appropriate to their age. Promote inde- An interview can determine student strengths, dominant pendent functioning and positive interactions with non-dis- learning style, and specific areas of special needs. While stu- abled peers. dents with disabilities have specific written behavioral plans that must be the shared responsibility of all educators working Train aides or peer assistants who accompany exceptional with the student, the typical IEP is relatively awkward to learners to the art room (Guay, 1999; Schiller, 1999). review due to its length and lack of information useful in the art room setting. An interview sheet can help provide infor- Many such assistants need your cues to be able to understand mation relevant to planning art instruction such as health or what constitutes interference with a student’s output. Help safety issues and whether the student is receiving related serv- define the role you want them to play in art instruction. ices in areas including speech and language instruction or physical and occupational therapy. Consultations with other Make adaptations, as necessary, that are as close as possible to specialists serving the learner may further help identify ways in the regular program (Guay, 1999). which the art curriculum can support or complement these instructional plans. Adaptations should be age appropriate and include opportunities to acquire important skills and concepts. Motor impair- Review room arrangement, seating plans, and storage of mate- ments, which limit independence, present design problems rials (Guay, 1999; Henley, 1992). that can sometimes be solved with creative thinking and experimentation (Zederayko & Ward, 1999). The goal should be to ensure that the student with disabilities has equal or reasonable access to all zones of the art room in order to maximize independent functioning as an art student. Consider sight lines, pathways, and seating arrangements as well as safety issues. If appropriate, establish procedures for securing hazardous equipment such as paper cutters and kilns.

Prepare the student with special needs for art class (Guay, 1999).

If possible, prior to attending art class, share information with the student regarding the organizational structure of the class or classroom routines as well as your high expectations for mastery of the art curriculum. Plan seating that includes the exceptional student amidst non-disabled peers and for introductions to peers.

Development of positive, proactive communication linkages (Schiller, 1999).

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RESEARCH Loesl, S. D. (1999). Art education for students with disabilities: Practical strategies for successful inclusion. In A. L. Nyman & A. M. Jenkins (Eds.), Golomb, C. (1996). Drawing development and artistry in mentally handicapped Issues and approaches to art for students with special needs (pp. 55-62). persons. Visual Arts Research, 22 (2), 1-4. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. In this preface to a special edition of Visual Arts Research, Golomb provides an Loesl includes a student information form designed to obtain basic information introduction to a series of research studies including case studies, longitudinal relevant to the art class, i.e., chronological age, mental age, nature of disability, analysis, and comparisons of drawing development of various individuals diag- characteristics that might be dangerous to self or others, medical problems to nosed with autism, mental retardation, and specific syndromes. Strengths as be aware of, current adaptations proving successful with the student, and other well as developmental insights are discussed. Two articles consider artistic details that might be important to the student’s success in art (p. 61). giftedness with specific autistic and Down syndrome persons. Pappalardo, R. G. (1999). Curricular issues: The visual arts and students with REPORTS FROM PRACTICE disabilities. In A. L. Nyman & A. M. Jenkins (Eds.), Issues and approaches to art for students with special needs (pp. 42-54). Reston, VA: National Art Zederayko, M. W., & Ward, K. (1999). Art Class: What to do when students Education Association. can’t hold a pencil. Art Education, 52 (4), 22. General characteristics one might encounter in specific populations of students Article illustrates how creative solutions to motor impairments allowed two dif- with exceptional needs are outlined. ferent students with special needs to become independent in their art-making efforts. The introduction discusses the meaning of “inclusive art.” Schiller, M. (1999). Access to art education: Ethical and legal perspectives. In A. L. Nyman & A. M. Jenkins (Eds.), Issues and approaches to art for stu- MODELS FOR PRACTICE dents with special needs (pp. 7-16). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Blandy, D. (1989). Ecological and normalizing approaches to disabled students This chapter highlights the importance of developing collaborative partnerships and art education. Art Education, 42 (3), 7-11. with other educators and specialists in the field of special education. Blandy compares a medical prescriptive model with ecological approaches and normalization, making a case for the latter in art education. The article includes the description of an apprenticeship model for inclusion of students with disabilities as full members in a community project.

Eubanks, P. (1999). Art as a visual language that supports verbal development. In A. L. Nyman & A. M. Jenkins (Eds.), Issues and approaches to art for students with special needs (pp. 109-117). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. This chapter is worth reviewing for ways in which art can support verbal development.

Guay, D. (1999). A way in: Strategies for art instruction for students with special needs. In A. L. Nyman & A. M. Jenkins (Eds.), Issues and approaches to art for students with special needs (pp. 17-33). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. “A Way In” examines strategies for instructing students with disabilities in integrated classrooms. Guay includes ways to prevent problems and improve behavior, using student strengths while considering the nature of different kinds of disabilities, instructional support strategies, and evaluation.

Henley, D. R. (1992). Exceptional children, exceptional art. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Henley discusses the differences between art therapy and therapeutic art education and offers some guiding principles for normalizing instruction while being sensitive to issues and concerns of the learner. Among the issues he covers in depth are “Devising a Studio Space,” “Motivation,” specific suggestions for working with different art media, and making adaptations for studio-based instruction, as well as criticism and aesthetics.

60 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 61 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

Shaping Learning Experiences for Students with Special Needs

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who plan instruction for exceptional learners by modifying and adapting tasks promote the fullest THEORY possible engagement with the artistic Teachers may need to tailor learning process. experiences to the needs of special students who may not be able to complete all steps of an art activity. Task analysis can help identify essential steps in the mastery of basic skills. Modifications increase the possibility that these students will be able to achieve objectives that are the same as or similar to those of the original activity. Adaptations of creative and responsive experiences can also build up areas of weakness and enhance areas of strength.

62 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE Evaluate the performance of the student who is having difficulty, particularly noting what the student can and Task Analysis cannot do.

Teachers of students with disabilities can be dismayed when Determine what the student might be expected to learn art activities do not succeed, assuming that students’ unique or be able to do (by talking with the student, reviewing limitations prevent them from learning the skills necessary to what the student can do, considering the student’s histo- complete projects that have been designed particularly for ry, and talking with other teachers and parents). them. The problem may lie, however, in the instructional planning rather than in the students’ conditions. In the same way and with care to maintain high expectations, determine what the student is unlikely to learn Task analysis may resolve this problem. This strategy breaks or be able to do. down the complex process of art making into the smallest number of sequential, behavioral steps necessary for mastery. Develop hypotheses as to how the activity can be modi- Five activities are involved in task analysis. fied based on what has been found.

Analyzing a task forces the teacher to become thoroughly Inventory the skills associated with the modification familiar with a given process. A teacher who clearly under- using a nondisabled peer. stands what a process entails can better anticipate at what step children might begin the process or when they might Based on the information collected about the student encounter problems. This format will particularly aid inexpe- with disabilities and how a nondisabled person would rienced practitioners who may have to retrain their thinking perform the possible modifications, select an individual- about techniques so as to better assess what processes will be ized modification for the student. appropriate for each population (Henley, 1992, 35). Determine which skills the student will now be expected Reduce the art activity to a sequence of small, observ- to acquire. able behaviors. Modifications in materials or sequence of steps in the activity Record the behaviors. are examples of adaptations that this strategy might yield. The advantage of the strategy is that students would be able to par- Review to make certain the behaviors are in sequential order.

Test the sequence with an individual student. A teacher who clearly understands Make any necessary modification.

Thus instructional sequences can be designed to meet the what a process entails can better needs of individual students through selection of materials, reinforcement activities, and objectives for progress. Teaching anticipate at what step children might would occur one step at a time in order to allow students to respond, receive feedback, and practice. begin the process or when they might

Principle of Partial Participation encounter problems.

For some students with disabilities, an art activity can be too difficult, even with individualized assistance. One way to deal with this problem is to employ the principle of partial participation. Blandy et al. (1988) offer an eight-step strategy for modifying materials and/or processes to meet the special needs of these learners.

Evaluate a nondisabled peer’s performance to identify the steps required to complete the art activity.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 63 BETTER GENERAL PRACTICE IN VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

ticipate in an activity that is the same as or similar to that expe- Some have a low frustration level and attention span. rienced by their chronological-age peers. The availability of a second activity or a sequence of activities may help in this situation. Using Adaptations to Modify Learning Tasks Other students might be confused by too many choices; A central concept in planning art instruction for students with it may be easier for these students to work with a limit- special needs is adaptation, that is, the modification of what ed array of materials and choices. would be presented to students without disabilities in order to fit the individual needs of these special populations. Special- In some cases, repetition of learning activities may rein- needs students include those who are learning disabled, behav- force what has already been learned. iorally disabled, hearing impaired, cognitively disabled, visually impaired, and physically disabled. Some students have multiple Adaptation of art-making materials may promote the disabilities. Because of this, no one adaptation can be made that ease with which the materials are manipulated. For will necessarily fit all students with special needs. Instead, adap- example, it may help to tape drawing paper to the table tations must be developed to fit the needs of individuals. so it doesn’t move around and to weight paint and water jars so they tip less easily. Examples of adaptations include the following: In all cases, adaptations should be age appropriate and Some exceptional learners have poor concepts of their as close as possible to standard procedures. And while bodies and would benefit from art-making experiences adaptations are a critical strategy, it is important that that have body images as subject matter. they not substantially diminish the curriculum.

MODELS FOR PRACTICE Henley devotes Part III of his textbook to Adaptations with sections addressing behavior, creative expression, assessment, aesthetics, and criticism. He further Baumgart, D., et al. (1982). Principle of partial participation and individualized describes task analysis (see Page 35), illustrates how task analysis might be adaptations in education programs for severely handicapped students. Journal applied to handbuilding with clay (see Page 183), and discusses the importance of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 7 (2), 17-27. of task analysis when working with learners who have hyperactivity and atten- A strategy for enabling students with disabilities to accomplish the same objec- tion deficits (see Pages 209-210.) tives (or as nearly the same as possible) is explicated. Morreau, L., & Anderson, F. E. (1986). Task analysis in art: Building skills and Berry, A. (1986). Recording outcomes of self-expression activity for special success for handicapped learners. Art Education, 39 (1), 52-54. child groups. Art Education, 39 (5), 4-18. A full description of task analysis appears in this entry. Berry describes the importance of record keeping for special education students. Examples are provided. Guay, D. (1999). A way in: Strategies for art instruction for students with special needs. In A. L. Nyman & A. M. Jenkins (Eds.), Issues and approaches to Blandy, D., Pancsofar, E., & Mockensturm, T. (1988). Guidelines for teaching art art for students with special needs (pp. 109-117). Reston, VA: National Art to children and youth experiencing significant mental/physical challenges. Art Education Association. Education, 41 (1), 60-66. “A Way In” examines strategies for instructing students with disabilities in inte- Six guidelines, accompanied by strategies and examples of art activities, are grated art classrooms. It is designed to provide teachers with ideas that enable presented. They include the use of age-appropriate materials; the incorporation special-needs students to creatively express, through art, ideas and life experi- of the principle of partial participation; the development of a cue hierarchy; the ences and to meaningfully respond to their own art and the art of others. By analysis of current and subsequent environments; attention to multicultural focusing on instruction in heterogeneous classrooms, it acknowledges the issues; and participation in the greater art community. changes rapidly taking place in special education placement due to research, legislation, and case law. Henley, D. R. (1992). Exceptional Children, Exceptional Art. Worcester, MA: Davis Publications.

64 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 65 66 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION OUTCOME I

Developing a Repertoire of Skills for Visual Perception and Artistic Response

Drawing on Imagination, Memory, and Experience

Tapping the Narrative Impulse

Working from Observation

Developing an Expanded Vocabulary for Visual Form

Expanding the Repertoire for Visual Perception and Artistic Response

Reflecting on Perceiving and Responding Visually

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 67 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

Drawing on Imagination, Memory, and Experience

PRACTICE

Previsualization, Guiding Questions, Verbal Prompts, and Existential Questions

Previsualization, one of many strategies advocated by Lowenfeld and described by Saunders (Hurwitz & El- Bassiouny, 1993), aims to create a full and rich image in the mind’s eye prior to beginning work. Questions used to guide previsualization typically involve BETTER PRACTICE who, when, where, how, and why. Teachers who use specific strategies to help With eyes closed, the teacher begins with an invitation to return to a students visualize and express ideas from memorable time or moment, at the imagination, memory, and experience assist in harbor or the zoo or in the out of realizing personally significant imagery while doors, and proceeds to ask questions that help locate the self in relation to advancing representational skills, visual perception, the memory, thinking about the set- and recall as well as reflective and intuitive ting, time of day, weather, season, processes for thinking. and point of view. Questions continue to prompt images of who else might be there and what people are wearing and doing, drawing attention to details THEORY such as props, vehicles, buildings, etc. Further To invite students to work unprepared from the imagination questions encourage thought about why one is there, the occasion, the feelings associated with the and memory results in regression to a previous level of moment, and what is most memorable. When a comfort. No new learning takes place, images are hard to full and rich image has developed in the imagina- generate, and an opportunity to invest in image making at a tion, work can begin to bring the image into visual form. A wide range of universal themes including meaningful level is wasted. However, certain strategies that family, birthdays, shopping, traffic, storms, harbors, promote idea generation and image formation greatly zoos, recess, amusement parks, and sports can serve improve the odds that an image of consequence will emerge as useful departures for this strategy. from imagination, memory, experience, or some combination Another strategy for working from imagination thereof. employs guided questions designed to solicit a creative response. Verbal cues and open-ended questions focus on visual qualities such as size and shape; tactile and sensory qualities such as texture, feel, smell, and taste; and distinguishing characteristics or details that lend character or form to the imagined subject.

Verbal descriptions offer another strategy for working from the imagination (Wilson et al., 1987). Here very descriptive language, loaded with strong visual cues, stimulates imaginative imagery.

Price (1983, 1988) reports success in using relaxed attention

68 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION exercises and steps to guide students through a series of chang- their image into as full and rich a state as possible. Having ing mental images. Here the strategy gives students the flexi- ideas and skills for solving representational problems more bility of either controlling their images as they wish or letting often than not makes the difference between an image well them roam freely. Teachers direct students to draw the visual realized and one abandoned. Preliminary sketches and lists of qualities of their changing mental images. essential subject matter can help students identify aspects of the image they wish to depict. Then students can research London (1989) offers an approach to working from imagina- ways to depict desired imagery using photographs and works tion and intuition, grounded in what he calls a holistic para- by artists as references. Drawings by slightly older children or digm, that serves deep and profoundly human needs to con- artists who model solutions for depicting people or characters, sider important questions such as Who am I? Why am I here? showing action, and developing a composition can help What is this journey about? In his method, establishing a level advance students’ representational skills while they are work- of trust, understanding of purpose, acceptance, and openness ing on an image of personal importance. is a critical step in the process. A centering exercise or discussion typically serves as an introduction, setting the stage for a Exercising and Testing for Visual Memory drawing prompt that may take the form of an existential question. Given this thoughtful and caring preparation, students Memory drawings of an observed scene such as a corner of the are invited to respond intuitively and imaginatively, taking art room or a specific artwork, via reproduction or in a muse- care to attend to the sensuous nature of art materials and the um setting, can be used to exercise visual memory. Using “tel- manner in which the image unfolds. The process then extends escopes” can facilitate practice in looking at the whole as well into a method for sharing imagery that focuses upon deeper as the parts. A process whereby an inventory is conducted is a reflection rather than critical analysis. London asks the image critical step prior to recreating the image from memory. A maker to help determine the nature of the dialogue allowing method for counting the inclusion of objects, features, and opportunities such as telling the story of the image, asking for details as well as for giving structure to the whole helps stu- others to “read” the image, and sharing written reflections dents understand how well their visual memory functioned. inspired by one’s own or others’ images. Given that visual memory is often associated with artistic ability, a visual memory test was one of several assessments devel- Developing Memory and Imagination Imagery with oped for selecting middle school students for a gifted and tal- Visual Sources ented program in Brookline, MA. (Baker, n.d.). As a group, students spent about 10 minutes carefully examining van Although an image might be inspired by imagination or mem- Gogh’s Bedroom at Arles, naming all the objects in the image ory, it should not be assumed that using visual source materi- and looking for the underlying structure and then were invit- al is discouraged. Rather, the goal should be to give students ed to draw it from memory. The results offered evidence that permission to seek those sources that will allow them to bring could be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively.

RESEARCH mentary-age students. An excellent source for exemplary drawings including many done by students in Maryland. Note: some of these drawings are repro- Price, M. J. (1988). Directed imagination and drawing. In S. M. Dobbs (Ed.), duced in Teaching Drawing from Art. See below. Research readings for discipline-based art education: A journey beyond creating (pp. 164-180). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. London, P. (1989). No more secondhand art. Boston: Shambala Press. These two works describe a research study in which a curriculum for drawing London provides an introduction and rationale to an approach designed to and imagination was developed, implemented, and tested in 12 high school engage novice through expert image makers in an intuitive search for meaning. classrooms. The book includes 12 exercises that have proved successful with adults, some of which can be adapted for use with certain populations in the schools. MODELS FOR PRACTICE London, P. (2003). Drawing closer to nature. Boston: Shambala Press. Baker, D. (n.d.). Unpublished instrument for assessing memory drawings. Contains pedagogical ideas as well as contextual support for a holistic Directions and a form of assessing a memory drawing are offered. approach to art education. London explores in depth aspects of practice that are essential to drawing closer to nature–as in the natural world and our nature Hurwitz and El-Bassiouny (1993). Memory and experience. Cairo: Dar Al- as human beings. Maaref. (A limited number of copies are in the library at the Center for Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art.) Wilson, B., Hurwitz, A., & Wilson, M. (1987). Teaching drawing from art. Lowenfeld’s questioning strategy is described in an introduction. Children’s Worcester, MA: Davis Press. drawings from three countries (Taiwan, Qatar, and the United States) based on Contains a chapter on “Drawing from Memory” with ideas for teaching. several universal themes illustrate various solutions from three levels of ele-

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 69 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

Tapping the Narrative Impulse

THEORY The narrative impulse develops early in childhood and serves for a lifetime as an essential and powerful way of making sense out of experience through the construction of stories (Bruner, 1996; Thunder-McGuire, 1990; Olson 1992 & 1997; Kellman, 1995; Duncum, 1997; Johnson, 2001). Psychologists suggest that stories can deal with different kinds of realities including the real and imagined, the conscious and the subconscious, and the past, present, and future (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). Stories have structures that include beginnings, middles, and ends; more so, they are constructed around sequence and action, cause and effect, conflict and resolution, change and BETTER PRACTICE growth, all in an effort to find or create meaning. Visual Teachers who allow the narrative storytelling has a strong tradition that persists from the impulse to fund image making help beginning of art into contemporary work. Together, developing learners of all ages construct a visual vocabulary for storytelling, exploring narrative formats, personal meaning while developing a and pursuing different ways of generating stories provide repertoire of representational and substantial learning in art while serving, at the same time, a expressive skills. very personal and human need.

Unsolicited drawings and those created in response to open-ended art designed to accommodate personal stories offer a window into the lives young people lead, their journeys, fears, losses, discoveries, and accomplishments (Wilson & Wilson, 1979). The narrative work of adult artists serves in similar ways to claim identities, map journeys, tell stories, get power of ideas, mix with others, and dream (Lippard, 1990). A close look at a body of adolescent work, developed over time, can sometimes reveal the way in which art can serve as a holding form for the process of journey and return, change and growth (Johnson, 2001). Some would even claim that all art might be thought of as narrative in that the making of objects is connected to personal and artistic stories (Olson, 1987).

Duncum’s (1997) analysis of the historical record, along with more contemporary accounts, suggests that the themes that emerge in child and adolescent art are somewhat stable over time even though actual subject matter may reflect specific cultural experiences. He also notes that although there are variations along gender lines, themes tend “to conform to the major preoccupations of the life phases of these youngsters” (p. 113).

An analysis of themes found in children’s story drawings suggests that four different kinds of realities may be at work in narrative art: common themes associated with everyday experience; archaeological themes that reveal conscious and unconscious beliefs and feelings; normative themes that deal with rules and social norms; and prophetic themes that anticipate the future (Wilson & Wilson, 1980).

70 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE produce ideas for a legend or myth. Creating a story with a lesson or moral is another avenue to storytelling in both words Encouraging Visual Storytelling and images.

Different kinds of questions and prompts can encourage nar- Opportunities to work intuitively and reflectively, exploring rative thinking and invite responses for a story told visually. reactions and feelings, hopes and fears, connections and relationships, questions and concerns, help students get power over Some narratives emerge spontaneously as with young children ideas and feelings. The results can be humorous, serious, dark, when the act of drawing seems to inspire a story and the story, or inspirational—work that comes from an interplay of the con- in turn, gives the child new ideas to draw. Some visual stories scious and the subconscious, the intellect and the emotions. appear to be incomplete but unfold with a simple question: “Tell me about your drawing.” Verbal and visual language Developing a Vocabulary for Visual Narratives often work together, inspiring each other as when children col- laborating on a large piece or working next to each other seem Developing a vocabulary for visual storytelling can be to talk as much as they draw. Narrative work seems to require approached in a number of ways. Visual narratives require a and inspire dialogue with others. It is certainly aided by the vocabulary for creating characters and settings, exaggerating sharing of ideas as students “read” each other’s images, offer features and or characteristics, showing time of day or weath- ideas and suggestions, and respond with laughter, amusement, er, illustrating change over time, or using different points of joy, interest, and compassion. For some, telling stories visual- view to lend drama to a story. Representational skills such as ly becomes a passion, even an obsession, and can lead to a host drawing people; showing action and emotion; showing differ- of careers including illustration, cartooning, animation, film- ent points of view; and illustrating change, transformation, making, art, and teaching. and metamorphosis are often needed (Olson & Wilson, 1979). Narrative vocabularies can also be built as students Narratives that deal with everyday life provide students impor- learn how to find and use source material that can help them tant opportunities to reflect upon and find meaning in their solve the representational problems within their own works. experiences. A simple invitation to revisit an ordinary day or time can produce good material for a visual story. An invita- Building a vocabulary for visual narratives can take place incre- tion to recall memorable events and significant others (Ruopp, mentally over the years where a developmental approach is 1996) can inspire more complex visual stories. An invitation tied to students’ growing capacity for increasingly sophisticat- to reflect on cause and effect might produce imagery illustrated representational problems and content (Carroll & ing insights gained from experiences good and bad. Narratives Colleran, 1983). Such a vocabulary may also be developed also arise from reflecting on the observed world, its cycles, through extended units at any grade level and adapted to the rhythms, and processes for sequential change. Certain themes, developmental level of students, culminating in finished prod- such as journey, can prompt a range of stories from everyday ucts. Semesterlong instructional sequences have proven effec- travel and adventure to relocation and starting a new life. tive as early as the fourth and fifth grades (Price, n.d.). Encouraging students to draw from popular culture may also Narratives may also be inspired by works from different art help sustain an interest in narrative drawing among adoles- forms including literature, music, and art. Folk tales, children’s cents (Toku, 2001). storybooks, and the work of illustrators are an especially rich resource. Certain works of art can be used to inspire narrative Matching Story to Visual Form and Media responses while giving practice with specific expressive options, as in visualizing “what happened next?” (Wilson et al., 1987). The history of art is replete with narrative forms that range Myths, legends, fairy tales, and poetry all provide excellent from rock drawings and cave paintings to digital animation material for visual storytelling. Students may develop their own and film. Different visual forms accommodate story in differ- illustrations for works authored by others or recast or reinvent ent ways. Certain forms are sequential in nature such as a old stories to yield material for new visual stories. book, scroll, storyboard, cartoon, or animation. Forms such as story quilts or collages offer, simultaneously, story elements Original stories, myths, tales, and legends may emerge from literally pieced together in a whole. Some forms are instru- different prompts. Here, text and image often feed each other. ments of story and drama including puppets, costumes, Narratives can arise out of the opportunity to speculate, proj- masks, headdresses, and other props. Other forms, such as ect, and dream. A simple invitation of “what if...” can stimu- single images, sculptures, chairs, shoes, boxes, and containers, late imaginative responses. The creation of characters and the may illustrate a particular moment in a story or have story invitation to imagine an encounter between them can gener- embedded in them, thus prompting the question: “What ate a story. Inventing a story to explain a phenomenon can story might this object tell?” Contemporary media such as

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 71 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

digital imaging accommodate development of original language to feed ideas and identify representational problems imagery while encouraging layering, juxtaposition, appropria- to solve, in making images richer. In short, providing students tion of source material from art and popular culture, and the with the opportunity to move among symbol systems, as it integration of text and image. serves their needs to construct meaning, places words and images in a symbiotic relationship. Feeding Each Other: Narratives in Words and Images Assessment of Narrative Drawings

Reports suggest that movement among symbol systems devel- Wilson and Wilson (May 1979) create a prompt for a six-part ops ideas (Grauer, 1984; Olson, 1987, 1998). In one case, a visual image for which Baker (n.d.) developed an assessment visual learner having difficulty generating written language model for scoring narrative drawings that yielded a numerical was invited to make a drawing, talk about it, and then return rating. As such, it provides a model for constructing evalua- to writing (Olson, 1987). Comparison of the pre and post tion instruments and suggests that narrative work can be writing samples shows that the three-step intervention pro- assessed for narrative techniques or conventions in the render- duced writing more loaded with emotion, freer from error, ing of subject matter and composition as well as for the com- and richer in detail. In a similar way, verbal learners who find plexity and richness of the story content. themselves stuck in the process of visualization can use written

REFERENCES art. Art Education, 54 (2), 11-17. Article presents information on the Japanese movement among young artists to Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard produce manga or narrative comic books while considering the question about University Press. loss of interest in drawing expressed by most adolescents. The author specu- Makes the case for the narrative construction of meaning as an important lates that it might be possible to help students find their own identities through dimension of learning and education. Bruner reconsiders earlier assumptions narrative art that supports the integration of influences from popular culture that gave scientific thinking primary emphasis in the schools. into their work.

Kellman, J. (1995). Harvey shows the way: Narrative in children’s art. Art Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1979, April). Children’s story drawings: Reinventing Education, 48 (2), 18-22. worlds. School Arts, pp. 6-11. Author makes the case for the importance of narrative as invention, description, Article suggests that children draw to understand themselves and their environ- and negotiation. Reviews theory with examples from the literature and offers ment and that the construction of visual worlds allows them to create models specific examples that illustrate the deep purposes narrative art can serve for for how things might be. children needing to make sense of their world of experience. Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1979, May). Drawing realities: The themes of chil- Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1972). Psychology of the Arts. Durham, N.C.: Duke dren’s story drawings. School Arts, pp. 12- 17. University Press. Introduces Kreitler’s four types of realities found in adult artwork and connects them to a range of themes in the work of children. Article includes a prompt for Lippard, L. (1990). Mixed blessings: New art in a multicultural America. a visual story that can serve as a way to get students started or as an assess- New York: Pantheon. ment tool for narrative drawing. Lippard’s presentation on artists who have moved from one culture to another is organized thematically and features the work of minority and women contem- Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1979, June). Of graphic vocabularies and grammar: porary artists. Teaching drawing skills for worldmaking. School Arts, pp. 36-41. Article suggests that narrative conventions can be taught through various kinds Olson, J. (1997). “Encouraging Visual Storytelling,” in J. Simpson, J. Delaney, K. of exercises, including how many people can you draw?; showing action; too L. Carroll, S. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. Olson. Creating meaning through art (pp. much page; transformations; showing feelings; different points of view; and 163-205). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, Prentice-Hall. drawing from graphic models. Chapter discusses the importance of story and how stories, verbal and visual, develop. Lists narrative themes plus artists and writers whose work is narra- Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1980, October). Beyond marvelous: Conventions tive, including examples drawn from different cultures as well as minorities and inventions in John Scott’s Gemini. School Arts, pp. 20-26. and women. Article uses the narrative drawings of one young artist to make the case for narrative forms of expression as a legitimate part of an art curriculum. Toku, M. (2001). What is manga?: The influence of pop culture in adolescent

72 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1981, October). I draw—you draw: The graphic MODELS FOR PRACTICE dialogue. School Arts, pp. 50-55. Article considers the value of a drawing dialogue between two or more drawers Baker, D. (n.d.). Narrative drawing test and scoring guide. Project Art Band. as a spontaneous and playful way of extending graphic vocabularies and ideas. Brookline, MA: The DeCordova Art Museum. Unpublished test designed with Brent Wilson to identify artistically gifted and talented middle school students. Includes a prompt for a six-frame narrative RESEARCH sequence of drawings and criteria for assigning points for narrative conven- Duncum, P. (1997). Subjects and themes in children’s unsolicited drawings tions and story content. and gender socialization. In A. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Ruopp, A. (1996, April). Narrative drawing: A study in personal histories. An analysis of reports from historical literature through contemporary sources, School Arts, pp. 20-21. including his own doctoral research, of themes as they emerge in the work of Ruopp reports a process for unearthing stories of personal significance merged young people. He finds that the themes that preoccupy youngsters reflect into a single image inspired and informed by the work of Faith Ringgold. developmental issues and concerns as well as some variation along gender lines. Bibliography provides sources for further reading. Howard County Art Teachers. (2001). Telling images: Stories in art. An exhibition of narrative art work, K-12. Howard County Center for the Arts, March Johnson, S. (2001). The narrative process in adolescent art: A case study. 2001. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. An exhibit illustrating a range of narrative formats, themes, and stories across Johnson identifies the role of narrative in the construction of adolescent identi- the grade levels validating the richness of the possibilities for object and image ty through art. Using a case-study method, she analyzes the manner in which making as well as the relationship linking reading, writing, and art. artwork accommodates and reveals steps in the adolescent journey, a journey marked by separation, death, and return. Olson, J., & Wilson, B. (1979, September). A visual narrative program— grades 1-8. School Arts, pp. 26-33. Olson, J. (1992). Envisioning writing: Toward an integration of drawing and Description of instructional program illustrated with examples of student work. writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. Olson’s dissertation research (Columbia University Teachers College), reported Carroll, K., & Colleran, J. (1983). A curriculum for elementary and middle in this book written for both classroom and art teachers, supports in theory school art. Providence, RI: Providence School Department. and practice the significance and merits of engaging learners in visual story- Identifies narrative drawing as a component of the art curriculum. Provides a telling. It is illustrated with visual examples as well as models for assessing sequential guide and sample units for narrative art. visual storytelling. Olson identifies a series of exercises useful in developing a vocabulary for visual storytelling. The exercises cover drawing as many char- Wilson, B., Hurwitz, A., & Wilson, M. (1987). Drawing from art. Worcester, MA: acters as possible, depicting the same scene in different times of day or sea- Davis Press. sons of the year, exaggerating features of a characters, showing different facial Offers models for building a narrative vocabulary by working from works of art. expressions, depicting a sequence of actions, and depicting a scene or charac- Illustrated examples include using different drawing techniques to change the ter from different points of view (close up, far away, bird’s-eye view, worm’s- Mona Lisa eight different ways and “What happened next?” in response to eye view). All are illustrated with examples of work by elementary students. Munch’s The Scream.

Thunder-McGuire, S. S. (1990). Narrative accounts of children’s artists’ bookmaking. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the University of Iowa. A narrative interpretation of semesterlong bookmaking efforts of elementary children. Findings suggest that the realities of particular and personal histories shaped children’s books and that the process of making books fused emerging meanings into a whole.

REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Carroll, K. (2003, April). Encouraging visual storytelling. School Arts. Excerpts from the exhibition text written to accompany the show organized by the Alumni Study Group for Narrative Art held at the Maryland Institute College of Art in 2000. Illustrated with exhibition shots and examples of student work.

Grauer, K. (1984). Art and writing: Enhancing expression in images and words. Art Education, 36 (5), 32-34. Reports on a curricular linkage between art and language arts at the elementary level that appears to enhance both forms of communication.

Olson, J. (1987, September). Drawing to write. School Arts, pp. 25-27. Illustrated article reporting an intervention strategy for visual learners needing ways to generate content for written work. Provides pre and post examples with a description and explanation of the process that involves drawing and talking about the image.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 73 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

Working From Observation

PRACTICE

The following suggestions are drawn from research, reports from practice, and models for instruction.

Students, K-12, can succeed in drawing from observation provided an instructional method helps them think about what they are drawing, visualize it (in terms of edges, shapes, spaces, relationships, details, light, and shade), and determine ways to proceed (Salome, 1965; Nicolaides, 1969; Salome & Reeves, BETTER PRACTICE 1972; Salome & Szeto, 1976; Dodson, 1985; Langan, 1995; Teachers who integrate observational Edwards, 1989; Smith et al., 1998). drawing into art instruction help learners develop both perceptual and Practice with observational drawing can begin as early as kindergarten. Young children need interesting and engaging representational skills. subject matter such as bicycles, plants, and interesting gadgets as well as dialogues to guide the process of seeing and drawing (Smith et al., 1998). THEORY In the history of art education, the study of drawing development has focused primarily on drawing from memory, so much so that the field has largely been blind to the capacity of young children to draw from observation. Wolf (in Smith, 1998) reminds us that drawing from observation is, in part, learning to see and that marks on paper record the process of looking. Other definitions of observational drawing include investigation of internal structures, movements, and/or proportions, as well as the development of an expressive response or an exploration of artistic issues (pp. 6-7).

The goal of observational drawing should be to further expand and develop a repertoire of drawing strategies useful in depicting a range of ideas. Young children, beginning in kindergarten, can integrate observed shapes and details into their drawings, revising schemata to incorporate new information. Periodic practice with observational drawing throughout the years helps learners transform a linear approach to drawing to one that can render form, light, and shade, and describe increasing amount of detail, achieving convincing likenesses. The need to master the conventions of Western representation is so strong that art educators have identified an “Adolescent Crisis” in the process of learning to draw. Without strategies for representation that meet the expectation of looking “real and right,” many students stop drawing altogether (Golomb, 1992). Safe passage through this crisis requires clear and specific instruction and often a combination of strategies (Edwards, 1989; Dowell, 1990). Those who do learn to draw convincing likenesses are more likely to feel confident about their artistic ability, while those who do not may see themselves as unable to go further in art.

74 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Upper-elementary children particularly enjoy thinking the matter, think visually, prepare to draw, and reflect on the way scientists do as they draw small objects from nature results (Burton, 1980; Smith et al., 1998). Association dia- (Gainer & Child, 1986). logues help learners recognize and/or connect with objects they will draw. Visualization dialogues help students see sub- Students need more than perceptual cues to master the con- ject matter in terms of parts and relationships. Transition dia- ventions of representational drawing; imitation and copying logues aid students in thinking about how to begin and pro- may have a role to play as well as modeling drawing proce- ceed with a drawing. dures (Wilson & Wilson, 1977; Rush et al., 1980; Duncum, 1984; Dowell, 1990; Wagner, 1994; Langan, 1995). Guiding the drawing process may step students through a drawing of a difficult subject such as a figure by directing stu- Observational drawing can serve upper-elementary students’ dents’ attention to certain features, details, relationships, and need to make things look “real and right,” especially when that proportions (Olson, 1992). means increasing amounts of detail (Burton, 1980). Taking time to explain drawing development, why drawings Middle school students respond well to objects that are “weird, look the way they do, the purpose of specific exercises, and nasty, and strange” partly because they are unusual and outside ways in which drawings are improving builds drawing confi- their standard vocabulary of schemata and can be broken dence, especially among middle schoolers (Ayres, 2001). down into parts that have interesting details (Mitchell, 2001). Because observational drawing requires a relaxed state of atten- Ayres (1998) confirms that most middle school students have tion, references to “a final” drawing can actually cause students the desire, technical facility, and cognitive capacity to draw to freeze up. Simply extending an invitation to add more realistically. She reports high success rates with a variety of observed or imaginary content to one or more of the drawings learners in response to a structured sequence that begins with produces less anxiety in an attempt to create a fuller and more drawings of record, includes practice with strategies adapted meaningful composition (Ayres, 2001). from Nicolaides and Edwards, and concludes with figure studies or portraits. Examples of partially completed or finished drawings show how different techniques and strategies can solve drawing Adolescents have an interest in mastering a convincing likeness problems. Master drawings may be copied with accuracy or of faces, hands, shoes, interiors, and figures. Certain subject innovation in mind (Wilson et al., 1987). matter, such as portraits, can be revisited each year, developmentally increasing the challenges, skills, and strategies for Expressiveness in drawings can be encouraged through a num- drawing (Popp, 1995, 1997; Chambliss & Martel, 2002). ber of strategies. For example, masks, dramatic light, and music can enhance practice with contour portrait drawing Artists who taught themselves to draw suggest additional ideas (Costello, 1987). about how to sequence subject matter. For example, Edvard Munch practiced drawing small objects and still lifes (form, shad- Many styles employ some degree of observational representation ow, detail, reflections) at 12, interiors at 13 (deep space), land and and suggest ways to bring variation into the process of working cityscapes (space and composition) at 14 and 15, and the figure from life. Different styles suggest specific visual strategies and (form, proportion, gesture) at the age of 17 (Carroll, 1994). can be worked into an observational sequence to vary the instruction, develop expressive skills, and build a familiarity Popp (1999) reports the impact of a highly structured sequence with different styles of art (Popp, 1999; Wilson et al., 1987). in Art I at the high school level, adapted from Betty Edwards, that begins in September and works toward portrait drawing in What begins as literal can be taken to metaphorical levels of February. The approach has proven successful with a broad expression; showing students thematic work (such as portraits) population of students, empowering them to think about them- by a wide variety of artists can help them move beyond obser- selves as artists and drawing many into art electives with a vocab- vational accuracy to more personal and expressive forms of ulary and basic skills that can then be further developed. expression (Chambliss & Martel, 2002).

