Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-83861-0 — the First Writing Edited by Stephen D

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-83861-0 — The First Writing Edited by Stephen D. Houston Index More Information

Index

Page numbers in italics indicate a reference to an illustration.

Abaj Takalik, Guatemala 301, 304 Latin 266, 267 abstraction 298 Manchu 59 AbuSalabikh, Iraq 73 Mongolian 59, 65 Abydos, Egypt 154, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, NorthItalic 265 167, 168, 173, 174 Ogam 58, 67 acrophony 16, 30, 31, 29–31, 36 Roman 55, 57, 58, 59, 66, 264, 265, 266, adjectives 91 267 administration 72, 80, 84, 91, 95, 117, 147, 151, Semitic 94 171, 184, 185, 223, 224, 228, 234, 270, Turkish 54, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66 300 alphasyllabary 54, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66 accounting in service of 73, 89, 100, 103, Alster, Bendt 97 105, 106, 108, 112, 139, 140, 148, 151, Alvarado Stela 1 296 161, 349, 352 Amuco, Guerrero, Mexico 290 Archaic Babylonian bookkeeping for 108 ancestors 291, 294 adverbs 53 speech of 291, 292 Aegean 184 Andes 93 Bronze Age 184 Anglo-Saxon 270 scripts 176 anthropology 314 settlements 184 Antonsen, Elmer 273 age grade 84 apprenticeship 6 Akkad 94 Arabic 33, 45, 56, 57, 59, 65 Akkadian 52, 53, 63, 64, 142, 143 consonantary 55 language 91, 92, 188, 233 Judaeo- 57 Old 52, 53, 104, 141, 143, 144 script 45, 66 scribes 53 Aramaic 45, 57, 59, 64 writing 91, 92 consonantary 56, 57, 60, 61, 65 Algaze, Guillermo 96 Aratta 84 alphabet 16, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 49, 50, archaeology 237 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, of Anyang (China) 195, 201, 203, 207, 215, 94, 179, 262, 264, 265, 266 217, 218, 237 Archaic Greek 57 cultural-historical 39, 63 Armenian 58, 67 of pre-Anyang (China) 237 Cyrillic 58, 66 postprocessual 39 Georgian 58, 67 archaeologists 222, 236 Gothic 58 archives 72 Greco-Roman 264 Arnheim, Rudolf 318, 319 Greek 265 art history 314 Ionic Greek 59, 60 Aryanpeoples 42 Italic 58 Ashton, Alan 14

396 Index

Asia Minor 57 Bhartrhari 18 languages of (Carian, Lycian, Lydian, bibliography Pamphylian, Phrygian, Sidetic) 57 biochemistry 333 Asian Art Museum of San Francisco 208 biscripts 10 Avery Brundage Collection in 208 Bisutun carving 59, 60 Assmann, Jan 96, 98 trilingual in 59 Assyria 86, 87, 94 Black, Jeremy 185 Ashurnasirpal II of 87, 88 Bolivia 99 “hieroglyphs” of 98 Boltz, William 7, 14, 24, 26, 37, 38, 50, 89, 96, language of 52, 53 98, 237, 243, 245, 247, 253, 254, 258, Aston, Barbara 187 304, 351 atoms 324, 325, 325 monosyllabic theory of 7, 177, 181, 185, 187, Australopithecines 280 247 Aymara 97 books 315, 317 Aztec(Mexican) 47, 94, 294, 295, 315, 317, as biographies 317 342, 344 as cosmogonies 317 calendar priests 346 as divinatory almanacs 338, 339, 340, 341, days 337, 340, 341, 342, 343 343, 344 divinatory calendar 335 as genealogies 317 god of divination 344 as maps 317 Mexican precursors of the 315 as tribute lists 317 months 346 for taxation purposes 317 painter 344 painted 315 pictography 96, 315, 316, 317, 335, 336, 338, Boone, Elizabeth 13, 14, 37, 80, 93, 99, 163, 339, 340, 341, 343, 344 164, 174, 313 views of cosmos 344 Bottero,´ Franc¸oise 14, 95, 98, 227, 238, 247, 250 Babylonia 71, 72, 76, 83, 84, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, boustrophedon 339 101, 102, 103, 108, 117, 119, 122, 124, Brice, William 144 138, 139, 140, 141, 144, 147 Brigham Young University 4, 5, 273 civilization of 119 Bright, William 4 cuneiform in 85, 145, 148 Brink, Stefan 271, 273 hinterland of 119 British Isles 58, 286, 287, 291, 299, 300, 303, language of 52, 64 305, 308 plunder in 119 British Museum 4, 5 river plains of 119 Broodberg, Peter 253, 254, 260 scribes of 126, 139 Buddhism 66 trade in 119 bullae 74, 75, 100, 101, 120, 120, 121, 123, Bæksted, Anders 270, 272 175 Baghdad, Iraq 94 bureaucracy 72–80, 151, 152 Bagley, Robert 14, 185, 187, 190, 237, 242, Byrhtferth’s diagram 345, 345 244 Baines, John 11, 14, 48, 95, 96, 97, 98, 150, 186, Cacaxtla, Tlaxcala, Mexico 277, 278 187, 236, 239, 244, 245, 246, 350 Calakmul, Campeche 303 barbarism 40 calendar dates 47 Barber, Christy 273 calligraphy 89, 298, 301, 308 Baxter, William 253, 254, 260 captions 290, 295, 308 Beale, Thomas 147 captives 277, 289, 290, 292, 293, 295, 295, 299, Belize 303 302, 302, 306 Berlo, Janet 276 Cardona, Giorgio 152, 174, 177

Index 397

Caroline Islands 55 modern Mandarin 51 Woleaian language of 55 relation of orthography to 233 Caso, Alfonso 294 spoken 259, 260 Celts 264, 286, 287 syllables in 51, 247 celts (adzes) 284, 286, 287 verbs in 260 Central Asia 57, 65 Liangzhu culture 229, 229 non-Semitic languages of (Bactrian, Neolithic 229, 250, 258 Parthian, Persian, Sogdian, Uyghur carpenters 234 Turkic) 57 jades 229 Cerro de las Mesas Stela 8 276 jadeworkers 246 Chalcatzingo, Morelos, Mexico Monument 31 marks 245, 258, 261 285 pots 229 Chalchuapa, El Salvador 301 writing 247 chaos theory 333 NorthAmerican scholars of 253, 254 characters 51 Northern 42 charts 328, 329, 330, 333, 335 pottery 217, 218, 258 ﬂow 330 Shang 79, 83, 151, 250, 253, 254, 260 Charvat,´ Petr 101 period as mosaic of small states 224 chemists 324 Western Zhou dynasty 210, 211, 242, 260 Chen Mengjia 242 Shang prototypes of 210 Chen Zhida 243 writing of 237, 244, 245, 247 Chiapas, Mexico 297, 301 Yangshao culture 50 Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico 277, potteryof50 278 Zhou 237, 240, 242, 244 Childe V. Gordon 275 Chinese writing 3, 4, 7, 10, 20, 24, 26, 34, 37, childhood development 314 41, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59, 63, 64, 78, iconic representation in 314 84, 88, 89, 92, 96, 98, 172, 177, 178, use of symbols in 314 181, 182, 190, 191, 211, 226, 235, 238, China 40, 53, 59, 61, 65, 66, 71, 72, 78, 88, 89, 245, 246, 247, 250, 254, 256, 258, 259, 91, 95, 98, 190, 191, 202, 207, 208, 226, 284–293, 298, 308, 350, 352 227, 230, 231, 234, 236, 237, 241, 244, abstract signs in 251–252 247, 250, 258, 259 animals in 252, 253, 254, 260 archaeologists of 222, 236 clan emblems in 78, 229, 251, 261 Bronze Age 244 compound graphs in 252, 253, 254, 260 Chinese scholars of 251, 253 divinatory function of 78, 79, 250, 255 Dawenkou culture 50, 187, 229 diviners in 255 emblems 229 evolution of 256 dialects in 51 grammatical particles in 251 Erligang culture 50, 207, 227, 228, 230, 234, coordinating conjunction 251 236, 241, 244 copula 251 bronzes 228 homorganic 253, 254, 258 diviners 234 modal 251 state 236, 244 grapheme combination in 252–255 type site of Zhengzhou 241 graphemes in 252, 253, 254 Erlitou period 50 graph formation in 257 Han period 51, 243 graphic variants of 255–258, 260 administration 243 invention of 190, 259 history of 190 independent 259 language of 51, 53, 63, 233, 250, 255, 258 numbers in 252 inﬂections in 233 on bamboo 286, 287

398 Index

Chinese writing (cont.) civilization 40, 41, 42, 66, 93, 94, 99, 153, 160, on bronze vessels 78, 187, 201, 203, 205, 206, 175, 185, 207, 223, 226, 241, 262 207, 208, 209, 210, 212 bronze-using 224, 244 on oracle bones 78, 79, 96, 151, 187, 351 in China 227, 245 on turtle shells 78, 79, 195 New World 275 oracle bone inscriptions (OBI) 250, 251, Clark, John 309 254, 255, 256, 257, 258 class interests 67 oracles in 254, 255, 259 Codex Borgia 337, 338, 339, 340, 341 patronyms in 251 Codex Fejerv´ ary-Mayer´ 316, 342, 343, 344, phonetic elements in 257 346 phonophoric elements in 252, 253, 254, Codex Mendoza 294 260 as tribute document 294 pictographic origins of 250, 253 Codex Mexicanus 336 pictographs in 251, 253, 260, 261 Codex Xolotl 279 pronunciation of 252, 253, 254, 260 codices 278 rebus in 251 Coe, Michael 14, 239, 302, 309 relation of spoken language to 255 cognition 318 river names in 253, 254 Collier, Mark 185 sacriﬁces mentioned in 251, 254 Collon, Dominique 95 sacriﬁcial names in 251, 255 commodities 77 scribes of 253, 254, 255 communication 40, 65, 67, 119, 151, 152, 175, semantic elements in 257, 260 181, 224, 279 sheep in 254, 260 display as 78, 97 space notations in 252 of royal ideology 78 stimulus diffusion as origin of 190, 191, 198, utilitarian 151 199, 200, 202, 207, 213, 214, 216, 217, complexity 94, 166, 188 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226–227, 229, computers 65, 333 230, 235, 236, 240, 241, 242, 259 consonantary 42, 50, 54, 55, 56, 59, 64, 65 synchronic variants in 253, 254 Arabic 59, 65 texts of 83 Aramaic 56, 57, 60, 61, 65 time notations in 252 linear 56 days 252 northern linear 56 years 252 Phoenician 57 toponyms in 251, 255 southern linear 56, 57 turtle plastrons with 192, 193, 194, 195, unpointed 57 256 West Semitic 42, 64, 65 women’s names in 252, 253, 254, 260 consonants 41, 44, 45, 50, 54, 57, 59, 60, 61, 63, Lady Jing 253, 254 65, 98, 163, 164, 178, 179, 180 Women’s script of 305 clusters 60 words in 251 contingency 6 Choga Mish, Iran 119 Cooper, Jerrold 14, 23, 71, 96, 98, 99, 142, 148, Ch’olti’ (Maya) 33 176, 188, 228, 236, 239, 240, 245, 246, Chomsky, Noam 45 349, 352, 353 Christenson, Allen 14 Coulmas, Florian 95 Christianity 270 covenants 10 missionaries of 58 Cretan Hieroglyphic 52, 55 Orthodox tradition of 58, 291 Crick, Francis 328, 329, 329, 330, 333, 335 Roman Catholic 58 cryptography 186, 189 world view of 345, 346 culture Civil, Miguel 243, 244 change 67

Index 399

conservatism of 66 database 333 values of 67 Daxinzhuang, Shandong, China 237, 240, 242, cuneiform 12, 23, 38, 52, 53, 56, 64, 71, 82, 84, 244 85, 85, 86, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 98, decipherment 100, 104, 113, 124, 127, 143, 99, 100, 101, 102, 121, 145, 146, 148, 144, 147, 184, 294, 298, 299 178, 179, 216, 220, 227, 231, 240, 245, with biscripts 10, 298 246, 247, 290, 298 with Rosetta Stone 10 archaic 119, 142 DeFrancis, John 38, 66 archaic scribes of 102 deixis 26, 26 as bookkeeping 220, 224, 225, 232, 234, 235, Dematte,` Paola 245 236, 246 Denmark 58, 271 Babylonian 64 determinatives (classiﬁers) 24–25, 49, 91, 98 Ebla corpus of 111 diacritics 57, 60 guniﬁcation 111 diagrams 314, 319, 324, 325, 329, 330, 332, Hittite 53 333, 335, 336, 337, 344, 345, 342–346 iconicity in 240, 243 diffusion 39, 42 legal texts 91, 92 stimulus 43, 52, 55, 59 lexical lists 78, 83, 97, 220, 222, 243 diplomatic exchanges 224 literary texts 97 Diringer, David 41 Old Persian 59 discourse 334, 336 orientation of 97, 98 display 78, 97, 151, 152, 171, 290, 351 proto-cuneiform 47, 52, 76, 77, 80, 84, 85, divination 47, 83, 192, 193, 194, 195 86, 90, 97, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107, Djamouri, Redouane 242, 247 108, 110, 111, 113, 117, 118, 119, 120, Djokha, Iraq 142 122, 124, 127, 139, 140, 142, 144, 145, DNA 328, 329 146, 147, 148, 216, 243, 246, 254, 260 Drake, Stillman 319 administrative texts 108, 141 Dreyer, Gunter¨ 153, 154, 156, 157, 161, 162, numerical signs 106, 107, 108, 117, 122, 163, 164, 165, 167, 169, 179, 187, 188 145 scribes 101 East Asia 54, 65 sexagesimal system 112 secondary scripts of 54, 64 ration accounts 83 societies of 41 stylus 127, 220, 243 Ebla corpus 111 Sumerian 23, 24, 38, 71, 80, 90, 91, 92, 95, Ecole Biblique, Jerusalem 143 96, 98 Egypt 40, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 61, 64, 65, 71, Sumerograms in 72, 78, 88, 95, 98, 152, 153, 154, 157, syllabic 179 158, 161, 162, 166, 171, 175, 176, 177, tablets 75, 77, 120, 220, 221 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, archaic 80, 96, 98 190, 199, 202, 207, 223, 225, 226, 231, wedges in 148, 220 232, 233, 234, 235, 240, 243, 244, 245, Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI) 249 100, 101, 128, 141, 143 Abydos 48, 148, 152, 155, 169 Cemetery B 152, 153, 163, 174 Dahl, Jacob 141 Cemetery U 152, 153, 167, 169, 186, 187 Dalley, Stephanie 244 necropolis 152 Damerow, Peter 11, 12, 118, 141, 143, 144, 145, Ummel-Qaë ab 152, 153, 163, 173 146, 147, 185, 245, 351, 352 Afroasiatic roots in 50, 57, 64, 162, 189 Daniels, Peter 4, 10, 52, 177, 181, 227, 246, 247 art market 169, 170, 186 Darius I 59, 60 bureaucracy of 72 data analysis 328, 329–330 cemeteries in 170