Orchestrating drawing from observation requires a combina- A process checklist can contribute to self-assessment (Dodson, tion of strategies. While a good demonstration helps illustrate 1985). Criteria such as the nature of the line quality, the rela- the process for drawing, the following suggestions increase the tionship of parts to the whole, elaboration in the form of odds that students will succeed. detail, embellishment, decoration, or space filling, complexity, and energy can be used to evaluate drawings (Hurwitz & El- A structured dialogue can help students connect with subject Bassiouny, 1993, p. 19). Levels of performance can also be

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 75 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

identified; work may be “Emerging,” “Proficient,” or ings of record, provide evidence of progress and, as such, are a “Advanced” (Chambliss & Martel, 2002). powerful tool in building confidence, especially among adolescents who are just beginning to learn to draw from observation Teachers confirm that process-portfolios, beginning with draw- (the Study Group for Observational Drawing, 2000).

RESEARCH in helping children develop drawing strategies and devices that meet their developmental expectations. Carroll, K. (1994). Artistic beginnings: The work of young Edvard Munch. Studies in Art Education, 36 (1), 7-17. Moody, L. J. (1992). An analysis of drawing programs for early adolescents. Analysis of Munch’s early work revealing simultaneous strategies of narrative Studies in Art Education, 34 (1), 39-47. drawing, drawing from objects, interiors, landscapes, and figures from observa- Review of several contemporary drawing programs for early adolescents, tion plus drawing from art and popular culture, as well as insights into his including Brooks, Edwards, McFee and Degge, Lowenfeld and Brittain, Wilson, development of observational skills related to specific subject matter and repre- Hurwitz and Wilson, and Wilson and Wilson. Finds three orientations to drawing sentational problems. instruction that parallel three major developmental perspectives: perceptual, psychosocial, and cognitive. Suggests that programs matched the developmen- Dowell, M. L. (1990). Effects of visual referents upon representational drawing tal needs of learners. of the human figure. Studies in Art Education, 31 (2), 78-85. Report on a dissertation study (University of Maryland) in which three classes of Rush, J. C., Weckesser, J. K., and Sabers, D. L. (1980). A comparison of Art I high school students each received an exclusive referent (live model, photo- instructional methods for teaching contour drawing to children. Studies in Art graphs, or copies of master drawings) in a three-week unit on drawing the human Education, 21 (2), 6-12. figure. Findings suggest that drawing from live models, as the only visual refer- Compares the use of predrawn completed and partially completed examples ent, may be less effective than photographs and/or master drawings. with a demonstration, including tracing the object in the air, to illustrate contour drawing. Study found that greater gains in visual information were made when Duncum, P. (1984). How 35 children born between 1724 and 1900 learned to students observed predrawn examples. Study suggests that demonstration draw. Studies in Art Education, 26 (2), 93-102. alone may be insufficient for some learners. Study analyzes the various strategies famous artists used to develop their skills and concludes that young children develop a repertoire of strategies including Salome, R. A. (1965). The effects of perceptual training upon the two dimen- observational drawing. Copying was the most common strategy. sional drawings of children. Studies in Art Education, 7 (1), 15-21. Salome found that directed perceptual training, which included observing con- Golomb, C. (1992). The child’s creation of a pictorial world. Berkeley: tours and points of maximum information, increased the amount of visual infor- University of California Press. mation in children’s drawings. A psychologist of art, Golomb has compiled a thorough and critical review of drawing research probing questions about why young children draw, what they Salome, R. A., & Reeves, D. (1972). Two pilot investigations of perceptual are doing when they draw, and how they solve drawing problems. Ultimately training of four- and five-year-old kindergarten children. Studies in Art she asks how it is, given that most children begin by drawing naturally, that Education, 13 (2), 3-9. most eventually stop. She effectively places responsibility for nurturing this fascinating human propensity squarely in the hands of art educators. The text Salome, R. A., & Szeto, J. (1976). The effects of search practice and perceptual includes reports from many original research investigations she initiated. training upon representational drawing. Studies in Art Education, 18 (1), 49-54. These two reports describe studies that continue the work begun by Salome earlier. Hurwitz, A., & El-Bassiouny, M. (1993). Thematic drawings by Taiwanese, Qatari and American children. Cairo: Dar Al-Maaref. (Limited copies of this Wagner, K. M. (1994). The use of two-dimensional modeling in elementary publication are in the library of the Hurwitz Study Center for Art Education at the drawing education: A comparison of conventional and constitutional pedagogy. Maryland Institute.) Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota. In the introduction, Hurwitz discusses specific and general qualities of drawing An experimental study with fourth graders comparing the effects of two alterna- that psychologists and art educators have defined. tive approaches to drawing. Results showed significant gains in drawing the face when students were provided two-dimensional models as well as discus- Langan, J. L. (1995). The influence of visual models and instructional methods sions of artists’ portraits. The control group was given the same task without on the development of students’ graphic representations. Unpublished doctoral visual or verbal clues for solving the problem. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Experimental study comparing drawing performance of fifth graders by testing Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1977). An iconoclastic view of the imagery sources in four different conditions. Results suggest that modeling drawing procedures the drawings of young people. Art Education, 30 (1), 4-12. increases drawing both two- and three-dimensional subjects. This study used Study suggests that while some models may emphasize multi-path develop- videos to model drawing procedures. ments, advancements in one realm of graphic tasks do not necessarily translate readily to other graphic tasks. Langan, J. (1996). Literature review for the influences of visual models and instructional methods on the development of students’ graphic representations. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Visual Arts Research, 22 (1), 52-61. Review suggests the period between ages 4 and 12 fosters significant graphic Ayres, J. (1998). Unpublished master’s thesis: Drawing as a way of knowing: development. Further, that “perception and cognition develop from the general Developing visual thinking skills in the adolescent learner. Towson University. to the specific, from the simple to the complex, and from the undifferentiated to This study was set up to investigate the behavioral characteristics of the middle the differentiated” (p. 60). Concludes that instruction can play a significant role school child, determine the drawing needs and interests of students during the

76 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION middle school years, determine the importance of visual thinking in the cogni- Edward’s Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain and a discussion of the bene- tive development of adolescent children, and to investigate selected drawing fits of integrating a sequential approach to observational drawing with the his- techniques and teaching strategies of Kimon Nicolaides, Betty Edwards, and tory of art. Such an approach can provide an introduction to styles that builds Mona Brooks. The report begins with a review of the literature on developmen- vocabulary, concepts, and skills that can empower a broad population of stu- tal characteristics, drawing, perception, and cognition and contains an illustrat- dents to see themselves as artists. ed analysis of the progress made by five students who represent a range of student ability including average, gifted, and exceptional learners. She concludes Smith, N., and the Observation Study Group. (1998). Observation drawing that teaching students to draw from observation is more than an exercise in with children. New York: Teachers College Press. drawing; it is a lesson in thinking and a powerful medium for expressing a Describes developmental characteristics of learners from kindergarten through unique interpretation of the world. Further, students who are provided the tools, the sixth grade and contains scripted lessons and samples of student drawings motivation, time, and strategies can learn to draw. from observation for each grade level K-6. Reviews art education’s lack of focus on observational drawing with young children, redefines working from Ayres, J. (2001). Presentation to the Study Group for Observational Drawing, observation, and models a teacher-student dialogue designed to help children Howard County Schools, Maryland. associate with subject matter, think visually, and consider what strategies they Ayres reports on time taken to survey middle school students about their desire might use to draw it. The book is a product of several years of conversations to draw and to address myths about drawing development. Students need to among the lead author and a study group of six teachers. be reminded that drawing is a skill that can be taught and learned, not just a talent. Doing is one of several critical elements in an instructional sequence Study Group for Observational Drawing. (2001). Howard County Public Schools. designed to build confidence with observational drawing skills. A voluntary group of middle school teachers who meet regularly to discuss strategies and share ideas about effective ways of teaching observational drawing, col- Burton, J. (1980, December). Representing experience from imagination and lect data from surveys, and examine work samples by a range of students. observation. School Arts, pp. 26-30 One of a series of articles that begin with mark making, including dialogues for MODELS FOR PRACTICE guiding work with materials and representational strategies; this article addresses Dodson, B. (1985). Keys to drawing. Cincinnati, OH: North Light. upper-elementary students’ need to produce drawings that look real and right and A beautifully illustrated book with excellent checklists for guiding a developmen- discusses approaches to drawing from observation and imagination. tal series of drawings. Especially useful with middle and high school students. Carroll, K. (2000). Notes from the Study Group for Art in Early Childhood. Eccles, G., & Edwards, I. (n.d.). Environmental studies: Art and design ideas Funded by Goals 2000 from the Maryland Department of Education, this Study from a range of settings. Recorded in the United Kingdom. Copy on file in the Group met over the course of three years to discuss observations and ideas for Hurwitz Study Center for Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art. teaching art to kindergarten children. Video documenting workshops with innovative strategies for developing observational problems using both natural materials from the environment and works Chambliss, C., & Martel, M. M. (2002). Images of self: Literal to metaphorical. of art as subject matter and/or inspiration. Presentation, National Art Education Conference, Miami Beach. Presentation suggests that self-portraiture, as a theme, is an accessible starting Edwards, B. (1989). Drawing on the right side of the brain. Los Angeles: Tarcher. point for inspiration at the high school level. An abundant assortment of exem- Contains a series of exercises drawn from the history of art that have proven plars inspires a broad range of solutions. The authors identified three levels of successful with individuals across a wide age span as well as with middle performance: Emerging (where the subject matter is used to develop technical school and Art I classes. skills for working from observation); Proficient (where technical skills continue to develop while beginning to use more expressive aspects of the self-portrait as Olson, J. (1992). Envisioning Writing: Toward an integration of drawing and subject); and Advanced (where self-portrait is the basis for the creation of work, writing. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann. or a body of work, that is more complex technically and conceptually). Chapter 1 includes recommendations for assisting children in drawing people and faces from observation by using questions that will help them solve the Costello, S. (1987, September). Peculiar portrait drawing. School Arts, p. 29. problems of depicting parts and details. Illustrates how masks can interest students in portrait drawing. Males, F. (1981). Drawing ideas of the masters: Improve your drawings by Gainer, R S., & Child, J. S. (1986). Scientific illustration for the elementary studying the masters. Tucson, AZ: H. P. Books. school. Art Education, pp. 19-22. Includes master drawings featuring portraits, the figure, figure composition, Article reports success in engaging sixth graders in drawing the way scientists landscape, the built environment, and animals. do using small natural objects as subject matter. Nicolaides, K. (1969). The natural way to draw. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Mitchell, M. (2001). Comments shared with the Study Group for Observational Classic text recommending daily practice, warm-ups, gesture drawing, and Drawing, Howard County Schools, Maryland. other approaches to drawing the figure and working from observation. Mike Mitchell reports that “strange, nasty and weird objects” intrigue middle school students, appeal to their sense of humor, and provide the right kind of Smith, N., and the Drawing Study Group. (1998). Observation drawing with challenge to help them break form into shapes, lines, textures, and values, thus children: A framework for teachers. New York: Teachers College Press. empowering them to increase their representational skills. The product of a study group, this book begins by making the case for observational drawing with children. Defines and qualifies the definition of observation- Popp, L. (1995, 1997). Sequential artistic development in high school as evidenced al drawing. Includes scripted dialogues for drawing lessons working from dif- by self-portraits. Presentations, respectively, at MAEA and NAEA conferences. ferent subject matter, illustrated with student examples for grades kindergarten An illustrated presentation that illustrates how developments in artistic growth through six. can be seen by revisiting the self-portrait annually in high school. Wilson, B., Hurwitz, A., & Wilson, M. (1987). Drawing from art. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Popp, L.(1999). Being an artist in Art I. Presentation at the NAEA national convention. Includes chapters on observational drawing that model a variety of innovative An illustrated presentation on a curriculum for Art I adapted from Betty approaches illustrated with examples from artists and students.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 77 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

Developing an Expanded Vocabulary for Visual Form

PRACTICE

Current practice for exploring visual-spatial form is often dominated by elements of art and principles of design. Yet historical research reveals that more is at work here than a basic vocabulary of visual qualities and principles of organization. A look at both the past and the present suggests that beliefs, values, vocabulary, and concepts have shaped, and continue to shape, the way visual-spatial forms operate, and create meaning, in art and design. BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who use both formal and informal The historical development of beliefs, values, and vocabulary related approaches to the exploration of visual form build to design can be viewed through vocabulary and concepts related to art, nature, and metaphorical lenses (Johnson, 1992). systems theory while facilitating deeper thinking The evolution of design terms can be understood by looking for connec- about life and art and about visually tions with socially constructed ideas. communicating ideas, thoughts, and feelings. For example, in the Renaissance, the concept of design reflected a belief in reason, human intellect, Plato’s THEORY notion of Ideas, and God. Conceptually, design was both a plan and an expression of Physiology, perception, and intuition all play a role in ideal and holistic ideas. Later, design repre- communicating ideas and feelings through visual-spatial form. sented a phenomenon found in nature and an expression of natural forces. Nature was a In part, human understanding of visual form is grounded in our noble source of beauty, harmony, happiness, bodily experiences. It is also governed by the capacity to and peace. Alternatively, design was thought perceive visual qualities. And it is deeply connected to the of in terms of mechanical, orderly, and lawful operation. Eventually, the notion of analyzing capacity to associate feelings and meanings with visual-spatial visual form emerged, and with it, variations on form. Research can help in understanding the implications of a vocabulary to describe its principles and these notions for practice. qualities. It became possible to think about visual form abstractly. The search for design concepts has produced numerous theories for thinking about order, structure, and form. Examples include theories of dynamic symmetry, the Divine Section, the Golden Rectangle, and mathematical models for harmonic proportion and sequence. In short, since the Renaissance, metaphors for design have included disegno/dessin, nature, ornament, order/geometry, and visual grammar and expression (pp. 148-149).

Contemporary sources provide a look forward. Roukes (1988) puts forth a theory of design based on disruptive thought. Here two disparate ideas are merged, through synectic thinking, to form a new idea or concept. He also looks to nature and science for new ways of thinking about structures

78 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION and theories of organization. Contemporary media including Exploring Visual Form: A Formalist Approach projected, animated, digital, performance, and time-based art forms require new language for describing, analyzing, and In a formalist approach, visual form takes the primary focus. interpreting form and meaning. Certain contemporary media Attention might highlight the exploration of a certain art prin- such as computer graphics describe visual properties in ways ciple such as line and its various qualities and possibilities, or that may require reconsideration and qualification of existing two opposite forms might be explored in an effort to know art vocabulary (Johnson, 1996). each one more fully by knowing its opposite (open versus closed, spiral versus concentric). More complex thinking The physiological basis for human association of meaning to might consider how various forms combine to create new visual form provides different insights. The concept of a uni- forms and meaning (curved and straight, open and closed). versal language of form is supported in theory by Gardner Certain organizational principles might be practiced through (1973) and Dissanayake (1988), who both recognize vectors problems that require students to select or respond to specific and modes of experience that are grounded in the body and ideas (creating pattern, embellishing surface with textures) or thus common to all human beings regardless of cultural expe- creating forms that demonstrate an understanding of concepts rience. Dissanayake explains: “Modes are space organizing (touching, separated, close-packing, vertebraic, etc.). and configurational, vectors have to do with time and quality.... these primordial bodily experiences—in infancy—occur Teacher-directed formal approaches to the study of visual form before we have words—experience literally comes to us as can build vocabulary and lead to concept development begin- open or closed, expanded or contracted, fast or slow, regular or ning in early childhood. Explorations of visual concepts can irregular... later we have words and can discuss these feelings involve an array of different strategies, including comparing and experiences.... As well, infants react to pattern, repetition, and contrasting, working with two- and three-dimensional novelty, variety, rhythm, sequence, intensity, balance and other materials, kinesthetic movement, word play, and associating form with feelings and ideas (Townley, 1978, 1983). effects” (p. 146). Formal investigations can explore the possibilities of visual London (1989, 2002) explains that the urgency to say some- form in concert with materials. It can create opportunities to thing important and the anticipation that the expression will consider how form communicates meaning, feeling, and ideas. be received with deep regard can result in visual form that is Arriving at an interpretive level of understanding may depend intuitively conceived and aesthetically realized. His notion of on the level of attention invested in description, analysis, asso- a holistic approach to visual form, in which the alignment of ciation, and interpretation. body, mind, and spirit is a formative force, is consistent with Dissanayake’s notion that human beings “make special” Exploring Form: An Intuitive Approach objects and rituals when they are seen as important. Peter London (1989) suggests the opposite of a formalist Langer (1953) provides theoretical support for the notion of approach to the exploration of visual form. Setting the condi- “form as feeling” and the manner in which form carries mean- tions for a more intuitive exploration, stimulated by existential ing. Even though some post-modernists would argue that there (self-referential) questions, ideas, and possibilities with a focus is no such thing as universal meaning, it may be that creating or on intuition and the sensuous properties of art media, he associating meaning with visual form is a complex proposition. reports that visual form, in a sense, takes care of itself. Perhaps In part, it may be related to universal associations grounded in due to an inherent need to shape important responses in an our common bodily experiences. It may also be related to aesthetic way, the visual form that emerges is complete, har- socially constructed cultural and personal connections. monious or dramatic, expressive and/or sensitive, balanced and unbalanced in ways that are beautiful and meaningful. In The study of visual form and design continues to raise inter- this instance, a response to the meaning suggested by formal esting questions. For example, is there such a thing as a uni- aspects of a piece takes the place of dissection and formal versal language of form? What is the role of culture in giving analysis. Primacy is given to the message, honoring meaning, meaning to visual form? Must design be a deliberate act in feeling, and the experience of making. which principles and theories guide decisions? Is style a matter of taste while design a matter of principle? How is mean- Development of a Vocabulary for Visual Form ing communicated via visual form? What about visual form and design can be taught and learned? What might humans The vocabulary used to describe nature, art, and the con- already know intuitively, without instruction, about using structed world has many roots and continues to develop as sci- visual form to express ideas and feelings? What kinds of teach- ence and art seek to deal with new forms of matter and form. ing practices might bring such intuitive knowledge into play? The elements of art and principles of design were identified by

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 79 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

Arthur Wesley Dow at Teachers College, Columbia University Nature is a source of ideal order and form (Johnson, 1992). in 1899 as a way of helping elementary teachers talk to young Studying form and structure in nature, natural objects, and children about art. He began with three art elements: line, science cultivates a sense of wonder, and regard for the natural notan (value), and color. His organizational principles includ- world has tremendous value. ed opposition, transition, subordination, repetition, and symmetry. This language was expanded by his student, Belle Boas, Principles that have guided specific design efforts can be dis- and has continued to evolve over a century of use. It is com- covered or deduced through analysis (Johnson, 1992). Formal mon practice to include among the elements of art line, value, exercises and formal analysis can serve the purpose of con- color, shape and form, texture, and space with the principles necting what is perceived with what is felt and inferred. of emphasis, movement, balance, and repetition (Stoops & Samuelson, 1983). Visual concepts can be taught and learned. Even young children can learn a relatively sophisticated set of visual concepts A similar effort to describe visual form emerged from the if the concepts are presented as contrasting opposites and Bauhaus in 1919. Johannes Itten’s contrasting visual concepts explored through multisensory activities and appropriate for the Basic Course at the Bauhaus covered large-small; long- media (Townley, 1978; Eisenstein, 1995; Carroll, 2001). short; broad-narrow; thick-thin; black-white; much-little; straight-bent; pointed-blunt; horizontal-vertical; line-volume; Science and technology offer new concepts and vocabulary for smooth-rough; hard-soft; still-moving; light-heavy; transpar- understanding visual-spatial form (Roukes, 1988). ent-opaque; steady-intermittent; fluid-solid; sweet-sour; Challenging students to visualize and to find ways to represent strong-weak. Others such as Paul Klee and Vassily Kandinsky new scientific theories may lead to new possibilities for creat- used concepts of point, line, and plane to further discuss the ing visual-spatial and time-based forms and structures. dynamics of visual form and space. Contemporary art and media may require new or qualify old Concepts from nature, the substructure of design, and systems terminology used to describe visual-spatial form. Traditional analysis provide additional terms such as spiral, explosion, ver- terms and visual features from computer graphics should be tebraic, radiating, cluster, branching, grid, lattice, interlocking, reassessed as they are integrated into art education. Computer stress and flow, close packing, and open packing (Roukes, technology may serve as a useful model for design theory in 1988, p. 77). traditional art media (Johnson, 1996).

Contemporary forms of art and new digital technology require Intuitive approaches to image making might be integrated new terminology in order to deal with concepts such as hier- with or even supplant more formal approaches to the study of archy, scale, interactivity, (a)synchronicity, layering, systems, design and visual form (London, 1989). See the entry under replication, synthesis, modularity, color, light, sequence, time, holistic approaches for more information. and sound (Schooler, 2000). Thus, rather than a short list of elements and principles, sometimes regarded as “the rules for Traditional design problems, if revised using strategies that cre- art,” the vocabulary and the conceptual basis for visual form ate the conditions for making personal choices and working evolve from developments in science, technology, and art, pro- intuitively as well as formally, can have more meaning for stu- viding rich concepts for visual exploration. dents (McKenna, in press).

Suggestions Drawn from Research and Reports Complementary use of formal and informal approaches to the from Practice same visual concepts may offer students with different learning styles multiple ways to understand the relationship Concepts and language for design and visual form are best between meaning and visual form (La Perriere, 2002). thought of as evolutionary and fluid. Thus expansion of the concepts and vocabulary beyond traditional principles and elements is essential (Johnson, 1992; Johnson, 1996).

Visual beauty has value (Johnson, 1992). Making something that is well planned and elegantly shaped is an aesthetic goal worth pursuing.

80 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION REFERENCES La Perriere presents an example of two ways to approach the concept of symmetry. Two assignments were pursued at relatively the same time. In one, Dissanayake, E. (1988). What is art for? Seattle: University of Washington teachers asked students to design a “personal portable altar,” an assignment Press. that would likely lead to the intuitive use of symmetry. At the same time, stu- Dissanayake searches for the origins of art in human behavior and proposes a dents engaged in formal problems exploring symmetrical design. An informal, style of thinking about art as a way of making special those objects and rituals intuitive approach alongside a formal approach ultimately reinforces the associ- which have profound importance to their makers. ation of form with feeling and meaning while accommodating different preferences for learning and expression. Gardner, H. (1973). The arts and human development. New York: Wiley. Gardner’s first book on the arts and human development, later adapted in a London, P. (1989). No more secondhand art: Awakening the artist within. shorter form by the Getty Trust under the same title. This original book is worth Boston: Shambala Press. reading for the background it provides. Following a philosophical orientation to an intuitive way of working, London proposes 12 different questions or prompts useful in generating responses with RESEARCH STUDIES found materials and art media.

Carroll, K. (2001). Unpublished report from the Study Group for Art in Early Childhood. London, P. (2002). Drawing closer to nature. Boston, MA: Shambala. Further explorations based on a holistic approach to making art in which visual Eisenstein, M. ( 1995 ). The effects of multi-sensory art education on the form emerges from an intuitive rather than a formal intellectual approach. young learner. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Towson University. A participant- observer comparing two different treatments. The enhanced vocabulary and McKenna, S. (in press). Changing the mood: How to add personal meaning to multiple modalities were found to positively affect artwork and learning. an ordinary design problem. In P. London (Ed.), A report from the study group Teams of kindergarten and art teachers in three Maryland school districts vali- for holistic art education. Baltimore: Center for Art Education at the Maryland dated the Another Look curriculum of visual concepts and themes as being Institute College of Art. developmentally appropriate for kindergarten children. Both qualitative and Here McKenna reports a holistic approach that transforms “an ordinary color quantitative data support this conclusion. and mood” exercise into a more personally meaningful experience by simulating an extraordinary context and creating conditions for self-referential choices that Johnson, M. (1996). A comparative study of terms used in art education and are ultimately reflected in color studies. computer graphics to describe the visual properties of images. Studies in Art Education, 37 (3), 184-192. Roukes, N. (1988). Design synectics. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Study includes identification and analysis of more than 1,000 terms. Suggests Chapters have short explanations of theory and concept followed by well-illus- that the formalist concepts about the elements and principles of design in art trated sections on studio practice. The book is loaded with ideas for teaching education must be expanded or replaced to include new terminology and con- and offers a mix of work by artists and students. cepts about visual properties of images. Schooler, E. (2000). Expanding the vocabulary for art. Presentation for the Johnson, N. R. (1992). Metaphor and design. Studies in Art Education, 33 (3), course “The College Teaching of Art” at the Maryland Institute College of Art. 144-153. Presentation suggests that contemporary art and media are constantly expand- Historical analysis of the evolution of the concept of design guided by selected ing the vocabulary for art. metaphors. It presents a topical survey of various concepts of design that have prevailed at different times and places in Western culture. Stoops, J., & Samuelson, J. (1983). Design dialogue. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Resource book that addresses perception and imagination, visual vocabulary, MODELS FOR PRACTICE design process, and design influences. Illustrated with examples by designers and includes brief biographies on leading designers in different fields. Edwards, B. (1986). Drawing on the artist within. New York: Simon and Schuster. Townley, M. R. (1978). Another Look, Levels A, B, and C. Menlo Park, CA.: Edwards has designed an exercise in analog drawing designed to uncover com- Addison Wesley Publishers. (Currently out of print). mon interpretations to different kinds of visual form. Conducted with a class, Townley’s curriculum for young children is somewhat similar to Itten’s contrast- the exercise can prompt a discussion about the feeling or meaning embedded in ing visual concepts and includes open-closed; straight-curved; separated- abstract form and stimulate discussion about universal associations of feeling touching; parallel-branching; smooth-rough; horizontal-vertical-diagonal; spiral- and meaning with visual form. concentric; exploding-enclosing. Roukes (1988) includes spiral, explosion, vertebraic, radiating, cluster, branching, grid, lattice, interlocking, stress and flow, Itten, J. (1963). Design and form: The basic course at the Bauhaus. Trans. close packing, and open packing as visual analogues drawn from “systems by John Maass. New York: Reinhold. from nature.” Townley provides models for word association as well as sensory Itten recounts the Basic Course he designed for the Bauhaus. The book and kinesthetic explorations that can help young children make connections includes examples of student work from a wide variety of assignments. Many linking visual form, feeling, and meaning. of these problems and exercises are still valid today. Townley, M. R. (1983, September). Taking another look: Comparing forms. Herman, G. N., & Hollingsworth, P. (1992). Kinetic Kaleidoscope: Exploring School Arts, pp. 48-51. Movement and Energy in the Visual Arts. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. Illustrated article showing children acting out visual forms, along with samples Herman introduces terminology in terms of contrasting opposites, consistent of their drawings and a description of the activities used in teaching the Another with Itten’s and Townley’s approaches to visual form, and many of the terms Look curriculum. apply to both visual form and dance/movement.

La Perriere, M. (2002). Sample problems for teaching visual thinking. Presentation for the course “The College Teaching of Art” at the Maryland Institute College of Art.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 81 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

Expanding the Repertoire for Visual Perception and Artistic Response

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who foster development of a repertoire of representational skills THEORY prepare students to make expressive A repertoire of representational skills and responsive choices to serve their might include a number of ways to needs and interests. express ideas visually, spatially, and in time-based media. Research suggests that young people may, on their own or with the help of instruction, use multiple representational languages simultaneously (Duncum, 1997; Carroll, 1994). The repertoire can expand to encompass a variety of strategies. As well, distinct skills within the repertoire can be advanced. The curricular challenge becomes one of constructing sequences that develop, over time, several modes of representation while also taking advantage of certain developmental opportunities along the way. Empowering students with sufficient skill and understanding prepares them to choose among representational forms as it serves their thoughts, feelings, ideas, questions, and concerns.

82 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE sibilities, styles are not simply visual solutions (Feldman, 1981). They are the product of ideas, interests, conceptual Simultaneous Development of Different and contextual developments, historical events, social condi- Representational Skills tions, and the like. Stylistic conventions presented in context reinforce the notion that images reflect ways of thinking as Previous entries in this section have focused on working from well as innovations in representation. observation, memory, and experience as well as employing narrative techniques and exploring visual form. While some Recognizing Developmental Readiness for More may have concluded that any given stage of drawing develop- Advanced Challenges and Skills ment delimits representation to that one style, examples from practice demonstrate otherwise. For example, elementary-age In addition, there are “windows of opportunity” to develop children, beginning in kindergarten, can work from observa- specific expressive options. For example, narrative techniques tion even though they are primarily schematic drawers (Smith grant schematic drawers a bridge to more animated and flexi- et al., 1998). Sequences of different strategies make clear the ble systems for drawing (Olson, 1992). While the narrative difference a drawing strategy can make (Carroll, 1999; impulse is strong, it makes sense to give students instruction Gordon, 1987). Adolescents still enjoy working in a narrative that helps them tell their stories in exciting ways. Certainly, style even though they draw more realistically (Toku, 2001). students can portray richer ideas if they develop ways to show At some point, these representational skills may cross over, action and expression; employ points of view and special feed each other, and combine to make new and personal styles effects; create settings with time of day, climate, and terrain; of representation (Carroll, 1994). and use formats that accommodate visual storytelling.

Broadening the Repertoire Another window of opportunity occurs in the upper-elementary grades when learners seek to show more detail and make Students encounter a lot of information that they might con- their drawings look more real and right (Burton, 1980). The sider and present visually and artistically. Additional modes “adolescent crisis” in representation requires attention. It sig- might incorporate ways to think about and record ideas nals readiness as well as the need to develop further those skills through visual note taking, visual systems for organizing infor- that make a convincing likeness possible (Ayres, 1998). Once mation, planning processes, and displaying data, and use of adolescents have affirmed their confidence in their artistic abil- symbols, metaphors, photographs, models, three-dimensional ity, they may find that symbolic, abstract, and conceptual forms, and time-based media (Hamilton, 1998; Katz, 1997; modes of representation better serve more complex ideas and Tufte, 1990, 1997, 2000). feelings and their developing ability to think about ambiguity.

Expanding Modes of Representation Beyond Two Finessing Representational Skill Dimensions Sustained practice over time serves to bring skills to higher lev- Modes of representation apply to three-dimensional as well as els of mastery (Kay, 2000). Practice not just for the sake of two-dimensional forms. It appears that alternating between practice but practice with a purpose can help develop skills as two and three dimensions allows insights gained from one to well as capacity to handle increasingly sophisticated subject inform the other. Further, some individual learners, or even matter. Constructing practice that continually pushes toward whole groups of students, will struggle with two-dimensional new levels of confidence with materials, subject matter, and forms of representation yet gravitate to and even excel with scale is especially useful. Developmental curricula that span a three-dimensional forms. In such cases, beginning with three- number of years can move students toward personal aesthetic dimensional strengths may make two-dimensional representa- preferences, control of media, and greater expressiveness tion possible later. Opportunities for students to explore time- (Popp, 1997). Exposure to art, studies from master artists, based and performance options may also be valuable. keeping sketchbooks for daily practice, and working in series appear to be productive strategies (Grauer & Sandell, 2001). Introducing Styles for Greater Expressive Possibilities Employing Modes of Perception and Response that Foster Personal Response Students can explore expressive qualities as well as more symbolic, metaphoric, abstract, and conceptual modes of thought Certain modes of response or approaches are particularly useful and expression (Edwards, 1986; Szekely, 1989a, 1989b; if they foster both perceptual awareness and artistic response. Roukes, 1988; Ruopp, 1998, 2001). While investigations of For example, naturalistic painting provides such a vehicle style commonly serve to loosen up and explore expressive pos- because it emphasizes perception and response. While teaching

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 83 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

students how to think through paint, it simultaneously develops their perceptual skills and activates personal response. In this Empowering students with sufficient case, an approach based on style is less an end in itself than a beginning (Karnes, 2000; McDaniel, 1992). skill and understanding prepares them Problems that call for metaphoric, symbolic, or thematic solutions often awaken more intuitive thought and processes for to choose among representational forms working (Asher, 2000; James, 2000). If a problem is sufficiently elegant, students will work to master representational as it serves their thoughts, feelings, skills in order to say something important. (See the entry on “Shaping Elegant Problems” in Section III.) ideas, questions, and concerns. Holistic methods may also unearth more intuitive and spontaneous work (London, 2003; Peterson, 2002). (See the entries on “Holistic Approaches,” “Drawing on Imagination, Memory, and Experience,” and “Developing a Vocabulary for Visual Form.”)

Because personal style arises, in part, from inherent qualities and preferences, efforts might be made to preserve and honor those from the beginning. If formal training appears to diminish personal style, periodic efforts might apply newfound skills to problems that invite personal choices. When students need a fresh approach, revisiting the origins and course of their artistic development may unearth new ideas, spark authentic work, or reconnect them with themes and/or visual problems they found intriguing at earlier stages (Kay, 2000).

Recommended Strategies

Incorporate opportunities to work from imagination, memory, and experience, narratively and from observation, into the curriculum beginning in kindergarten. Periodically revisit each representational strategy, introducing developmentally appropriate conventions, techniques, media, and expressive possibilities. Introduce work by children and adult artists that employs representational strategies just ahead of conventions students have mastered.

Examine the curriculum and other interests of students to identify ideas, information, and concepts that might figure visually in art. Introduce strategies that will accommodate visual thinking and representation. Involve students in determining subject matter, orchestrating installations in the art room, and/or searching school, home, and community environments for subject matter and content.

Develop a balanced program of two- and three-dimensional investigations; consider the possibility of processing concepts in both as well as developing imaginative, narrative, realistic, and metaphoric skills with three-dimensional and time-based media.

84 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Offer young students the opportunity to group works by style. Have older students find commonalities and differences in pieces by artists working in different styles. Develop a vocabulary for identifying styles. Draw from art to experiment with and explore different expressive styles. Shape art problems so that they invite students to combine and apply representational skills in new and inventive ways.

Offer developmentally appropriate information to create a larger context for and understanding of how and why different styles developed. Encourage investigation of individual artists whose work has gone through a number of stylistic changes.

Invite students to share work done at home. Evaluate work with an eye for signs of readiness to take on bigger challenges. Survey students to find out what they are interested in learning. Offer students choices in how they solve representational problems. Observe what choices they make and how they express the challenges representation poses to them. Defuse the myth of talent by reinforcing the notion that representational strategies can be taught and learned.

Use structured exercises to guide practice in purposeful ways. Attend to qualitative issues that make a difference. Expose students to master works, model representational skills, and explain thought processes involved. Encourage daily work in sketchbooks, thematic investigations, and concentrated effort. Use work of advanced students to demonstrate, and verify, that artistic growth and development are attainable. Assign homework that requires students to work in different settings and at different times of the day.

Use in-depth explorations in a given style, such as a naturalistic approach to painting, that lead out to personal style because they develop ways of thinking visually about perception and response. Use more intuitive and holistic encounters to refresh and reconnect students with deeper personal sources for imagery and reasons for engaging in art making.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 85 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

REFERENCES wide range of subject matter.

Clignet, R. (1985). The structure of artistic revolutions. Philadelphia: Wilson, B., Hurwitz, A., & Wilson, M. (1987). Teaching drawing from art. University of Pennsylvania Press. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Discusses a theory of revolution that moves in a linear fashion where thesis and A source book for ideas that explore inventive drawing techniques based on antithesis set one stage apart from previous ones it is meant to react against. observation, narrative, works of art, memory, and imagination. Chapter Five offers ideas for teaching drawing through works of art. Chapter Six uses art to Edwards, B. (1986). Drawing on the artist within. New York: Simon and achieve expressive character in drawing. Illustrated with examples of student Schuster. work as well as model scripts and ideas for drawing strategies. Contains analog drawing exercises designed to explore the possibilities of a universal language of form. In this exercise, feelings are portrayed abstractly without RESEARCH symbols or subject matter and compared to find commonalities and differences. Ayres, J. (1998). Unpublished master’s thesis: Drawing as a way of knowing: Feldman, E. (1981). Varieties of visual experience (2nd. Ed.). Englewood Developing visual thinking skills in the adolescent learner. Towson University. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. This study suggests that middle school is a prime time for developing observa- Feldman offers an alternative to a chronological approach to art history. Four tional skills. Students want to draw convincing likenesses of people, animals, styles and several themes organize works into groups for study. The style of and other subject matter of interest to them. objective accuracy refers to realism and the goal of describing subject matter faithfully. The style of emotionalism refers to changes that enhance, heighten, Carroll, K. (1994). Artistic beginnings: The work of young Edvard Munch. distort, and/or accentuate aspects of the image to achieve a higher level of Studies in Art Education, 36 (1), 7-17. emotional statement. The style of fantasy depends on a degree of realism to be Analysis of 500 works housed in the Munch Museum in Oslo that reveal repre- convincing and a degree of the fantastic to take the image into the world of sentational strategies developed from the age of 11 to 21. imagination. The style of formal order primarily gives visual qualities primacy over objective accuracy. Duncum, P. (1997). Subjects and themes in children’s unsolicited drawings and gender socialization. In A. M. Kindler (Ed.), Child development in art (pp. Hamilton, C. (1998). Using artistic strategies. In J. Simpson, J. Delaney, K. L. 107-114). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Carroll, C. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, Creating Meaning Analyzing reports of themes in studies of children’s drawings spanning a century through Art: Teacher as Choice Maker (pp. 207-257). Upper Saddle, NJ: and representing several Western countries, Duncum reports “a remarkable consis- Merrill/Prentice-Hall. tency of subject preference, gender differences, and thematic concerns” (p. 107). Chapter Six provides an inventory of visual strategies. Examples illustrate their application to a wide variety of questions and data. Applications to different Kay, S. I. (2000). On the nature of expertise in art. In R. C. Friedman & B. M. disciplines are discussed. Shore, (Eds.), Talents unfolding (pp. 217-232). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University Report based on the author’s study with artists. Suggests that expertise of Chicago Press. emerges out of time spent in practice, developing a repertoire of technical skills Discussion of concepts we live by, different kinds of metaphors, the partial and experience solving visual problems, and a personal aesthetic bias or sensi- nature of metaphorical structuring, and the role of metaphor in coherent struc- tivity. Implies that periods when artists invest in the expansion of their knowl- turing of experience. edge base may correlate with “a waning period in the aesthetic development of a personal voice” (p. 230). London, P. (1989). No more secondhand art: Drawing on the artist within. Boston: Shambala. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Twelve encounters, as tested with mostly adult groups ranging from novices to professional artists, provide models for constructing approaches to image mak- Asher, R. (2000). The Bronx as art: Exploring the urban environment. Art ing that are holistic in nature. Alignment of the mind, body, and spirit is essen- Education, 53 (4), 33-38. tial to this process. Article describes a thematic investigation of urban environment orchestrated with 10th-grade students in an alternative high school for students with prob- London, P. (2003). Drawing closer to nature. Boston: Shambala. lems. Strategies covered sketching on site, keeping journals, writing, observing Further elaboration of ideas related to implementing a holistic approach to art a visiting local artist paint, looking at work by artists who used the urban envi- education. ronment as subject matter, recalling places they had lived, sharing experiences, and creating artworks. Collectively, these strategies gave students a more posi- Olson, J. (1992). Envisioning writing: Toward an integration of drawing and tive way of looking at and experiencing their environment while creating works writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. that were exhibited in the community. Author offers a pedagogical model for developing narrative techniques. Strategies from Olson’s model have proven successful with students from ele- Burton, J. (1980, December). Representing experience from imagination and mentary school through professional art school. observation. School Arts, pp. 26-30. This article addresses upper-elementary students’ need to produce drawings Roukes, N. (1988). Design synectics. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. that look real and right and discusses approaches to drawing from observation This source book for ideas offers suggestions, illustrated with examples of art- and imagination. work, for problems involving analogy, metaphor, and symbolism. Carroll, K. L. (1999). A parade of multiple drawing strategies: A drawing work- Smith, N., and the Observation Study Group. (1998). Observation drawing shop for elementary and middle school art teachers. Hands-on Workshop, with children. New York: Teachers College Press. National Art Education Association Convention, Washington, DC. Examples of observational drawing from kindergarten to Grade 6 provide evi- Practice involved drawing strategies working from pre-visualization, verbal dence that children who are primarily schematic drawers or in the stage of prompts, visual prompts, observation, imagination, and art. Use of these draw- dawning realism, when they work from memory, are capable of drawing from a ing strategies with children in Grades 1 through 12 and into the college level

86 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION has demonstrated that learners from elementary school on can use a variety of from observation concentrating on shape, line, texture, and value; use of the representational strategies to solve, in this case, the problem of creating char- analogy of building a house for constructing a composition; observation draw- acters for a parade. Each strategy accommodated different ideas and qualities. ings from outdoors; an introduction to abstract artists; and enlargement, using a viewfinder, of a portion of a realistic image creating an abstract image; devel- Grauer, K., & Sandell, R. (2001). Visual journals revisited. Presentation at opment of large-scale drawings, and discussions with peers. National Art Education Convention, New York City. Presentation featured visual journals by high school students and teacher Ruopp, A. (2001). Expressive self-portraits. School Arts, pp. 34-35. preparation candidates. These journals documented an exploration of media Article describes a middle school unit in which students create large-scale por- and ideas. traits using expressive color following reflective questions and an introduction to ideas and feelings associated with color. Gordon, N. C. (1987, September). Sequential figures. School Arts, pp. 38-39. Examples of drawings by an 11-year-old drawing the figure from verbal descrip- Szekely, G. (1989, September). Inventing drawing. School Arts, pp. 14-17. tion (memory), observation of a live model and then a skeleton, and a whole figure self-portrait indicate that representation depends on the strategy employed. Szekely, G. (1989, October). Inventing drawing, part II. School Arts, pp. 12-15. A series of two articles offering suggestions for making drawing with children an James, P. (2000). Working toward meaning: The evolution of an assignment. imaginative event. Makes the case that children are always discovering new Studies in Art Education, 41 (2), 146-163. drawing materials and that sensory engagement with the drawing process leads A reflective examination of the evolution of an assignment over the course of to invention. Helping children “invent” can include preparing to draw in a num- three years. Designed for college-level academically underprepared students, a ber of imaginative ways, searching for line-making tools, drawing machines, photomontage assignment yielded increasingly richer work under instruction drawing surfaces, trying out different physical positions and postures, experi- that incorporated flexible but focused constraints; personal, social, and artistic menting with gripping tools, and other ideas. relevance; practice with creative and metaphoric concepts and practices; expectations of complexity, ambiguity, and depth of meaning; and expressive Toku, M. (2001). What is manga?: The influence of pop culture in adolescent and reflective writing. art. Art Education, 54 (2), 11-17. Article presents information on the Japanese movement among young artists to Karnes, M. (2000). Naturalistic painting: Approaches to landscape and figure. produce manga or narrative comic books that suggests adolescents are very Presentations for graduate students at the Maryland Institute College of Art. interested in narrative forms of expression. The style of naturalistic painting was presented as a way of heightening perceptual skills in concert with structured practice in painting. Tufte, E. (1990). Envisioning information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.

Katz, A. (1997, September). Visual notetaking: Drawing on my doodling past. Tufte, E. (1997). Visual explanations. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. School Arts, pp. 34-35. Article both validates and illustrates how visual note taking can serve learners Tufte, E. (2001). The visual display of quantitative information, 2nd ed. in all their subjects. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. These sources illustrate how displaying complex information visually can reveal McDaniel, T. A. (1992). Beyond the representational crisis: Self-actualization multiple dimensions. For example, data about an event might be visually pre- through a model of naturalistic painting. Presentation for the National Art sented to reveal movement through time and space showing magnitude. The Education Association Convention in Phoenix, Arizona. author, who is a designer and sculptor, argues that visual presentation of multi- Session illustrated individual progress of students as they came to understand dimensional evidence is needed in order to understand complex phenomena in the naturalistic painting model and how they later diverged from it. Evidence any field of study. suggests that such a model for painting provides a process for self-actualization and dramatic success.

Peterson, M. (2002). High school dreamers: Using mind movies as inspiration for artwork. Art Education, 55 (6), 33-40. Discussion of dreams or “mind-movies” as inspiration for artwork. Peterson lays out strategies for generating ideas from dreams, such as dream diaries, making connections to psychology, staging dreamlike images for documentation, and studying the role of dreams in other cultures. Examples of student artwork are included.

Popp, L. G. (1997). Sequential artistic development as evidenced by self-portraits. Presentation at the National Art Education Association Convention in New Orleans. A four-year sequence of self-portrait assignments, illustrated by portfolios of student work, suggesting that revisiting the same theme, specifically the self- portrait, over the course of four years yields visual evidence of artistic growth. Developmentally, the work revealed gains in representational skills, expressive power, and conceptual thinking as the years progressed.

Ruopp, A. (1998, November). Exploring composition through abstraction. School Arts, pp. 18-19. A sixth-grade unit designed to help students find ideas for textures, shapes, and value in their surrounding environment and discover that these sources offer rich visual source material for making art. Strategies cover thumbnail studies

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 87 OUTCOME I: DEVELOPING A REPERTOIRE OF SKILLS FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION AND ARTISTIC RESPONSE

Reflecting on Perceiving and Responding Visually

PRACTICE

Burton (1980) illustrates the value of asking young children to pause and reflect on the marks they have made. In calling attention to choices made and through questions, a dialogue begins between the maker and the work. The processes of perceiving and responding mix intuitive and conscious thought, intent and accident, deliberate and spontaneous interaction with materials. Taking time to consider what has resulted and how it has come about offers opportunities to consider the nature of perception, BETTER PRACTICE response, and visual modes of thinking. Teachers who invite students to pause Different modes of representation involve and reflect on how representational different thought processes. Each strategy requires different kinds of visualization efforts relate to perceiving, thinking, and focuses attention in different ways. and forming cultivate productive minds. For example, pre-visualization using sug- gestive prompts or descriptive language helps form an image in the mind’s eye prior to working, while THEORY observational drawing involves an exploratory search for con- Arnheim (1983) identifies perceiving, thinking, tours, shapes, relationships, and details. It follows that the work from different strategies of thought and representation and forming as three aspects of a productive may also have distinguishing visual characteristics. An image mind. They work together, and to train one of pre-visualized may distill significant visual information while them, one always has to train all three. “There is a work from observation might capture more about form, structure, and detail. no perceiving without thinking and forming, and no forming without perceiving and thinking” (p. Recognizing different strategies—the way they work, how they 10). Representational strategies, such as focus one’s attention, and the manner in which they can be combined—makes students aware of their developing reper- working from observation, memory, experience, toire of representational options. Identifying purposes served by story, and imagination, all involve these three distinct strategies further informs students as they choose ways aspects in profound ways. Forming meaning to engage with representational strategies. For instance, working from memory stimulates recall and a distillation of experi- visually also involves these aspects of mind. Yet, ence whereas working from observation provides a process for unless teachers call these strategies to the knowing something by perceiving and responding to it. students’ attention, learners may not realize how Importantly, different representational strategies produce different challenges, pleasures, and discoveries. mind-expanding these engagements can be. Reflective thinking is a catalyst for growth because it stimulates reassessment and synthesis. It can also be cultivated as a habit of mind by incorporating it into a total process for growth and learning (Unrath, 2002).

Recommended strategies drawn from Burton (1980) and Taunton (1984):

Invite students to pause and reflect as they are working. Help

88 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION develop an awareness of choices, actions, thoughts, developments, and possibilities by paying attention, asking questions, Taking time to consider what has honoring effort, acknowledging choices, and encouraging reflection. Ask students to describe their work, identify choic- resulted and how it has come about es, and to make associations with ideas and feelings. offers opportunities to consider the Make reflection a regular and natural part of the process of representation. Encourage conscious recognition of thought processes and choices that may result from a curious mix of nature of perception, response, and intuition, memory, distillation, observation, inclusion, omis- sion, emphasis, intent, accident, discovery, problem solving, visual modes of thinking. and creative thinking.

Ask students to consider the purpose(s) served by different modes of thought and representation. Ask them to talk about what they thought and discovered through envisioning, perceiving, and/or responding.

REFERENCES catalyst and the consequence of the process. Arnheim, R. (1983). Perceiving, thinking, forming. Art Education, 36 (2), 9-11. MODELS FOR PRACTICE Arnheim identifies perceiving, thinking, and forming as fundamental aspects of productive minds, and suggests that among the highest purposes of art and art Burton, J. (1980, September) Beginnings of artistic language. School Arts, pp. education is the unfolding of life’s productive potentialities and insights that can 7-12. be expressed and understood through the logic of vision. Provides example of a dialogue with a young child engaged in drawing, identifies the rudiments of artistic language, and suggests teachers cause students Dorn, C. (1994). Thinking in art: A philosophical approach to art education. to pause and reflect on their work. Concludes with a model for engaging stu- Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. dents in such a reflective dialogue. Examination of three paradigms that can be identified in both art and art education. Calls attention to the notion of art as thought made visible. Szekely, G. (1988). Teaching students to understand their art work. Art Education, 38 (5), 38-43. Dorn, C. (1999). Mind in art: Cognitive foundations in art education. Suggests that the aim should always be to help students learn to evaluate their Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. own work rather than to have others provide final assessments. Offers a vari- An exploration of art as intellect and the cognitive processes involved in learn- ety of strategies for helping children revisit, even reconstruct, their artwork as a ing, art, and concept formation. Includes a section on “Conceptual Thinking in way of learning from it. Art” illustrated with examples drawn from artists who work in different ways, i.e., abstractly, realistically, and in response to mass media, advertising, and Taunton, M. (1984). Reflective dialogue in the art classroom: Focusing on the popular culture. Suggests that the creative act of image formation involves art process. Art Education, 37 (1), 15-16. conceptual behaviors including discovery and manipulation of perceptual data, Article lists goals for questioning during the art process and examples of ques- acts of awareness, and a variety of mental actions. tions. Goals include inviting consideration of visual qualities of the media, choices, sources of ideas, development of art ideas, other artists’ intentions RESEARCH and efforts, discoveries made in the process of working, what resulted, and why. Reinforces the idea that much of the educational significance of art mak- Unrath, K. A. S. (2002). Reflection, the National Board Certification process, ing comes from the events of making rather than only in the final product. and its potential impact on National Board certified art teachers and their practice. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri. DAI, 63, no. 05A, p. 1676. The data base and focus for this study included 70 National Board-certified art teachers. Among its findings was the observation that reflective thinking, as stimulated by a structured, critical portfolio assessment process, was both the

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 89 90 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION OUTCOME II

Facilitating Investigations into Historical, Cultural, and Social Contexts

Constructing Art Historical Context

Studying Objects and Material Culture

Examining Visual Culture

Making Interdisciplinary Connections

Creating Art in Response to Contemporary Issues and Concerns

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 91 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

Constructing Art Historical Context

THEORY Referencing studio work to examples from art history and contemporary art is more common than direct instruction in which students learn to think as art historians (Galbraith & Spomer, 1986). Erickson (1995) suggests that art historical understanding requires “the ability to imagine oneself out of the present and in the past or in another culture” (p. 25). Her research studies with second-, fourth-, sixth-, and eighth-grade students further BETTER PRACTICE suggest that developmental, instructional, and Teachers who approach art history through content-specific issues all affect how successful inquiry develop the kinds of thinking skills art students will be in demonstrating art historical historians use when forming ideas about understanding (Erickson, 1995a, 1995b, 1998). artworks of the past. Parsons (1987) proposed that an understanding of art progresses in a sequential manner wherein viewers are first able to think about the artist and the artist’s motives for creating the work. Later, viewers are able to consider art from other perspectives including the people who experienced the art when it was made, the culture within which it existed, and culturally conditioned responses. Erickson’s (1995a, 1995b, 1998) research offers some support for a developmental framework in which older, more mature students grasp more than younger children. Her findings suggest that instructional approach also plays a strong role, as do the specific works chosen for study.

PRACTICE

Teaching students not only what art historians have concluded but how art historical conclusions have been reached actively engages students in a range of thinking processes including the establishment of facts, interpretations of meaning, and explanations of change.

Among the processes for establishing facts, three hold particular significance for art education: reconstruction, description, and attribution. Reconstruction of an artwork verifies if the object is unaltered or, if it is, how it looked in its original state. Description is a verbal report of observable facts that

92 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION can be verified by standard measures, ordinary experience, and Which works have local, state, regional, national, and/or a vocabulary of formal terms. Students should be able to point international presence and should be better known by to or measure descriptive facts. Attribution is the establish- students? ment of artist, date, culture, technique, and function. Such evidence comes from sources outside the artwork itself. Which works have an interesting history with primary source material students can access through research? Historical interpretation normally determines an artwork’s meaning within the context of the era when it was created. Which works might have relevance to other art content, Both evidence from the work itself and outside sources are issues, or inquiry in other content areas that would needed for historical interpretation. Some works take on a life make them likely candidates for investigation? of their own acquiring new meanings as they are set within different contexts, becoming symbolic or associated with differ- Which themes might highlight certain ideas about art ent ideas, doctrines, or movements, or the work is recontextu- from the past and the present that would help organize alized, giving it new meanings. works for study?

Change over time can be explained in different ways. Recommended Strategies Narrative accounts take into consideration influences, traditions, and innovations reflected in the artwork. Explanations Group works around a theme that directs attention to an era, can also be scientific accounts that identify principles that culture, beliefs, and values. Examples include: Art before cause change. History, Art of the First Cities, Where We Fit in the World, Art and Religion, When Cultures Meet, The Art of Powerful Erickson (1995b) used the following questions to assess the Families, Art and Revolution, Art and Technology, Art and the level of art historical understanding following the study of Individual, and Art and the Global Village (Erickson, 1995b). reproductions and contextual information: Actively engage students in the process of constructing contex- Why do you think the artist made the artwork look the tual information. Use guiding questions to mediate the search way it does? for information and verbal strategies such as creating titles for works under study (Koroscik, Osman, & DeSouza, 1988). Why do you think the viewer back then wanted to look at the artwork? Have students use both visual and verbal strategies for encoding the structure (or formal qualities) and its meanings (or semantic What does this artwork tell you about what people gen- characteristics) (Koroscik, Desmond, & Brandon, 1988). erally thought or believed back then? Encourage different kinds of research including books, Web Choosing artworks for investigation may take into account a searches, museum visits, consulting books, and investigation number of considerations: of museum collections.

Which works are likely to be developmentally appropri- Where possible, have students find preliminary source materi- ate for students in terms of content, theme, and style of al, previous works, and/or studies that figured into the process representation? of developing the work.

Which works might have personal or cultural relevance Encourage the development of descriptive language and atten- for individuals or groups of students? tion to relationships within the work. Require that interpretations be somehow grounded in the work. Which works are familiar yet not sufficiently explored? Use a combination of modalities to study and make presenta- Which works are interesting enough to capture students’ tions on works under study. Consider such possibilities as cre- attention yet sufficiently problematic to raise questions ating a model of an artist’s studio containing the works and challenge assumptions? (Gaither, n.d.), costumed re-creations of works, mock interviews with the artist, news reports, and other creative forms of Which works reveal insights into an era, events, lives of reportage such as an exhibit with text, a booklet for viewers, an artists, the creative process, or the relationship between illustrated presentation, or a Web page. history and art or social issues and art?

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 93 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

REFERENCES Koroscik, J. S., Osman, A. H., & DeSouza, I. (1988). The function of verbal Erickson, M. (1977). The uses of history in art education. Studies in Art mediation in comprehending works of art: A comparison of three cultures. Education, 18 (3), 22-29. Studies in Art Education, 29 (2), 91-102. This paper examines the various ways art history can be relevant to university Study compares responses by college elementary-education majors from Egypt, art students, art teachers, and art educators. Brazil, and the United States. Compares some nonverbal strategies with verbal ones. Findings suggest that verbal cues that draw attention to the structure of Erickson, M. (1979). Historical thinking and aesthetic education. Journal of the image and ways of thinking about the image as a whole (such as giving it a Aesthetic Education, 13, 81-92. title) contribute to the accurate and elaborate understanding of art. Erickson lists five benefits art history has for aesthetic education: students set their own interests aside and reflect consciously on the object or event; they Milbrandt, M. K. (1996). An authentic instructional model for fifth grade art using need not form aesthetic judgments; they exercise their imagination; they focus postmodern content. Unpublished dissertation, the Florida State University. on the particularity (rather than the generality) of the situation; and they find Selected postmodern artists who dealt with issues such as race, gender, class, that history thrives on change. originality, social realities, and ecology were incorporated into the curriculum. A positive impact on student valuing of postmodern art forms and the role of art Galbraith, L., & Spomer, M. J. (1986). Does art history go to school? Art in society was reported. Education 39 (5), 10-13. A survey of 104 secondary art teachers suggests that more than a majority of Parsons, M. J. (1987). How we understand art: A cognitive developmental teachers introduce art history informally within the context of a studio experi- account of aesthetic experience. New York: Cambridge University Press. ence while some teach art history on a frequent basis, and even fewer teach it Book discusses developmental theory and its relationship to how an under- as a separate course. standing of art might progress from dependence to autonomy. Based on 10 years of interviews with subjects of all ages, Parsons suggests a developmental RESEARCH sequence in which cognitive understanding appears to develop from the point of view of the artist to that of the viewer, to the culture, and finally to the cultural Chanda, J., & Basinger, A. M. Understanding the cultural meaning of selected conditioning of perception. African Ndop statues: The use of art history constructivist inquiry methods. Studies in Art Education, 42 (1), 67-83. Walker, H. J. (1997). A feminist study of African American art in New Orleans: A case study with 19 third graders to see how they construct cultural under- Considerations of aesthetics, art history and art criticism. Unpublished disser- standing. Given the small size of the data base, findings are qualified yet may tation, Louisiana State University. suggest that developmental as well as pedagogical issues affect the meanings An analysis of interviews with five black artists revealed that ideological strug- children can construct. gles for assimilation and self-determination influence artistic production of and meanings to be found in African American contemporary art. Suggests that the Erickson, M. (1995a). Second grade students’ developing art historical under- study of aesthetics, art history, and art criticism offers possibilities for understanding. Visual Art Research, 21 (1), 15-24. standing the multiple social, historical, and cultural meanings of art. The study Article describes a qualitative study that used four questions to check for also suggests that feminist approaches to the study of art provide methods for understanding drawn from the study of reproductions supported by text infor- exploring the influence of social realities and racial discrimination on artistic mation. Findings both confirm and raise questions about Parsons’s stage theo- production and meanings. ry for understanding art.

Erickson, M. (1995b). Second and sixth grade students’ art historical interpre- MODELS FOR PRACTICE tation abilities: A one year study. Studies in Art Education, 37 (1), 19-28. Chanda, J. (1998). Art history inquiry methods: Three options for art educa- Article describes an experimental correlational study that compares art histori- tion. Art Education, 51 (5), 17-24. cal understanding developmentally and in relation to specific instructional Article explores how three inquiry processes—iconology, iconography, and approaches and choices of work for study. Findings confirm that both second- social history—yield alternative approaches for revitalizing art historical stud- and sixth-grade students demonstrate increased understanding from the ies. Steps in the inquiry process are discussed with examples. artist’s point of view with art historical instruction. However, their capacity to refer to historical evidence was affected by other factors including developmen- Chanda, J., & Daniel, V. (2000). ReCognizing works of art: The essences of tal issues and content-specific choices of works under study. contextual understanding. Art Education, 53 (2), 6-11. A contemporary artwork that draws upon historical and cultural symbols illus- Erickson, M. (1998). Effects of art history instruction on fourth and eighth trates how reCognizing, as a strategy, considers present meanings in light of grade students’ abilities to interpret artworks contextually. Studies in Art the past and past motivations in light of the present. The strategy includes Education, 39 (4), 309-320. considerations of origin (in this case, of symbols), nature of the object (in this Article describes a subsequent study comparing older students’ demonstration case, as related to entrances), and the limits of knowledge (as delineated by of art historical understanding resulting from instruction in art history. Findings the communities in which the object and symbols exist). confirm that both grade levels are capable of some contextual interpretation. The higher scores of eighth-grade students may reflect “more extensive prior Erickson, M. (1983). Teaching art history as an inquiry process. Studies in Art knowledge, more developed cognitive abilities, or more mature social develop- Education, 36 (5), 28-31. ment, as well as the effects of instruction” (p. 315). This paper explains more thoroughly what art history processes are and how they apply to art education. Erickson describes the processes, and, for each, Koroscik, J. S., Desmond, K. K., & Brandon, S. M. (1988). The effect of verbal cites an example from art history together with an application for art education contextual information in processing visual art. Studies in Art Education, 27 practice. (1), 12-23. Study suggests the value of providing students contextual information to use as Erickson, M. (1995b). Second and sixth grade students’ art historical interpre- interpretive cues in forming art understanding. Notes that in the absence of tation abilities: A one year study. Studies in Art Education, 37 (1), 19-28. contextual information, students have only their own existing knowledge from Author suggests that “teachers might introduce students to an artwork about which to draw inferences.

94 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION which students are likely to know little and ask them to respond as artists, as viewers, and as members of today’s culture. The teacher might then present information about the historical artist, viewer, and culture and ask students to link that information to an historical interpretation of the artwork. Students might then compare their first interpretations to their later interpretations” (p. 25).

Gaither, J. (n.d.). Student work: Three-dimensional small-scale models depicting a studio including miniatures of works from the artist’s repertoire of images.

Sipe, L. (2001). Using picturebooks to teach art history. Studies in Art Education, 42 (3), 197-213. Article argues that the picture storybook is well suited to introduce children to the world of art. Identifies four categories of picture books: 1) books that refer to specific works through parody; 2) fictional books about well-known artists; 3) books set in and concerned with museum experiences; and 4) books that imi- tate or draw on identifiable artistic styles or historical schools of art. Article discusses examples of books in print and lists references.

Taylor, C. (1991, March). Art history as layering: An art-based game. School Arts, pp. 43-44.

Article describes a game-based strategy that requires teams to carry out initial research on the history of art and to subsequently bring their efforts together to produce visual evidence of shared information in the form of a mural. The strategy organizes teams using four metaphorical categories: the way of the world, the way of the intellect, the way of emotion, and the way of the spirit. These metaphors appear to have helped students access difficult concepts and discover a new way of thinking about art history.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 95 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

Studying Objects and Material Culture

THEORY Human beings have a long history of making important objects and rituals special. In making them special, values and beliefs of a society, group, or individual are made visible, suggested, declared, and/or reaffirmed. In addition, special objects and rituals present evidence of resources, resourcefulness, creativity, skills, roles of the craftsperson and artist, BETTER PRACTICE technology, symbol systems, and lifestyle (Dissanayake, 1988, 1991, 1992). Teachers who engage students in the study of objects and material culture Culture is a socially constructed conception of reality. It is help their students develop thinking concerned with how things are, how things are done, and skills anthropologists use in forming how the world is for people living in that particular societal ideas about cultures from the past and or ethnic group (Wasson et al., 1990). Further, the the present. processes of enculturation and socialization are shared, adaptive, and dynamic. Cultures are constantly in the process of remaking themselves through social and political changes.

Anthropology is the umbrella over both archaeology and ethnology. Each of these fields employs similar yet distinct investigative strategies and goals.

Anthropologists design a model for thinking objectively, creatively, and contextually about objects and what might be inferred from them. They ascertain different kinds of information as well as specific details based on the study of objects from material culture. They analyze both the artifact and the maker, form and function, elaboration and wear, origin and mobility, tradition and change. Subsequently, they can identify commonalities and differences across cultures as well as ideas about how individual cultures, groups, and individuals embed values and beliefs in their objects and rituals. They can also consider how objects, ideas, styles, innovations, and technologies were transported or replanted, or how they developed, evolved, vanished, or were resurrected. They may compare objects to determine where, how, and by whom they were made. They may study different kinds of historical records to determine how objects were used and influences that resulted in change or innovation in form, style, technique, and/or process. In addition, they may investigate iconography, symbol systems, and language.

96 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Anthropologists also delve into other contextual factors that affect the development of material culture such as availability of raw materials and technology, economic factors, living patterns, kinships, belief systems, political events, and commodification. A topic of special interest may be used to focus their inquiry.

Archaeologists provide a model for inquiry that attends to the discovery, location, and context of objects and human remains. They use skills that involve research, physical labor, documentation, and reconstruction as well as scientific and artistic methods including photography and drawing to record location, arrangement of objects as found, nature of raw material, and design of form and detail. Deductive reasoning and imagination play a role in reconstructing a whole image for individual objects or sets that have missing parts, have been altered, or are found in pieces. Archaeologists study relationships between objects, within a group, and among societies to understand the movement of peoples in time and place along with the culture as revealed in its objects and remains. Comparison of similar objects drawn Ethnographers study description and thus collect information rich with detail. They gather from material culture and representing information through interviews, questionnaires, different eras, peoples, ecology, group discussions, individual reflections, writings, reportage, and documentation—visual and environment, and history provides ways otherwise. They are interested in experience as of thinking about similarities and relationally constituted and have developed processes of inquiry and representation that are differences among societies, groups, and useful in investigating culture, including the politics of representation. They have particular individuals. interest in the acknowledgment of, and critique of, uneven power relationships (Desai, 2002).

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 97 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

PRACTICE Simulate an anthropological dig by burying fake but prototypi- cal, broken objects. Have students work in teams as archaeolo- Recommended Strategies gists to map the area and slowly uncover the object documenting location of parts to show measurements, orientation, and Examination of everyday objects can reveal a great deal about the location on site maps drawn to scale. Create a visual record of values and beliefs, resources, technology, attitudes, skills, and all parts with detailed drawings. Have students reconstruct the resources of a society, group, or individual (Chapman, 1978). objects and analyze form and symbols, speculating on function and meaning. Such found objects may then function as proto- Comparison of similar objects drawn from material culture types inspiring student work, which can then be displayed in a and representing different eras, peoples, ecology, environment, museum-like setting along with the original finds (McCarthy, and history provides ways of thinking about similarities and 1998; Munday, in progress). differences among societies, groups, and individuals. Including contemporary examples as well as objects from the Study contemporary objects by considering various contextual past invites consideration of present values and beliefs along avenues. For example, the study of contemporary ceramic works with those from the past (Chapman, 1978). identified eight avenues. They include: Cultural/Historical Foundations, Function, Philosophical Issues, Visual Qualities, Art Different metaphors can be useful in examining the same World Connections, Production Conditions, Technical body of work from multiple points of view in that they direct Components, and Sociological/ Ideological Issues (Sessions, 1998). attention to certain aspects, assumptions, and questions. For example, thinking about art, metaphorically, as entertainment, wealth, volume, antiquity, superlative, and technique allows a host of different issues and responses to come to the surface (Foss & Radich, 1984).

Focus on a culture chosen for its relevance to the community where students live. Devote time, over years, to getting to know the context, including history, language, stories, spirituality, and life experiences of objects and cultures (Garber, 1995).

98 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION REFERENCES RESEARCH

Chapman, L. H. (1978). Approaches to art in education. New York: Sessions, B. P. (1998). A new case for clay: Multi-dimensional high school Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc. ceramics education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the Pennsylvania State Under the heading of “Developing an awareness of art in society,” Chapman University. DAI 59, No. 06A, 1814. proposes ways for students at different levels to interpret artifacts. She sug- Dissertation involves analysis of different contextual avenues represented in gests that students interpret artifacts in terms of broad human purposes as five contemporary ceramic works. Pilots a content-based methodology centered well as nuances that distinguish particular forms. In a manner similar to cul- on dimensions of learning available through the study of contemporary ceramic tural anthropologists, objects can be thought of as signs of group membership works. Argues that the study of ceramic objects for their long-lived contextual and individuality, as representing beliefs and values, or reflecting creative echoes and their relevant issues to education and society today can significant- and/or technical possibilities of materials. ly add to education. This study identifies eight contextual avenues: Cultural/Historical Foundations, Function, Philosophical Issues, Visual Qualities, Desai, D. (2002). The ethnographic move in contemporary art: What does it Art World Connections, Production Conditions, Technical Components, and mean for art education. Studies in Art Education 43 (4), 307-323. Sociological/Ideological Issues. Article examines ethnography as a component of contemporary art. Ethnography is defined as a process of inquiry and a written representation of MODELS FOR PRACTICE culture. Provides specific examples of contemporary artwork that draws on ethnography and notes its increasing popularity in art education. Bolin, P. E. (1995). Investigating artifacts: Material culture studies and art education. In A. L. Nyman (Ed.), NAEA Advisory, Fall 1995. Reston, VA: Dissanayake, E. (1988). What is art for? Seattle: Washington University National Art Education Association. Press. Advisory includes a list of 14 points to consider when undertaking artifact Sets forth the argument that the arts evolved as human behaviors, are related analysis. to a number of human propensities, and served to help early humans survive. Chapman, L. (1978). Approaches to art in education. New York: Harcourt Dissanayake, E. (1991). What is art for? In K. Carroll, (Ed.), Keynote Brace Jovanovich. Addresses from the 1991 Conference of the National Art Education Model for curriculum design includes a strong focus on “Art in Society.” Association. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Strategies for object study include comparative analysis using selected items in A good summary of Dissanayake’s argument regarding the human propensity to a single category, such as cups or chairs, across time and culture. make things special that hold importance in lives and events from early humans to the present. Foss, S. K, & Radich, A. J. (1984). Metaphors in “Treasures of Tutankhamen”: Implications for aesthetic education. Art Education 39 (1), 6-11. Dissanayake, E. (1992). Homoaesthetics: Where the arts came from and Authors illustrate how a particular exhibit, if examined through the lenses of dif- why. New York: The Free Press. ferent metaphors, can be used to direct discourse. A continuation into Dissanayake’s investigations of the notion that the arts are intrinsically human behaviors with survival value. McCarthy, P. (1998, March). Dig into art and culture. School Arts, pp. 18-19. Article describes an eighth-grade interdisciplinary project in which students dig up Garber, E. (1995). Teaching art in the context of culture: A study in the bor- fictional civilizations invented by their peers. Students work collaboratively in derlands. Studies in Art Education, 36 (4), 218-232. teams to invent an ancient or future culture and ultimately design artifacts. Article begins by identifying confusions related to diversity and teaching about These are photo documented by the teachers prior to breaking, burn, damaging, cultures other than one’s own. Offers a model for selecting a culture of rele- and burying them in sites on campus. The dig, using anthropological methods, vance and proximity for an in-depth, longitudinal investigation that results in commences with each team trying to determine what it can about the civilization. new knowledge, ways of thinking, and sensitivities. Use of the “borderlands” metaphor refers to the border or abyss that separates one side from the other. Munday, M. M. (in progress). Archaeology and art: Using the excavation process and its material in a context for making art. Kader, T. (2001). Revamping the role of material culture studies in art educa- Article describes an archaeological experience for upper-elementary students tion. In J. Kellman (Ed.), SRAE Abstracts 2001: Abstracts of Research piloted in the Young People’s Studios at the Maryland Institute. Began with the Presentations, Seminar for Research in Art Education, p. 12. Urbana- creation of a clay prototype that was then buried by the instructor to be discov- Champaign: University of Illinois. ered, documented, studied, and used by students as inspiration for original Notes the rich history of scholarship related to material culture with its interests works to express personal values and beliefs. The finished works were pre- in experiential, historical, cultural, and bio-behavioral dimensions of study. sented, along with the discovered ritual object, in a simulated museum setting. Suggests art educators consider how art and artifacts can be used as subjects Text includes information on the tools of archaeology, making inventories, keep- of art teaching/learning and making. ing field journals, and creating a ritual object.

Wasson, R. F., Stuhr, P. L., & Petrovich-Mwaniki, L. (1990). Teaching art in the multicultural classroom: Six position statements. Studies in Art Education, 31 (4), 234-246. The first of six position statements advocates for “a socio-anthropological basis for studying the aesthetic production and experience of cultures, which means focusing on knowledge of the makers, as well as the sociocultural context in which art is produced” (p. 234).

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 99 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

Examining Visual Culture

THEORY Art educators including June King McFee and Vincent Lanier have advocated exploring the larger world of visual culture beyond masterworks and cultural artifacts. For example, they have long endorsed the study of mass media, advertising, propaganda, film, and television. Several factors appear to make the study of mass culture even more critical for today’s students. Specifically, the BETTER PRACTICE cultural environment is not only increasingly visual; Teachers who engage students in the study of it is multisensory in nature, layered in its meanings, visual and synesthetic culture develop thinking and open to multiple interpretations (Chapman, skills used by social scientists in forming ideas 2000; Duncum, 2002). Further, it is often driven by about the ways in which human behavior can be the marketplace, loaded with stereotypical imagery, represented, affected, and influenced. and powerfully seductive in its delivery of implicit and explicit messages. It also yields conflicting and mixed messages about the values, attitudes, and beliefs society holds about issues such as violence, sex, physical image, consumerism, status, and power (Duncum, 1989). From this perspective, aesthetics is reconceptualized as inherently social and political (Freedman, 2000), and criticism is seen as a valuable tool for analyzing culture (Nadaner, 1985).

As a term, “visual culture” embraces popular culture, mass media, advertising, and entertainment as well as what we have traditionally known as fine arts, crafts, design, and artifacts. Duncum (2001) proposes that “visual artifacts exist in relation to other semiotic codes and appeal to sensory modes other than sight such as language, sound, music, human gesture, and cannot be grasped without taking these modes into account” (p. 104). Furthermore, he sees artifacts and perceptions about them as context bound. In other words, they are historically, socially, and politically determined and cannot be studied in isolation from these factors. Chapman (2000) has expressed similar observations about the complex interface of sensory-aesthetic stimuli that pervade contemporary culture including space design, architecture, sound, light, color, and aroma. Thus, the multimodal nature of culture requires citizenry who are multiliterate. And literacy is seen as more than encoding and decoding; it is a profoundly political social practice.

Given the challenges of studying a simultaneous array of sensory input and messages coded in semiotics, methods of inquiry used by ethnographers, psychologists, and sociologists may be helpful (Desai, 2002). Ethnographers provide context-specific methods of inquiry for examining the particularities of experience. Psychologists

100 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION study action and response, the subliminal, the overt, and the covert that cause human beings to feel, respond, and act in certain ways. Sociologists, interested in human social behavior and the ways it can be organized, use skills that attend to broad patterns of behaviors, systems, organizations, and institutions. Some contemporary artists have adapted ethnographic methods into their art-making process (Desai, 2002). Others are complicit in the design and shaping of visual and sensory-aesthetic culture. The vast majority is indeed the intended audience for whom cultural experience is targeted with the intent of generating certain desired results.

Psychologists attend to how human beings respond and make sense out of their experiences. They are interested in how the mind and emotions can be influenced and respond. They gather information through data collection and analysis of behaviors and responses under both real and/or experimental conditions.

Sociologists study ways human behavior is organized and orchestrated. Thus, the medium and the message, the intended audience, desired behavior, and motivating force, as well as the interplay between forces set in motion, are all data worth analyzing. Sociologists also evaluate the movement of ideas as well as the scale, scope, and layering of media and message. Subsequently, they can entertain ideas about how human behavior is influenced, affected by a chain of events, redirected, even manipulated—to ends both questionable and honorable, intended and unintended.