400 Index

Egypt (cont.) elites of 152, 183 Christian literature of 58 dwellings of 166 chronology of 95 tombs of 166, 184, 187 dynasty 0 153, 163, 164, 167, 169, 169, estates (plantations) in 162, 171 171, 172, 173, 175, 177, 181, 182, 183, fauna of 158, 164 186, 187, 188, 245 folk categories in 158 1st dynasty 159, 163, 165, 172, 174, 174, graffiti of 167, 169 179, 181, 183, 187, 188 grain records in 157 2nd dynasty 164, 173, 175, 180, 183 hieroglyphs of 154, 158, 160, 161, 167, 170, 3rd dynasty 164, 173, 175 179, 187, 256 5th dynasty 173, 182, 188 high culture of 171 Early Dynastic 157, 179, 180, 182, 184, 187 history of 50 Middle Kingdom 50, 57, 64, 175, 179, 243 Hunter’s Palette from 167, 168, 169, 170, Naqada I 166 173 Naqada II 153, 154, 161, 162, 166, 186, iconicity in 164, 183 187; pottery (B-Ware) 166; pottery iconography of 157, 164, 167, 186 (D-Ware) 154, 166 decorum 164, 167 Naqada III 153, 154, 155, 159, 162, 166, “emblematic personification” 173 168, 170, 171, 182, 187 ideology of 167, 186 New Kingdom 50 imported pottery in 158, 161 Old Kingdom 179, 181, 182, 243, 245 jars of 157, 158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 170 civilization of 153, 160, 175, 185 for commodities 157, 165 cloth lists in 157 for fat 157 Coptic Church of 58 for oil 157, 173 cryptography in 92 texts on 165 deities of 166, 180 kingship in 157 Delta of 175 kings of 162, 163, 168, 169, 180, 182, Early Dynastic 152 184 early hieroglyphs in 152–161 Aha 174, 188 “Basta” 163 annals of 173 birds 157, 159, 162 burials of 168, 170 boats 162 Djer 187 “Bubastis” 161, 162, 170 “Horus Name” of 168, 170 elephant 162, 186 “Irihor” 187 estate names 164 Narmer 173, 188 falcon 162 prehistoric 182 fish 157, 162 language of 56, 58, 60, 63, 64, 163, 164, 171, ibis 162 177, 178, 186, 188, 189, 233 jackal 186 affixes 180 ox head (bucranium) 157, 159, 160, biconsonantal roots 178 162 consonantal prefixes 178, 179 ox head on pole 159, 162 consonantal suffixes 178, 179 palace façade 157 consonants 163, 164, 178, 179, 180 plant 157, 159 Coptic 58, 59 reptiles 157, 164, 167, 186 flexion 188 scorpion 157, 159, 159, 160, 162, 186 homophones 178, 179 seashell 160, 162 lexemes 163, 165, 171, 172, 176, 178, shrine 157 180 throne 157, 164 lexical structure 182 “West” 162 morphology 163

Index 401

nouns 189 tags from 148, 155, 156, 157, 158, phonology (syllables) 163, 165, 178, 179, 159, 163, 164, 165, 171, 173, 174, 180 187 roots 178, 180, 189 Upper 152, 157 spoken 165, 176, 189 writing in 3, 11, 26, 30, 34, 38, 48, syntax 165, 178, 180, 188 49, 50, 52, 56, 61, 63, 64, 71, 78, 80, 84, verbal conjugations 178, 188, 189 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 98, 150, vowels 178, 179, 180, 183 152, 154, 160, 161, 164, 169, 171, 172, weak verbs 188 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, words 178, 180, 181, 186, 188, 189 183, 186, 187, 200, 202, 241, 290, 291, luxury goods in 166, 174 335, 349 metal vessels in 187 biconsonantals 163, 178, 181 names of 165 cartouches 241 narrative in 97 complex signs in 167, 170 Nile Valley in 175 consonantal 180, 186, 189 palaces in 170 cursive 167, 172, 187, 235, 240 Palermo Stone from 173, 182, 188 determinatives 163, 179, 188; semantic palettes in 80 241 papyrus in 174 discourse 173, 174, 178, 179, 180, 181, people of 56, 57, 64, 65 182 potmarks in 159 hieratic 160, 169, 170, 187 pottery of 159, 159, 160, 162, 164, 166, 167, iconicity in 240 170, 187 logograms 163, 164, 179, 180, 188 Predynastic 152 multiconsonantals 163 provinces (nomes) in 166 “narrative inﬁnitive” 172, 188 Pyramid texts of 182 non-Egyptian names in 179 ritual papyri in 58 offertory 349 royalofﬁcials of 48 of names 187 rulership in 166 on stelae 187 school texts in 222 orthography 157, 178, 179, 181, 182, 189, Scorpion Macehead from 169, 169, 170, 247 186 phonemic complements 163, 180, scribes in 184, 200, 202, 240 188 sealings from 154, 158, 161, 174, 182, 183 phonemic signs 178, 180 Seth animal in 186 phonograms 163, 164, 165, 179, 187 settlements of 170 pictographs 163 shrines of 166, 178 prestige of 167, 169, 170, 173 spells in 182 proto-hieroglyphs 171, 176, 180, 181 state organization of 153, 162, 171 pseudo-inscriptions 182, 183, 184 stone vases in 166 rebus 165, 177, 178, 179, 181, 188 tags (bone and ivory) in 154, 155, 156, 157, reforms in 164, 165, 180, 183 161, 162 sacred function of 170 temples of 168, 170 semagrams 163 textiles of 166, 170 semantic classes titles in 163, 184 sign repertory 152 trade in 161 syllabogram 179, 186 U-j tomb of 11, 48, 153, 154, 158, 160, 161, tributary 349 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, triconsonantals 178, 188 171, 172, 173, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, triliterals 98 183, 184, 186, 350 uniconsonantals 178, 181, 182

402 Index

Egyptians 40, 48, 54 Falkenhausen, Lothar von 242 Egyptologists 98, 153, 178 Falkenstein, Adam 101 Einstein, Albert 319 Fell, Christine 270 relativity theory of 319 Ferguson, Eugene 319 Elam 42, 124 Finkel, Irving 98 Elamite 53, 145 Fischer, Henry G. 189 Old 144 Fluckiger-Hawker,¨ Esther 185 linear texts 145 Forsythe, Evie 14 palaeographic tradition in 145 fractal geometry 332–333 speakers of 103 French 44 Eldredge, Niles 6 Friberg, Joran¨ 101, 141, 147 el-Khouli, Ali 187 Funen, Denmark 263 Elkins, James 334, 335 futhark (runic alphabet) 35, 45, 58, 263 model of Notation 334, 335 model of Picture 334, 335 Galileo 319 model of Writing 334, 335 Gardiner, Alan 180 El Manat´ı, Veracruz, Mexico 288 Gardner, Martin 324 wooden sculptures at 288 Gaur, Albertine 186 El Mirador, Guatemala 300, 303 Gee, John 14 Stela 2 at 300, 303 Ge’ez 56 El Porton, Guatemala 301 Gelb, Ignace 6, 13, 40, 42, 43, 47, 54, 55, 63, 65, El Salvador 301 66, 71, 91, 94, 95, 144, 178, 179, 246, El Taj´ın, Veracruz, Mexico 277 275, 276 emblems 284 principle of “Unidirectional Development” emmer wheat 115, 117 40, 52 empire 244 theory of unilinear evolution 179 English 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 45, 265, 276 German 265 Old English 35 experimentation with runes 265, 271 spoken 45 Germany (Germania) 263, 266, 271 written 45, 63 chieftains of 271 Englund, Robert 74, 77, 78, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, culture of 270 100, 118, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, language of 58 147, 148, 186, 188, 243, 245, 349, 350, people of 270 352 provinces of 266 Enmerkar 84 Roman inﬂuence on 272 epigraphers 295 society of 270, 272 Erbil, Iraq 94 tribes of 266, 272 Ethiopia 56, 61, 65 Glassner, Jean-Jacques 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 142, Euphrates 94 188 Europe 42, 54, 58, 65 glottochronology 282, 283 medieval 58 glottography 44 writing of 57 glyphs 185, 186 evolution 276 Godin Tepe, Iran 73, 76, 119, 126, 128, 148 cultural 39 Goody, Jack 40, 83, 92, 189 Darwinian frameworks of 41 Gould, Stephen Jay 6 unilinear 42, 43 grammatology 39 excavations 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 161, 162, evolutionary 40–43, 65 166, 171, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180, 182, graphemes 266, 267, 272, 273 183, 184, 186, 187, 188 rules of 273 expressive art 67 graphs 185, 329, 330, 332, 334, 346