PRACTICE Examine imagery created for the corporate world, especially highly seductive multiple modalities (Duncum, 2002a). Recommended Strategies Engage students in critical discussions that cause them to Be alert to developmental differences that might have an reflect and reconsider messages found in popular visual cul- impact on investigations of visual culture (Cheng, 2002). ture; encourage them to find empowerment in creating their own images (Stokrocki, 2001; Tavin & Anderson, in press). Employ questioning strategies that facilitate discovery learning (Yokley, 1997). Facilitate examinations of art as a social statement, in a social context, from social perspectives. Help students understand Expand “the canon” beyond traditional art to include popular the power of the visual arts and the freedoms and responsibil- culture and mass media. Enlarge the range of artifacts that are ities that come with it (Freedman, 2000). examined with a continued focus on the social worlds of visual imagery as they constitute an embodiment of attitudes, Orchestrate dialogues about artworks with an eye to trans- beliefs, and values (Duncum, 2001; Zelevansky, 1998). forming the forms of power and domination (Desai, 2002).

Rethink an exclusive focus on things visual (Duncum, 2002a). Orchestrate investigations of popular icons that move to and from studio practice to examine ways in which popular culture Experiment with images to see how text, music, or narrative serves human needs (Pistolesi, 2002). “anchor” an image and have the capacity to change its meaning (Duncum, 2002a).

Examine the role of text in imagery (Duncum, 2002a).

Study a number of different presentations of the same text (Duncum, 2002a).

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 101 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

REFERENCES dominant culture actively discriminate; the content of dominant culture is age old; dominant culture has a user orientation and is rooted in people’s conditions Boughton, D., Freedman, K., Hausman, J., Hicks, L., Madeja, S., Metcalf, S., of existence; and standards of culture vary over time and are politically and Rayala, M., Smith-Shank, D., Stankiewicz, M., Stuhr, P., Tavin, K., & Vallance, E. socially engaged. Suggests that a socially relevant art education can make a (2002). Art Education and Visual Culture. NAEA Advisory. Reston, VA: National positive contribution by seeking “an insider’s experience, with a collaborative Art Education Association. model of production, (respecting) students for how they cope with the condi- Visual culture is reported to reflect “the recent proliferation and pervasiveness tions imposed upon them, (acknowledging) the perennial nature of dominant- of visual images and artifacts and their importance to social life…. The range culture content, and (recognizing) the changing political and social contexts in of visual culture reflects and contributes to the construction of knowledge, iden- which cultural standards are established, maintained, and revised…” (p. 214). tity, beliefs, imagination, sense of time and place, feelings of agency, and the quality of life at all ages.” This advisory offers background and rationale, aims, Duncum, P. (2001). Visual culture: Developments, definitions, and directions and pedagogical recommendations related to visual culture. for art education. Studies in Art Education, 42 (2), 101-112. Article discusses assumptions that underpin visual culture, characterizing the Chapman, L. (2000). The arts of aesthetic persuasion in contemporary life. study of visual culture as greatly enlarging the range of artifacts that one might Paper presented at the National Art Education Association Conference in Los examine. While the study of visual culture concerns “substantially visual arti- Angeles. facts,” there is “an interest in more than the artifacts themselves, (specifically) Chapman raises questions concerning the pervasive and compound impact of the social conditions in which the artifacts have their being including their pro- multiple sensory-based aesthetic experience in contemporary culture and dis- duction, distribution and use” (pp. 106-107). cusses the social and political problems and challenges in examining visual and sensory-aesthetic culture. Duncum, P. (2002a). Visual culture: Multimodality and meaning. Presentation at the National Art Education Conference in Miami Beach. Congdon, K. G., & Blandy, D. (2001). Approaching the real and the fake: Living Defines the concerns of visual culture to include its multimodal nature and the life in the fifth world. Studies in Art Education, 42 (3), 266-278. manner in which different modalities “anchor” and create meaning. Offers Discussion considers the human propensity to replicate and the contemporary ideas for implementing the study of visual culture. experience of a world copied, appropriated, simulated, re-created. Suggests, among other ideas, that this has created “a wild and wonderful environment for Duncum, P. (2002b). Clarifying visual culture art education. Art Education, 55 debate, dialogue, and creation of new ways of thinking and living” (p. 273). (3), 6-11. Proposes that critical pedagogy will allow art educators to assist learners in Further clarification of VCAE. VCAE sees making and critique as symbiotic yet clarifying their own values and beliefs while discovering the points of view of is a new paradigm with profoundly historical roots, cross-cultural in nature, and others” (p. 276). as natural as another study of culture. It values both aesthetic value and social issues and will emerge incrementally as practice develops. Desai, D. (2000). Working with people to make art: Oral history, aesthetic practice, and art education. The Journal of Social Theory in Art Education 21, Freedman, K. (2000). Social perspectives on art education in the United 72-90. States: Teaching visual culture in a democracy. Studies in Art Education, 41 (4), 314-329. Desai, D. (2002). The ethnographic move in contemporary art: What does it Article reviews the theoretical foundations of democratic thought and character- mean for art education. Studies in Art Education 43 (4), 307-323. izes “art education as a sociopolitical act” (p. 215). Freedman argues that art Desai examines the use of ethnography as a component of contemporary art. must be represented in education as a social statement, in a social context, Ethnography is defined as a process of inquiry and a written representation of from social perspectives. Identifies as an essential responsibility of art educa- culture. Articles provide specific examples of contemporary artwork that draws tion teaching students about the power of the visual arts and the freedoms and on ethnography and notes its increasing popularity in art education. responsibilities that come with it (p. 326).

Duncum, P. (1989). Children’s unsolicited drawings of violence as a site of Hamblen, K. A. (1990). Beyond the aesthetic of cash-culture literacy. Studies social contradiction. Studies in Art Education, 30 (4), 249-256. in Art Education, 31 (4), 216-225. Article reviews the psychological debate regarding violence in children’s unso- Paper argues for an ethno-aesthetic approach to the study of culture that cou- licited drawings and the social contradiction of violence as something that is ples the study of aesthetics with an anthropological perspective and ethno- both condemned and authorized. Reviews findings regarding violence in the graphic methods of investigation. media. Argues for giving children the choice of their own subjects and warns against a too ready acceptance of the social conditions in which they are Nadaner, D. (1985). Responding to the image world: A proposal for art curric- selected. Discusses some intervention strategies. Concludes that “children’s ula. Art Education, 37 (1), 9-12. spontaneous drawings of violence are important because they bear witness to Author suggests that art education needs to encourage criticism rather than the children’s attempts to make sense of a major social reality that includes signifi- regurgitation of images. Further, it needs to produce alternative images rather cant contradictions of thought and action” (p. 255). He suggests such efforts than reproduce existing ones (p. 11). Nadaner offers three proposals for turning should not be ignored even if they pose challenges to teachers. Reference list attention to the pervasive, the invisible, and the possible. Sees criticism as identifies numerous sources on the effects of television and media. playing a significant role in analyzing pervasive imagery, supplemental and alternative imagery as a way of seeing what mass media does not show, and Duncum, P. (1990). Clearing the decks for the dominant culture: Some first contemporary artists’ search for means of effective representation as a model principles for a contemporary art education. Studies in Art Education, 31 (4), for student work in which a dialogue about experience and representation can 207-215. be carried into their work. A critique of an emphasis on art education on the promotion of high culture. Discusses seven principles for cultural studies: categories of culture should be Tavin, K. (2000). The impact of visual culture on art education: Teaching in and regarded as descriptions, not evaluations of what a society should value; through visual culture. The Journal of Multicultural and Cross-Cultural understanding culture requires an insider’s perspective and a willingness to Research in Art Education, 18 (1), 20-23/37-40. consider how cultural products are composed of conventions, inventions, and Paper argues for transforming art education into a transdisciplinary practice complex variations; cultural production is profoundly social in nature; users of that addresses a wide range of images from everyday life. Visual culture

102 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION involves visual representations that saturate the fabric of life, shape experience Pistolesi, E. (2002). The Elvis icon. Art Education, 55 (3), 40-46. by capturing imaginations and engaging desires, and contributes language, Description of a semester long investigation by preservice elementary-education codes, and values. Discusses the implications of a paradigm shift for the field students using Elvis as a focus for investigations of popular culture. In the of art education. process, teacher and students came into contact with the vast Elvis culture while engaged in a number of inventive studio projects, some of them generat- Tavin, K. (2001). Swimming up-stream in the jean pool: Developing a pedagogy ing new stories and discoveries. Author observes that “discoveries and obser- towards critical citizenship in visual culture. The Journal of Social Theory in Art vations of the impact of Elvis as icon on ourselves and those around us taught Education, 21, 129-158. some unexpected lessons about the human condition, and the ways we use Paper proposes that art education should “be viewed as a political, social, and cultural images to provide us with what we need” (p. 46). cultural practice that addresses a broad range of images if it is going to help students (and teachers) adapt to the new critical landscape (rather than try to Stokrocki, M. (2001). Go to the mall and get it all: Adolescents’ aesthetic val- escape from it).” ues in the shopping mall. Art Education, 54 (2), 18-23. An Art I high school class participated in a survey and discussion about malls, Zelevansky, P. A. (1998). The family life of commonplace images. Unpublished art, stores, window displays, designers, and artful collections. Conversation doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College. explored exploitation, ethical questions, possibilities for art projects related to Proposes that art education pedagogy expand its concerns to embrace aspects the mall, and discoveries. The author observes that such conversations are not of visual expression beyond those of art and art history. Suggests that com- easy to conduct and that it takes time to get students to be more pensive about monplace images (maps, postcards, tickets, trading cards, memorabilia, and their aesthetic experiences. She suggests that meeting in and photographing souvenirs) are dynamic in offering representational and documentary informa- such places appears to be a productive strategy. tion and provide essential orientations in space, time, and memory. Recommends a visual thinking curriculum that balances theory, formal analysis, Szekely, G. (1996). Preparation for a new art world. Art Education, 49 (4), 6-13. art practice, and self-reflexive critique. Article makes the case that new art forms may have their origins in what children do. Directs attention to child-study and first-hand observations of chil- RESEARCH dren’s studios (their rooms), collections, favorite places for shopping and play, basic plays, audiences, and reasons they make art as inspiration for new Cheng, M. (2002). Culture and interpretation: A study of Taiwanese children’s approaches to teaching. Suggests teachers invite students to bring in interest- responses to visual images. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State ing “finds” and to engage them in conversations about what makes something University. DAI, 63, no. 01A, p. 58. art and why. Database of 56 children, ages 8 to 14, who were asked to interpret six different images from fine art and advertising. Findings include the observation that Tavin, K., & Anderson, D. (2003). Teaching (popular) visual culture: younger children draw on their family life, the mass media, schooling, and their Deconstructing Disney in the elementary art classroom. Art Education 56 (3), general beliefs and values to interpret images. Only older children appear to 21-24. be aware of the commercial purposes of advertisements. A review of theory related to the study of visual culture. In this translation of theory to practice, students first engage in critical thinking through a sequence Tavin, K. (2003). A critical pedagogy of visual culture in art education: Toward of questions and critical viewing activities. They are introduced to artists a performative inter/hypertextual practice. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, whose work offers a cultural critique. The unit culminates with opportunities for the Pennsylvania State University. students to use art making in an empowering way to re-envision movies and Theoretical study investigating the argument for and proposing a critical peda- offer their own commentary on issues of their choosing. gogy of visual culture in art education. Yokley, S. H. (1999). Embracing a critical pedagogy in art education. Art Wilson McKay, S. K. (2000). Resisting anaesthesia: Mapping attitudes of vision Education, 52 (5), 18-24. in democratic art education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the Article offers an example of critical pedagogy as implemented with elementary- Pennsylvania State University. education preservice teachers. Works were chosen that would demand a cultur- This theoretical study explores unexamined attitudes of vision and argues for al critique. The environment allowed for open, uncensored critical dialogue. “ruptured vision” as a way of developing critical awareness. Sees an impor- From an initial sharing of items that could represent themselves, students tant role for art education in the development of critical attitudes in education “stepped into two self-portraits” to consider internal stylistic, metaphoric, icon- for a democracy. ic, formal, and expressive content. They also explored contextual information using additional strategies of reflective writing, diagramming connections, Yokley, S. H. (1997). Art, art education, and critical pedagogy: Case studies of research, broad-based questions, and a poetic model for writing an interpretive elementary education preservice teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, response. the Pennsylvania State University. A theoretical investigation using critical social research methods to investigate case studies of high, medium, and low acceptance of critical pedagogy. Findings suggest students are not offered enough opportunities to become critical thinkers in terms of the relationships among art and society. Recommends questioning strategies that promote discovery learning, flexible thinking, and self-reflective metathinking.

REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Anderson, D. (2002). An investigation into visual culture as an issues-based art education. Unpublished master’s thesis project, Towson University. Report describes the motives, design, and implementation of a unit of study with upper-elementary students that translated theory from visual culture into practice. For results of this study see the article by Tavin and Anderson (in press).

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 103 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

Making Interdisciplinary Connections

THEORY Interdisciplinary learning is supported by a number of assumptions. One of the most important is that students need a solid grounding in individual disciplines in order to benefit from interdisciplinary efforts. Further, each discipline represents a form of knowledge with separate and distinct characteristics, unique concepts and propositions, procedures and end products. Brought together by significant concepts, flexible thinking and real-life problem-solving skills can be encouraged (Jacobs, 1989).

BETTER PRACTICE The content of art has often Teachers who use interdisciplinary strategies concerned themes, events, ideas, help learners process information visually, and questions that have been make connections among the arts, and pursued through other disciplines. discover relationships between the visual arts In that art provides a unique way and other disciplines. of examining an idea or concept, a theme or an event, a subject or an object, it is consistent with the nature of art to seek connections across traditional boundaries defined by the content areas within a school curriculum. Some would suggest that deep connections in history already connect art with science (Schlain, 1991). In that many students are visual learners or learn better when multiple intelligences are used (Gardner, 1985), interdisciplinary connections encourage visual thinking and provide a means for visually processing information that can only partially be known otherwise.

White and Robinson (2001) shed some light on how making art enhances students’ appreciation and understanding of subject matter drawn from another discipline. They suggest that the thoughtfulness engendered by the process of thinking through the production of art broadens their receptivity to the purely conceptual aspects of the subject under study.

In Learning by All Means: Lessons from the Arts, Howard (1992) suggests that encounters with exemplars combined with doing

104 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION (performing and making) and reflecting (gaining feedback) appeal to and harness the learner’s aesthetic nature (p. 102). For Cossentino and Shaffer (1999), teaching for understanding involves reconfiguring the processes of curriculum planning and instruction. Application and generalization, as well as invention, should be explicit goals. Through artful and creative responses, they demonstrate what they have learned and now understand. Why are the arts so powerful in this process? They suggest the answer lies in the forms accommodated by art and the substance of the aesthetic experience.

If the teaching of art were to be part of a concept-based curriculum that addressed life-centered themes, development of key ideas and essential questions could maintain focus and depth of meaning across disciplines. Here, the arts could hold the various subjects of the school together, providing alternative modes of expression and inquiry. Curriculum, rather than an end product, would be a process of continuing review and reflection and would be heavily dependent on the particular context of each school.

PRACTICE science, math, social studies, language arts, and music might present an opportunity for students to bring to art new con- In conducting an internship specifically focused on interdisci- tent they are learning. For example, a student teacher invited plinary connections, Jones (2001) notes that the challenge is to children to share their new knowledge about bug parts and create instruction that does justice to the two (or more) disci- then created a printmaking lesson that would allow them to plines brought together. Each discipline must be taught with visually represent bugs in an environment from different integrity. Jacobs (1989) suggests interdisciplinary connections points of view. Just having to visualize the bugs caused chil- can be tested for their validity using the following criteria: dren to pause and reconsider what they knew and could think about while, at the same time, children were learning repre- Concepts must be important to each of the related subjects. sentational skills and techniques with new media (Carroll, 1996). A reciprocal move would be to let colleagues know Enhanced learning of the concepts should result from what the art curriculum for the year will be. The ultimate goal comparison across disciplines. here is to encourage dialogue that might develop into more collaborative planning and teaching. Interplay of disciplines should form larger, more holistic views and attitudes. One or Two Teachers: Alternating Among Symbol Systems In practice, there are some typical avenues for interdisciplinary teaching and learning. Some efforts have been the focus of It is possible to move among symbol systems within the art research studies, and others have come to light through reports class or between art and another subject. Many reports sug- from practice by teachers. The options are presented here gest that processing ideas in more than one mode of thought starting with the simplest and easiest avenues for change, mov- and expression yields positive results. For example, several ing toward more complex collaborations. reports suggest the reciprocal relationship between drawing, writing, and concept development (Colbert, 1984; Olson, All by Oneself: Art Teacher in Search of Partially 1987; Hamilton, 1993; Ostrow, 1996; Ritchie & Kange, Processed Information in the Curriculum 1996; Whitin; 1996; Edens & Potter, 2001). Others report improved learning in math as a result of an art integration In this scenario, the art teacher actively inquires among col- (Forseth, 1980; Cossentino & Shaffer, 1999). Other studies leagues to find out what they are teaching. Understanding suggest the merits of an art-science integration (Smar, 2000) that much of the curriculum is processed through only one and American history and art (Corwin, 1990). mode of thought and expression, any number of topics from

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 105 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

Two Teachers: Making Conceptual Connections, Do your own research through informal discussions with teachers Developing Complementary Skills and surveys that inquire about the content and focus of their teaching plans. Inquire about any challenges teachers see in teach- In supervising an interdisciplinary internship for a decade, ing skills or concepts or to specific populations. Consider how Jones (2001) has collected samples of interdisciplinary units you might support desired learning through the art program. that make conceptual connections between art and another discipline such as science, math, language arts, and social stud- Determine the conditions for curricular change in your school ies. The goal of such an interdisciplinary connection is to fos- and pursue the option most likely to succeed (Smar, 2000). ter learning in both areas of study. It requires collaborative planning. Jones reports that art teachers are fully capable of Search for ideas, themes, and/or concepts that ease the bound- finding creative and visual ways to teach concepts from other aries between disciplines (Perkins, 1989; Arnold, 1996). disciplines. What seems harder is to also teach skills in art so that the product of the investigation is aesthetically and artis- In themes, identify several options and check to see if they sug- tically realized. A published example of such a correlation gest both broad and deep investigations. Note that some illustrates how a text from language arts came alive, leading to themes are better than others. Narrow themes, perhaps relat- a deeper grasp and understanding of the story. How did it ed to subject matter or one idea, are less stimulating than work? On one hand, students really had to attend to the text broader themes and metaphorical concepts (Jacobs, 1989; as they searched for visual information. As for art skills, stu- Perkins, 1989). dents developed their skills in rendering characters, expression, settings, and action (Wolf, 1999). Brainstorm ways to integrate content, concepts, or themes, taking into consideration the developmental and contextual Two or More Teachers: Thematic Connections needs of target populations (Gardner, 2001; Jones, 2001). Across the Curriculum Consider art learning as well as learning in the other disci- Deep and rich connections surface from theme-based approach- pline(s); consider how visual thinking, artful forms of expres- es where a concept or idea is investigated through multiple areas sion, and aesthetic processes can contribute to broad and deep of the curriculum (Jacobs, 1989; Perkins, 1989; Arnold, 1996). learning (Cossentino & Shaffer, 1999). Perkins (1989) notes that some themes are better than others. He equates a good theme with the idea of “a lens worth looking Develop ideas in concert with colleagues, sharing ownership of through.” He presents five general criteria for selecting a good the curriculum where possible (Smar, 2000). theme: 1) it applies to a wide range of topic areas; 2) it applies pervasively throughout a topic; 3) it discloses fundamental pat- Maintain the integrity of all disciplines; look for underlying terns; 4) it reveals similarities and contrasts; 5) it fascinates concepts yet develop complementary skills, not just inter- teachers and students, drawing them into the subject matter, changeable ones (Howard, 1992; Cossentino & Shaffer, 1999; provoking curiosity and inquiry (pp. 70-71). Jones, 2001).

Total School Effort: Moving Art (or the Arts) to Determine if technology can play a role, making it possible to the Center of the Curriculum work in a traditional domain (such as mathematics) in an expressive way (Cossentino & Shaffer, 1999). Here, the arts are at the center of the school curriculum, literally and figuratively (Read, 1945). In this setting, teachers are Consider if it is going to be necessary to teach representation- often recruited who have an interest in or preparation for al skills; note that students will waffle on an idea if they can- interdisciplinary teaching based on the arts. Decisions are not represent it (Wolf, 1999). made through a group planning process, and thematic investigations may run through the grades as well as across the cur- Aim for a multiplicity of solutions (Howard, 1992). riculum. A concept-based curriculum focused on key ideas and essential questions might place the arts in a position to center the entire curriculum.

Recommended Strategies

Participate in school-initiated processes for curricular change; be an advocate for the visual arts by educating colleagues about interdisciplinary possibilities.

106 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION REFERENCES Read, H. (1945). Education through art, 2nd Ed. New York: Pantheon Books. Classic text that argues for placing the arts in the center of education. A vision, Bickley-Green, C. (1995). Math and art curriculum integration: A post modern for the most part, as yet unrealized. foundation. Studies in Art Education 37 (37), 16-18. A theoretical exposition supporting integration of art and math curricula. Schlain, L. (1991). Art and physics: Parallel visions in space, time and light. New York: Quill. Deasy, R. J. (Ed.), (2002). Critical links: Learning in the arts and student aca- Book tracks breakthroughs in art and physics through history finding a correla- demic and social development. Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership. tion of visions. In brief, an exploration of concepts from the larger gestalt influ- Funded by the National Endowment for the Arts and the U. S. Department of encing investigations in both fields independently. Stated goal of the book is to Education, this document offers summaries, findings, and commentary on 62 reach artistically inclined readers who want to know more about new physics studies. Examples from the visual arts suggest that drawing supports writing and scientists who would like to have a framework for appreciating art. skills and visualization training supports interpretation of text. White, D. A., & Robinson, R. (2001). Critical thinking and artistic creation. Gardner, H. (1985). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 35 (2). 77-85. Elaboration of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Report on arts integration spanning the curriculum at Lincoln Park High School in Chicago. The arts served as an occasion for concurrent practice and devel- Hamilton, C. (1997). Artistic strategies. In J. Simpson, J. Delaney, K. L. Carroll, opment of critical thinking in academic subjects. Example used to illustrate S. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. Olson. Creating meaning through art. pp. 207-257. critical thinking involved drama, although all the arts figured in the integration. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, Prentice-Hall. Defines artistic strategies as those that visually, spatially, or tactilely incorpo- Wolf, D. (Ed.). (1999). Art works! Interdisciplinary learning powered by the rate graphic images, symbols, and forms as the basis for communicating arts. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. meaning. Chapter offers examples for gathering ideas, planning, observing and Book offers descriptions of interdisciplinary projects implemented at the middle recording, connecting, assessing, and reflecting. Their use in language arts, school level with urban children funded by a grant from the Rockefeller English, and literature as well as in science, social studies, and mathematics is Foundation. An analysis suggests what constitutes effective partnerships discussed. Annotated references include resources for drawing and cross-cur- between the arts and other forms of knowing. ricular education resources in addition to a list of books by artists that visually present stories, travelogues, and studies for art and media. RESEARCH Howard, V. A. (1992). Learning by all means: Lessons from the arts. New Re: Drawing, Writing, and Reading York: Peter Lang. Howard argues that the special contribution arts can make to the learning Black, J. G. (1995). Teaching elements of written composition through use of process is their capacity to appeal to and harness students’ aesthetic nature classical music and art: The effects on high school students’ writing. through performing, making, and reflecting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California–Riverside. Dissertation Abstracts 56 no. 08A: 3034. Jacobs, H. H. (Ed.). (1989). Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Data base of 180 students of high, average, and low ability in four treatment Implementation. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum groups given five-week, twice-a-week interventions. The group receiving visual Development. art treatment improved in their use of rhythm, conflict, and unity with statisti- A practical guide for developing interdisciplinary curriculum. Covers the grow- cally superior results compared to the groups that received the auditory treating need, design options, intellectual and practical criteria, descriptions of ment and the control group that used literature alone as its treatment. Study model programs, a step-by-step approach for developing integrated units of suggests that the aesthetic element inherent in all the arts is a viable tool for study, thoughts on how to select fertile themes, and recommendations for inte- helping students to read and respond to literature and thus influence the quality grating thinking and learning skills across the curriculum. of students’ writing in regards to rhythm, conflict, mood, tone, and unity.

King, D. L. (2000, January). The Fibonacci sequence. School Arts, pp. 28-29. Caldwell, H., & Moore, B. H. The art of writing: Drawing as preparation for nar- Fibonacci sequence explained with an example of its application to art by a rative writing in the primary grades. Studies in Art Education, 32 (4), 207-219. special education teacher. A study with 42 second and third graders used two different preparations prior to writing. One group used discussion, the other used drawing. The quality of the Parsons, M. J. (1998). Integrated curriculum and our paradigm of cognition in drawing group was significantly higher than that of the control group. The the arts. Studies in Art Education, 39 (2), 103-116. researchers concluded that drawing to plan and assemble ideas for writing offers A review of a symbols systems view of cognition in the arts and its limitations. several advantages to the novice writer: it facilitates the exploration of ideas, Argues that this view restricts thinking. Suggests that the integration of learn- reduces cognitive demands through close ties with narrative form, and as an ing through the arts requires a different paradigm. In an interpretive account of alternative symbol system, has certain structural advantages over writing. the arts, the arts are still seen as cognitive but not linear or logical; rather they are imprecise, multilayered, always in the process of translation, never precise- Carroll, C. J. (1996). Draw first, then write: Kindergarten students as begin- ly fixed in meaning. If the end goal is increased possibilities for making mean- ning writers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the University of Memphis. ing, such a view would connect art with culture—and the rest of the school Study involved 111 kindergarten children prescreened and placed within two curriculum. groups, one for experimental treatment, the other as a control. Over a seven- week period, the experimental group wrote lessons after observing a teacher Perkins, D. N. (1989). Selecting fertile themes for integrated learning. In H. H. model drawing to write. The control group had only writing as a model. Jacobs (Ed.), Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and implementation (pp. Findings suggest that at first, drawing produced significantly more words but as 67-76). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum students gained in their writing ability, they drew less. Development. Discusses themes as “lenses” worth looking through and offers examples of Colbert, C. (1984). Status of visual arts in early education. Art Education 37 three broad themes: change, dependence and independence, and patterns. (4), 28-31.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 107 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

Edens, K. M., & Potter, E. F. (2001). Promoting conceptual understanding the power of the arts to teach across disciplines. Journal of Aesthetic through pictorial representation. Studies in Art Education, 42 (3), 214-233. Education, 33 (2), 99-109. Report of a study to gather evidence on the utility of descriptive drawing as a Six students from Boston public high schools participated in a program at MIT. means to promote understanding of scientific concepts and explanations from a Computers and art proved to be a powerful combination of tools for thinking cognitive perspective. Report includes discussion on the integration of the arts about concepts and ideas. Software used was Geometer’s Sketchpad. with other subjects, a cognitive approach to learning, and verbal versus visual or pictorial representation. Data base was drawn from 184 fourth and fifth Forseth, S. D. (1980). Art activities, attitudes, and achievement in elementary graders; three treatments were compared: writing, learner-generated drawing, mathematics. Studies in Art Education, 21 (2), 22-27. and copy illustration drawing. Results on pre and post tests of science con- In this study, 30 fourth graders demonstrated that art reinforced math concepts cepts were correlated with treatment. Findings suggest that pictorial represen- and positively affected attitudes toward math and art. tation provides a viable way for students to learn scientific concepts. A model for integrating drawing activities into instruction is included. Re: Art and Science

Ernst, K. (1992). Picturing learning: Teacher research in words and images. Nelson, P. L., Martin, S., & Baldwin, V. (1998). Drawing skills and science Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the Union Institute. concepts in young children: A case study of relationships. Studies in Art Observer-participant study including case studies of individual students and Education 39 (3), 262-269. work samples of artwork and writing plus teacher-researcher’s dialectic note- An experimental and correlational study exploring relationships between draw- book. Study suggests that art and writing, creative and visual thinking, and ing and art concepts with science learning among 91 children ages 4 to 8. narrative voice are catalysts for meaningful discoveries. Study involved only one drawing task and one materials identification task, so findings, although positive, suggest further study is needed. Fishel, N. K. (1998). Art and literacy: A program for the inclusion of visual arts in the first grade curriculum. Unpublished master’s thesis, Towson Smar, B. J. (2000). Integrating art and science: A case study of middle school University. reform. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the University of Toledo. DAI # Implementation of selected units from Baltimore County’s Language and AAI9978728. Literacy program developed with the Baltimore Museum of Art. Observations This study sets an effort to integrate art and science within the broader agenda report increased confidence in drawing behaviors as well as teacher reports of calling for school change and reform. The process of implementation was inter- positive growth in communication skills (verbal and written), cognition and active and complex. The study concluded that capacity to address change and kinesthetic skill improvement, enrichment of language arts concepts, and per- engage in meaningful dialogue, curriculum planning with common teaching sonal growth. practices and definitions, active participation of the art teacher, and shared ownership of the curriculum were all critical elements of the practical side of Hamilton, C. M. (1993). Drawing across the curriculum: A study of the uses integrating the arts into the curriculum. of drawing in an elementary school. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. DAI # AAG9426593. Re: Art and History Study conducted in an urban elementary school examining practices and beliefs held by teachers about drawing. Observations, discussions, and reflections on Corwin, S. (1991). Art as a tool for learning United States history. New York: the significance of visual opportunities for elementary students are included. National Arts Education Research Center at New York University. Although the results of this study are inconclusive due to its premature end, the Keller, C.A. B. (2001). Correlating arts and reading instruction for accelerated study provides a model for back-to-back courses in art and U.S. history in achievement in emergent literacy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas which teachers collaborate in the development and implementation of the cur- Tech University. riculum. Student comments suggest the merits of making history visual and Two-year study with one kindergarten teacher investigating the impact of art, the role art can play in bringing history alive. music, and theater activities selected to support the reading curriculum of kindergarten children. Standardized tests were used in collecting data. Gardner, K. E. (2001). Integrating art into the social studies curriculum. Unpublished master’s thesis project, Towson University. Norris, E. A. (1994). An examination of the effect of drawing on the writing Model including selected art images and questions related to topics in performance of third-grade students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Baltimore County’s world cultures curriculum. Designed for use by social stud- Oklahoma State University. ies teachers. Follow-up survey indicated that while interested, social studies Study examined the impact of drawing on the writing performance of 119 third- teachers have little training in art and feel unprepared to make connections. grade students in three rural Oklahoma schools. Compared experimental treat- Nevertheless, many believe art might enrich instruction. Study indicates that ment of drawing first before writing to a control group, which wrote without hurdles to achieving that end include lack of time to collaborate with art teach- drawing first. Findings suggest drawing can have substantial impact on third ers and other priorities dictated by state assessments. graders’ ability to write. Re: Art and Creative Thinking, Academic Achievement, Affective Functioning Underwood, C. (1994). The relationship between artistic development and school readiness of children entering first grade. Unpublished dissertation, Erickson, A. R. (1998). Fairfax County’s elementary art program: Excellence on Texas Woman’s University. DAI, 56, no. 02A, (1994): 0437. a large scale. Principal 77, (4), 44-45. Database of 86 kindergarten students from two elementary schools. Study Article describes successes due in part to a well-planned K-6 curriculum in art, determined developmental level of artwork (scribble, pre-schematic, schemat- strong staff development, a document containing strategies for teaching, and ic) and compared it to a global teacher rating of readiness skills and the strong collaborative relationships with colleagues and administrators. Metropolitan Readiness Test. Data analysis yielded significant positive correlation between and among the three measures. Luftig, R.L (2000). An investigation of an arts infusion program on creative thinking, academic achievement, affective functioning, and art appreciation. Re: Art and Math Studies in Art Education, 41 (3), 208-227. Article reports data from one academic year of a specific program implemented Cossentino, J., & Williamson Shaffer, D. (1999). The math studio: Harnessing in two schools. Three grades were studied using multiple standardized tests on

108 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION a number of measures. Findings showed promising results, yet due to a num- activities that effectively engaged students in responding to the artwork. ber of factors including the short-term effects of the study, further study seems warranted. Ritchie, D. & Karge, B.D. (1996, Fall). Making information memorable: Enhanced knowledge retention and recall through the elaboration process. Re: Specific Art Forms Preventing School Failure, 28-33.

Browning, K. J. (1994). Performance art education. Unpublished doctoral dis- Tanner, M. (1984). Artistic reading: Comprehension with a flair. Art sertation, University of Toronto ( Canada). Education, 37 (1), 17-23. Study explores how performance art can integrate the arts with other disci- Article provides models for integrating reading tasks into art assignments. plines. Tanner offers an inventory of reading skills and study skills useful in art.

REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Whitin, P. (1996) Sketching stories, stretching minds: Responding visually to literature. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann Press. Arnold, A. (1996). Fostering autonomy through the arts. Art Education, 49 (4), 20-34. Wolf, B. (1999, December). Visualizing text: Illustrating a class book. School Among the characteristics that seem to contribute to the success of this arts- Arts, pp. 15-17. based elementary curriculum is the use of “big ideas” to ground interdiscipli- The Call of the Wild served as the text. It was divided among students so nary explorations and guide authentic dialogue. Suggests that visual art, liter- important points could be illustrated and put together in a class book. ary works, or other primary sources can be the catalyst for life’s big questions. Understanding of the book appeared to be greatly enhanced through the process of visualizing and representing elements of the story line. Carroll, K. (1996). Notes from observation of a third grade art lesson taught by Pam McLoughlin under supervision of Lenore Pesano in the Howard County Wolf, D. P., Balick, D., & Craven, J. (2001). Digging deep: Teaching social Schools. studies through the study of archeology. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. Models for using the tools and questions of archaeology with middle school stu- Jones, H. (2001). Partnerships that work: Innovative and developing partner- dents to study social studies content. ships between the Center for Art Education, Maryland Institute College of Art and public schools in the greater Baltimore area. In MATE celebrates Successes in Teacher Education, 1 (Spring). Maryland Association of Teacher Educators. Paper describes the model program in which interns apply information about children’s developmental levels, instructional strategies, and management considerations to the problem of making meaningful connections between art and another discipline in curricula at the elementary and middle school levels.

Jones, H., with A. Hurley, H. Leatherman, R. Newman, J. Ramsey, & A. Price. (2002). Making meaningful connections: Interdisciplinary internships. Presentation for National Art Education Association conference in Miami Beach. Panel presentation with interns reporting units in which art ideas and media were used to explore concepts and skills in social studies, language arts, science, and mathematics. Interns illustrated the presentation with examples from elementary and middle school placements.

Olson, J. L. (1987, September). Drawing to write. School Arts, pp. 25-27. A comparison of pre and post samples of writing indicates that drawing and talking about the drawing are useful steps for visual learners who struggle with writing. Post-sample was freer from error, greater in detail, and communicated feelings and emotional content.

Ostrow, J. (1996). Beyond answers: In R. H. Hubbard & K. Ernst (Eds.). New entries: Learning by writing and drawing (pp. 48-58). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

An elementary teacher of a math workshop begins with importance of drawing as a way for helping children solve mathematical problems. Significantly, children use manipulatives to understand the concepts inherent in a problem, not just to solve it. Notes, for some, evidence of a stage-like progression from pictures to symbols. Ostrow concludes that using pictures, drawings, and manipulatives is not so much a developmental matter as one connected with processes for approaching problem solving. Argues that all children need the opportunity to discover the approaches that work for them.

Popp, L. (2002, March). Art leads the way. School Arts, pp. 38-39. Article describes interdisciplinary investigations conducted within the context of a high school’s annual art show. Reports how foreign language, business, English, social studies, and creative writing teachers designed a variety of

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 109 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

Creating Art in Response to Contemporary Issues and Concerns

THEORY Art teachers mediate between the world of students and the world of art. Knowing how to bring the two together in meaningful and purposeful ways is an art in itself. Art, as well, is a mediator between the world of experience and an individual or a community. It can build solidarity, fortify a group under stress or challenge, celebrate passages in life, and mark accomplishments. Art is, among other things, a human behavior that serves deep and meaningful purposes (Dissanayake, 1988, 1991, 1992, 2000).

BETTER PRACTICE Developmental and contextual issues arise out of students’ lived experiences every day. Some events Teachers who use contemporary forms of are experienced personally and might include, on expression, as well as historical ones, to explore one hand, the need to celebrate one’s own or issues and ideas affecting students’ lives offer another’s achievements, and on the other, losses their students opportunities to make sense out of friends, family members, property, and feelings of the world of experience. of well-being. Other issues and events can affect an entire community such as local developments or nationally significant ones, good and bad. Allowing art, in a timely way, to serve the need to come to terms with ideas, thoughts, and feelings affirms deep purposes and meaning found in art and art making. Learning that art can help make sense out of experience (Burton, 2000) is half of the equation; the other half is actually making sense out of experience, through art, and being the better for it (London, 1989).

Contemporary artists, as well as examples from the history of art, model rich and diverse ways art can serve individuals and communities in meaningful and purposeful ways. Lippard’s (1990) survey of women and artists of color, many of whom experienced a fractured life, one foot in a native country and the other in the United States, demonstrates clearly that life’s challenges, journeys, separations and arrivals, meetings and mixing, stories and dreams, are appropriate content for art. Contemporary artists also model contemporary forms that range from wearable art to installations

110 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION and performance pieces. They may have a particular appeal to students because these forms of expression offer ways to critique common culture or create ways to bring people together. Digital media, video, installations, group collaborations, and individual commentary are only some of the engaging options available through art.

Both theory and practice suggest that when there is something important to be said, the form will be crafted aesthetically with care (Dissanayake, 1988; London, 1989). Further, the means to do so will be mastered expeditiously with intent and purpose (Mann, 2002). In employing art in this manner, students will come to understand that artful expression of responses to personal, historic, civic, political, and natural events is a deeply meaningful purpose of art (Gablik, 1991).

PRACTICE Turn to art for models for ideas from artists who have dealt with similar issues or used contemporary art forms to deal Recommended Strategies with complex and challenging issues (Green, 1996; Mann, 2002; Pistolesi, 2001; Taylor, 1997). Attend to what is going on in the students’ world of experience. Tune in to their behaviors, music, and trends in popu- Draw students into the process by empowering them to help lar culture. Invite students to bring in issues, ideas, and forms shape the course of events (Pistolesi, 2001). of expression that interest them. Talk with them about what is happening around them. Stimulate dialogue about signifi- Find avenues for sharing their work with a broader communi- cant others and important life events (Ruopp, 1995). ty (Mann, 2002).

Stay informed about contemporary developments in art. Consider the purposes and meanings found in these endeavors (Gablik, 1991). Regularly look at publications and visit exhibits that feature challenging new work. Invite students to do the same and share questions and perceptions.

Create opportunities for personal experiences to emerge in the context of the ongoing curriculum (Ruopp, 1995; Cherry & Mellendick, 2002). Be alert for unexpected developments that require processing through art. If need be, stop the course of study to deal with significant developments (Mann, 2002; Pistolesi, 2001).

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 111 OUTCOME II: FACILITATING INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS

REFERENCES notes, visual form takes care of itself. It is aesthetic, well crafted, and full. Another publication forthcoming from Shambala Press is a sequel by London Burton, J. (2000). The configuration of meaning: Learner-centered art educa- entitled Drawing Closer to Nature in which a holistic approach to art education tion revisited. Studies in Art Education, 41 (4), 330-345. is further explored. In this article, Burton examines the notion that the arts offer possibilities for making a complex world meaningful. Further, she offers a picture of children’s RESEARCH minds, centered within their lived experiences of self, world, and relationship, that can be engaged in the arts as makers and appraisers. Discusses child Walker, H. J. (1997). A feminist study of African American art in New Orleans: centeredness, the role of experience in the arts, invited acts and voices of Considerations of aesthetics, art history and art criticism. Unpublished disser- materials, pervasive habits of mind, developmental continuity, and more. tation. An analysis of interviews with five black artists revealed that ideological strug- Corin, L. (1994). Mining the museum. New York: New Press. gles for assimilation and self-determination influence artistic production of and Documents Fred Wilson’s exhibition created from the collection of the Maryland meanings to be found in African American contemporary art. Historical Society in which juxtaposition of artifacts and objects created new meanings of inclusion, exclusion, privilege, class, race, oppression, and control. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Exhibit was a collaborative project with Baltimore’s Contemporary Museum of Art. Cherry, S., & Mellendick, L. (2002, April). Artful collaborations: artist as Desai, D. (2002). The ethnographic move in contemporary art: What does it teacher and teacher as artist. School Arts pp. xx-xx (special pullout without mean for art education. Studies in Art Education 43 (4), 307-323. page numbers). Article examines the use of ethnography as a component of contemporary art. Article offers accounts of a collaboration by an artist and an art teacher. “Out Ethnography is defined as a process of inquiry and a written representation of of the Box” is described as an investigation inspired by Cherry and his sculpture culture. Provides specific examples of contemporary artwork that draws on and conducted with Mellendick’s middle school students. The collaboration ethnography and notes its increasing popularity in art education. was designed to meet the countywide curriculum mandate for eighth grade of refining aesthetic judgments through master approaches. Students developed Dissanayake, E. (1988). What is art for? Seattle: University of Washington three-dimensional portraits giving homage to someone special in their lives. Press. While the article focuses on a teacher-artist collaboration and the kind of artistic problem that engages students, it also provides a model for structuring art Dissanayake, E. (1991). Art for Life’s Sake. In K. Carroll (Ed.), Keynote encounters that stimulate introspection and thought about the value of special Addresses, 31st Annual Convention (pp. 15-26). Reston, VA: National Art relationships. Education Association. Grauer, K. (1998, January). Art, adolescents and awareness. School Arts, pp. Dissanayake, E. (1992). Homoaestheticus: Where art came from and why. 36-37. New York: The Free Press. Article reports on a number of issues explored with adolescents by different teachers. Themes included a response to drunk driving, packaging your social Dissanayake, E. (2000). Art and intimacy: How the arts began. Seattle: consciousness, capturing an emotion on film, and the war against hunger. University of Washington Press. The above four publications by Dissanayake present an unfolding investigation Green, G. L. (1996). Installation art: A bit of the spoiled brat or provocative of the origins of the arts and their significance as a human behavior. In these pedagogy? Art Education, 49 (2), 16-19. works, she proposes that art is a way of making objects and rituals special, Reports on a student teacher’s use of installation artist Meg Webster as a stim- presenting, in memorable and aesthetic forms, important beliefs, values, and ulus for thinking and making art in response to ideas about the environment, ideas. She suggests that art evolved as a human behavior because it con- conservation, and ecology. Suggests that the exploration of nontraditional tributed to survival, often in a hostile world with unpredictable forces and huge media expands the canon of art students will consider as significant while rein- challenges. Only in modern times has art become the domain of specialists forcing the importance of diversity, divergent thinking, and multiple modes of seeking a personal and idiosyncratic voice. Yet, today, there is clear evidence representation. that art making has continued in more than the mainstream. Many artists are using the arts for social ends, bringing people together around issues and ideas. Hurwitz, A. (1993). Collaboration in art education. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Gablik, S. (1991). The reenchantment of art. New York: Thames & Hudson. Book offers examples of various forms of collaborative artworks inspired by the Gablik shows how art can be a major force in life, an instrument for connection work of contemporary artists. Examples include a variety of artworks created and healing. She constructs her thesis by discussing changing paradigms and by students from elementary to secondary programs. moves to her central idea: making art as if the world mattered. The book is enriched by her identification of artists who emulate this vision. Mann, J. (2002, January). September 11, 2001: A student and teacher response. School Arts, pp. 29-31. Lippard, L. R. (1990). Mixed blessings: New art in a multicultural America. Mann describes how turning to the history of art for examples of how artists New York: Pantheon Books. have dealt with tragedy and war provided students with ideas about how they Discusses the cross-cultural process taking place in the work of Latino, Native-, might process, through individual digital works and a collaborative installation, African-, and Asian-American artists. Illustrated with examples of artwork their reactions to 9/11. The work began with individual responses drawn from framed by a discussion of cultural concepts, ideas, and meanings. Identifies the media and processed visually. As the work developed, students developed several specific ways in which the visual arts serve human needs for self-identi- an installation and a group collaborative sculpture. Ceremonies developed ty and narrative expression. around the piece, bringing the community together, and since then, the work has traveled to several locations, was reported by the local media, and was London, P. (1989). No more secondhand art: Awakening the artist within. Boston: featured as an example of rigorous and challenging investigation. In part, the Shambala. work helped an entire community, living close to the Pentagon, come to some Drawing on philosophers, London presents art as a way of bringing together terms with feelings, questions, and losses so powerfully unearthed. Among his mind, body, and spirit. When they are in alignment and working together, he observations was the speed with which students gained facility in using soft-

112 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION ware because they were intent on making certain kinds of images.

Pistolesi, E. (2001). Good art education is good art. Art Education, 54, (5), 11-18. Article reports how a study of contemporary artists inspired student collaborations and installations in response to the earthquakes that leveled the campus at California State University, Northridge. Turning to installation artists, students created installations inspired by Christo and others commenting on issues ranging from the fragility of the earth’s crust to its impact on the homeless and the environment. In this case, art became a healing and communal process.

Ruopp, A. (1996). Narrative drawing: A study in personal histories. School Arts, pp. 20-21. Article describes a visual narrative unit based on Faith Ringgold’s Tar Beach. Middle school students used many of her conventions to tell stories about transformative events and significant others in their own lives.

Ruopp, A. (2003, January). Journaling with Middle School Students. School Arts, pp. 36-37. Contemporary examples of artists Dan Eldon and Candy Jernigan who created journals to record their lived experiences provided inspiration for the development of journals with middle school students. Some formal assignments as well as more expressive prompts helped shape the journals documenting highly personal and meaningful explorations.

Sommer, J. (1998, January). Art of social concern. School Arts, pp. 32-33. Article reports on art workshops for homeless people offered the opportunity to make work for themselves or for an exhibition called “Homeless Still.” In conjunction with the show, teachers explored the topic with classes in school, producing scrolls, an installation, and shelter designs.

Taylor, P. (1997). It all started with the trash: Taking steps toward sustainable art education. Art Education, 50 (2), 13-18. Artwork dealing with how society values the environment (including Ukeles, Mazeud, and Goldsworthy) stimulated student investigations. Teams of high school students cooperatively planned earth works that reflected, and continued to fuel, a growing consciousness of their own attitudes, use of materials, and the power and responsibility of art.

Taylor, P. G. (2002). Singing for someone else’s supper: Service learning and empty bowls. Art Education, 55 (5), 46-51. Article begins with a discussion of civic and social responsibility in art and education. A special project in which university students, children in an after- school program, art faculty, and professional potters all joined together to make ceramic bowls. A ritual dinner brought the community together to raise funds. The author also surveyed others who had participated in the Empty Bowls project and reports benefits as well as suggestions for initiating such a project.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 113 114 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION OUTCOME III

Facilitating Engagement with the Art-Making Process

Investigating Materials and Ideas

Structuring for Creative Thinking

Forming Elegant Problems

Designing Problems Based on the Real World of Work

Facilitating Engagement with the Art-Making Process

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 115 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

Investigating Materials and Ideas

THEORY Human beings, by their nature, have an interest in using tools and materials (Dissanayake, 1988). Touch, feel, and the manipulation of materials provide a direct and particular way of knowing and thinking (Hill, 1988). Under the heading of “Concepts and artistry,” Burton (1980) discusses what she calls the “world of materials” through which pre-representational children encounter visual, relational, and expressive concepts that form the basis of artistic language. With further explorations and experiments, children begin to develop a BETTER PRACTICE sense of the “fit” between ideas and materials or the Teachers who orchestrate thoughtful range of different ideas materials can accommodate. investigations of materials help students develop a repertoire of ideas Kay (2000) reports that expertise emerges out of time spent about materials and expertise in using in practice, the development of a repertoire of technical artistic media and processes. skills, experience solving visual problems, and the creation of a personal aesthetic bias or sensitivity. Artists typically form their own repertoire of ideas about what will succeed as well as an informed sense of what might fail. Her study also suggests that periods when artists invest in the expansion of their knowledge base may correlate with “a waning period in the aesthetic development of a personal voice” (p. 230).

PRACTICE Getting Ideas from Materials

Developing a Repertoire of Ideas About Materials Ideas are not just pushed through materials; often it is the reverse in that ideas come from working with materials, find- Finding out what materials can do involves both experience ing out what they can do, playing, and experimenting long and reflection. Developing, over time, a sense of what mate- enough to get a sense of the possibilities they present. Guided rials can do, ways to personalize their use, options for com- play and experimentation can help reveal the possibilities bining and mixing media, and preferences for expression, all inherent in materials. While more deliberate planners might contribute to mindful, artistic development (Burton, 1980). think something through before engaging with materials, spontaneous thinkers and those with more kinesthetic, spatial, Opportunities to explore both two- and three-dimensional and tactile modes of thinking and problem solving often need materials and processes accommodate the needs of students direct experience with materials to generate ideas. An interest with different modes of thought and expression. Encounters in collecting, arranging, combining, and creating with materi- that challenge students to finesse the use of their materials or als is a natural affinity common among both children and to be inventive with processes and techniques develop creative artists (Szekely, 1988). thinking, problem solving, and more in-depth explorations. Greater investment arises out of work that is guided by inter- Investigations in a Developmental Light nal motivations to express personally significant ideas. Complex processes, mixed media, and specific challenges can As learners become more conceptually and physically able to inspire meaningful engagement. handle both materials and ideas, investigations can move from

116 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION the simple to the complex. Materials, processes, and tech- inspire pushing the limits of the medium (London, 2003). niques can be revisited, as in a spiral curriculum, each encounter giving access to increasingly complex possibilities. Engage students in the collection of objects or materials. Re-encounters with materials or processes can be opportuni- Involve them in organizing them into sets, sequences, series, ties to take them to a new level where more challenging ques- groups by visual or tactile qualities; ask them to explain group- tions and applications can be entertained. A spiral curricu- ings (London, 1994). lum, in which a certain range of materials and processes are periodically revisited over time, builds new skills and suggests Organize art materials by tables or in special areas so that a new ways materials can accommodate ideas. Matching tasks given theme can be explored through different materials and to students’ level of ability so that they are appropriately chal- the results compared (Flynn, 1996). lenged contributes to higher levels of engagement and satisfaction (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Guide thoughtful and artistic investigations of specific media so that understanding as well as facility develops over time. Artful Investigations Attend to all facets of the process including the organization of tools and materials and thoughtful processes (Smith, 1993). Even simple materials can be used in complex ways. Artful techniques with ordinary materials can produce rich effects. Orchestrate journal-based investigations that include a num- Crafting materials can be its own source of pleasure. ber of assignments exploring different questions, visual quali- Innovative techniques and processes develop out of experi- ties, and media; encourage a search for materials, the incorpo- mentation, research, and the desire to render ideas and mean- ration of found objects and popular culture, and experimenta- ing. Attention can be directed to techniques and processes tion with mixed media (Robinson, 1995; Ruopp, 2003). that produce interesting and rich effects, subtle nuances, and well-crafted solutions. Vary materials, testing the ways in which they serve the expressive needs of students. Consider, for example, the manner in Working toward Expertise and Personal Voice which three-dimensional media such as clay can not only accommodate but encourage the expression of intended ideas Over time, investigations that include experimentation, reflec- and feelings (Graziano, 1999). tion, and application gradually build a sense of what strategies with materials and processes are likely to prove personally and Consider testing the limits and possibilities of a single medi- artistically satisfying (Kay, 2000). Extended explorations that um or material (for example, paper) with different grade levels focus practice and cultivate persistence and problem solving and/or groups of students. Develop an exhibition of all works can develop a body of work in an area of concentration to show the range of possibilities and inventive solutions (Tomhave, 1999). (InSEA presentation, Helsinki, Finland, 1992).

Specific Strategies Distribute a limited set of the same materials (for example, paper, string, a couple of fasteners, etc.) to groups of students Engage young children in an investigation of materials related and initiate a competition to see which group can, within a to visual concepts and themes, alternating among two- and limited amount to time, build something taller than another three-dimensional media (Townley, 1979). group (Booth, 1994).

Ask children to tell you about their work, and ask questions Encourage the use of sketchbooks as a thinking place to col- that lead children to pause and reflect on their choices and the lect, develop, and organize ideas (Thompson, 1995). Have ways in which certain visual qualities and materials relate to students make their own sketchbooks, and provide assign- different ideas (Burton, 1980). ments to keep ideas rolling (Ruopp, 2003).

Consider an exploration of a theme or subject matter (such as Allow students to experiment with materials while musing plants) in different media where students reflect on distinct over possible ideas related to a theme, existential question, or visual qualities and ideas made possible through different problem (Carroll, 1984). media (Munday, in progress.) Engage students in a search for materials with a special eye for Direct students’ attention to the sensuous nature of specific interesting objects in their environment that might be recycled, materials: how they feel when being used as well as what kinds carry meaning, and have expressive potential. Examine such of visual qualities result. Challenge students to invent ways to finds to explore cultural and physical contexts, discover inherent use the materials and/or offer demonstrations that suggest and qualities, and speculate on ways the material might be decon-

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 117 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

structed and/or used in artwork (Elliott & Bartley, 1998). invite students to share ideas, demonstrate for each other, relate techniques and processes to the meanings created. Allow students to develop their expertise in using a medium through repeated, sequential applications. For example, focus Introduce students to contemporary work and new media. on painting for a time so that practice and experience with a Orchestrate investigations modeled after such artists and offer medium build skills and ideas about what can be done with it opportunities to work with new media and forms as ways of as it is applied to different subject matter or themes dealing with students’ own contemporary issues and concerns (Aukerman,1994; Ewing & Lewis, 1999; Smith, 1993). (Gablik, 1991; Lippard, 1990).

Set up a problem so that a given subject matter is explored Develop special areas of technical expertise with materials, and numerous times, varying the media and style; have students share that expertise with students. Continue to develop a reflect on the relationship between the medium, the style, and teaching repertoire of ideas for use with materials, technology, ideas suggested by the work (Carroll, 1984). and different forms of expression. Look to see what artists might provide new models for dealing with ideas through dif- Examine the work of artists for special techniques that might ferent kinds of art materials and processes, products, and per- interest students; have students conduct their own research; formances (De Muro, 1992).

REFERENCES Zurmuehlen, M. (1990). Studio art: Praxis, symbol, presence. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optional experience. A discussion of studio art highlighting the primacy of doing and making and how New York: Harper Collins. an integrated cycle of intending, acting, realizing, and re-intending leads from For two decades, Csikszentmihalyi has conducted studies on the states of opti- unreflective to reflective thought. The notion of praxis as a dialectic between mal experience. Appropriately matching the level of challenge in a task to the critical reflection and action is explored. ability of learners appears to be an important strategy teachers can use in avoiding boredom (as in too little challenge) and frustration (as in too much). RESEARCH Dissanayake. E. (1988). What is art for? Seattle: University of Washington Press. De Muro, T. E. (1992). Making a case for clay in art education (Ceramic train- Working from a bio-behavioral view of the arts, this author outlines many human ing). Unpublished dissertation, Columbia University, Teachers College. DAI 53, propensities that are related directly to the arts. Use of tools is one of them. No. 11A, 3779. Study begins with the thesis that considers requisite skills and knowledge relat- Gablik, S. (1991). The reenchantment of art. New York: Thames. ed to teaching ceramics. Broad needs surface and suggest that teachers want Author provides specific examples of artists exploring social issues through art; more information and techniques to support instruction. many examples involve atypical use of media or performance, installation, and/or video. Graziano, J. E. (1999). Narrative and clay: The storied forms of early adolescents ten to fourteen. Unpublished dissertation, Columbia University, Teachers Lippard, L. (1990). Mixed blessings: New art in a multicultural America. New College. DAI 60, NO. 02A, 0311. York: Pantheon. The purpose of the study was to examine how early adolescents used clay in Lippard’s presentation on artists who have moved from one culture to another is the expression of personal stories and to explore how clay’s plastic and spatial organized thematically, features the work of minority and women contemporary properties accommodated the narratives and symbolic representation. Findings artists, and includes a variety of art forms that use materials in special ways. suggest that the dimensionality and interactivity of clay encourage expression of intended meanings. Szekely, G. (1988). Encouraging creativity in art lessons. New York: Teachers College Press. Louis, L. L. (2000). What children have in mind: A study of early graphic rep- Szekely is interested in the artist-teacher who serves as a catalyst for creating resentation in paint. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University conditions that encourage students to use their own ideas for making art. He Teachers College. offers suggestions for helping children use their natural abilities, integrate their An examination of children’s graphic development between ages 4 and 7. sensory, emotional, and intellectual experiences, value their own personal feel- Findings suggest the early symbolic stage of painting development involved three ings and ideas and communicate them to others, and use art making as a way overlapping phases. These include an intermediate stage where the associative of exploring and understanding the world around them. Sections focus on intro- properties of paint are discovered to give shape to ideas and experience. ducing students to the art process, creating a classroom environment favorable to artistic learning, planning the lesson, evaluating and recognizing student per- Hill, J. K. (1988). An historical analysis of and speculations about the value of formance, and becoming an artist-teacher. clay working in American education. Unpublished dissertation, Columbia University, Teachers College. DAI 49, No. 09A, 2507. Walker, S. R. (2001). Teaching meaning in artmaking. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. An examination of various motives for teaching clay. Argues that motor-sensory Book sets forth a process for making art based on big ideas. Chapter 5 looks at learning is related to qualitative thinking and insight formation. Identifies earli- setting aesthetic boundaries including choices of media and techniques. Walker er notions in which tactile discernment was considered a “master sense” with notes that conceptual concerns are foremost. Thus, questions regarding what clay modeling being an extension of the mind through the hands and later materials and forms can serve ideas need to be addressed. notions about the role of “sense-impressions” in creating cognitive generalizations based on the particulars of the sensate experience.

118 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Kay, S. I. (2000). On the nature of expertise in art. In R. C. Friedman & B. M. Flynn, L. (1996, December). Studio 207: My special place. School Arts, pp. 36-37. Shore, (Eds.), Talents unfolding, (pp. 217-232). Washington, DC: American Article describes her “classroom-turned-art-studio” complete with an “SPA”— Psychological Association. Special Painting Area—so that two students always have the opportunity to Report based on the author’s study with artists. Suggests that expertise respond to the day’s lesson in paint. She also varies materials by table groupings emerges out of time spent in practice, the development of a repertoire of tech- to give students the opportunity to explore the potential of more diverse materials. nical skills and experience solving visual problems, and a personal aesthetic bias or sensitivity. Implies that periods when artists invest in the expansion of Hurwitz, A., & Day, M. (2001). Children and their art: Methods for the ele- their knowledge base may correlate with “a waning period in the aesthetic mentary school, 7th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt College Publishers. development of a personal voice” (p. 230). Also suggests that aesthetic devel- Part III, Content of Art, includes a number of chapters focused on the investiga- opment is an issue for disciplines other than the visual arts. tion of materials and ideas including drawing, painting, sculpture, ceramics, other three-dimensional forms, printmaking, and new media with ideas from Tomhave, R. (1999). Portfolio assessment in the visual arts: A comparison of earthworks to computers and lasers. advanced secondary art education strategies (Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, Secondary Education). Unpublished doctoral dis- London, P. (1994). Step outside: Community based art education. sertation, University of Minnesota. DAI, 60, no. 06A (1999); P. 1870. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. Study contains an analysis of both programs that require the development of Book recounts a series of exercises exploring the school community through art. concentrated work within a defined area. Includes ideas for collecting found materials, organizing and analyzing finds, and thinking about the possibilities of materials. MODELS FOR PRACTICE Munday, M.M. (In progress). Explorer Sketchbooks: Investigating Media. Aukerman, R. (1994). Move over Picasso. New Windsor, MD: Pat Depke Munday reports on media explorations with elementary students in which they Books. are challenged to find the best material to render a specific visual quality. In Examples of work by upper-elementary children demonstrate how skills with doing so, students are inventive in, and also reflective about, the different ways painting can be developed through a sequence of lessons. Aukerman models a materials can be used. specific method for working from works of art in which questioning strategies help students connect emotionally with the works and draw ideas they can use Robinson, G. (1995). Sketch-books: Explore and store. London: Hodder & in making personally meaningful thematic paintings. Testing the method in both Stroughton. a laboratory setting (Young People’s Studios, Maryland Institute College of Art) Begins with the purposes of sketchbooks and proceeds to offer ideas, illustrated and in her home school, Aukerman demonstrates that sustained practice with with children’s work, for explorations, evaluating, computer work, and research. materials develops increasingly more successful paintings. Concludes with a section on making sketchbooks.

Booth, P. (1994). Personal conversation with Booth in which he described an Ruopp, A. (2003, January). Visual journaling. School Arts, pp. 36-37. exercise he used with Maryland Institute’s Pre-College Program. Middle school students explore a variety of possibilities in visual journals inspired by Dan Eldon and Candy Jernigan. In this 12-week investigation, a Burton, J. (1980, September). Beginnings of artistic language. School Arts, pp. variety of prompts were used to direct work in the journal, which began with 6-12. personal reflections and resulted in more than 30 pages loaded with discoveries Under the heading of “Concepts and artistry,” Burton discusses what she calls and insights. Article includes a description of the various assignments as well the “world of materials” through which pre-representational children encounter as Ruopp’s inspiration for the journals. visual, relationship, and expressive concepts that form the basis of artistic language. With further explorations and experiments, children begin to develop a Smith, N. (1993). Experience and art: Teaching children to paint, 2nd Ed. sense of the “fit” between ideas and materials or what ideas materials can New York: Teachers College Press. accommodate. A methods resource book integrating theory with practice. Focuses on learning the elements, first representations, and picturing experience. This second edi- Carroll, K. (1986, September). Looking and learning: Jennifer Bartlett. School tion includes contributions from colleagues who have continued Smith’s work Arts, pp. 29-32. that emphasizes the teacher’s active role in fostering a developing understand- Article describes the problem the artist set for herself in wanting to develop rep- ing of painting from ages 1 1/2 to 11. resentation skills. More than 200 drawings were made of the same subject matter (a view out a window into a garden with trees, sky, statuary, and water). Szekely, G. (1991). From play to art. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. Some drawn as contrasting pairs on the same sheet of paper, each explored a Beginning with the observation that children engage in almost any activity in combination of media and style resulting in a body of work Bartlett published in creative ways, Szekely considers how play figures into teaching art. He dis- the book In the Garden. cusses ways to create a classroom environment for art, materials, movement, performance, basic plays, and thematic school play, and concludes with exam- Elliott, S., & Bartley, S. (1998). Material arts design: An exploration in creativ- ples and teaching ideas. ity, ecology, and culture. Art Education, 51 (3), 52-55. This article provides an ecological rationale for exploring cultural and material Townley, M.R. (1979). Another look. Palo Alto, CA: Addison-Wesley. environments for finds that might be dismantled, sorted, and used in creating Townley’s method included the investigation of visual concepts through both artwork. The notion that materials have inherent qualities and carry meaning is two- and three-dimensional materials. reinforced along with the idea that artists play a significant role in the human ecosystem. Thompson, C. M. (1995). “What should I draw today?” Sketchbooks in early childhood. Art Education, 48 (5), 6-11. Ewing, P., & Louis, L. (1999). In the paint. New York: Abbeville Kids. Four- and 5-year-olds are reported to respond positively to opportunities to Art educator Linda Lewis and basketball player Patrick Ewing team up in this work in a sketchbook format. Here drawing is a central activity. The sketchbook, which demonstrates specific ways to develop skills in painting. It is illus- books present a “bounded area available for exploration of images and ideas, a trated with examples of his own work and work by children. Includes tips for par- format for the pursuit of personal projects and an occasion for sharing theories ents and educators who wish to support children in their painting experiences. about the world and its representation through symbols” (p. 11).

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 119 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

Structuring for Creative Thinking

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who structure conditions for creative thinking help students THEORY discover and understand more about Artists, architects, writers, and scientists the nature of creativity in the visual are among those whose personalities have arts and its rewards. been studied in order to determine what characterizes creative people (Arieti, 1976). A closer look at behaviors that distinguish creative people, rather than their personalities, has yielded an even more productive source for teaching for creativity. For example, research suggests that thought processes associated with artistic behaviors are characterized by self-knowledge, situated learning, fluid translation between media, empathy, integration and coherence, and use of analogy and metaphor (Stone, 1997). A number of considerations are useful in structuring processes that not only cultivate creative thinking but also allow learners to experience a high level of engagement and discover pleasures and rewards that can be found in the creative process (Perkins, 1981).

120 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE the far end of the problem-solving continuum, students must both find a problem and develop their own constraints or lim- Introductory Problems: More Closed than Open itations (Kay, 1998; Kowalchuk, 1999).

To build basic skills, whether with young children or a new Generating Ideas: The Role of Brainstorming, area of learning, problems that are more “closed” than open Visual and/or Verbal Workouts, and Play can focus students on new skills, knowledge, concepts, techniques, processes, and ideas. Here, the solution to a problem Brainstorming suspends prejudgment of ideas with the simple will have more requirements, or constraints, than options. Yet goal of generating more and more ideas. Best experienced as all problems should leave some window of choice open so that a kind of dynamic group participation game, it is a case of “the students can make work personally meaningful (Kay, 1998). more the better” with the possibility that the most far-out ideas may suggest or point to the most creative solutions. Focusing Creative Decision Making: The Role of Visual or verbal workouts can also be used to generate ideas Constraints and Limitations through list making, inventories, questions, diagramming, mapping, sketching, and other forms of note taking. Play is Constraints or limitations are the requirements that a solution yet another way of exploring the possibilities of ideas to a problem must be honored. The purpose is to eliminate (Hamilton, 1998; Szekely, 1988, 1981). time lost in making too many decisions and thereby focus creative thinking within a narrow set of possibilities. Some theo- Developing Ideas: The Role of Synectic Thinking ries of creativity support the notion that more creative solutions are generated by tighter constraints and limited options Synectic thinking affords many ways of working to develop an that force new thinking and problem solving. Many artists idea. Specifically, an idea can be changed by any number of often give themselves problems with constraints so as to help strategies such as adding or subtracting, changing scale or focus their own work. shape, repeating, combining or transferring, exaggeration, abstraction or simplification, animation, substituting or dis- Not Too Hard, Not Too Easy: The Role of a Task guising, distorting or fragmenting, isolating or mythologizing, Well Matched to Ability fantasizing, symbolizing, analogizing, parodying, contradict- ing, prevaricating, metamorphosing, or hybridizing (Gordon, Tasks or problems that are too easy produce boredom. If they 1961; Roukes, 1988). are too hard, they produce frustration, even paralysis. Setting a problem so that it is neither too simple nor too hard, where Getting Ideas from Materials: The Role of the task meets with the ability level to result in appropriate Materials Investigation level of challenge, appears to contribute to an optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Ideas come from investigating materials and attending to their sensory qualities. Building a repertoire of ideas about materi- Not an Obvious Solution: The Role of Essential als—what they can do, what can be done with them, and how Questions they fit with ideas—facilitates creative and artistic thinking (Burton, 1980). Experts or those with accumulated experi- The solution to a problem should not be obvious. At least, it ences with materials understand what will fail as well as what should not be solvable without new thinking. Incorporating will succeed (Kay, 1998). an essential or existential (self-referential) question into a problem asking, for example, not “what” is seen but “how” some- Recording the Beginning of an Idea: The Role of thing is seen, can invite deeper thinking to occur (London, a Holding Form 2003; Castro, in press; McKenna, in press). Recording the germ of a motive, idea, hunch, or what can be More Advanced Problems: The Role of Open- called a “sensate impulse” about what a solution will look like Ended Problems serves to record how an idea began. Furthermore, such holding forms allow teachers to interact with the creative process in As students gain familiarity with materials and processes, ideas meaningful ways because they function as references for and techniques, representational skills and stylistic options, coaching and problem solving. Holding forms for an initial they can make increasing use of problems with multiple conception or idea for a solution may be recorded as a quick options for decision making. The continuum of closed to sketch, a three-dimensional model, a word, or a phrase open-ended problems also has a parallel in the progression (Arnheim, 1962; Carroll, 1985; Witkin, 1974). from teacher-directed problems to student-generated ones. At

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 121 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

An Extended Process: The Role of Time and Pushing an Idea Through a Medium: The Role of Immersion Persistence in the Face of Not Knowing

Giving an idea time to develop and immersing oneself in the In the artistic process of creation, an idea takes form in mate- process of solving the problem allow for incubation, an impor- rials. The “shape of making” is a complex process involving tant element in the creative process (Arieti, 1976). Stepping out problem solving, elaboration, development, and refinement of the process over a period of time so that new learning takes (Perkins, 1981). What was an idea in concept of words, a place about materials and forms, techniques and processes, con- sketch, or model, grows through the process of bringing it into cepts and skills, can help an idea percolate and develop. The a full and realized visual or spatial and/or time-based form experience of becoming totally immersed in creative work has (Wiktin, 1974). Often, persistence in the face of not really been described as a state of flow in which time goes by quickly knowing how something will turn out, is required and becom- and engagement is highly focused (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). ing acquainted with this notion makes the journey of creating really worth the journey (Eisner, 1998a). Digging In: The Role of Research, Investigation, and Hard Work Challenging Oneself: The Role of Working at the Edge of One’s Expertise Work is involved in the creative process, and without it little of any consequence is produced. Research can be an important If the creative process is about growth and development rather part of the process and reinforce the notion that new learning than processing the known within one’s comfort level with takes place in the process of making art. Hard work, as in materials and ideas, then challenge becomes an issue. The problem solving with materials and crafting a solution, may level of risk-taking individuals are capable of varies greatly; require an investment of time and labor as well as thought. some tend to stick closely to what they know and feel they can The exhilaration found in taking on an intellectually challeng- control; others are drawn to risk-taking. Learning how to ing task and the pleasures of working with one’s hand and make problems into opportunities and recognizing the value mind reinforce notions about why artists find the creative in discoveries made while working at the edge of one’s expert- process so engaging (Boot, 1995; Dissanayake, 1995; John- ise can be important elements in—and rewards of—the cre- Steiner, 1987). ative process (Eisner, 1998b).

Stepping Back: The Role of Intuition Moving Up to Another Level: The Role of Metaphorical and Conceptual Thinking The creative process appears to involve both deliberate, focused attention and then moments of more intuitive think- Literal thinking or taking ideas for their face value can limit ing. In time away from the task, new solutions can present creative thinking. On the other hand, thinking about ideas themselves within mundane, ordinary, or even semi-awake and possibilities from the point of view of a larger construct moments where the mind can muse and make its own con- can often result in multiple levels of interpretation and mean- nections. However, this kind of insight usually follows periods ing. Thus to think metaphorically about the literal or the of intense investigation and focus (Arieti, 1976). observed, or to think conceptually about ideas, can both stimulate and focus creative work (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Simpson, 1998; Stone, 1997).

122 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Tracking the Development of a Problem: The Role of the Process Portfolio Some theories of creativity support the Keeping a complete record of a creative process for inception notion that more creative solutions are and hunch through experiment, research and investigation, trial and error, failure and success, to completion, makes visible the creative process. Presenting all as a form of documen- generated by tighter constraints and tation shifts the focus from the final product to the fuller dimensions and dynamics of the creative process (Wolf & limited options that force new thinking Pistone, 1995). and problem solving. Many artists Understanding Creative Processes: The Role of Reflection often give themselves problems with Reflecting on the creative process, especially if it has been well constraints so as to help focus their documented, provides raw material for thinking about how new thinking develops. All aspects of the process can be con- own work. sidered in understanding how new insights come about and the role of persistence, work, and problem solving in creative thinking. Reflection can further cause an examination of the rewards of pleasures of such engagement (John-Steiner, 1987).

Appreciating Different Solutions: The Role of Assessment

Self-assessment and group discussion can help identify different ways in which problems have been solved. Some solutions involve aesthetic organizing, others boundary pushing, inventing, or boundary breaking (Eisner, 1972). Some will arrive at solutions that need an explanation to understand how the problem was interpreted (Kay, 1998) while others will arrive at interesting solutions that have their own value, even if they solve a problem different from what was given.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 123 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

REFERENCES Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Arieti, S. (1976). Creativity: The magic synthesis. New York: Basic Books. The book begins with a discussion of concepts that give structure and meaning Arieti begins with a critique of major theories of creativity followed by a review to life. Chapters present different kinds of metaphors including a look at how of the psychological components of creativity and its manifestation in different metaphors give meaning to form. products (wit, poetry, painting, music, religion, science, philosophy, and system theory). The relationships between the sociocultural environment and creativity Perkins, D. N. (1981). The mind’s best work. Cambridge, MA: Harvard as well as larger contexts are considered. Part 5 focuses on the creative person University Press. and how creativity might be cultivated. Rather than an investigation of creative personalities, Perkins is intrigued by the process of creating that generates original and high-quality outcomes. He con- Arnheim, R. (1962). The genesis of a painting: Picasso’s Guernica. Los siders a number of propositions about creating and then explores ideas that Angeles: University of California Press. suggest how these propositions might be revised. The book includes both theo- Arnheim’s analysis derives from documents including drawings and photo- ry and practical suggestions for experimenting with the process of creating. The graphs that reveal the process that went into creating Guernica. Arnheim sug- chapter titles suggest the journey he constructs from witnessing invention to the gests that Picasso came to know what he felt and meant through the process of consideration of creative moments, ways of the mind, critical moments, search, moving from an initial sketch through successive stages of exploration, experi- planning, lives of inquiry, “having it,” and the shape of making. mentation, and development to resolution and completion. Wolf, D. P., & Pistone, N. (1995). Taking full measure: Rethinking assessment Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optional experience. through the arts. New York: College Entrance Examination Board. New York: Harper Collins. Chapter 6 focuses on Portfolio Assessment and offers criteria for evaluating a For two decades, Csikszentmihalyi has conducted studies on the states of opti- process-folio in the visual arts. Criteria are organized into three categories: mal experience. He describes a state where there is a sense of strong alert- Production (craftsmanship, understanding, inventiveness, commitment, and ness, effortless control, and unconscious decision making, all focused at the expression; Reflection (sense of self as artist, critique, ability to use feedback); peak of one’s ability. Here one’s senses of time and emotional problems disap- and Perception (ability to discern qualities in the work of other artists, pear and are replaced by an exhilarating feeling of transcendence. visual/sensory perception of the environment, and cultural awareness). Each criterion is further qualified in the text (pp. 59-60). Dissanayake, E. (1995, April/May). The pleasure and meaning of making. American Craft, pp. 40-45. RESEARCH Article explores several ideas, i.e., that making is not only pleasurable but meaningful; society can devalue making special, and to do so is to forfeit a crit- Emery, L. (1989). Believing in artistic making and thinking. Studies in Art ical component of our human nature; and that “making special” is a universal Education, 30 (4), 237-238. human practice in treating important life transitions with respect and care. A cross-modal case study involving 10 students, ages 10 to 12, making observations of thinking processes when engaged in making tasks related to one of Eisner, E. (1972) Educating artistic vision. New York: Macmillan. the arts. The notion of “belief” is “the catalytic quality in the artistic making Chapter 8 on evaluating children’s growth in art offers and discusses a typology and thinking process” (p. 237). This driving force compels the child to engage of four general types of creativity. These four include boundary pushing, invent- in art making given an unsolved problem and the opportunity to search for ing, boundary breaking, and aesthetic organizing. intention, play with form and image, and arrive at an expressive solution.