Index 403

catalogues of 334–335 Houston, Anders 15 design of 315, 319 Houston, Hannah 15 systems of 313, 314 Houston, Stephen 13, 14, 38, 83, 94, 96, 99, technology of 332–333 157, 185, 236, 239, 274, 349 graves 154, 157, 159, 184, 187, 271 Hu Houxuan 239, 259 Greece 42, 65 human body 290 alphabet of 42, 57, 58 Hurons 44 language of 34, 55, 57 Hurrian 53 people of 42, 57 Green, Dennis 269 Iberian scripts 55 Green, Mary 60, 101, 143 Phoenician influence on 55 Greenberg, Joseph 4 icon (Peircean) 18, 19, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36, Guatemala 278, 280, 301 38, 84, 291, 292, 294, 299, 315, 335, 349 highlands of 301 iconicity 84, 87, 164, 183, 290, 291, 292, 298, Pacific coast of 278 299 piedmont of 301 loss of 84–89, 93 iconographic community 286, 287 Haas, William 314, 318 iconography 80 Habuba Kabira, Syria 73 identifiers 290 Halle, Morris 45 ideographs 16, 25, 26, 27, 28, 36, 37, 38 Hamman, Byron 14 index (Peircean) 18, 25, 26, 28, 36, 84 Hankul 59 India 66, 181, 184, 189 Harris, John 98 culture of 66 Harris, Roy 186 Indian grammatical school 181 Hartung, Ulrich 153, 154 Indo-European 53, 141 headdresses 286, 288, 289, 290, 298 peoples 42 lexemic 290 Indus script 13, 52, 60, 246 Hebrew 56, 57 industrial societies 67 Heidelberg University 142, 148 Indus Valley 42 Henan Jiahu, China 245 Inka 40, 63, 80, 93 Hendrickx, Stan 187 Inomata, Takeshi 239 heterography 28, 29, 31–34, 36 inscriptions 298, 299 Hezyre 184 instrumentality 84 Hierakonpolis, Egypt 153 internationalism 318 ivories from 187 Iran 66, 143, 175 “Main Deposit” at 169, 187 highlands of 143 Tomb 100 at 166 Iraq 42, 47, 48, 49, 52, 53, 119, 120, 122, 123, wall painting 166 141, 142 hieroglyphs 291, 292, 309, 315, 334 invasion of 142 Himlingøje, Denmark 269 plunder of 142 Hinduism 66 Islam 57, 66 Hinuber,¨ Oskar von 189 nationalism in 59 Hinz, Walther 142 Ismail, Farouk 148 Hittite hieroglyphs 52, 55 Isthmian writing (“Epi-Olmec”) 7, 13, 48, 274, homeostasis 34 276, 280, 282, 283, 290, 292, 297, Homo erectus 280–282 296–298, 300, 306, 308, 351 homonyms (homophones) 22, 22, 23–24, 25, bar-and-dot numeration in 298 47, 49, 51, 65, 89, 93, 178, 179, 247, Chiapa de Corzo sherd 296, 297 294, 305, 349 Chiapa de Corzo Stela 10, 297 near-homonyms 49 claims to decipherment of 298

404 Index

Isthmian writing (cont.) as non-iconic writing 351 El Sitio Celt 296 as record-keeping 99 La Mojarra Stela 1 282, 296 Kitan 53 Long Count notations in 297 Koptos, Egypt 167, 170 O’Boyle Mask 296 colossal statutes of 167, 169 signs in 298 Korean 33, 34, 53, 59, 64, 65, 66 supposed relation to Mixe-Zoquean Hankul 59, 64 languages 296 words 59 Teotihuacan Mask 296, 297, 301 Krebernik, Manfred 142, 148 Tuxtla Statuette 296, 297 Kroeber, Alfred 43, 54 Isthmus of Tehuantepec 276, 296 Kurdish 59 Italy 57 Ivanov, Vyacheslav 141 Laban, Rudolf 320 Labanotation 320, 323, 334 jade (greenstone) 284, 286, 291, 298, Lacadena, Alfonso 309 303 Ladino 57 Jakobson, Roman 16, 17, 18, 19 Lagash, Iraq 87 Janetski, Joel 14 Stela of the Vultures from 87, 87 Japan 54, 64, 65, 66 Landa, Diego de 10 Japanese 34, 53, 65, 66, 92, 99 Landsberger, Benno 149 kana 53 landscape 284 kanji 53, 92 language 38, 44, 83, 294 words 53 adjectives in 50, 53 writing 41, 55 afﬁxes of 50, 51, 91, 98 Jebel Aruda, Syria 73, 75 dialects of 45, 83 Jemdet Nasr, Iraq 76, 86, 102, 124 grammar in 81, 82, 90, 150, 334 British–American excavators of 102 grammatical particles in 50, 53 Jiangxi, China 244 nouns of 50, 53 Jurchin 53 pronouns of 48 relation of writing to 150, 177–184 Kahl, Jochem 152, 180, 186 spoken 20, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 37, 49, 52, 63, Kaiser, Werner 186 83, 92, 96, 315, 320, 346 Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala 301 syntax of 81, 82, 286, 287, 292, 315 language at 301 universals in 4 lords at 301 verbs in 50, 53, 91 Monument 65 289, 301 medio-passive 33 nominal glyphs at 301 transitive 33 sculptures at 301 written 96 “Stela” 10 from 280, 281, 301, 308 Larsen, Mogens T. 244, 245 Stela 21from280 Latin 10, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 161, 162, 166, Kashmiri 59 171, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180, 182, 183, Kaufman, Terrence 282 184, 186, 187, 188, 265, 267, 272 Keightley, David 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 244, alphabet 266, 267 246, 247 letters 265, 266, 272 Kelley, David 276 La Venta, Tabasco, Mexico 288, 292, 293, 300 Kendal, Belize 304 Monument 13 from 276, 277, 292, 293 Kenya 280 Lawler, Andrew 142 Kerr, Justin 239 Lebanon 186 khipu (knotted ropes) 13, 40, 80, 83, 93, 96, 97, cedarwood of 186 351 Lebeau, Marc 148