Eisner, E. (1998a). The misunderstood role of the arts in human development. John-Steiner, V. (1987). Notebooks of the mind: Explorations of Thinking. In E. Eisner, The kind of schools we need: Personal essays. Portsmouth, NH: New York: Harper and Row. Heinemann. An examination of the creative process based on interviews with more than 50 Essay examines five widely held but flawed beliefs about mind, knowledge, and creative minds from different disciplines. Suggests that being creative involves a intelligence that shape education. He follows by discussing what the arts can self-reflective process. Features highlighted by John-Steiner include long appren- contribute to education, including the notion that the arts facilitate discovery. ticeships, continuous interaction of person and society, varied languages or modalities of creative thought, and sustained patient and disciplined hard work. Eisner, E. (1998b). Remarks upon receiving the Harold McGraw Jr. Prize in Education. Unpublished paper. Kay, S. I. (1989). Differences in figural problem solving and problem-finding Address giving an overview of the contributions the arts can make to education behavior among professional, semiprofessional, and non-artists. Unpublished including the kind of experience the arts make possible, the kinds of meaning doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College. they generate, and the forms of thinking they foster. Quantitative and qualitative differences in performance were compared in three groups defined by their experience in producing ideas in art. Sixty adults partic- Gordon, J. J. (1961). Synectics: The development of creative capacity. New ipated in the study involving a dynamic assessment of the processes of solving York: Harper and Row. a three-dimensional game-based art problem. Findings suggest that novices Sets forth a theory of creativity described as synectics. Gordon’s research was and experts demonstrated different behaviors with experts drawing on spatial based on investigations of how multidisciplinary teams from industry arrived at versus linear modes of thinking. solutions to technical and theoretical problems. Identified many practices characteristics of creative thinkers and problem solvers. See Roukes’s Design Synectics Stone, G. K. (1997). The epistemological character of artistic behaviors. for a practical rendition of Gordon’s findings for art and design investigations. Unpublished dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. # DA 9822101. A qualitative analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with six artists. Kay, S. (1998). Shaping elegant problems for visual thinking. In J. Simpson, J. This study sought to identify thought processes associated with artistic behaviors. Delaney, K.L. Carroll, C. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, Creating Meaning through Art: Teacher as Choice Maker, pp. 259-288. Witkin, R. W. (1974). The intelligence of feeling. London: Heinemann Chapter begins with a story about creative thinking and reports research stud- Educational Books. ies, including the author’s own investigations, and concludes with the charac- An examination of art-making processes in high schools including art and teristics of an elegant problem. (See the entry on Forming Elegant Problems).

124 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION drama. Witkin identifies significant steps in the process: putting one’s inspira- Kowalchuk, E. (1999). Recognizing and using higher order approaches to tional idea (or sensate impulse) into a holding form and using it as a reference teaching. Art Education, 52 (6), 13-18. for checking original intent against options as the work unfolds; orchestration of Article begins by contrasting lower- and higher-order thinking in art. Suggests work so that it proceeds through successive approximations in accord with the teachers start by examining ways to deepen learning by using generative topics students needs; and issues of control over the medium are resolved, not and open and flexible problems. Discusses examples of how to transform a shelved, as the sensate impulse is realized through the expressive medium. traditional portrait drawing unit by framing it in a larger context and beginning with aesthetic ideas. REPORTS FROM PRACTICE London, P. (2003). Drawing closer to nature. Boston: Shambala Press. Boot, L. (1995). Personal conversation. A further delineation of theory and practice associated with a holistic approach In constructing a course for students in a specialized arts and technology high to art education. school, Lee Boot set as one of his goals the notion that students should know that adults take on intellectually challenging tasks and that doing so made them McKenna, S. (in press). Assignment: Make art, make friends. In P. London feel good. His research into brain theory supports this idea in that challenging (Ed.), A report from the study group for holistic art education. Baltimore: tasks produce a chemical reaction in the brain that yields a sense of well-being. Center for Art Education at the Maryland Institute College of Art. Article reports interview strategies used to initiate a new assignment to make Burton, J. (1980, September). Beginnings of artistic language. School Arts, an homage to a new friend. Different kinds of questions generate information pp. 6-12. for creating a portraitin sculpture. Under the heading of “Concepts and artistry,” Burton discusses what she calls the “world of materials” through which pre-representational children encounter Roukes, N. (1988). Design synectics. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. visual, relationship, and expressive concepts that form the basis of artistic lan- Roukes provides a cartoon as well as an explanation of the synectic process guage. With further explorations and experiments, children begin to develop a wherein two disparate ideas are brought together in a new whole. He also pro- sense of the “fit” between ideas and materials or what ideas materials can vides a model (a kind of pinball machine) for how many ways one can change accommodate. an idea. Whole sections in his book are devoted to studio problems illustrated by work from artists and students. Coates, M. (1988). A comparison of creative thinking skills used in teaching art at the high school level versus traditional teaching methods. Unpublished Simpson, J. (1998). Designing units for conceptual thinking. In J. Simpson, J. master’s thesis project, Towson State University. Delaney, K. L. Carroll, C. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, A comparative study with an experimental group and a control group, each at Creating Meaning through Art: Teacher as Choice Maker, pp. 289-322. different high schools in Art Studio 1 classes. The unit involved the study of Chapter contains suggestions for using concepts, themes, and social issues for gargoyles. Independent judges scored a pre-test drawing and a post-test organizing units that foster associations and connections among ideas, sub- sculpture for evidence of creative, divergent responses. Findings suggest that jects, and disciplines. Chapter describes several examples from different levels creative problem-solving techniques positively influence the work of the experi- of instruction. mental group. Szekely, G. (1988). Encouraging creativity in art lessons. New York: Teachers MODELS FOR PRACTICE College Press. Szekely is interested in the artist-teacher who serves as a catalyst for creating Carroll, K. L. (1985, December). Monuments in clay. School Arts, pp. 32-35. conditions that encourage students to use their own ideas for making art. He Article describes a unit on clay monuments that was structured to stimulate offers suggestions for helping children use their natural abilities; integrate their thinking, provide a wide range of ideas, require personal reflection while prac- sensory, emotional and intellectual experiences; value their own personal feel- ticing with the materials, bring forward the idea in a holding form (sketch, ings and ideas, and communicate them to others; and use art making as a way words, model), followed by the process of moving that idea into visual form. of exploring and understanding the world. Sections focus on introducing stu- Creative thinking and problem solving came about from the dialogue between dents to the art process, creating a classroom environment favorable to artistic the idea in its holding form and the manner in which media interacted with it to learning, planning the lesson, evaluating and recognizing student performance, give it final form. and becoming an artist-teacher.

Castro, J. C. (in press). Responding to existential questions: A holistic Szekely, G. (1991). From play to art. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Press. approach to teaching photography. In P. London (Ed.), A report from the study Beginning with the observation that children engage in almost any activity in group for holistic art education. Baltimore: Center for Art Education at the creative ways, Szekely considers how play figures into teaching art. He dis- Maryland Institute College of Art. cusses ways to create a classroom environment for art, materials, movement, Article discusses the use of existential questions as part of a holistic approach. performance, basic plays, thematic school play, and concludes with examples The intent is to cause students to pause and engage in self-referential thinking and teaching ideas. before rushing too quickly toward predictable solutions to a given problem.

Hamilton, C. (1998). Using artistic strategies. In J. Simpson, J. Delaney, K. L. Carroll, C. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, Creating Meaning through Art: Teacher as Choice Maker, pp. 207-257. Chapter introduces visual strategies for gathering ideas and planning, observing, and recording information and making connections, displaying information, and reflecting and assessing. Examples show clustering, webbing, mapping, charting, graphing, different kinds of diagrams, and informational sketches. Chapter includes strategies for visualizing change processes with examples of transformations, metamorphosis, metaphor, and analogy. Applications to different disciplines are discussed.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 125 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

Forming Elegant Problems

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who structure units around an elegant problem make it possible for learners at different levels of ability to THEORY engage with the problem while Different problems vary in the value they promoting choice making, originality, have. Some will provide great elaboration, and the creation of work opportunities of elaboration while that has personal meaning and value. others might yield lots of creative and original ideas and solutions. Nevertheless, an elegant problem must be worth doing and to do so, it must accommodate choices of a personal nature that make the art-making experience a meaningful and satisfying one.

Elegant problems, as defined by Kay (1998), have certain characteristics:

The first characteristic is that learners with any level of ability can engage with the problem. This means that the problem is flexible enough so that beginning and advanced learners in the same class, or even learners from different ages or grades, might all be able to engage with the problem.

The second characteristic is that a good problem will involve choice making. The problem will be sufficiently open ended to allow the learner to make choices that are personally meaningful.

The third characteristic is that a good problem will spark original thinking.

126 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION The fourth characteristic is that a good problem will offer an opportunity for elaboration—of the idea and/or with the form.

The final criterion for an elegant problem is that it is worth doing—that the journey has been worth the trip, that new insights or discoveries, skills or learning have resulted, that personal satisfaction and ownership result from the process.

Findings reported by other researchers suggest similar characteristics of art-making experiences that lead to meaningful work. These include flexible but focused constraints; personal, social, and artistic relevance; practice with creative and metaphoric concepts and practices; expectations of complexity, ambiguity, and depth of meaning; and expressive and reflective writing (James, 2000). Emery (1989) discovered an unanticipated dimension labeled “belief” that he identified as a driving force in the creative process of children. It appears to involve recognizing an unsolved problem, searching for intent, playful manipulation of forms and images, and arrival at an expressive solution.

PRACTICE contrasts (Hayes-Jacobs, 1989; Perkins, 1989). Themes commonly pursued in art such as mother and child, love, war, loss, Organizing Learning Around Big Ideas, Themes, and family all come with sufficient and divergent exemplars to and Metaphors stimulate creative and personal problem solving.

A unit of investigation can embrace large ideas that provide a Metaphors context for an elegant problem. Artists often work with big ideas that sustain their work over long periods. Big ideas are Metaphors are constructs with coherent structure that high- broad, important issues. As such, they can direct and focus light certain aspects and hide others, and are thus useful in sustained artistic work. They can also help students under- making sense of experience. The essence of metaphor is stand that art making can express ideas of importance to them understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of and others. Examples might include power, community, iden- another (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Examples might include tity, nature, and conflict (Gardner, 1989; Walker, 2001). gateways, monuments, vessels, containers, journey.

Themes

Big ideas can also be thought of as themes. Themes are broad constructs that accommodate a wide range of ideas; they are also engaging and interesting for considering similarities and

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 127 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

REFERENCES Emery, L. (1989). Believing in artistic making and thinking. Studies in Art Education, 30 (4), 237-248. Burton, J. (2000). The configuration of meaning: Learner-centered art educa- A cross-modal case study of 10 children, ages 10 to 12, to make observations tion revisited. Studies in Art Education, 41 (4), 330-345. about their thinking processes when engaged in art-making tasks. Findings Burton argues for a learner-centered approach to education that invites stu- suggest artistic making and thinking involved a search process that children dents to bring their own experiences into the arena of learning and to reflect on used to reconcile three main dimensions: social interaction, transformation, and explore possibilities that engage students’ thinking. Further, students and representation. An unanticipated dimension that this research labeled should be offered skills and insights in the arts where imagination can open up “belief” was identified as a driving force in the process. It involves recognizing new corners of reality, helping them construct continuity between their creative an unsolved problem, a search for intent, playful manipulation of forms and efforts and the culture in which they live. images, and arrival at an expressive solution.

Gardner, H. (1989). Zero-based arts education: An introduction to Arts Propel. James, P. (2000). Working toward meaning: The evolution of an assignment. Studies in Art Education, 30 (2), 7-83. Studies in Art Education, 41 (2), 146-163. Discusses developmental theory and the curricular design of Arts Propel with its A reflective examination of the evolution of an assignment over the course of three main areas of focus—perception, production, and reflection—and its three years. Designed for college-level academically underprepared students, a emphasis on student-directed problems; interaction; ongoing assessment; stu- photomontage assignment yielded increasingly richer work under instruction dents measured against themselves; content that encourages decision making, that incorporated flexible but focused constraints; personal, social, and artistic problem solving, and personal revision; and a developmental process for learn- relevance; practice with creative and metaphoric concepts and practices; ing in which all the pieces come together. Domain projects derive from one expectations of complexity, ambiguity, and depth of meaning; and expressive central visual concept or artistic problem that has multiple solutions, is acces- and reflective writing. sible to various skill levels, and challenges students to explore and develop ideas, revise, and reflect. Kay, S. I. (1989). Differences in figural problem-solving and problem-finding behavior among professional, semiprofessional, and non-artists. Hayes-Jacobs, H. (Ed.). (1989). Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and Sixty adults participated in this research study that involved videotaped and implementation. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum reflective discussions of a three-dimensional task as well as other assessment Development. instruments. Results were evaluated for expert versus novice differences. A selection of essays related to integrating curriculum so as to provide opportunities for more relevant, less fragmented, and more stimulating experiences for MODELS FOR PRACTICE students. Includes illustrations of interdisciplinary instruction and a model with a step-by-step approach for developing units of study. Carroll, K. (1985, December). Ideas in clay. School Arts, pp. 32-35. Describes and illustrates a problem in clay that generated original, elaborate, Kay, S. (1998). Shaping elegant problems for thinking. In J. Simpson, J. and personally meaningful work among elementary-education majors working Delaney, K. Carroll, C. Hamilton, S. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. Olson, Creating in clay for the first time. Meaning through Art: Teacher as Choice Maker, pp. 259-288. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Simpson, J. (1996). Constructivism and connection making in art education. Kay describes elegant problems with examples as well as supporting theory Art Education, 49 (1), 53-59. from the studies of creativity. Discusses a constructivist approach to designing conceptually based investigations. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Simpson, J. (1998). Designing units for conceptual thinking. In J. Simpson, J. Book explores the role of concepts and metaphors in creating meaning out of Delaney, K.L. Carroll, C. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, Creating lived experiences. Meaning through Art: Teacher as Choice Maker, pp. 289-322. Chapter contains suggestions for using concepts, themes, and social issues for Perkins, D. N. (1989). Selecting fertile themes for integrated learning. In H. organizing units that foster associations and connections among ideas, sub- Hayes-Jacobs (Ed.), Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and implementation jects, and disciplines. Several examples from different levels of instruction are (pp. 67-76). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum described. Development. Discusses themes as “lenses” worth looking through and offers examples of Witkin, R. W. (1974). The intelligence of feeling. London: Heinemann three broad themes: change, dependence and independence, and patterns. Educational Books. An examination of art-making processes in high schools including art and Rush, J. C. (1989). Coaching by conceptual focus: Problems, solutions, and drama. Identifies significant steps in the process such as putting one’s inspira- tutored images. Studies in Art Education, 31 (1), 46-57. tional idea into a holding form and using it as a reference for checking original A theoretical exposition on creativity, processes, and production. intent against options as the work unfolds. The holding form may be a quick sketch, a word or phrase, a three-dimensional model, or any other form to RESEARCH which student and teacher can refer.

Ellenbecker, T. K. (1997). Differences in student responses to drawing projects Walker, S. R. (2001). Teaching meaning in artmaking. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. varying in freedom of content choice. Unpublished dissertation, University of A methods book grounded in the practice of professional artists. Covers the Minnesota. role of big ideas in art making, making personal connections with art making, Study based on 28 university students completing three projects with different building a knowledge base for art making, strategies for problem solving, the levels of freedom of content choice. Findings suggest that efficacy, engage- role of setting boundaries for art making, models for art-making units, and a ment, and unconscious engagement rose as the freedom of content choice look at the practices of artists. increased. With that, there was increased likelihood of a gain in self-understanding.

128 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 129 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

Designing Problems Based on the Real World of Work

THEORY Both the business world and art educators have noted the way in which the visual arts are uniquely appropriate in producing future workers who are multiskilled, multidimensional, flexible, and intellectually supple. The arts foster awareness that problems can have multiple solutions. In addition, the arts develop abilities to perceive relationships, attend to nuances, shift aims, make decisions in the absence of rule, use imagination as a source of content, operate within the constraints of a medium, and frame the world from an aesthetic perspective (Eisner, 1997).

Design instruction has had a presence in art education since the late BETTER PRACTICE 1800s. While design instruction has changed in scope and purpose, Teachers who draw problems from 21st-century designers face issues that involve the flow of the real world of work in the information, management of finite resources, and creation of visual arts develop a wide range flexible, lasting design (Vande Zande, 2002). The U. S. Department of valuable skills in their students of Labor (1991) identified five competencies and a three-part while exposing their students to foundation critical to the workplace of the 21st century. The report future career options. described effective workers as those who can productively use:

Resources–allocating time, money, materials, space, and staff.

Interpersonal Skills–working on teams, teaching others, serving customers, leading, negotiating, and working well with people from culturally diverse backgrounds.

Information–acquiring and evaluating data, organizing and maintaining files, interpreting and communicating, and using computers to process information.

Systems–understanding social, organizational, and technological systems, monitoring and correcting performance, and designing or improving systems.

Technology–selecting equipment and tools, applying technology to specific tasks, and maintaining and troubleshooting technologies.

Basic Skills–reading, writing, arithmetic and mathematics, speaking, and listening.

Thinking Skills–thinking creatively, making decisions, solving problems, seeing things in the mind’s eye, knowing how to learn, and reasoning.

Personal Qualities–individual responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self- management, and integrity.

130 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE Recommended Strategies

Problem-based learning integrates creative thinking to arrive at Incorporate design-based problems as a regular part of the K- solutions. It is adaptable to a collaborative or team effort. (For 12 curriculum. more on characteristics of problem-based learning, see the entry under that title in Outcome IV.) Involve students in identifying unsolved problems in their school or community that might be resolved through design. Authentic problems result in real products to be realized in a public or private venue. One example reported by a high Have students develop a list of the “consumer goods” that school teacher was a student-designed billboard project where interest them and why; engage them in a critique of existing selected entries were produced and mounted in the city. versions, and generate ideas for improving the product.

Simulations are modeled after real-world problems and may Have students identify areas of investigation that might bene- include role-playing. For example, a middle school teacher set fit from the visual display of complex information such as up a fictional company as a way of launching a design-based encountered in science, history, and other disciplines. problem. He developed an application process for “new hires” that required a sample of their creative thinking as well as some Fashion problems based on the real world of work; simulate reflective questions followed by an interview process that stu- real problems and/or get students involved with authentic dents ultimately took over, playing the roles of company problems in their community. owner, secretary, and videographer. New hires signed contracts with expectations and agreements and accepted an assignment Allow students to assume different roles in teamwork as suits to develop a new prototype for production. Various goods their interests and abilities. produced over the years included shoes, watches, skateboards, surfboards, and other items of special interest to eighth Introduce visual strategies as tools for creative thinking and graders. Prototypes were generally made of clay. Possible problem solving. extensions of this simulation involved packaging design and advertising materials (Katz, 2002). Introduce students to outstanding designers from different fields.

Design-based problems offer a wide range of possibilities for Bring designers and other art professionals into the classroom. rethinking and redesigning objects that fascinate students, reconceptualizing environments, proposing new projects, and Organize design-based exhibitions to make this portion of the inventing new solutions. For example, a show of design-based curriculum visible to a broader public. work from K-12 students featured more than 30 different kinds of objects including lamps, clocks, coins, seals, stamps, books, containers, banners, chairs, tables, wind chimes, tools, birdhouses, weather vanes, quilts, flying machines, vehicles for the future, pinhole cameras, watches, skateboards, sneakers, and toys (Howard County Schools, 2000).

The visual display of complex information and evidence represents another area of design work applicable to all fields of endeavor. Visual thinking strategies can be employed in gathering ideas and planning, observing and recording information and making connections, displaying information, and reflecting and assessing. Hamilton (1998) provides classroom examples using clustering, webbing, mapping, charting, graphing, different kinds of diagrams, and informational sketches. Strategies for visualizing change processes are also included, with examples of transformations, metamorphosis, metaphor, and analogy. All can apply to problem solving, redesign of information systems, and the visual display of complex phenomena.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 131 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

REFERENCES Ulbricht, J. (2002). Learning about community art behaviors. Art Education, 55 Eisner, E. (1997). Educating for tomorrow’s jobs and life skills. Arts Education (5), 33-38. for Life. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Trust Education Institute for the Arts, Article reports on a college-level experience modeled after Wigginton’s “Foxfire pp. 4-5. method” for exploring the community. Ulbricht organized investigations of four Article contains excerpts from Eisner’s address for the conference “Educating categories of the arts landscape: expressive artists, commercial artists, sup- for the Workplace through the Arts” sponsored by the Getty in cooperation with port people, and community-based artists. An interview with a representative Business Week. It features a brief discussion of eight key competencies of cog- of each category was modeled with a guest in class, and then students identi- nitive growth that are developed through an education in the arts. fied others in the community to interview. Students discovered a great deal about how the arts form an integral part of culture, the number of types of jobs, SCANS (The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills). (1991). and interesting details about the jobs. What work requires of schools: A SCANS report for America 2000. U.S. Department of Labor. MODELS FOR PRACTICE This report identifies significant changes in the workplace of the 21st century, such as strategies, production, hiring and human resources, job ladders, and Hamilton, C. (1998). Using artistic strategies. In J. Simpson, J. Delaney, K. L. training. The report discusses implications for education including desired Carroll, C. Hamilton, S. I. Kay, M. Kerlavage, & J. L. Olson, Creating Meaning competencies and foundational skills. through Art: Teacher as Choice Maker, pp. 207-257. Chapter 6 provides an inventory of visual strategies. Examples illustrate their Tufte, E. (1990). Envisioning information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. application to a wide variety of questions and data. Applications to different disciplines are discussed. Tufte, E. (1997). Visual explanations. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. Howard County Art Teachers and Students. (2000). Designing artful problems Tufte, E. (2001). The visual display of quantitative information, 2nd ed. with real world applications. Exhibition at the Howard County Center for the Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. Arts, Maryland. These sources illustrate how complex information can be displayed visually to Art supervisor Barry Shauck initiated an investigation of real-world problems by reveal multiple dimensions. For example, data about an event might be visually providing in-service training with designers and art educators focused on presented to reveal movement through time and space showing magnitude. design problems early in the fall of 1999. The exhibition, mounted the following The author, who is a designer and sculptor, argues that visual display and pres- spring, included design solutions created by K-12 students. entation of multidimensional evidence are needed in order to understand complex phenomena in any field of study. Katz, A. (2002, May). The ma-woo shoe company: An elegant problem to be posed to, and solved by, an eighth grade art class. Presentation at Maryland RESEARCH Institute College of Art. The problem is a simulation of the real world of work that incorporates applying Vande Zande, R. S. (2002). The growth of design instruction in American for a job, creating a work sample to demonstrate creative thinking, an interview schools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of and hiring process, making a prototype, and more. The problem has been Wisconsin–Milwaukee. DAI, 63, no. 03A, p. 840. adapted to various objects of interest among eighth graders including shoes, An examination of the thinking processes, purposes, and goals of design histori- watches, and skateboards. ans and practitioners and art education design practices and philosophies. Findings direct attention to the issues contemporary designers face and the relevance of these concepts today.

REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Coutts, G., & Rusling, L. (2002). Design, environment and community arts. Art Education, 55 (6), 41-47. Reports on a project in Scotland where a university instructor and college students worked with 20 young people and a number of agencies to identify a local environmental problem in the Glasgow area. Article recounts how workshops and design teams generated ideas for a model play area. Even though the report only follows the project through the proposal stage (funding is still being sought), it models how artists, designers, and architects can interact with schools and community groups in purposeful ways.

132 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 133 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

Facilitating Dialogue and Discourse About Student Work

THEORY Dialogues about student work may be one-on-one with a teacher, small group conversations, or large group dialogues. Frequent critical dialogues with students about their artwork, in progress or completed, characterizes programs where secondary students produce higher quality work (Dorn, 1983). Yet negative connotations are often ascribed to the term “critique.” Many art students have painful memories BETTER PRACTICE of critiques, perhaps due to a Teachers who focus dialogue and discourse on lack of clarity in the purpose of student work and the meanings that can be the critique and/or the lack of found in it can make such dialogues processes that were clearly constructive and productive. constructive and positive. Defensive or aggressive behaviors, such as excessive verbal justifications of work, negative remarks, and premature closure of conversations, can create problems. If such dialogues are to be productive, clarification of purpose and selection of appropriate processes for guiding and stimulating participation focused on the work are important steps.

To best serve the student-artist, teachers should first consider the purpose of a critique or critical dialogue. Often the assumed purpose of a critique is judgment. Judging work in a public context can prove problematic, especially for student artists. For example, a conversation assumed to be about judging the work can come to a complete standstill with comments such as “I like it the way it is.” If the critique is assumed to be about identifying the artist’s intent, the conversation may stall around comments such as “This is what I meant.” If either judgment or intent is the issue, the critique may not necessarily be the best solution. (See the entry on assessment in the first section on the Overview of Better Practice and the entry on reflection in the section on Outcome I.)

However, if the goal is to consider what meanings might be found in

134 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION the work, an “object-based” critique or a dialogue may well suit the purpose. Here the work becomes the basis for a dialogue in which opinion and intent are irrelevant. Instead, the focus falls on meanings that might be associated with the choices the artist has made (Matzko, 2002). With the focus clearly on the work, both artist and viewers can begin to think about the effect of artistic decisions on meaning, including investment, development, originality, elaboration, and choices of materials and form, as well as deliberate and intuitive decisions.

Some teachers also want to create a learning environment that cultivates a sense of community and mutual support. Critical dialogues in which students help each other discover meaning in their work can support personal and artistic growth as well as the development of interaction, empathy, and deeper understanding among a peer group. Additionally, students can gain respect for the processes and value of making and responding to art.

PRACTICE If the purpose is to consider how students are going about solving a particular problem, the dialogue can begin with a Facilitating dialogues about artworks requires both clarifications restatement of the problem and its parameters as set by the of purpose and guidelines for participation. For example, in a teacher or the student. All should remain open to the possi- holistic approach to making art, it is assumed that all work will bility that some students will solve problems in totally unique be taken seriously with high regard. Neither judgment nor and unpredicted ways. Further, some may also do something intent is an issue. The sharing of work might begin with the interesting that does not fit the criteria but can be recognized artist in control of the conversation, able to choose between for the value inherent in it. telling the story of the work and hearing first what responses it generates. Different forms of response might be used including Getting students to talk in front of the class may take some a dialogue modeled by the teacher with one or more students, practice. Teachers can model the kind of responses they want peer sharing, small group discussions, or large group conversa- to develop. Developing relevant vocabulary is essential tions. Responses might range from verbal responses to creative (Barrett, 1997). Strategies that take away the pressure of writing and oral recitation. Sometimes the work may inspire speaking cold before one’s peers can help. Allowing students silence or even applause (London, 2000). to try out ideas first with another student will give them more confidence in airing their ideas before the whole class. For Often, the work can be more fully considered if time is taken example, pairs of students can look for work that meets certain to describe it. Discussions can identify relationships among criteria and together figure out how to talk about it. Small choices of materials, subject matter, and visual qualities. groups can list different ways the problem was solved or iden- Meanings associated with such choices can then be considered. tify different thematic variations. Students can be invited to The work can even be thought of in terms of its value, that is, work with a peer to select and respond to a work that has cap- the ideas and feelings engendered or aroused, the qualitative tured their attention. All students might be required to make experience created by the work, the connections evoked a number of verbal contributions. This strategy, combined among viewers, and the manner in which new thinking about with calling upon students, with an option of taking a pass, issues, concerns, experience is stimulated. can reinforce the notions that all have something valuable to say and that a productive dialogue is the responsibility of the In an in-process critique, which seeks to provide feedback and entire group (Matzko, 2002). suggestions that will positively affect the manner in which the work is completed, students can “read” works back to their Barrett (1997) reports that it is possible to engage students in peers. A PQP process sometimes helps: some praise, a ques- serious and thoughtful discussion. He begins with the obser- tion, and an idea or suggestion for polishing the work. vation that any group of students who have not had some

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 135 OUTCOME III: FACILITATING ENGAGEMENT WITH THE ART-MAKING PROCESS

experience in talking about art must learn the basic principles Sometimes allow students to choose what artworks of art. Among his introductory suggestions (pp. 4-5) are the to discuss. following strategies: Don’t feel obliged to discuss the work of every student Place primary responsibility for talking during the cri- every time. tique on the viewers of the artwork. Extend students’ comments. Be a facilitator of thoughtful discussions, preventing random, unconnected, and ill-conceived comments. Try to get everyone involved.

Carefully formulate questions, and, when necessary, redi- See that no one dominates the discussion. rect answers. Pursue answers with follow-up questions. Place more emphasis on interpretation than evaluation. Keep the artist’s input to a minimum. Include description as part of the process, but consider starting with an interpretive question and then asking for Have speakers comment to the class, not the artist. description that supports it. Consideration should be given to discussion of difficult work Following the presentation and reflective discussion of a whole in which controversial or violent imagery is used. Truly collection of sample critiques transcribed from real exchanges authentic work is likely to include references to life experiences with students at a variety of levels and in different settings, and social conditions that may reflect loss, injury, vulnerabili- Barrett concludes by offering the following suggestions (pp. ty, abuse, violence, and tragedy. Talking about such works, on 94-95), which appear here in an abbreviated form: a one-on-one basis or within the context of a group, requires thoughtful strategies and guidelines (Diket & Mucha, 2002). If this way of teaching is new to you, start from your strengths. Start with a strong class and the students’ best art project.

Concentrate on being a facilitator rather than a critic.

Frequent critical dialogues with students about their artwork, in progress or completed, characterizes programs where secondary students produce higher quality work.

136 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION RESEARCH REPORTS FROM PRACTICE

Baker, W. D. (2001). Artists in the making: An ethnographic investigation of Barrett, T. (1997. Talking about student art. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. discourse and literate practices as disciplinary processes in a high school Barrett reports strategies he personally used to teach different examples of les- Advanced Placement Studio Art classroom. sons, discussing how the lessons proceeded and critical reflections on when A descriptive and analytical participant-observer study designed to examine the they went in productive directions and when they did not. Appendix includes role of discourse as a socially constructed process within a community of AP sample worksheets for interpreting art and for engaging an artist and a viewer students. Findings suggest that the collaborative construction of a metadis- in a conversation in which artistic intent can be compared with interpretation. course, among students and with other teachers, can make visible what counts as situated disciplinary knowledge. London, P. (2000). Approach and methods modeled in workshop entitled “Drawing Closer to Nature.” Maryland Institute College of Art. Barrett, T. (1988). A comparison of the goals of studio professors conducting London demonstrated a variety of methods to cause viewers to be mindful and critiques and art education goals for teaching criticism. Studies in Art creative in responding to artwork including creative writing, poetry, phrase com- Education 30 (1), 22-27. pletion, music, and movement. Study involved 19 professors of studio art who were interviewed by art education majors using a set of open-ended questions about critiques, how often and how Matzko, C. (2002). Object-based criticism. A presentation for the College they conducted them, their goals, and differences between good and bad cri- Teaching of Art course at the Maryland Institute College of Art. tiques. Findings suggest that studio professors use critiques for the improve- As a preface to discussing object-based criticism, Matzko begins with a consid- ment of the art making of their students. This contrasts with notions about criti- eration of the purpose of an educational program in the visual arts and different cism, as presented in art education, as a means to more informed talk about art. assumptions about how meanings are culturally represented. She suggests that artists can be thought of as “cultural producers.” Further, “cultural mean- Dorn, C. (1983). Unpublished study. ings” are not fixed but negotiated in a public sphere. In what she calls a “con- Site visits to high school programs that had track records of high scores on structivist” mode, the goal of a critical dialogue is to establish a sense of the Advanced Placement exams were used to identify contributing factors. meanings that can be derived from choices made by the artists. Frequent use of critical dialogues was among the most common. Diket, R. M., & Mucha, L. G. (2002). Talking about violent images. Art Dozois, P. S. M. (2001). Construction through critique: The dialogic form of Education, 55 (2), 11-17. design studio teaching and learning. Unpublished dissertation, University of The authors encourage teachers to attend closely to the images students make, Manitoba (Canada). MAI, 40, no. 03, p. 522/. consider them thoughtfully, and make time to talk about understanding a Literature review that suggests the critique is fundamentally a dialogic act that volatile world. They offer a structure for talking about art that considers both involves but is not limited to interaction between a novice and a domain expert. the artist’s and viewer’s ideas. This flexible model accommodates following As a shared and constructive act, it can guide “meaning-making” or intention- thought patterns, decoding symbols, and interacting with teenagers about vio- ality in student’s work. lent images that keep the frame of reference centered on the images. Also included are stories about personal encounters and reflections that illustrate Soep, E. M. (2000). To make things with words: Critique and the art of pro- different scenarios one might confront. duction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University. Study asserts that “passing judgment” can operate as mutual deliberation through the practice of critique. Ethnographic techniques and discourse analysis were usedserved to study the use of critique in two non-school centers for youth. Its distinguishing characteristics, contributions and constraints, supportive contexts, and linguistic qualities were examined and evaluated in terms of learning theory.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 137 138 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION OUTCOME IV

Facilitating Critical and Aesthetic Inquiry

Engaging Students with Art Objects

Orchestrating Conversations about Art

Employing Storytelling and Puzzle Problems

Using Interpretive Strategies to Find Meaning

Promoting Critical Thinking through Problem-Based Inquiry

Facilitating Student-Curated Exhibitions

Using Models for Writing about Art

Making Art Inspired by the Study of Art

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 139 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

Engaging Students With Art Objects

THEORY Teachers engage learners with objects for different reasons (Lim, 2000; Elliott, 1999; Murray, 2001). Teachers can better shape engagement if they are aware, in the first place, of their implicit and explicit purposes and goals for BETTER PRACTICE doing so (Elliott, 1999). Findings in cognitive psychology also Teachers who employ active strategies suggest that choosing images in terms of developmental to engage learners with objects interests and skills is important (Yenawine, 2003). Organizing facilitate sensory involvement and works by broad themes can also be useful in focusing personal response, preparing for the engagement and inquiry (Erickson, 2001). Works that have development of skills and concepts. ambiguity require higher levels of critical thinking (Leshnoff, 1995).

Active engagement strategies draw upon a variety of modes of thought and response. They often call upon intuitive, imaginative, emotional, and/or physical responses to focus or heighten engagement. Appropriately selected and employed, such strategies can create pathways through which students can enter works of art. Once engaged, students can be moved to other levels of discourse and inquiry. Strategies encompass visual analysis, sound and movement explorations, creative dramatics, creative writing, and games.

PRACTICE Suggestions for Using Visual Analysis Strategies

Engagement with art objects involves matching goals with Use “tools” to isolate or examine parts (telescopes, appropriate strategies and selected artwork. Goals may include viewfinders, magnifying lenses). development of perceptual awareness, sensory awareness, verbal language, cognitive concepts, art concepts, ideas, and self- Use diagramming or tracing to identify underlying struc- concept. The following strategies are non-verbal in nature. tures (tracing paper on reproductions, tracing through (For engaging learners in talk about art, see the next entry.) projected images).

Visual Analysis Create studies to find patterns (light-dark contrasts, shapes, lines, and other formal qualities). Visual strategies have proven useful in analyzing and responding to art. They can identify underlying structures in an Sort and categorize images to find similarities and differ- image, uncover a pattern made by the forms in an image, and ences based on different criteria (subject matter, style, make clear the use of contrast, color, and/or movement. Using theme, formal qualities). visual strategies to study images figured in the curriculum at the Bauhaus by Itten (1963/1975) and has been endorsed in Draw the work or make visual notations as a warm-up for art education practice by contemporary authors (Hurwitz & talking or writing about art. Madeja, 1977; Wilson, et al., 1987).

140 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Describe the work to another well enough to develop a which to think about art, this approach provides new knowl- mental image or a drawn one. edge, and opportunities to sort, classify, and defend decisions.

Sound and Movement Strategies Suggestions for Using Categories, Verbal Cues, and Search Strategies Herman and Hollingsworth (1992) identify four major benefits of kinesthetic learning, or learning that involves sensing or feeling Introduce an expanded range of possible perceptual cate- the motion: Kinesthetic learning strengthens memory, enriches gories and describe them thoroughly. The categories conceptualization and deepens understanding, promotes creativi- might be drawn from styles of art such as Feldman’s ty, and expands the potential for aesthetic communication. (1987) functions of art (Personal, Social, and Physical) or his four styles of art (Objective Accuracy, Formal Order, Using language and vocabulary developed for dance by Rudolf Emotionalism, and Fantasy). Categories might be drawn Laban, Herman and Hollingworth provide a model for explor- from theories of art such as Mimesis, Expressionism, and ing time, space, force, flow, and effort — in sound, movement, Formalism (Hurwitz & Day, 2001). Broad themes can and art. The concepts correspond to visual and spatial con- also be used to select works for study (Erickson, 2001). cepts found in the visual arts (for example, see Townley, 1979, or Roukes, 1988) and provide a movement and sound vocab- Category specifications or cues should be identified. ulary for responding to works of art. Kinesthetic strategies help They might be enumerated by the teacher or deduced by students experience their own multisensory responsiveness to students. Students can use search strategies to isolate per- the visual arts that involves the whole body and mind. tinent cues.

Suggestions for Using Sound and Movement Students can then classify artworks according to the cate- Strategies gories, matching cues with category specifications.

Have young children practice acting out various visual Explaining the reasoning behind classifications allows stu- concepts; using contrasting opposites can help students dents to identify cues that figured in their decisions. understand concepts such as spiral and concentric, straight and curved, rough and smooth, quick and slow, Outside references might be consulted to determine the light and heavy. adequacy of student decisions. Such sources might include art historical writings, essays on aesthetics, and examples of Introduce students to movement and sound concepts, art criticism. exploring time, space, force, flow, and effort. Strategies from Creative Dramatics Develop a sound vocabulary using vocal improvisation and with simple instruments that corresponds to visual Finding drama in artworks allows students to physicalize char- concepts by exploring possibilities. acters, actions, interactions, and positions, while imagining or inventing dialogue or imagery, and events leading up to or Develop a kinesthetic vocabulary exploring movement coming next. with hands, heads, and whole bodies that corresponds to visual concepts. Suggestions for Using Creative Dramatics

Practice having the class respond to works of art using Recast figures with classmates, re-enacting or recreating sound, movement, and combinations of the two; students scenes. can practice with partners and take turns performing for the class. Invent dialogue for characters (who is the character, what would the character say or think). Conduct a performance with students providing sound patterns that correspond to sections of a visual image. Role-playing, creating action and dialogue, before and after, to develop an awareness of drama portrayed visually. Categories, Verbal Cues, and Search Strategies Strategies from Creative Writing Perceptive-evaluative sequences involve the use of perceptual categories, cues, and search strategies. As students are likely to Moving among symbol systems, alternating between words have only a few, broad categories and a meager array of cues with and images, allows one mode of thought and expression to

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 141 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

inform and/or respond to the other. Because letter writing should be noted that Katter (1988) and Susi (1988) have been encourages reflection and introspection, it expresses personal careful not to claim that educational games are a better way of observations in an informal voice. Poetry forms encourage teaching than conventional teaching procedures. word choice, and attention to sound, structure, and sequence, thus serving to bring forth intuitive and emotive responses. Suggestions for Using Game Strategies

Suggestions for Using Creative Writing Games and simulations should have art content that is relevant to what students are expected to learn about Write a letter, describing or telling another about art or artistic skills, aesthetic values, aesthetic issues, historical sharing the experience of a work with another. facts, and critical inquiry.

Write a letter to the artist or imagine oneself as the artist Game structures should be simple with explicit rules. who is writing a letter about the work. Games may be for individuals or groups of players, but they should keep their instructional character so that all Write poetry in response to imagery in order to spark students learn from them, not just the winners. word association, sounds, sensory responses, and metaphor. Simulations should derive from a realistic model to encourage a high degree of involvement among participants. Game Strategies They should include abundant information about a specific phenomenon and encourage the application of this The varied nature of art games and simulations is broad knowledge to the situation presented by the simulation. enough to support different claims about their benefits. Among the suggested benefits are (1) improved student inter- Debriefing is an essential step in the learning process. est, (2) the potential for increasing student retention of subject Through skillful questioning, teachers can help students matter because of practice and application of knowledge, (3) clarify and make sense of issues and problems encoun- reinforcement of prior learning, (4) visual problem-solving tered in the play. skills, and (5) increased visual discrimination. However, it

REFERENCES tude to develop a carefully constructed deductive strategy for teaching students to make well- founded decisions about art. Recommends that teachers provide Feldman, E. B. (1987). Varieties of visual experience, 3rd ed. New York: students with an increased number of perceptual categories with which to look Abrams. at art; they would make students aware of specifications for each category; and Chapter 1 discusses various functions and styles of art with examples that can the act of making decisions would then sharpen perceptual skills. be used to establish categories for searching and comparing. Hurwitz, A., & Day, M. (2001). Children and their art, 7th ed. Fort Worth, TX: Stewart, M. G. (1997).Thinking through aesthetics, Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Harcourt College Publishers. Comprehensive guide including an introduction to philosophy, aesthetics, and A comprehensive guide to teaching art to elementary children including chap- children, aesthetic theories, and philosophical questions. Discusses the cre- ters with strategies on teaching art criticism, art history, and aesthetics. ation of a climate for philosophical inquiry, curriculum planning, activities, age Chapter 14 specifically discusses aesthetics, theories of art, three aesthetic appropriateness, lesson planning, and outcomes. stances, and ways of teaching aesthetics. Wilson, B., Hurwitz, A., & Wilson, M. (1987). Teaching drawing from art. Itten, J. (1963/1975). Design and form: The basic course at the Bauhaus Worcester, MA: Davis Press. and later, Revised ed. New York: Van Nostrand. A comprehensive guide to using art as a source for teaching drawing K-12. A visual record of the basic course as developed by Itten, illustrated with exam- Chapters 4, 5, and 6 feature a number of exercises for engaging students with ples of student art and photographs. Components of the curriculum are works of art in experimental and imaginative ways. explained. Yenawine, P. (2003). Jump starting visual literacy: Thoughts on image selec- Leshnoff, S. (1995). Art, ambiguity, and cultural thinking. Art Education, 48 tion. Art Education, 56 (1), 6-12. (5), 51-56. Building on the research of cognitive psychologist Abigail Housen, Yenawine rec- Article models the use of two artworks for critical examination, one a historical ommends a thoughtful process for selecting images for novice viewers. He example, the other a contemporary one. Suggests artworks that present uncer- refers to three stages of aesthetic development: Accountive Viewers, tainty offer material for generating good thinking habits. Constructive Viewers, and Classifying Viewers. Among considerations for selection, he includes accessibility, captivation, expressive content, narrative, diver- Mittler, G. A. (1983). Clarifying the decision-making process in art. Studies in sity, realism, media, subjects, sequences, series, and themes. He follows with Art Education, 25 (1), 14-22. “things to avoid” as well as specific considerations for younger viewers and Mittler cites Brunner’s work in perception and Sherif and Sherif’s work on atti- viewers with some experience.

142 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION RESEARCH Sound and Movement Strategies

Lim, B. Y. (2000). Aesthetic education for young children in three early child- Herman, G. N., & Hollingsworth, P. (1992). Kinetic Kaleidoscope: Exploring hood settings: Bank Street, Reggio Emilia, and Waldorf. Unpublished doctoral movement and energy in the visual arts. Tucson, AZ: Zepheyr Press. dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College. A practical guide for exploring art through movement, sound, and action. Non-participatory observation and data analysis were used to identify educa- Models activities and discussions. Since Zephyr Press is a direct- mail publish- tors’ perceptions of aesthetic education and ways to implement it in the class- er, copies can be obtained by calling 602-322-5090. room. Findings suggest that perceptions were deeply rooted in philosophic views of the child while loosely connected to aesthetic theories. An emerging Townley, M. (1979). Another look. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. aesthetic paradigm for early childhood education covers a large area, including A curriculum designed for early childhood exploring visual concepts and themes art, music, movement, story, poem, and play. in art. Teachers’ Editions contain scripted lessons that incorporate sorting and categorizing, word play, acting out, and other strategies. (As the materials are Elliott, S. R. (1999). Words about pictures: An analysis of dialogue content currently out of print, contact the Center for Art Education at the Maryland and process in high school art-viewing sessions. Unpublished doctoral disser- Institute for source information.) tation, Concordia University (Canada). An analysis of practice in five sites suggesting that the nature and outcomes of Game Strategies art viewing sessions vary widely due to differing purposes and goals of the teacher. The role played by artwork(s) also varied from superficial inclusion to Alger, S. H. (1995). Games for teaching art. Portland, ME: J. Weston Walsh. centering classroom dialogue. Study suggests the need for teachers to be more Motivational games developed and piloted in the elementary classroom; includes aware of implicit and explicit reasons for engaging students with artworks. games for art history, art criticism, and aesthetics, as well as for making art.

Murray, T. (2001). Using education art criticism to enhance self-concept in Cardinale, R. L., & Anderson, F. E. (1979). Art games and learning problems – or students with emotional and behavioral problems. Unpublished doctoral dis- what does a tall, courageous, prickly ear look like? Art Education, 32 (1), 17-19. sertation, the Florida State University. These authors suggest that art games can help remediate a range of visual per- This quasi-experimental research study including quantitative and qualitative ception problems special education students may have. However, they point data suggests that a given model may have been effective in enhancing or sta- out that all students need to learn these skills, asserting that art games can be bilizing the self-concept of students with emotional disabilities. valuable tools for all students. The authors describe eExamples of games are described. Tsamasiros, K. (1998). Using interactive multimedia software to improve cognition of complex imagery in adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Katter, E. (1988). An approach to art games: Playing and planning. Art Columbia University Teachers College. Education, 41 (3), 46-54. A special software, Active Modern Art History, was designed as a presentation Katter presents a rationale for art games, examples of games, guidelines, and a device for complex images. The software used morphing to study the corre- checklist for planning games. spondence between photographs of subject matter with contemporary painting. In field testing, the software appears to have helped students associate con- Lederman, L. C. (1984). Debriefing: A critical reexamination of the post-experi- temporary imagery with the world they know. ence analytic process with implications for its effective use. Simulations and Games, 15 (4), 415-432. MODELS FOR PRACTICE Effective ways of conductionng the debriefing sessions that follow games or simulations are discussed. General Sources Susi, F. D. (1988). Developing academic games and simulations for art educa- Erickson, M. (2001). Images of me: Why broad themes? Why focus on tion. Art Education, 41 (1), 18-24. inquiry? Why use the internet? Art Education, 54 (1), 33-40. A rationale based on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Education Objectives: Cognitive Domain is followed by guidelines for developing academic games and an illus- In addition to identifying a number of iInternet sources, Erickson uses one tration of an academic game plus suggestions for constructing academic simu- example to illustrate how a theme in art can be used for both inquiring about lations. The importance of debriefing following the game or simulation is works of art and for transfer of knowledge to making art. Models for inquiry explained. questions are also provided. Stewart, M. G. (1997). Thinking through aesthetics. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Hurwitz, A., & Madeja, S. S. (1977). The joyous vision: A source book for ele- Chapter 5 offers practical inquiry-based activities including great debates, role- mentary art appreciation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. playing, questions in the air, object ranking, token response, stories, and other Chapter 2 presents a section on visual games and another on “role playing writing. All are presented with practical suggestions for implementation. through improvisation.” Several examples of each are given.

Roukes, N. (1988). Design synectics: Stimulating creativity in design. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Chapters one1 and two2 contain a contemporary vocabulary for visual concepts in design, nature, space, structure, and form.

Stewart, M.G. (1997). Thinking through aesthetics. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Chapter 5 presents a range of activities for philosophical inquiry including great debates, role-playing, journaling, object ranking, conducting interviews, using a token response game, and creative writing.

Also see Wilson, Hurwitz, and Wilson (1987) mentioned under references.

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Orchestrating Conversations About Art

THEORY Discussions of art can be characterized as interactive and inductive due to the manner in which response is constructed. They can also be thought of as empathetic when there is an effort to connect what is observed with the viewer’s own world of experience (Anderson, 1986). Understanding art transforms both the viewer and the subject through the involvement of cognitive, physical, and affective domains (Siskar, 2000; Salander, 2001).

Carefully framed teacher questioning can increase student thinking and verbalization about observations, concepts, and generalizations. When students are encouraged to sensitively observe individual objects—such as artworks—and their BETTER PRACTICE environment and to organize the mass of their Teachers who use interactive, inductive, observations into categories (thus identifying concepts), empathetic discussions of artwork help they can (1) select from the organized, broader base of students make connections between what information that which will be useful in solving-problems is observed in the art and the students’ and (2) synthesize the concepts into a product or big idea world of experience. (generalization).

Criteria for categories of questions include clear definitions appropriate to the subject matter (making art or perceiving art) and thoughtful examination to determine that they will in fact fulfill the intent of the instruction. Three categories of questions are particularly pertinent for art education.

Information questions facilitate discrimination by directing students to visually and tactilely examine properties they find in artworks and other objects in their environment and to describe what they have observed. Students may be asked to describe that which they are observing at the moment or something that they recall. An example of an informational question is: How would you describe the edges of the shapes in this painting?

Leading questions enable concept development by asking students to sort what they have observed (that is, what they learned from

144 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION the informational questions) into categories. Students are asked to relate, cite similarities, classify, sort, and reorder. An example of a leading question might be: Among the lines that you have found in the drawing, which are the most delicate and which are the boldest?

Synthesizing questions encourage students to form generalizations by having them recall and apply previously learned concepts. Students would be asked to verbally explain, state conclusions, and critique. Generalizations would be applied either to the product students will make (or are in the process of making) or to artworks they are examining. An example of a synthesizing question could be: How might what you have learned about joining pieces of clay together be used in this piece of sculpture?

These categories of questions are hierarchical. What is learned from informational questions forms the basis for concepts that result from leading questions. Generalizations that are generated by synthesizing questions are dependent on what has been gained from previously learned concepts.

Engaging students in forming their own questions involves students in conscious and deliberate ways of thinking. Schwartz and Millar (1992) recommend a “Management of Information Model” with three stages:

Gathering information and data or understanding including factual questions such as who, when, where, what, and how, and procedural questions such as what and how.

Organizing and clarifying information or understanding using objective questions such as why, what, and how, and assumptive questions such as would, and why.

Extending or creating information or understanding with hypothetical and speculative questions such as what next, what if, and I wonder if.

Engaging students in a dialogue develops listening skills as well as empathetic social interaction among viewers (Jeffers, 2003).

Encouraging students to share the stories they can tell about artwork viewed together helps reinforce the idea that people can see things differently and find different meanings in artworks.

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RESEARCH In the authors’ original conceptions, such formal discussions were concluded at this point without considering more about Studies by Koroscik (1982) and Marschalek (1983) report that the context out of which the work came and what additional viewers remember more about specific works when they have insights might be gathered through research. Hurwitz (2001) longer periods of time to examine them. Koroscik and Blinn recommends that the conversation be continued in order to (1983) found that creating an appropriate title for an artwork get to another level of evidence, ideas, concepts, and under- increased the amount of information about the work that was standing. Prater (2003) has suggested that modifying the for- processed and remembered. Training to focus on the idea, mal process by inclusion of contextual information and theo- organization of the art elements, and sensory qualities of art- ries of art generates more thoughtful insights and connections. works increase the number of descriptive comments that viewers will make about artworks (Hysell, 1973). In short, view- Yenawine (1996), modeling Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) ing time, training, and verbalization all seem to positively in a museum, begins conversations with a question: “What do influence experiences with works of art. Further, evidence you see?” In a similar way, he uses a discovery method to make points to a developmental pattern in which older students are connections between students’ lived knowledge and art. He capable of more efficient and perceptive looking (Marschalek, acknowledges that art is still a new experience for most stu- 1983, 1986a, 1986b). dents and that there is plenty of room in art for interpretation. While some information can’t be learned from the object, he PRACTICE waits until he is asked to provide it.

Recommended Strategies In his practice of refining questioning techniques, he starts with a leading question such as “What is the story of this pic- Structured or directed discussions of artwork often employ a ture?” or “What might this be about?” By repeating answers, sequence of steps that promote a certain degree of objectivity he rephrases student responses to help identify key points. He and responsiveness prior to drawing conclusions. probes further by asking: What do you see that makes you say that? or “What do you mean by...? “Let’s talk more about Often the process begins with what students can notice, as in that,” or “Think about that for a moment.” He accepts all Broudy’s (1987) aesthetic scanning, or with an inventory-like answers as long as students can say why that’s the case. He description as in Feldman’s (1970) four-step process for art may challenge answers to see if anyone sees anything different, criticism. The intent is to slow down the eye and to buy time ask for consensus, or raise the question about something mak- in looking and getting acquainted with an image. ing sense in terms of the whole picture.

Analysis, in which relationships are found among formal qual- Yenawine observes that elementary students find stories that ities, subject matter, and their combinations with each other, relate to their own lives while high school students are more media, and format, provide a second step for considering the willing to move beyond concrete reality to symbolic ideas interplay and interaction of various dimensions of the work. motivating a picture. He notes that it is a challenge to keep up with open-ended responses, to pace the conversation, and Interpretation or speculation, if based upon description and to know what kind of information to apply. analysis, will reveal the manner in which students make connections between their own worlds of experience and the art Perkins (1994) frames a similar process with the notion that art under examination. is an occasion for intelligence. In his book The Intelligent Eye, he reports: “We began with giving looking time, simply looking, Valuing, rather than evaluation, suggests that students consid- keeping engaged, giving the work a chance to show itself to us. er the value of the work to them, what it reminds them of, We continued by making our looking broader and more adven- what it helps them think about, and what it may demonstrate, turous by looking for physical feel, meaning, surprise, mode, model, or teach. Students may also consider ways in which and motion. And we went on to problem a specific puzzle: the work succeeds or how it is special or unique. What actually is reflected?” (p. 74). While not overly concerned about order, he points out that there is a certain grace to this

146 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION progression that concludes with a kind of re-experiencing the work, “marshaling all you have discovered” (p. 74). Carefully framed teacher questioning Thus in a fashion similar to the processes of Broudy, Feldman, can increase student thinking and and Yenawine, Perkins moves from concrete information to interpretation. Hamblen (1984) aligned art criticism ques- verbalization about observations, tioning strategies with Bloom’s Taxonomy suggesting that a hierarchical structure leads to higher-level and more abstract forms of thinking. Some would question how well such struc- concepts, and generalizations. tured conversations emulate the real conversations of critics (see the next entry on critical inquiry). Yet, interactive, inductive, empathetic dialogues about art appear to have value in developing visual awareness, buying time while the process of looking and thinking develops, and increasing the odds that connections made with the work will be grounded in the work as well as the student’s lived experiences.

This study defines understanding as both an activity and an attainment that includes idiosyncratic acts that transform both the person coming to understand and the subject under study. Findings suggest that the DBAE approach does not encourage the kind of critical inquiry needed for students to achieve understanding. Suggests a democratic classroom that embraces the knowledge, experience, and beliefs of the individual coming to understand so as to transform the viewer as well as the art under study.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 147 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

REFERENCES RESEARCH AND REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Broudy, H. (1987). The role of imagery in learning. Los Angeles: Getty Center for Education in the Arts. Cotner, T. L. (2000). Classroom art talk: How discourse shapes teaching and Broudy asserts that imagination (the sensing and constructing of image) pro- learning in a high school art classroom. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, duces an allusionary base (the conglomerate of concepts, images, and memo- Stanford University. ries available to provide meaning for the reader or listener) that is directly relat- This participant-observer study of classroom art talk involved analysis of data ed to language acquisition. He describes “aesthetic scanning” as a technique collected from observations and other forms of documentation. Findings sug- for becoming sensitive to the properties of aesthetic objects in order to ascer- gest that classroom art talk is primarily teacher talk. Exposure to discourse tain their meaning. about art can be expanded in a variety of ways including whole-class lectures, one-on-one talk between student and teacher or student with peer(s), and use Feldman, E. B. (1970). Becoming human through art. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: of films with artists discussing their work, readings, and writing. Prentice-Hall. Feldman sets forth his steps for criticism in Chapter 12, “Mastering the Elliott, S. R. (1999). Words about pictures: An analysis of dialogue content Techniques of Art Criticism.” and process in high school art-viewing sessions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Concordia University (Canada). Feldman, E. B. (1987). Varieties of visual experience, 3rd ed. New York: Abrams. An analysis of practice in five sites suggesting that the nature and outcomes of Chapter 16 contains further explication of the four stages of art criticism in art viewing sessions varies widely due to differing purposes and goals of the some detail. teacher. The role played by artwork(s) also varied from superficial inclusion to centering classroom dialogue. Study suggests the need for teachers to be more Hamblen, K. A. (1984). An art criticism questioning strategy within the frame- aware of implicit and explicit reasons for engaging students with artworks. work of Bloom’s taxonomy. Studies in Art Education, 26 (1), 41-50. Visual chart parallels Feldman’s four steps with Bloom’s six to identify corre- Jeffers, C. S. (2003). Gallery as nexus. Art Education, 56 (1), 19-24. spondences. Report features a university gallery as the setting for a service learning component of a college methods class in which groups of youngsters spent the better Hurwitz, A., & Day, M. (2001). Children and their art, 7th ed. Fort Worth, TX: part of a day in the gallery. Author proposes that a dialogical community, in Harcourt College Publishers. which viewer-to-viewer conversations are an integral process of the interaction Chapters 12 and 14 discuss a variety of approaches to art criticism and aes- with the art, enhances the learning experience. thetics including the use of structured discussions. Martin, A. C. (1990). Effects of two instructional strategies on sixth-grade stu- Perkins, D. N. The intelligent eye: Learning to think by looking at art. Santa dents’ achievements in art criticism. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Monica, CA: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts. University of Houston. Discussion elaborates on theory and process supporting the position that art is Study involved a quasi-experiment with 190 sixth-grade students in an urban an occasion of intelligence, that is, art is an interesting subject to foster quali- school district with a large proportion of Spanish-speaking students to deter- tative thinking. mine effectiveness of transformational imagery and graphic organizers in mastering terms used in the formal analysis of art. Findings suggest both strategies RESEARCH may accelerate progress in the content area of art.

Salome, R. A. (1991, Fall). Research on perceiving and responding to art. In R. Murray, T. (2001). Using education art criticism to enhance self-concept in A. Salome (Ed.), Translations: From Theory to Practice. Reston, VA: National students with emotional and behavioral problems. Unpublished doctoral dis- Art Education Association. sertation, the Florida State University. A review of the research findings including studies not mentioned in this entry. This quasi-experimental research study including quantitative and qualitative See this publication for more in-depth reporting on a number of studies, includ- data suggests that a given model may have been effective in enhancing or sta- ing the following: bilizing self-concept of students with emotional disabilities.

Hysell, D. M. (1973). Testing an advance organizer model in the development of Salander, B. J. (2001). Adolescents’ reflection on the mirror’s role in identity aesthetic perception. Studies in Art Education, 14 (3), 9-14. and sense of self as outcomes of responding to paintings with mirror images. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College. DAI, Koroscik, J. (1982). The effects of prior knowledge, presentation time, and task 62, no. 05A, p. 1688. demands on visual art processing. Studies in Art Education, 23 (3), 13-22. An analysis of responses by 48 adolescents to reproductions of four specific paintings. Findings suggest that multifaceted responses are generated by Koroscik, J. & Blinn, L. (1983). The effect of verbalization on visual art process- images that feature mirrors. Further, adolescents associate mirroring and ing and retention. Studies in Art Education, 25 (1), 23-31. reflection with issues of identity and thus can use examination of such artworks to explore significant dimensions of their existence including their own self-per- Marschalek, D. G. (1983). The influence of viewing time upon the recognition of ceptions and how they are seen by others. color and subject matter placement in paintings for elementary and high school students. Studies in Art Education, 25 (1), 58-65. Siegesmund, R. E. (2000). Reasoned perception: Art education at the end of art. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University. Marschalek, D. B. (1986a). What eye movement research tells us about per- Development of reasoned perception involves comparisons and judgments with- ceptual behavior of children and adults: Implications for the visual arts. in and between qualitative relationships. This study portrays a cycle of visual Studies in Art Education, 27 (3), 123-130. inquiry as beginning with nonlinguistic sense impressions, which become associated with feelings that translate into mental concepts from which meaning is Marschalek, D. B. (1986b). Attention to contour and interior pattern of shapes derived. A view of visual inquiry that engages phases of perception, concep- in color drawings. Studies in Art Education, 28 (1), 30-36. tion, expression, and reflection is proposed. Data gathered using educational

148 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION criticism applied to one lesson by each of three different teachers suggests more long-term studies are needed with a sustained curriculum of visual inquiry to evaluate development of reasoned perception.

Siskar, J. F. (2000). Promoting understanding in the art classroom: Connecting theories of understanding to art education practices. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo. This study defines understanding as both an activity and an attainment that includes idiosyncratic acts that transform both the person coming to understand and the subject under study. Findings suggest that the DBAE approach does not encourage the kind of critical inquiry needed for students to achieve understanding. Suggests a democratic classroom that embraces the knowledge, experience, and beliefs of the individual coming to understand so as to transform the viewer as well as the art under study.

MODELS FOR PRACTICE Anderson, T. (1986). Talking about art with children: From theory to practice. Art Education, 39 (1), 5-8. A historical overview of talk about art with children that identifies two types of art talk: talk about student artwork and talk about professional art. The article features a discussion that illustrates how Feldman’s four-step process might look in practice.

Armstrong, C. L., & Armstrong, N.A. (1977). Art teacher questioning strategy. Studies in Art Education, 18 (3), 53-64. This article presents a model for increasing students’ ability to organize their perceptions into categories and to use the newly formed categories to form generalizations that help in solving visual problems.

Hurwitz, A., & Day, M. (2001). Children and Their Art: Methods for the Elementary School, 7th ed. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers. Chapter 12 is devoted to art criticism with attention to working with language, sample questions utilizing the terminology of art, and a comparison of past and present methods of developing appreciation through critical skills and art history. Chapter 14 explores aesthetics in the art room, providing an overview of three aesthetic stances and ways of structuring inquiry and discussion. Both include suggested readings and resources on the World Wide Web.

Prater, M. (2002). Art criticism: Modifying the formalist approach. Art Education, 55 (5), 12-17. Article suggests ways to fine-tune the Feldman/Mittler model by considering literal and functional qualities as well as formal ones and identifying expressive qualities, relating them to a relevant theory of art. In addition, Prater suggests that shifting the final phase from evaluation to understanding artworks in terms of aesthetic theories yields important insights.

Schwartz, B., & Millar, G. (1992). The power of teaching questioning skills in art education: An enabling thinking skill. In NAEA Advisory, Spring 1992. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.

Stewart, M. G. (1997). Thinking through aesthetics. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Chapters 3 and 4 offer suggestions for creating a climate for philosophical inquiry and ideas for planning for philosophical dialogues and generating questions.

Taunton, M. (1983). Questioning strategies to encourage young children to talk about art. Art Education, 36, (4), 40-43. This paper provides (1) a rationale for using questioning strategies with young children; (2) questioning strategies, accompanied by sample questions; and (3) three sample dialogues between student and teacher.

Yenawine, P. (1996.). “What do you see? A teaching video.” (Video recording). Chicago: The Art Institute of Chicago. Demonstration video of Yenawine’s questioning process as conducted with students of different age levels in a museum setting.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 149 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

Employing Storytelling and Puzzle Problems

THEORY Stories provide a natural way to learn. Stories about artists, art objects, and events can create a context for thinking about aesthetic experience and for exploring aesthetic questions. Stories that present a puzzle problem make good material for discussion and debate.

While some would hold that aesthetic experiences can be “pure,” or unaffected by what one knows or learns, most teachers recognize that students come to class already having collected or formed certain presuppositions and information about art and artists. These affect their encounters with BETTER PRACTICE works of art. For example, there are any number of Teachers who use stories about artists and myths and stereotypes in circulation about artists. puzzles about art can create a context for Many of these characterize artists in negative ways thinking about aesthetic questions. or focus on traumatic events. Peddled casually, these stories may or may not have any bearing on the truth and often distract learners from obtaining more significant information. Worse yet, such stories can diminish the qualities of artwork and misrepresent the character of the artist. On the other hand, reliable information about an artist’s life can help create a context for understanding and appreciating artwork.

PRACTICE

Silvers (1995) makes the case that words mediate how art is seen. The content of what is said and how the story is told both matter. In observing and testing ideas with teachers, Silvers made some discoveries. If a story, even a false one, is powerful enough and told in a convincing manner, it can rad- ically change attitudes about works of art. Clearly, what students know or learn about an artist can change what students see when they look at the work. For example, work of an artist regarded positively can fall into negative light with a com- pelling story. On the other hand, if the story is less than powerful or cannot compete with the perceived regard for the work, the “news” may be factored into opinions but will not essentially alter how the work is interpreted.

Thus it would appear that the ways in which story creates a context for artwork deserve attention. Silvers goes even further to suggest that a repertoire of storytelling techniques may

150 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION create context and stimulate discussions of aesthetic questions. challenges, personal effort and investment, and achievements. Such stories, whether based on real life or invented, can also be Check to see if stories commonly circulated by given artists used to stimulate dialogue and debate on aesthetic issues. have any foundation in fact. Further, see what historians and critics have to say about connections between the artists’ lives Vivid cases or puzzle problems, drawn from real-life contro- and the work they make. Check for sources that contain text versial situations or invented for the purpose of provoking dis- written by the artist or videos of taped interviews. cussion, give students practice with verbal reasoning and critical thinking skills (Battin, 1995). Contemporary art and the Use contextual information about an artist’s life when exam- history of art feature numerous examples of complex situa- ining an artist’s work. Create a sense of where an artist lived, tions that raise aesthetic and philosophic questions. Some sit- the era or time, issues or events influencing society and the uations are internationally known while others may develop artist, relationships with other artists, available materials and within a community, offering a window of opportunity for processes, and the artistic challenges undertaken. De-empha- discussing aesthetic issues. The puzzle case method helps stu- size myths; instead, personalize artists by providing some dents recognize their own conceptions about art and chal- insight into their lives and work. lenges them to rethink them in a new light. Draw upon vivid case studies or stories (real and invented) Recommended Strategies about art objects and events that bring aesthetic questions to the table. Prepare students to work with puzzles that have no Develop a repertoire of stories about the lives of artists typi- right answer; help them use the puzzles to practice skills in rea- cally presented in the classroom. Base these stories on quality soning, debating, and forming positions. sources and present artists in a balanced light concentrating on

REFERENCES Battin, M. P., Fisher, J., Moore, R., & Silvers, A. (1989). Puzzles about art: An aesthetics casebook. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Moore, R. (Ed.). 1995. Aesthetics for young people. Reston, VA: National Art A collection of hard cases without right answers intended to stir up trouble. Education Association. Just as there is no single right answer to a case, there is no single way in which A collection of readings ranging from developmental issues to ideas for practice these cases must be used in the classroom. Taken from real-life situations including the use of puzzle cases. involving art as well as some fictional cases designed to explore certain dilem- mas, these puzzle cases were contributed by 38 scholars working in aesthetics REPORTS FROM PRACTICE or related fields. Each chapter features an introductory essay outlining background issues in aesthetics and a group of diverse cases probing these issues. Silvers, A. (1995). Vincent’s story: The importance of contextualization for art The puzzle cases can both provoke classroom discussion and serve as bases education. In R. Moore (Ed.), Aesthetics for young people (pp. 47-62). Reston, for papers, exercises, and examinations. VA: National Art Education Association. Hurwitz, A., & Day, M. (2001). Children and their art: Methods for the ele- Makes the case that how students learn can change what they see. mentary school, 7th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt College Publishers. Recommends teachers develop storytelling skills and a repertoire of stories Chapter 16, “The Social Dimension: Collaborative Art Activities and about art so as to create a context for understanding works of art. Notes that Instructional Games,” includes art games as well as other activities and a list- stories of artistic heroes are common to the great art traditions and a source of ing of World Wide Web resources. material to support commitments to multiculturalism and diversity. Stewart, M.G. (1997). Thinking through aesthetics. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. MODELS FOR PRACTICE Chapter 5 offers an array of activities for philosophical inquiry including great debates, role-playing, questions in the air, object ranking, token response, sto- Alger, S. L.H. (1995). Games for teaching art. Portland, ME: J. Weston Walch, Pub. ries, and other writing. All are presented with practical suggestions for imple- Book includes ideas for using games to teach art history, art criticism, aesthet- mentation. ics, and art production. See “The Dilemma Box” for ideas on implementing puzzle problems.

Battin, M. P. (1995). Cases for kids: Using puzzles to teach aesthetics to children. In R. Moore (Ed.), Aesthetics for young people. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association (pp. 89-104). Examples of a dozen cases are presented along with sample dialogues with students and ideas for adjusting puzzle cases to different age levels.

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Using Interpretive Strategies to Find Meaning

PRACTICE

Thematic Unity

Finding thematic unity in a work of art organizes and controls interpretation (Walker, 1996). Constructing meaning for artworks around central unifying concepts or themes forms a crucial aspect of the interpretive process. Finding thematic unity can integrate discoveries and allows for personal or communal meanings. An organized pattern of BETTER PRACTICE meaning construction relies on key words Teachers who use nonlinear strategies for throughout the interpretation. Intro- ducing thematic ideas first also makes a interpreting artworks promote personal, more successful approach than beginning emotive, metaphorical, and conceptual with description. Conversely, interpreta- responses. tions that lack thematic unity tend to be less coherent and fragmented.

Description THEORY “Not only do experts know more, there are qualitative Description is a very significant component of differences in the way they organize and search for new professional criticism, closely tied to interpretation and evaluation. In the process, critics decide understandings” (Koroscik, 1990, p. 7). Knowing how to what to describe, how to characterize it, and what make sense of or interpret an artwork involves knowing how to ignore (Barrett, 1997). Students appear to use parts relate to the whole, and the whole provides a context description as a mechanism in searching for a central idea (Walker, 1996, p. 89). for the parts. Different ways to search for meaning and develop an interpretation can be taught and learned. Thus, Opposition moving from a novice interpreter of artworks to a more Oppositional thinking is a powerful tool for creat- informed level may require practice with strategies such as ing meaning (Walker, 1996, p. 82). Contrasting using unifying concepts or themes, nonlinear visual mapping, opposites help define each other. Juxtapositions emotive forms of response, and ways to think about or binary relationships are a way of creating meaning. There can be internal oppositions that exist relationships within and outside the work. within an artwork as well as external oppositions that link artworks to contexts outside the work.

Intertextuality

References to intertexts or interdisciplinary connections outside the artwork add substance to an interpretation. Connecting links may be made with literature or music, social, cultural or political issues, and other interdisciplinary sources and themes. Interpretations without such links tend to be thinner and less effective (Walker, 1996, p. 89).

152 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Conceptual Knowledge Interpretations are not so much absolutely right, but more or less reasonable, convincing, enlightening, and Conceptual knowledge is rich in relationships (Walker, 1992, informative. 1996). The degree to which the central theme connects oppositions, intertexts, and descriptions determines the strength of Interpretations can be judged by coherence, correspon- an interpretation (1996, p. 89). dence, and inclusiveness.

Metaphor An artwork is not necessarily about what the artist wanted it to be about. Metaphor is a way of seeing one thing in terms of another (Feinstein, 1984, 1998; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; James, Interpretations ought to present the work in its best 2000). Metaphors help to make sense out of experience in rather than its weakest light. that they are constructs that have coherent structure, highlighting some things and hiding others. All art is in part about the world in which it emerged.

Viewer as Co-producer of Meaning All art is in part about other art.

Each aesthetic encounter involves three emphases: a participant No single interpretation exhausts the meaning of an or viewer, an object or event, and an occasion that takes place artwork. within a certain context of time, location, social condition, and so forth (White, 1998, pp. 324-325). Initial responses, for The meanings of an artwork may differ from its signifi- example, may reveal the lens through which a viewer sees an art- cance to the viewer. work. Likewise, awareness of how it is experienced as well as attention to the object or event are important sources for possi- Interpretation is ultimately a communal endeavor, and ble interpretations. The notion that the viewer, object, and con- the community is ultimately self-corrective. text are all involved in creating meaning is consistent with post- structuralist theory in that the meanings found in an artwork are Good interpretations invite us to see for ourselves and to never finished and always open to reinterpretation with the continue on our own. viewer as co-producer of meaning. PRACTICE Principles of Interpretation Metaphorical Thinking Based on studies of contemporary art and criticism, Barrett (1994) has identified the following principles for interpreta- Entering a work, stepping into it, identifying with various tion (pp. 71-78): aspects of it, fosters the use of analogy and metaphor. Strategies include writing from inside a portrait, becoming an Artworks have “aboutness” and demand interpretation. object, making links to self and peers, working together to make sense of metaphor, and writing as a way of thinking Interpretations are persuasive arguments. about art (James, 2000). Selecting works as metaphors for one’s life helps a viewer find personal connections. Some interpretations are better than others. Associations may be made in a formal context, through ties to nature, via cultural connections, around family bonds, or Good interpretations of art tell more about the artwork through religious referents (Jeffers, 1996). than they tell about the critic. Metaphorical Mapping Feelings are guides to interpretations. Metaphorical meaning in artworks is evocative and connota- There can be different, competing, and contradictory tive, going beyond the literal or denotative meaning of art- interpretations of the same artwork. works. In order to respond metaphorically, students need strategies that de-emphasize literal-analytical thought. Interpretations are often based on a worldview. Clustering spontaneous responses is a three-step process. Presented under relaxed attention conditions that reduce ten-

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 153 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

sion and promote concentration, students are invited to call many forms, also invites a more metaphoric response because out words or phrases elicited by the artwork, which are then it requires attention to how language sounds and looks, and to recorded on a visible surface. A large circle is drawn around the ways meaning is built economically with fewer and more the first word or phrase. Subsequent words are “clustered” special words. around the first meaning; that is, they are encompassed with smaller circles and connected to the large circle with radiating Thinking Strategies spokes. Second, the group eliminates redundant words and phrases and regroups what remains into a few descriptive Thinking strategies involve description, looking for opposi- words. Third, the artwork is re-examined to determine how tions, and identifying relationships within the work and adequately the clustered responses refer to the work. Students between the work and outside references. Using thematic point out actual places on the artwork that fit or do not fit the unity as a strategy for organizing these findings can make condensed cluster configuration, dropping those that do not interpretation more coherent and convincing. Description to fit (Feinstein, 1998). search for key ideas may yield a central or unifying theme that can then introduce or frame an interpretation. Paying atten- Aesthetigrams tion to oppositions and thematic links that can be made beyond the work may serve to enrich and strengthen interpre- Aesthetigrams are a way of mapping the sequence of tations. The principles of interpretation may also provide a “moments” that occur in an aesthetic experience (White, guide for thinking about how meaning can be created. 1998). This method differs from metaphorical mapping in that the experience with the work is mapped instead of verbal Constructing an Interpretation from Contextual Knowledge responses. For example (see p. 327), a map might begin with one or more reactions, perhaps noting the feelings evoked, a Walker (1996) offers a pedagogical model that involves three spontaneous judgment, and an observation. Notes briefly steps: showing challenging work, reading to develop a knowl- describing what one experienced are recorded, and the map is edge base (including background information on the work, further developed as ideas occur. In an illustrated example, the critical writing, and/or interviews with the artist), and inter- map grows as emotions, issues of taste, awareness of subject pretive writing. emphasis, context, and other questions, observations, or connections occur to the observer. Followed by reflective writing, the aesthetigram can construct meaning by considering the process of aesthetic response.