Index 405

Le Breton, Louis 121 Marxism 7 Lesko, Leonard 239, 244 Maya 40, 80, 84, 88, 289, 290, 292, 293, 295, letters 28, 56, 57, 267, 271 299, 302, 306, 315, 334 Roman 265, 266, 267, 271, 272 adzes 306 Levant 10, 56, 179 altars 302 Levi-Strauss,´ Claude 84 architecture 302, 303 lexemes 6 façades 300, 303 lexicon 177, 225, 233, 235 Preclassic 303 lexicostatistics 283 calendar 301 Li Chi (Li Ji) 50, 228, 236, 239, 240, 245, 246 chronology 306, 308 Linear A (Minoan) 55 Classic period 280, 302 Linear B (Mycenaean) 55 Early Classic 299, 306, 308 Linear Elamite 104, 141, 143, 144 Late Classic 299 linearity 318 Late Preclassic 301, 352 linguistics 314 Long Count 278 lists 329, 330, 330, 336, 337–340, 342, 346 Middle Preclassic 301 grouped 339 Preclassic 306 literacy 6, 41, 200, 211, 212, 213, 221, 239, 244, proto-Classic 308 290 cities 304 autonomous model of 6 civilization 351 ideological model of 5–8 Classic 286, 287, 291, 299, 300, 303, 305, 308 kinds of 332 decipherment of 299, 304, 308 Latin 270 deities 303, 304, 308 recitation 6, 8 heads of 303, 304 literature 83 lists of 304 Liu, David 237 Early Classic cache vessels 303, 306 Loewe, Michael 243 “house” metaphors for pots 303 logic 314, 319, 323–324, 336 iconography 301 diagrams of 323 kings 303 of relations 323 labels 306 syllogisms 323 labor organization 303 logicians 324 language 275, 300, 301, 305, 306 logographs (logograms) 6, 11, 16, 23, 26, 27, Ch’olan 305 28, 29, 30, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, Ch’olti’ 33 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, derivation 305 56, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 90, 91, ergative pronouns 300, 306 98, 262, 290, 294, 299, 304, 305, 349 inflection 305 logophones 45, 46, 48, 49–54, 55, 63, 64, 65, 66 instrumentals 305 Loltun, Yucatan, Mexico 300, 306 prefixes 305 Loprieno, Antonio 186, 188 pronouns 302, 306 Louvre Museum, Paris 102, 110, 143 suffixes 302, 305 Luvian (Luwian, Hittite) 29, 30, 52, 167, 169, syntax 308 170, 173, 290 vowels 305 Yukatek 275 Malay 57 Lowlands 300, 301, 302 Marcus, Joyce 294, 295 metallurgy 71 markedness 37 periods of script development 302–308 marked categories of 35 Period IA 302 unmarked categories of 35 Period IB 302, 303, 305, 306 Martin, Simon 14 Period II 302, 303, 306

406 Index

Maya (cont.) memory 189, 350 petroglyphs 300 merchants 224 place-notation 300 Meriggi, Piero 103, 141, 143, 144 region 277 list of 104, 141 scholarship of 282, 299 Meritneith 188 scribes 200, 300 Mesoamerica 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12–14, 47, 53, 80, use of Olmec heirlooms 303 88, 92, 94, 152, 174, 177, 207, 235, 274, writing (glyphs) 3, 7, 10, 11, 12, 30, 31, 32, 275, 276, 277, 278, 280, 281, 282, 283, 33, 34, 36, 38, 42, 44, 48, 51, 52, 54, 63, 284, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293, 71, 72, 80, 87, 90, 92, 164, 172, 274, 275, 298, 301, 308, 309 280, 282, 287, 290, 293, 294, 298, 299, calendar of 349 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308, 351 chronology of 279 acrophony in 306 Early Formative 279 as incantatory cues 304 Middle Formative 279, 284, 288, 290 Classic-period 32, 90, 92, 283 Middle Preclassic 284, 287 royal courts 99 Late Preclassic 291, 292, 309 codiﬁcation 306, 308 Formative centers in 293 de-semantization 305 highland 48 Diker Bowl 306 iconography in 301 Dumbarton Oaks Pectoral 303, 306 onomastics of 349 early 298–308 Postclassic 276 extension principle 11 Precolumbian 288–293 Hauberg “Stela” 306 rulers in 290 head variants 303 sacred calendar of 292 highland 306 seals and cylinders in 286, 287, 292 “Hombre de Tikal” 303 writing of 71, 72, 80, 227, 244, 245, 246, 247, iconic origin of 305 349 morphosyllables 305 “closed” 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 288–308 “name tags” in 304 Oaxacan 279 nominal 302, 303 of names 290, 292, 301 on palm leaves 300 Olmec origin of 285, 284–293, 298, 308 on wooden objects 300 onset of punctuated narrative 300 Peabody Museum Statuette 306, 307 ontological properties of 291 piedmont 306 “open” 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 286, 296 Preclassic 300 relation to names and bodies 288 “Primary Standard Sequence” 304 Southeastern 279 rebus 299, 304, 305 Mesoamericanists 44 reinterpretation principle 11 Mesopotamia 40, 48, 71, 72, 73, 74, 78, 80, 87, replacement meaning 305 88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 100, 101, 104, “retroactive conceit” 299 112, 117, 118, 119, 122, 124, 127, 140, sampling problems of 299 141, 143, 150, 152, 154, 171, 172, 174, semantic replacement 305 175, 176, 177, 180, 182, 186, 188, 190, signary 280, 299 199, 207, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, syllabiﬁcation principle 11 226, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 239, synchronic views of 351 244, 245, 254, 255, 259, 351, 352 “synoptic fallacy” 299 administrative centers in 117 syntactic opacity of 304 animal products in 122 Mayanists 185 “archaic” language in 188 McDowell,Andrea 244 beveled bowls in 115, 117, 141, 147 Mecquenem, Roland de 103, 120 chronology of 95

Index 407

Early Dynastic I–II 142, 143 as map-based histories 335 Early Dynastic III 101 as maps 317 Jemdet Nasr 143 as tribute lists 276, 317 Uruk III 100, 124, 140, 143 for taxation purposes 317 Uruk IV 100, 101, 124, 139, 140, 143 painted 315 dual gender system in 112, 146 Mexico 40, 47, 48 animate 112, 146 Spanish conquest of 40 non-animate 112, 146 Michalowski, Piotr 95, 97, 188, 239, 244 non-animate objects 112 Michel, Rudolph 148 economies of 122 Midant-Reynes, Beatrix´ 187 envelopes in 122 Middle East 42, 56, 64, 65 exercise tablets of 222 Iron Ageof56 genres of literature in 221 Late Bronze Age of 56 grain in 81, 122, 147 merchants of 60 historians of 119 Middle Bronze Age of 56 history of 119 Mirador Basin 9, 352 ideographs of 119 Mixe-Zoquean languages 283 laborers of 112 Mixtec 276, 289, 315 letters in 223, 224, 225 writing 8, 94, 335 lexical lists of 101 mnemonics 40, 63 linguistic environment of 248 molecules 324, 325, 325, 327 list of professions in 79, 186 Mongolian phonography 59 personal names of 112 monogeneticism 10, 11 proto-cuneiform in 86, 254, 260 monograph 294 ration distribution 147 monosyllables 177, 178 schoolboys in 221 MonteAlban,´ Mexico 276, 277, 294, 295, 295 schools in 222 Lapida´ de Bazan´ from 296 scribes of 253, 254 SP-1 from 296 seals of 119, 120, 122, 123, 141, 142 Moore, Oliver 237, 242 slave laborers of 112 Morgan, Jacques de 102, 120 stamps in 119 morphemes 27, 33, 41, 44, 45, 50, 51, 52, 53, writing in 150, 152, 154, 171, 172, 174, 175, 59, 63, 91 176, 177, 180, 182, 186, 188, 190, 191, under-representation of 32–34 216, 230, 259 morphophones 45 lists 220, 222, 243 Mosul, Iraq 94 Mesopotamianists 227 Musee´ Cernuschi, Paris 206 metonymy 84 Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, metrology 78 University ofSao˜ Paolo 143 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 168, Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm 170 241 Mexican pictography 279, 315, 317, 335 music 16 organized by event 335 organized by time 335 names (appellatives) 315, 317 Mexican pictorial codices 44, 315, 342 Naqada, Egypt 166 as almanacs 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 339, Naxi (pictography) 10, 245 340, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 346 Near East 73, 95, 100, 119, 151, 176, 190, 220, as biographies 317 225, 226, 228, 236 as cosmogonies 317 token systems of 75, 236 as divinatory books 335, 337, 340 writing of 102, 216, 224 as genealogies 317 Neo-Assyrian 53

408 Index

neoevolutionism 39 iconography 48, 284, 285, 296, 308 Nile river 72 “birth” 285, 286, 287 Nimrud (Kalkhu), Iraq 88 “clouds” 285, 286, 287 Nineveh, Iraq 73 “wind” 286, 287, 301 Nippur, Iraq94 lapidary work 303 Nissen, Hans 95, 97, 101, 119, 141, 142, 143, mannequins 288 144, 186, 239, 243, 244, 245 pars pro toto principle 284 Noble, David 6 pectorals 291 Noleby, Sweden 270 portraiture 288 NorthAmerican natives 55 sculptures 292 Cherokee syllabary of 55, 58 supposed “writing” among 293 Norway 58 onomastics 349 Norwegian Archaeological Review 68 onomatopoeia 19, 37 notations 314, 320 orality 350 algebraic 319, 319, 320, 332 oral traditions 40, 65 chemical 37, 324–329, 336 origins dance 37, 314, 320, 321, 322, 333 anachronistic fallacy in studies of 12 Feuillet system 322 as invention 80, 92, 95, 161, 162, 170 for technical instruction and safety 330–332 bureaucratic 72–80 logic 314, 319, 323–324, 336 diffusionism in studies of 71, 95 mathematical 37, 314, 319–320, 333, episodes of 10–12 334 ethnographic 13 music 37, 314, 319, 320, 321, 332, 333, history of 3 334 iconic 284, 352 of molecular formula 324, 325, 334 monogeneticism 10, 11 of physics 319–320 nonlinguistic 151 scientiﬁc 314, 319, 333, 336 primary 151, 351 statistical 314, 319, 335 process of 3 systems of 101 revelatory 13 nouns 53, 91 secondary 3, 139, 300 proper 38 sophisticated 10 Nubian A-Group 187 stimulus diffusion as explanation for 95, numbers 46, 63, 78, 81, 154, 157, 159, 187, 333 176, 190, 191, 198, 199, 200, 202, 207, systems of 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 213, 214, 216, 217, 220, 222, 223, 224, 110, 113, 117, 118, 122, 123, 126, 127, 225, 226–227, 229, 230, 235, 236, 240, 139, 141, 145, 146, 148 241, 242 Nylan, Michael 237 synoptic fallacy in studies of 11 unsophisticated 10 Oaxaca, Mexico 276, 292 orthography 28, 29, 36, 91, 163 Valley of 277, 293, 294, 295 Otomanguean language family 293 Odenstedt, Bengt 270 Ottoman Turkish 57 Ogam 10, 14, 286, 287, 301 Owen, Charles 334 Old Norse 270 Oxtotitlan, Guerrero, Mexico 289 Old World 259 Ozbaki, Iran 143 Olmec 10, 94, 283, 284, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291, 293, 301 painting 16 artistic conventions 283 palaeographers 236 as “mother civilization” 283 Palestine 161 deity impersonation 289 Pan¯ . ini 189 “heartland” 293 papyrus 243

Index 409

Parkinson, Richard 185, 186 Poland 271 Pashto 57 polities 166 pedagogy 6, 220, 221, 222 regional 166, 188 for royal children 239 polyphony 22, 24, 27 in administrative units 221 polysyllables 177, 178 for creation of clerks 221 Pope, Clayne 14 for creation of overseers 221 Porada, Edith 143 for needs of bureaucracies 221 Postclassic Mexico 8 in palaces 221, 239 Postgate, Nicholas 227, 244, 245, 246, 247 in private homes 221 pragmatics 9 Peirce, Charles 18, 19, 28, 36, 37, 349 “primitive” societies 43 perception 17, 18, 19, 20, 35 principles 315 auditory 16, 19, 19, 22, 22,35 of exclusion 315 visual 16, 17, 18, 19, 19, 20, 21, 25, 27, 34, of inclusion 315 35, 313, 314, 317, 318 of proximity 315 Persia 102, 103, 117, 119, 121, 122, 124, 126, of sequence 315 128, 140, 141, 147 processed grain 115, 117 archaic 112, 147 propaganda 300, 308 people of 112 proteins 325 settlements in 119, 121 proto-cuneiform 47, 52, 76, 77, 80, 84, 85, 86, western 119 90, 97, 100, 101, 102, 104, 107, 108, Persian Gulf 94 110, 111, 113, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, Peru 40, 99 124, 127, 139, 140, 142, 144, 145, 146, people of 44 147, 148, 216, 243, 246, 254, 260 Peten,´ Guatemala 302, 302 absence of decimal system in 145 Petrie, Flinders 188 administrative texts 108, 141 Pettersson, John 95, 96, 98, 189 bisexagesimal system 113 philology 181, 265 fractions 117 Phoenician 56, 57 numerical notations 106, 107, 108, 117, 122, consonantary 57 127, 145 phonemes 20, 28, 35, 41, 150, 158, 165, 176, personal names 142 262, 266, 267 pictographs 147 phonemicization 65 rebus 142 phoneticism 16, 34, 89, 93 relation to proto-Elamite 125, 130 phoneticization 51 scribes 101 phonography 31, 34, 36, 38, 41, 44, 45, 52, sexagesimal system 112 54–61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 proto-Elamite 3, 12, 52, 96, 100, 103, 103, phonology 27, 31, 35 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 113, 117, physics, discoveries in 319 118, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, pictographs 16, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 36, 38, 130, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 40, 44, 84, 88, 89, 92, 97, 276, 314, 332, 145, 146, 147, 148, 246, 349, 350, 351, 333, 334 352 as history 335 accounting formats 124 as holistic presentation 318 administration 113, 119, 140 Mexican 80, 93, 94 administrative texts in 104, 105, 107, 119, place names 284, 285, 286, 294, 295, 315, 122, 127 317 arable land 119 Plains Indian 47 as example of secondary script origin 139 year lists 46 bureaucracy 140 Poetic Edda 270 cities of 126