Emotive Writing

Emotive writing, as in poetry and letter writing, invites sensory, emotional responses and thus provides a way of developing a personal response to a work. Sustained or frequent exposure to a work such as looking at it daily, perhaps before going to sleep and upon waking, allows the viewer to muse on the work prior to responding. Strategies such as drawing or tracing the image prior to responding help engage the viewer and promote emotive responses even with short-term exposure. Letter writing invites the writer to address the recipient and involves a less formal and more personal style of description and storytelling. Possible motivations for a letter include real and imaginary recipients. For example, viewers can write letters to someone depicted in the image, someone who might find the image interesting, the artist, a previous owner of the work, or the next person destined to receive the work. The purpose of such letter writing is to produce responses that are deeply felt, more personal, and potentially metaphoric. Poetry, in its

154 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION REFERENCES Barrett, T. (1994). Criticizing art: Understanding the contemporary. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University A comprehensive guide including a discussion of criticism, interpretation, judg- of Chicago Press. ment, and theory. Chapter 3 outlines principles of interpretation, and the final Discussion of concepts we live by, different kinds of metaphors, the partial chapter offers a practical guide for talking and writing about works of art. nature of metaphorical structuring, and the role of metaphor in coherent structuring of experience. Feinstein, H. (1998). Reading images: Meaning and metaphor. Revised ed. Antioch, CA: Metapress. Moore, R. (Ed.). (1995). Aesthetics for young people. Reston, VA: National This guidebook for teachers begins by distinguishing literal from metaphoric Art Education Association. meaning. A method for diagramming responses to work is demonstrated with An anthology of readings about aesthetics including problems and prospects for examples that lead to metaphoric meaning based on personal responses and young people, a developmental account of children doing aesthetics, and the cultural values. Book includes a discussion of symbolic meaning as well as importance of contextualism for art education. fuller discussions of metaphor, intuition, and creativity. Reproductions of art with interpretive suggestions clarify the process and its possibilities. Wolff, T. F., & Geahigan, G. (1997). Art criticism and education. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Hendricks, G., & Willis, R. (1975). The centering book: Awareness activities Co-authored by art critic Theodore Wolff and art educator George Geahigan, the for children, parents, and teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. book is divided into two parts. Part I is devoted to a discussion of art criticism This practical volume presents examples of relaxed attention exercises. and its uses. Part II translates theory into practice. Criticism is regarded as critical inquiry, a way of unlocking the import of artworks from both history and James, P. (2000). “I am the dark forest”: Personal analogy as a way to under- the present. stand metaphor. Art Education, 53 (5), 6-11. Author offers a model for interpretation of artworks that involves writing person- RESEARCH al analogies about art, reading out loud, discussing concepts, and doing reflective writing. Doing so is reported to “awaken an understanding of the Feinstein, H. (1984). The metaphoric interpretation of paintings: Effects of the metaphoric dimensions of their own life experiences” (p.11). Her model clustering strategy and relaxed attention exercises. Studies in Art Education, includes writing from inside a portrait, becoming an object, making links to self 24 (2), 77-83. and peers, working together to make sense of metaphor, and writing as a way of Art education majors learned the clustering strategy for writing metaphoric thinking about art. interpretations of paintings. The clustering strategy increased the metaphoric nature of students’ written interpretations of realistic, abstract, and nonobjec- Jeffers, C. (1996). Experiencing art through metaphor. Art Education, 49 (3), 6-11. tive paintings. Article describes an approach implemented with preservice and in-service elementary teachers in which all chose a work as a metaphor for their life, identi- Koroscik, J. S. (1990). Novice-expert differences in understanding and misun- fying attributes and visual or symbolic references that had personal meaning. derstanding art and their implications for student assessment in art education. Using metaphors was reported to generate vivid associations and to develop Arts and Learning Research, 8 (1), 6-29. insightful, deep, and personal understanding.

Koroscik, J. S., Short, G., Stavropoulos, C., & Fortin, S. (1992). Frameworks for Perkins, D. N. (1983). Invisible art. Art Education 36 (2), 39-41. understanding art: The function of comparative art contexts and verbal cues. Suggests that art can be made more “visible” to learners by directing attention to Studies in Art Education, 33 (3), 154-164. what is most engaging and illuminating in art. Examples include aesthetic Study designed to determine the effects of various contexts and verbal cues on effects, personality, motion, surprise, global as well as local effects, suggested as the interpretation of artworks. Findings suggest that verbal cues prompt stu- well as real effects, plus symptoms, tricks, and reinforcers used by the artists. dents to elaborate on possible meanings while comparative art contexts containing familiar ideas can reduce misunderstandings if those ideas are explicit- Rico, G. L. (1983). Writing the natural way. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ly identified for students. Rico, who originated the clustering strategy, describes its application to learning how to write. Walker, S. (1992). An analysis of relational meaning in the practice of three professional critics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Florida State University. Walker, R. S. (1996). Thinking strategies for interpreting artworks. Studies in Art Education, 37 (2), 80-91. White, B. (1998). Aesthetigrams: Mapping aesthetic experiences. Studies in This case study examines four thinking strategies used by university undergrad- Art Education, 39 (4), 321-335. uate and graduate students in the interpretation of works by a contemporary A qualitative study of a strategy for improving teaching and learning in regard to artist. The participants in the study ranged from novices to those with some aesthetics in the classroom. The use of aesthetigrams to heighten university expertise in criticism. Article includes a review of relevant theory in cognition, students’ awareness within aesthetic encounters is described. provides a contemporary perspective on interpretation, and describes practices used by professional critics. The research model is reported along with findings MODELS FOR PRACTICE that suggest thematic unity plays a crucial role as a conceptual organizer of information produced by other thinking strategies. Barrett, T. (1997). Talking about student art. Worcester, MA: Davis Publications. Although focused on talking with students about their own art and conducting critiques, the book addresses issues related to the artist’s intent and the viewer’s interpretation, offers leading questions to ask in interpreting artworks, and provides worksheets useful in comparing intention with response.

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Promoting Critical Thinking Through Problem-based Inquiry

THEORY Aesthetics as critical inquiry is instruction in which students actively participate in the process of asking questions and developing answers using the strategies of professional aestheticians (Anderson, 1998). Through the development of critical skills, strategies, and thinking structures intrinsic to the discipline of philosophical aesthetics, students can ask questions and seek answers about meaning and value in art, how we talk about art, aesthetic experience, and beauty. Reports from Anderson and others (Hickman, 2000; Siskar, 2002) suggest that a range of work and, specifically, problematic BETTER PRACTICE contemporary work can launch Teachers who use a problem-based approach to classroom debate, reflection, and learning about art can promote reflection and synthesis that leads to fuller inquiry, research and debate, leading to deep understanding of the concept thinking about complex situations. of art.

Geahigan (1998) distinguishes critical inquiry from talk about art focused on description, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation. In contrast, critical inquiry focuses on searching and finding, is a recursive process, is not a procedure, and involves specialized knowledge and efforts to secure background information (p. 12). A similar instructional approach is used in problem-based inquiry. While these approaches require extensive preparation on the part of the teacher as well as skills with questioning strategies and cognitive coaching, some argue that their benefits far exceed the limits of structured discourse in producing deep thinking about complex situations (Costantino, 2002; Geahigan, 1996, 1999).

156 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE

Costantino (2002) endorses problem-based learning (PBL) as As results are developed and presented, a concrete approach to teaching aesthetics. Here fictional problems, or real ones, re-create the challenges found in real- the teacher acts as a cognitive coach life situations. For example, problems commonly encountered by curators or civic boards with responsibilities for causing students to reflect on the making community decisions can provide useful models. While the teacher develops the problem, it becomes the task questions they chose to ask, and of the students to solve it. As such, problem-based learning combines self-directed inquiry with cooperative learning. PBL can be used to organize a whole unit of instruction, as not ask, the reasoning behind their an introduction to a unit, or as a conclusion. She identifies several steps in the problem-solving process: thinking, the methods of their

Students must work together to pinpoint the central investigation, contradictions discovered, problem or core problems. and questions or concerns that surfaced. Brainstorming determines ways to go about solving the problem; this often involves generating lists of questions or analyzing what one knows, wonders about, and/or has learned (KWL) or what one knows and what one needs to know (KNK). sions, maintaining order while resisting agreement, lecturing, A plan for investigation is made by prioritizing questions and/or manipulation can help students arrive at their own according to their relevance to the problem as well as to observations, discoveries, and points of view. Models for the interests of various students in a working group. such coaching are also identified by Barrett (2000). He provides a model for getting children to think beyond the obvi- Sources for information are located, and often this ous that involves coaching, coaxing, questioning strategies, requires that students draw information from a number and the ability to correct or challenge responses in order to of disciplines. extend learning.

Within each working group, individual students carry Geahigan (1999) also endorses a problem-based approach in responsibility for investigating a particular question or which art criticism functions as a form of disciplined inquiry. area of research. He identifies the goal of such an approach as assisting students in their own search for meaning and value. Working Groups reconvene to discuss their findings and to refine in collaboration with each other, students can determine the their research strategy. meaning and value of works of art for themselves. In the process of inquiry, students are motivated to acquire biogra- As results are developed and presented, the teacher acts as a phical and contextual knowledge. Sometimes this is provid- cognitive coach causing students to reflect on the questions ed by the teacher although students can do their own they chose to ask, and not ask, the reasoning behind their research. Students may need help in developing aesthetic thinking, the methods of their investigation, contradictions concepts that make it possible to enlarge and refine their per- discovered, and questions or concerns that surfaced. ceptual responses. Definitions, provided through examples and demonstrations conducted by the teacher, can give stu- Erickson (1988) identified attitudes, skills, and knowledge dents practice with both relevant skills and concepts. He sees necessary for orchestrating aesthetic dialogues, and it appears such an approach calling upon a mix of instructional strate- that the same list serves teachers preparing to engage in “cog- gies. In a process similar to the one described by Costantino nitive coaching.” Rather than acting as an authority, helpful (2002), Geahigan (1996) recommends the following: attitudes include pretending not to know, being patient and polite, and thinking along with students. Productive strate- Create problem situations that lead students to more careful gies include acting as a devil’s advocate and provoking situa- observation of and reflection about works of art and that fos- tions that raise aesthetic issues. In conducting such discus- ter the exchange of different points of view.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 157 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

Invent instructional activities that require students to formu- A “sign” has meaning by virtue of its relationship to every- late and defend individual hypotheses about the meaning thing else that can be noticed or learned, and the process of and value of works and to defend these to others—activities making meaning of art should be consistent with the ways that foster appropriate attitudes and habits for responding to human beings have always made sense out of the world of works of art. experience—,that is, by structuring perceived elements into conceived relationships. Rather than decoding a work of art Identify different kinds of background knowledge students to find the meaning in it, Shipps suggests, the task is to help need to recognize problems and to formulate more adequate students make meaning of art through experiencing it as responses. Provide instruction in concepts and principles for thoroughly as possible, noticing what can be noticed, and greater sophistication in responses. Shipps (1996) reports the relating these discoveries in ways that make sense. value of providing an introductory set of concepts and principles prior to examining artwork. Shipps notes that posta- dolescents, and most likely adolescents, need new ways to talk about art as concrete operational learners. He suggests discussing a poststructural pragmatist aesthetic emphasizing three points:

Human beings are constantly “making up” our world as we understand it.

Humans experience everything as “sign.”

Dealing with signs and structures allows us to ascribe meanings to things.

REFERENCES Geahigan, G. (1999). Description in art criticism and art education. Studies in Anderson, R. L. (1990). Calliope’s sisters: A comparative study of philoso- Art Education, 40 (3), 213-225. phies of art. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Provides a theoretical argument against lock-step approaches to criticism. An exploration of the role of art and aesthetics through examination of several Promotes strategies that cause students to share responses and to justify them cultures. Provides source material on Eskimo, Aboriginal Australian, Sepik (New through reasoned discourse. Includes a proposal for teaching students to talk Guinea), Navajo, Yoruba, Aztec, Early India, Japanese, and Western aesthetics. about their own aesthetic experiences and artistic preferences, acknowledging Includes discussion of comparative aesthetics, art as culturally significant that most students start with statements such as “I know what I like” and/or meaning, and the encodement of meaning through style, feeling, and skill. “It may be great art, but I still don’t like it.”

Anderson, T. (1993). Defining and structuring art criticism for education. Geahigan, G. (1999). Models of critical discourse and classroom instruction: A Studies in Art Education 34 (4), 199-208. critical examination. Studies in Art Education, 41 (1), 6-21. Proposes a model for criticism that has the following steps: reaction, perceptu- A critical examination of the emergence of art criticism in American art educa- al analysis (representation, formal analysis, formal characterization), personal tion, the problems of spoken and written critical discourse, educational models interpretation, contextual examination, and synthesis (resolution, evaluation). of criticism taken as representative of critical discourse, and recitation taken as art criticism. The conclusion of the article presents an alternative form of disci- nd Barrett, T. (2000). Criticizing art: Understanding the contemporary, 2 ed. plined inquiry said to promote personal response to art informed by research Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing. and development of skills and concepts. This guide includes discussions of art criticism, the role of description, the principles of interpretation, judging art, theory and art criticism, and writing and RESEARCH talking about art. The discussions feature examples from contemporary art. Hickman, R. (2000). Adolescents’ Conceptions of the Concept ‘Art.’ Journal of Geahigan, G. (1996). Conceptualizing art criticism for effective practice. Aesthetic Education, 34 (1), 107-111. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 30 (3), 23-42. Reports on a study with 94 students in two English secondary schools to deter- Discusses the confusion between criticism as inquiry and criticism as dis- mine what theoretical levels could be identified in written and pictorial respons- course. Argues against formulating a procedure for discussion in favor of creates to actual works of art. Findings included the observation that more consid- ing conditions that will promote reflection and inquiry.

158 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION ered and informed responses could be developed by students when certain con- reflection, gains in background knowledge, and development of relevant conditions are met. These include acknowledging, valuing, and building upon stu- cepts and skills. dents’ initial engagement with art objects; developing a language for critical discussion; and instruction for researching meaning. Shipps, S. W. (1996). Aesthetics unto art: Reaching disinterested post-adolescents. In A. L. Nyman (Ed.), NAEA Advisory. Reston, VA: National Art Shipps, S. W. (1994). Last impressions? Aesthetic theory and outcomes in “Art Education Association. 101.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Harvard Graduate School of This NAEA Advisory identifies three points from poststructuralism that help stu- Education. dents talk about art. Restated briefly they are: a) humans are constantly A study with postsecondary non-art majors in an introductory-level art appreci- “making up” our world as we understand it; b) humans experience everything ation course. The study found more lasting impact when teachers introduced as “sign” or “signifier”; c) dealing with signs and structures is what allows us aesthetic theory, a way of understanding what is meant by art, before dis- to ascribe meanings to things. cussing specific examples of artwork. Siskar, J. (2002). Promoting critical inquiry. In J. Kellman (Ed.), SRAE Venable, B. B. (1997). Teaching and learning aesthetics: A qualitative study of Abstracts of Research Presentations, p. 20. Champaign-Urbana: University of the implementation of aesthetics in a middle school art class. Unpublished Illinois. doctoral dissertation. Reports a study using Anderson’s model with postsecondary non-art majors in Reports on a researcher-created, philosophical and inquiry-based model for an which verbal and written critiques were analyzed. The author found the aesthetics unit implemented with an eighth-grade class. Includes a historical approach consistent with constructivist teaching and that its practices pro- account of aesthetics in art education and a review and description of promi- duced meaningful engagement. nent aesthetic theories and art critical methods used in the classroom. Wolff, T., & Geahigan, G. (1997). Art criticism and education. Urbana, IL: REPORTS FROM PRACTICE University of Illinois Press. The fifth in a series edited by Ralph A. Smith and sponsored by the Getty Center Costantino, T. E. (2002). Problem-based learning: A concrete approach to of Education in the Arts. The critic Theodore F. Wolff and art educator George teaching aesthetics. Studies in Art Education, 43 (3), 219-231. Geahigan are paired in an exploration of art criticism. Wolff contends that art Introduction to problem-based learning illustrated with two examples. The first criticism offers an opportunity to understand the creative process. Geahigan features a fictional problem involving the anonymous donations of an artifact of offers methods for implementing art criticism in the curriculum. possible Egyptian origin in which elementary students in a museum setting were given the charge to determine the objects’ authenticity. The second, designed for middle or high school-level students, involved the organization of an exhibit of Artemisia Gentileschi’s paintings using different sources of information.

Erickson, M. (1988). Teaching aesthetics K-12. In S. M. Dobbs (Ed.), Research readings for discipline based art education: A journey beyond creating. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Article explores what it means to teach aesthetics and the feasibility of doing so. Outlines specific learning content for a K-12 aesthetics curriculum. Identifies six philosophical skills: making distinctions, drawing conclusions, defining concepts, studying traditional philosophies, distinguishing types of claims, and building arguments. Erickson acknowledges that teachers must gain all the attitudes, skills, and knowledge they would teach their students and concludes her article with a call for research and development, basic training, and supplies needed to achieve the goal of teaching aesthetics K-12.

MODELS FOR PRACTICE Anderson. T. (1998). Aesthetics as critical inquiry. Art Education, 51 (5), 49-55. Provides a model sequence for critical inquiry activities resulting in students’ theories augmented by those of professional aestheticians. Beginning with a problematic work (Sherry Levine’s appropriated image from Ansel Adams), students engaged in analysis and synthesis, developed a cooperatively developed criterion-referenced position, argued for different positions, reframed arguments in the face of new evidence, and tested their positions against previously established aesthetic theory.

Geahigan, G. (1998). Critical inquiry: Understanding thought and applying it in the classroom. Art Education, 51 (5), 10-16. Article provides a comparison of inquiry with stages of critical inquiry and concludes with a model sequence implemented by a seventh- grade teacher. Students began by noting initial responses to a selection of 20th-century abstract painting that led to research, writing assignments using guiding questions, concept and skill instruction, and oral presentations on individual works. A pre-post comparison of reactions suggests that the inquiry process produced insights attributed to opportunities for thoughtful viewing, dialogue, sustained

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 159 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

Facilitating Student-Curated Exhibitions

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who engage students in curating their own exhibitions help their students develop a wide range of critical skills in the process of exploring personal preferences and creating a presentation with text and images.

THEORY Curatorial tasks require a wide range of higher thinking skills. There are preferences to explore, choices and decisions to be made, contexts to construct, and connections to identify and articulate. Part-to-whole relationships must be considered as diverse pieces are put together thematically, sequentially, or theoretically. Research and documentation can be required. Presentational skills as well come into play: design issues of layout and text, signage, visual graphics, and overall organization. Tasks may extend to writing text for the display and/or for distribution and speaking as in giving a tour, explaining choices, and illuminating context and meaningful connections. In short, the real tasks of curators involve a process and the creation of a product that are loaded with opportunities for exploring personal preferences, making decisions, and thinking critically.

160 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE Involve students in research and the construction of a context for thinking about work. The actual form of the exhibition can range from mini-table- top presentations and mini-museums to full-scale installations Use themes and human concerns across cultures and in schools and community settings (Baker, n.d.; Luehrman & times as a way of making connections among diverse Unrath, 2000; Zuk & Dalton, 2001). Reproductions gath- works. ered from the Internet, magazines, postcards, museums, and classroom visual resources can be used. Displays can be sim- Challenge students to make connections between theo- ple and small scale, small-scale models imagined for larger ries about art and selected works. spaces, bulletin board displays, hallway installations, or virtual exhibitions using technology. Encourage students to raise questions generated by the process of creating an exhibition and/or the findings Museum settings offer yet another opportunity to create a from research and discussion. curated tour where selected works are identified and studied in depth. Finding samenesses among differences is a form of Involve students in making presentations to others such higher-level thinking activated when students are asked to find as younger children and parents. connections among diverse works of art. Creating tours, including ways to engage viewers, is another level of exercise in Look for opportunities to involve students in collabora- critical thinking and creative problem solving (Sandell & tive exhibitions in the community or create one in the Cherry, 1994; Stephen, 2001). context of the school.

Collaborations that incorporate viewer response provide another format for exhibitions (Reese, 2003). Shows can be designed to include not only the works of art made by artists but also those works made in response by youth and facilita- tors. Text can include basic information plus interpretive narratives by art historians, the museum director, the curator, the artists, and/or the youth participants. Areas can be set up for Finding samenesses among differences is viewers to contribute visual and verbal responses.

Recommended Strategies a form of higher-level thinking

Find opportunities for students to curate an exhibition, activated when students are asked to selecting a level of challenge and format appropriate for their developmental readiness. find connections among diverse

Encourage group work in which choices are made, pref- works of art. erences are discussed, and connections found among diverse works.

Allow students to gravitate to different roles in the process of creating an exhibition; allow them to use their strengths and to work as a team.

Provide practice articulating reasons for preferences; have students talk, share ideas, then write and rewrite.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 161 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

REFERENCES REPORTS FROM PRACTICE Barrett, T. (1994). Criticizing art: Understanding the contemporary. Mountain Burton, D. (2001). Social dynamics in exhibiting art: Rethinking the practices View, CA: Mayfield Publishing. of art education. Art Education 54 (1), 41-45. Chapter 6 offers suggestions for writing art criticism, ways to handle the techni- Notes that while most art teachers regularly exhibit student work, students are calities and procedures of writing, and recommendations for talking about rarely involved with the process and thus stand to learn little from it. Identifies works with others. four basic phases in the exhibition process: conceptual, development, functional, and assessment. Explores the social dynamics of the process resulting from Burmark, L. (2002). Visual literacy: Learn to see, see to learn. Alexandria, collaboration, negotiation, compromise, group problem solving, and interaction VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. with a public audience. Book focuses on the importance of visual literacy with sections that contain ideas for effective communication and for making presentations with both Burton, D., & McGraw, T. (2001). In B. Zuk & R. Dalton (Eds.), Student art words and images. exhibitions: New ideas and approaches (pp. 28-32). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Stewart, M. G. (1997). Thinking through aesthetics. Worcester, MA: Davis Reports on exhibition practices of McGraw and her students in which they take Press. charge of the exhibition. Suggests that student autonomy must be supported by Source book focuses on aesthetics. Chapter 2 explores aesthetic theories and clear procedures and well-understood reasons for each step of the process. their relationships to aesthetic questions. Recognizes that exhibiting art is both a complex affair and a social activity. While they require plenty of commitment, cooperation, collaboration, and com- Zuk, B., & Dalton, R. (Eds.). (2001). Student art exhibitions: New ideas and munication, student art exhibitions can be among the most motivating and approaches. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. rewarding experiences students have in art. Articles by various authors highlight cultural and historical perspectives, students as curators, planning and presenting an exhibition, pedagogical exhibi- Reese, E. B. (2003). Art takes me there: Engaging the narratives of communi- tions and advocacy, and exhibition venues. Includes examples of exhibitions in ty members through interpretative exhibition processes and programming. Art Australia and Canada as well as the United States. Education, 56 (1), 33-39. Article recounts the development of a special exhibition that involved communi- RESEARCH ty participation and the development of intertextual narratives. A model for “a pedagogy of performance” is provided in which examining what one sees, what Marcus, K. (2001). Mapping children’s theory of critical meaning in the visual autobiographical experiences one brings to the work, the culture of the muse- arts. In J. Kellman (Ed.), Abstracts of Research Presentations, Seminar for um, the nature of the institution, and interdisciplinary connections all factor into Research in Art Education (p. 16). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois. an intertextual response. Two groups of students in Australia, one mid-primary and the other secondary level, curated exhibitions of portraits. A developmental shift was seen in stu- Stephen, V. (2001). In B. Zuk & R. Dalton (Eds.), Student art exhibitions: New dents’ reasons for their curatorial selections. Younger students’ reasons for ideas and approaches (pp. 33-39). Reston, VA: National Art Education selecting works were based on localized statements whereas older students Association. offered reflective comments that drew upon material indirectly associated with Reports on three models for exhibitions that involved students, in various the paintings. degrees, in the process of developing an exhibition in an art museum. One, a province-wide show, included a student as one of seven members of the jury Wall, E. A. (2001). Construction of meaning and context. In J. Kellman (Ed.), and curatorial committee. A second involved a number of student inter-age Abstracts of Research Presentations, Seminar for Research in Art Education and interracial representatives and less adult intervention so that decision- (p. 23). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois. making processes were student centered. A third exhibition involved a team of Within the context of an eight-week program, a group of African-American fifth upper-elementary students who selected works from the museum collection to graders in Los Angeles constructed miniature art museums. Students’ behav- organize a show. iors regarding their processes for constructing meaning in art and developing aesthetic perception as well as the influences of race and ethnicity on their MODELS FOR PRACTICE preferences were analyzed. Findings reveal that a conception of contexts, with numerous sub-contexts, figures in the understanding of art. Baker, D. W. (n.d.). Strategies for responding to works of art. Handout prepared for art teachers. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Department of Art. Includes Counter Top Galleries as a strategy for students. Using postcards, students create mini-gallery displays that can sit on shelving. Learners are encouraged to use a theme, subject, style, or artist to establish a reasonable coherency in the selection and presentation of works in their mini-gallery.

Bass, K., Eisner, E., Hanson, L., Cotner, T., & Yacoe, T. (1997). The education- ally interpretive exhibition: Rethinking the display of student art. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association. Although the book focuses primarily on the display of student art, it provides a model for an education exhibition in which general and specific commentary as well as certain devices for display inform the viewer.

162 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION LACMA Lab, Los Angeles County Museum of Art. (2002, June–2003, January). The beat road: Student installation project. Installation created by seventh-grade students from Fairfax High School in collaboration with artist Michael Asher. Working with a theme, students selected works from the museum’s collection and then designed and installed the exhibition complete with signage and text.

Luehrman, M., & Unrath, K. (2000). Making mini-museums to translate inquiry into practice. Presentation prepared for the NAEA Convention. Although developed with preservice teachers in mind, this presentation offered a model for creating a mini-museum in the form of a display or multimedia presentation. The works of a single artist or the artifacts of a culture make up the subject of this investigation, which results in a visual display supported by written material. Students are evaluated on the presentation of images, contextual information, identification and discussion of style and meaning, and guiding questions, presentation quality, and museum guide. Model could be adapted for use with secondary students.

Sandell, R., & Cherry, S. (1994). Talking about art: From past to present, here to there: Preservice art teachers collaborate with a museum. Art Education, 47 (4), 18-24. Article describes family tours designed by art education majors in a local museum. In this model, students select an object on which to become an expert, engage in historical and critical research, work with a team of peers to identify connections between a diverse set of objects, design a tour with activities for engagement, and test it with museum visitors.

BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION 163 OUTCOME IV: FACILITATING CRITICAL AND AESTHETIC INQUIRY

Using Models for Writing About Art

BETTER PRACTICE Teachers who engage students in reading critical writing and, following such reading, invite students to model the THEORY writing will help their students develop Models serve an important role in skills in writing critically. setting expectations, illustrating how a problem can be addressed, and demonstrating different ways of developing ideas. Several studies conducted by Wilson (1966, 1970, 1972) led him to conclude that critical writing best develops when critical writings are read and used as models for student writing. His findings are supported by a more recent study (Carpenter, 1996).

Different formats can also capture reflective writing. Postcards and letters, for example, unearth more personal observations because they suggest a close relationship with a recipient and permission to speak candidly and informally. Poetic models permit a different format for response and may invite more elegant language as well as metaphor and analogy. Writing meant to inform viewers or to synthesize ideas usually takes a more formal approach to format and language.

164 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION PRACTICE Use guides for writing about art that provide useful pointers. Recommended Strategies Have students refer to models as they write their Invite students to write letters or postcards that reflect own essays. their current observations, questions, and insights (Block & Klein, 1996). Encourage language arts teachers to use art as a prompt for writing, guided by good models. Have students color-code the writings of critics for description, analysis, interpretation, judgment, and con- Invite creative responses to works of art with questions textual and biographical information. Have them exam- such as: “What might the drawing say?” or “What ine ways in which comparisons or connections to other might the subject say if it could speak?” works of art are made.

Compare differences in critical writing using examples that are relevant to the work students are doing.

REFERENCES MODELS FOR PRACTICE Barnet, S. (2000). A short guide to writing about art, 6th ed. New York: Barrett, T. (1994). Criticizing art: Understanding the contemporary. Mountain Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. View, CA: Mayfield Publishing. Begins with a discussion on writing about art before addressing analysis, com- Chapter 6 offers suggestions for writing art criticism, ways to handle the techni- parisons, essays, style, different critical approaches, art historical research, calities and procedures of writing, and recommendations for talking about research papers, manuscript form, and essay examinations. Includes tips for works with others. The book includes discussions of critical commentary on writers and a number of good checklists. contemporary works of art.

RESEARCH Block, A., & Klein, S. (1996). This is where I am right now: Art education, curriculum and postcards. Art Education, 49 (3), 20-24. Carpenter, B. S., II. (1996). A meta-critical analysis of ceramics criticism for Article begins with a discussion of the connection between journey and discov- art education: Toward an interpretive methodology. Unpublished doctoral dis- ery and growth. Reflective thought involves making connections and self- sertation, the Pennsylvania State University. DAI 9628062. awareness. The act of sending a postcard is presented as an opportunity to Intervention used meta-criticism to analyze essays on works of art and a reflect. Examples from art are included. ceramic artist prior to writing essays. Study found the process resulted in critical modes of thought stimulated by continual acts of critical inquiry with works Rico, G. L. (1983). Writing the natural way. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. of art, ideas of fellow students, critical essays, and important issues found in Rico, who originated the clustering strategy, describes its application to learning current social and cultural contexts. how to write.

Wilson, B. G. (1966). An experimental study designed to alter fifth and sixth Wilson, B., Hurwitz, A., & Wilson, M. (1987). Teaching drawing from art. grade students’ perceptions of paintings. Studies in Art Education, 8 (1), 33-42. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Short-term experimental study found that broadening students’ perception of A source book for ideas that explore inventive drawing techniques based on artworks requires careful attention to language and perceptual activities. observation, narrative, works of art, memory, and imagination. Chapter 14 focuses on talking and writing about drawing and gives examples of creative Wilson, B. (1970). Relationship among art teachers’, art critics’, art histori- writing in response to artworks. ans’, and non-art-trained individuals’ statements about Picasso’s Guernica. Studies in Art Education, 12 (1), 31-39. Experimental study suggesting that art teachers need training to be able to function as art critics and historians.

Wilson, B. (1972). The relationship between years of art training and the use of aesthetic judgmental criteria among high school students. Studies in Art Education, 13 (2), 34-43. Although the study involved a content analysis of verbal responses to a work of art by high school students, 35 with zero years of art and 31 in their third year, more adequate criteria were used in judging works of art by those taking art.

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Making Art Inspired by the Study of Art

PRACTICE

Teachers foster emotional engagement with a work of art through questions and simple observations that allow students to “enter” the scene, discover ever more detail, and spin their own stories. With the exposure to possibilities for expression and set on a mission to express their own ideas, students can then borrow or adapt conventions, composi- tional structures, techniques, and/or visu- BETTER PRACTICE al ideas as it suits their ends (Aukerman, Teachers who cycle students back to 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994).

creative personal expression after Studies from the masters, in which the investigations with artworks promote task is to emulate as closely as possible exploration of ideas, concepts, and the original work, provide tactile and visual ways for gaining insight into an techniques inspired by the objects artist’s sensitivities and techniques. under study. Experimentation with media, scale, tools, THEORY and processes used by others can open up possi- Artists have a long tradition of learning from those who came bilities. Adapting techniques or approaches to before them. In some ways, artists stand on the shoulders one’s own expressive needs encourages translation and creative thinking. Making a work that is an of those who preceded them. In emulating, experimenting homage to an artist invites personal response to with, appropriating, and adapting ideas, concepts, themes, conceptual and representational ideas. subject matter, styles, techniques, and processes from the Recommended Strategies history of art, young artists expand their repertoire of ideas about the possibilities of art. More than creating art “in Engage students emotionally in the discussion the style of,” making art that is inspired by the study of art and consideration of artworks. Ask them to speculate on what is going on, what feelings they can take many forms. sense, and whether or not they can identify with those feelings. Encourage them to think about the circumstances and how they might visually represent their own experiences. Invite them to think about how they might use in their own work something the artist has shown them to take (Aukerman, 1992, 1994).

Individual images from art may be used as prompts for a new image. Example: What happened next (Wilson, Hurwitz, & Wilson, 1987).

Use a verbal description of an event that inspired an artwork and invite students to do their own version, prior to looking at one or more images of the same made by artists. Compare the works to find commonalities and differences (Wilson, Hurwitz, & Wilson, 1987).

166 BETTER VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION If experiencing the feel and technique of an artist is the Suggest the possibility of entering into a dialogue with intent, invite students to do studies from master artists. another artist, creating a “collaborative” piece or one that Encourage them to further research the context out of which responds to an existing one (Cherry & Mellendick, 2002). the work came. Invite students to examine cultural icons and images from Following in-depth study of an artist’s work or a collection of their own heritage, investigate these images, and consider alter- artwork invites students to make a work that inspired by the native ways to transform traditional images to express personal encounter. The options might range from a study to quoting ideas as a basis for making artwork (Erickson, 2000). or appropriation, or to an adaptation, take-off, or extension of the original work (Sandell & Cherry, 1994).

MODELS FOR PRACTICE Heintz, J. (1997, March). How does your garden grow? School Arts, pp. 12-13. Article describes how elementary children introduced to a number of artworks Aukerman, R. (1991, April). Turned on by Turner. School Arts, pp. 28-29. were inspired to invent their own solutions to the question. Article describes how Turner’s work and a local fire inspired paintings by upper- elementary children. Roukes, N. (1988). Design synectics: Stimulating creativity in design. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. Aukerman, R. (1992, April). Children’s art from fine art. School Arts, pp. 30-32. A source book for ideas exploring the possibilities of disruptive thought or Article proposes a method for emotionally connecting children with works of art synectic thinking in which two divergent notions come together to create some- through questioning strategies. Reports on a method of instruction developed over thing new. Includes concise introductions to different approaches followed by the years in the Young People’s Studios at the Maryland Institute College of Art. studio sections illustrating visual problems and sample solutions. Includes chapters on the substructure of design; design and synectics; design and signi- Aukerman, R. (1993, October). Learning from della Robbia. School Arts, pp. fication; paradox, humor, and prevarication; and change. 18-19. Describes how upper-elementary children connected with sculptures by della Sandell, R., & Cherry, S. (1994). Talking about art: From past to present, here Robbia and were inspired to make their own personal sculptures and bas-reliefs. to there: Preservice art teachers collaborate with a museum. Art Education, 47 (4), 18-24. Aukerman, R. (1994). Move over Picasso! A young painter’s primer. New Article describes a collaboration with a local museum in which art education Windsor, MD: Pat Depke Books. majors select an object from the collection to be the focus of a semesterlong Ten works from the National Gallery are presented in context with background investigation of a chosen object including historical and critical research. The information on the artist, questions to help children take a careful look at and semester concludes with the open-ended problem of creating a work of art engage emotionally with the work, and suggestions for materials, planning, and inspired by the object studied. developing a painting of one’s own. Illustrated with student work from upper- elementary children from Saturday classes at the Young People’s Studio at the Wilson, B., Hurwitz, A., & Wilson, M. (1987). Teaching drawing from art. Maryland Institute College of Art. Worcester, MA: Davis Press. A source book for ideas that explore inventive drawing techniques based on Cherry, S., & Mellendick, L. (2002, April). Artful collaborations. School Arts, observation, narrative, works of art, memory, and imagination. Chapter 5 offers special pullout section. ideas for teaching drawing through works of art. Chapter 6 uses art to achieve Article describes a collaboration between a visiting artist and an art teacher expressive character in drawing. Illustrated with examples of student work as that developed an art problem called “Out of the Box.” The artist describes his well as model scripts and ideas for drawing strategies. work and offers reflections. The teacher offers reflections as well as guiding questions, artistic behaviors and visual concepts, and interdisciplinary connections. Examples of student work from seventh and eighth graders are included.

Erickson, M. (2000). Crossing borders in search of self. Art Education, 53 (2), 46-52. Transforming images from one’s own cultural heritage may be empowering, yet it is also controversial. Erickson offers objectives for guiding students in bor- rowing traditional images from their own or others’ cultures.

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