410 Index

proto-Elamite (cont.) monthly rations 117 colophons 144 non-metrological contexts 113 commodities 110 number words 127 breads 115, 117 numerical notations in 100, 101, 104, 105, cracked barley 115, 117 106, 107, 107, 108, 110, 113, 117, 118, flour 115, 117 122, 123, 126, 127, 139, 141, 145, 146, malt 115, 117, 141, 147 148 craftsman 108 bisexigesimal 108, 111, 114, 113–115, 117, description of 104–119 124, 146 entries 144 decimal 108, 111, 110–113, 124, 127, 129, expressions of hierarchy in 105 130, 147 fields 118 sexagesimal 109, 108–110, 112, 113, 115, filing of 148 119, 129, 145, 146, 148 grain 117, 118, 147 surface area 108 sowing of 118 numero-ideographs 76, 128, 129, 130, 140 grain capacity systems 113, 115, 115–119, orientation of 104, 123, 141 124, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148 people 127, 140 barley rations 113 personal names 138, 143, 144 cereal products 113, 115, 117, 146, 147 pictography 148 grain distributions 118 plow animals 118 graphotactical analysis of 129, 138, 144 precursors of 121, 119–122 headings in 104, 144 period of clay envelopes 122 high-status humans 108, 110, 145 period of early numerical tablets 122 Hurrian elements in 141 period of early tokens 122 ideographic signs 105, 106, 108, 113, 117, period of late numerical tablets 122 122, 123, 125, 126, 139, 140, 145 period of numero-ideographic tablets 76, animal husbandry offices 105 122 animals 105, 124 proper nouns 138 beer (?) 148 ration products 146 cattle 110 cheese 146 dairy products 122, 127, 148 fish 146 foreman 146 research 145 goats 122 school exercises in 143 high-status humans 145 scribes 107, 139, 140 institutions 105 semantics of 124, 144 objects 105 sign clusters in 139 persons 105, 124, 142 sign variants of 103, 126, 139 sheep 122 slave labor 124 textiles 122 stylus on texts of 104, 122, 126, 148 inchoate standardization of 126, 140 made of wood or reed 148 labor units 105, 126 surface measures in 118, 118, 145, 147 language of 105, 106, 127, 128, 138, 139 syllables in 127, 140, 143 Late Uruk loan 122–127 syntax of 104, 106, 124, 127, 144 linearization 117 tablets 103, 104, 108, 110, 112, 113, 120, 121, liquid capacity system of 127 122, 123, 124, 126, 141, 143, 146 literacy 104 rotation of 123, 124 logographs 144 text genres of 144 low-prestige objects 112 transliterations 127 Meriggi list of 104, 141 vessels 110, 127 metrology 127, 140 worker categories 117

Index 411

workers 118, 126, 130, 147 functions of 268–271 dependent 117 graphemes 266, 267, 272, 273 male dependent 146 inventor of 266–268 “Protosinaitic” 178 letters 262 proto-writing 11 magical uses of 269, 270, 272 grammaticalization of 12 Mediterranean origin of 264 phonic opacity in 12, 224 NorthItalic origin of 265 sampling problems with 12 of Germanic tribes 262, 265 under-grammaticalization in 12 on bracteates 271 punctuated equilibrium 6 on combs 264, 268 punctuation 28, 29, 37 on spearheads 264, 268, 272 Pyrgi tablets 10 on weapons 268, 272 on women’s brooches 268, 269, 272 Qiu Xigui 232, 242, 245, 246, 247 on wooden boxes 268 origins of 262–273 radiocarbon dating 154, 188 place of invention 263–264 Reade, J. 98 proto-runic stage of 271 reading 54, 333 Roman inﬂuence on 266 order as indicated by direction of “heads” time of invention 264 291, 292 runestones 270 rebus 16, 22, 23–24, 27, 47, 48, 49, 88, 89, runologists 264, 265 98, 142, 165, 177, 178, 179, 181, 188, 231, 232, 246, 247, 251, 299, 304, 305, Sais, Egypt 174 349 Sampson, Geoffrey 20, 30, 35, 38, 48 recitation literacy 6, 8 San Bartolo, Guatemala 352 representational systems 8 San Diego, Guatemala 300, 306 ﬁgural 315, 331 San JoseM´ ogote, Oaxaca, Mexico 292, 293 iconic 22 Monument 3 from 292, 293 Reynolds, Noel 14 San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico 288, 292, R´ıo Azul, Guatemala 302 293 R´ıo Pesquero, Veracruz, Mexico 288 colossal heads at 288, 289 masks from 286, 292, 293 Palangana phase at 292 Ritner, Robert 98 Sanxingdui, Sichuan, China 224 road signs 331 Saussure, Ferdinand de 83, 84 Robertson, John 4, 13, 14, 16, 268, 349, 350, Scandinavia 262, 264, 270, 271, 299 353 Scania (Skane),˚ Sweden 263 Rome, Italy 13 Scheil, Vincent 143 armies of 266 Schenkel, Wolfgang 179 empire of 266 Schleswig, Germany 263 soldiers of 266 Schmandt-Besserat, Denise 95, 100, 119, 120, writing of 279 121, 121, 127, 151 Rongorongo script 13 Schøyen collection 147 Rosetta Stone 10 sciences 314, 319, 333, 336 Rotman, Brian 315, 319, 333 Scott, James 9 Rubio, Gonzalo 98, 149, 188 scribes 24, 47, 51, 66, 85 runes 13, 35, 58, 67, 262–263, 264, 265, 266, script community 235, 286, 299, 306, 351 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 299, seals 73, 84 349 cylinder 73, 74,95 alphabetic origin of 265–266 stamp 74 communication with 269 Selz, Gebhard 95, 96

412 Index

semasiography 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46–49, 50, 55, diviners 196, 197, 199, 206, 213, 223, 226, 61, 62, 63, 313–346 230, 234, 235, 237, 239, 242 complex 59 Dui-group of 238 non-verbal visualizations in 314 dynasty 191, 224, 237, 240, 250, 258, 259 semasiologographs 47, 48, 52, 63 emblems 208 semiotics 314 enemy chiefs 214 Semitic family crest 208 language 52, 56, 57, 177, 178, 186, Father Ding among 208, 211 188 Father Gui among 206, 209, 211, 213, 242, West 56 243 writing 30, 34, 38, 178 Father Jia among 198, 243 Senner, Wayne 3 Father Xin among 243 Sequoyah 10, 55 Father Yi among 241 Sethe, Kurt 64 feasts 206, 241 sex 84 fief 210 Shaanxi, China 240 funerals 211 Shandong province, China 50 Gongfang (an enemy) against 197, 198, 224 Shang 49, 50, 215, 242, 250, 253, 254, high officials 200 260 kings 196, 199, 200, 208, 210, 211, 213, 214, administration 223, 224, 228, 234 224, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241 Ancestor Bing among 243 art of 199, 200 Ancestor Geng among 243 as overlords 214 ancestors 198, 200, 206, 210, 211, 213, 214, consorts of 214 217, 223, 224, 234 gifts from 213, 215 dedications to 206, 211, 241 hunts of 213, 223 Anyang period of 191, 193, 202, 206, 211, literate 200 213, 215, 216, 220, 223, 224, 241, 242 trophies of 213, 214 beer 210, 225 kinship 198, 241 Bi Qi 190 Lady Hao among 192, 193, 196, 197, 198, Bi Wu 223 199, 200, 202, 211, 212, 215, 238 bronze 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215, childbearing of 196, 197, 198 216, 217, 218, 220, 224, 227, 228, 240, ge (blade) of 214, 215, 224 241, 242 jade collection 215, 242 casters 200, 202, 241 name of 200, 202, 240 foundries 223, 224, 225 tomb of 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, hoards 242 212, 215, 242 pre-Anyang 234, 246 literacy 200, 211, 212, 213, 221, 239, 244 weapons 240 Lufang X among 215 calligraphers 202, 206, 207, 211, 228 luxury goods 224 campaigns 223 Marquis of Zheng among 204 Renfang 223 metals trade 224 casting inscriptions 200, 223, 224, 242 monograms 200, 202, 204, 206, 212, 242 ce 243 monopolies 224 chime-stones 242, 243 Mother Xin among 206 civilization 207, 223, 226, 241 nobility 200, 211, 212 clerks 225 offices 210 court 223, 224, 225, 226, 234 oracles 191, 193, 197, 237 ceremonies at 213 pit deposits 199 officials at 209, 210 pottery marks 243 courtiers 239 pre-Anyang sites 236

Index 413

Prince Yu among 202 carver of 197, 199, 201, 244 pyro-scapulomancy 250, 259 carving process 199 Que (a diviner) among 193, 197, 234, clan emblems 78, 211, 213, 229, 227–230, 239 233, 234, 239, 241 rank 202, 208, 210 compound characters in 231 of marquis 202 dates on 241 record-keeping 200, 244 determinatives 210 Renfang (an enemy) against 214 divination (oracle) texts 192, 193, 195, sacriﬁce 214, 223, 234, 243 191–200, 201, 204, 206, 209, 211, 213, scribes 191–200, 201, 204, 206, 209, 211, 214, 215, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 213, 214, 215, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 225, 228, 231, 232, 235, 236, 240, 241, 224, 225, 228, 231, 232, 235, 236, 240, 242, 243, 245 241, 242, 243, 245 divination process 191, 193, 196, 197, 198, names of 209 199, 200, 214, 217, 225, 230, 234, 235, spirits 199, 250 238, 239 state formation 236 divinatory function of 78, 79, 250, 255 tablets 243 draftsmanship 199, 211 titles 204, 208 for display 199, 200, 225, 234, 235, 236, tombs 192, 201, 202, 203, 207, 215, 219, 239, 239 240, 242, 243 functions of 222–226 tribes 253, 254, 255 graphs (graphemes) 215, 216, 227, Tufang (an enemy) against 197, 202, 224 228, 229, 241, 242, 245, 246, 247, 250, vessels 206, 211, 213, 239, 240, 241, 242, 245, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 246 260 Wei(aname) among 206 handwriting of 240 writing (Anyang, oracle bone inscriptions, iconicity of 202, 227, 240, 243, 246 Wu Ding) 3, 4, 7, 10, 20, 24, 26, 34, 37, inventors of 233, 235, 248 50, 78, 84, 88, 89, 92, 96, 98, 172, 177, numeration 198, 235 178, 181, 182, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195, of names 199, 201, 202, 211, 215, 216, 198, 201, 202, 204, 204, 206, 207, 208, 218, 219, 220, 232 211, 215, 217, 218, 222, 223, 225, 227, of nouns 231 228, 229, 230, 235, 236, 237, 240, 242, of verbs 231 243, 245, 247, 250, 251, 254, 255, 256, on axes 204, 205, 214, 215, 241 257, 258, 305, 350, 352 on bone 50, 213, 214, 215, 218, 220, account of deliveries 214 240 aesthetics of 219 on bovine scapulas 191, 193, 196, 214, Anyang corpus 191, 196, 243 224, 238 as documents 206 on bronze vessels 50, 78, 187, 190, 191, 198, as mnemonic system 225, 231, 234, 240 201, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, as phonetic representation 230, 232, 246 212, 200–213, 215, 216, 218, 223, 235, as record of connected discourse 225, 230, 236, 241, 246 232 on jade 215, 214–216, 217, 243 as record of language 230 on oracle bones 78, 79, 96, 151, 187, 190, as symbols 251 191, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201, 236, 237, audience for 199, 200 239, 244, 250, 255, 351 biased sample of 217–222 on perishable surfaces 222 brushes used in 215, 216, 219 on pottery 216, 217, 217, 218 brush writing 193, 199, 201, 202, 211, on shell 50, 213, 214, 217, 218, 226, 235, 215, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 219, 220, 236, 239, 240 232 on stone 214–216, 243

414 Index

Shang (cont.) determinatives (classifiers) as 24–25, 49, 91, on turtle shells (plastrons) 78, 79, 192, 98, 210 192, 193, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, semantic 220 200, 214, 237, 239, 250, 255 ideographs (ideograms) as 16, 25, 26, 27, 28, on wood or bamboo slips (ce) 216, 217, 36, 37, 38, 90, 98 218, 219, 230 indexical 25 origins of 226–236 phonograms as 15, 251 orthographic variation in 198, 238 pictographs as 16, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 36, pictographs in 231, 232 38, 84, 88, 89, 92, 97, 120, 251, 253, pictorial elements in 227 260, 261 pigments of 199, 214 logographs (logograms) as 6, 11, 16, 23, 26, pre-Wu Ding history of 227, 228 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 36, 37, 38, 90, 91, 98, prognostication 196 262, 335, 349 rebus in 231, 232, 246, 247 logophonetic 90, 92, 96, 98 reform of 202 logosyllabic 49, 51, 52, 55, 96, 98 relation to writing tool 243 morphosyllables as 33 scholars of 214, 237, 240 phonetic complements as 49, 50 Shima’s concordance of 231 rebus as 16, 22, 23–24, 27, 88, 89, 98, 165, stimulus diffusion 190, 191, 198, 199, 200, 177, 178, 179, 181, 188, 299, 304, 305, 202, 207, 213, 214, 216, 217, 220, 222, 349 223, 224, 225, 226–227, 229, 230, 235, semantic classifiers as 51 236, 240, 241, 242 semiotic features of 185 sudden origins of 230–233 spoken 20, 21, 21, 22, 23, 23, 24, 25, 27, 27, supposed pre-Anyang 190, 226 29, 34–35, 36 texts 83 syllables as 20, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 37, 97, 98, Wu Ding among 191, 192, 192, 193, 193, 150, 299, 305, 306 194, 195, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202, 206, taxograms as 49, 53 214, 224, 226, 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, written 20, 22, 25, 29, 34–35, 36 236, 238, 239, 240, 244, 246, 247 Sinai, Egypt 10 court of 223, 224, 225, 226, 234 Sinologists 185 divinations of 192, 240 skin 286, 287 diviners of 221 Slavic languages (Belarusian, Bulgarian, Xie ritual 242 Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, Yu among 240 Ukrainian) 58, 66 Zai Feng among 213 south Asian scripts 60 Zhi Guo 197, 198, 222, 224, 238 southeast Asian scripts 60, 66 Zhizi (a scribe) among 209, 210, 211, 212, South Korea 59, 65 213, 216, 242 Soviet Union 58 Shanxi Zhouyuan, China 260 non-Slavic languages of 58 Sharer, Robert 309 Republics of 59 Shima Kunio 247 Spain 55 Sialk, Iran 126 spearheads 264, 268, 272 Sichuan, China 244 speech 45 signified 251, 290, 291 as spoken word 36 signifier 251, 290, 291 relation to writing 20–21 sign types 62, 185, 305 spelling 29, 54 allography of 280 amorphophonemic 31, 33, 36, 37 alphabet as 16, 36, 37, 94, 262, 264, 265, 266 as heterography 28, 29, 31–34, 36 cataloguing of 350 as orthography 28, 29, 36 complements as 305 St. John’s College, Oxford 345

Index 415

states 153, 162, 171 Surinam 55 unitary 166 Ndjuka creole language of 55 Stearns, Stephen 98 Susa, Iran 73, 74, 75, 76, 96, 100, 102, 110, 117, Steinke, Kyle 237 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 128, 139, Steinkeller, Piotr 142, 188 141, 143, 147 stela 286, 287 French excavations of 102 Stoklund, Marie 271 levels of 143 Stravinski, Igor 321 plain of 103, 141, 143 Dumbarton Oaks Concerto 321 proto-Elamite period at 143 Structure B-XIII, Uaxactun 308 relative chronology of 124 mural textin308 stratigraphy of 121, 122, 124, 143 Stuart, David 8, 239, 299, 309 texts at 143 stylus 31, 38, 85, 98, 127 sutras 181 Surenhagen,¨ Dietrich 148 Swadesh, Morris 282 Suleiman, Antoine 148 Sweden 58, 263 Sumer 42 language of 36 Sumerian 47, 48, 49, 52, 63, 64, 97, 164, 177, syllabary (syllabic writing) 16, 30, 36, 37, 40, 178, 181, 188 41, 42, 43, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, bookkeeping 82, 97, 220, 224, 225, 232, 234, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65 235, 236, 246 Cherokee 55, 58 cuneiform 23, 24, 38, 42, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, CV 51 54, 61, 71, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 98, Cypriot 55 101, 142, 146, 149, 188 Mayan 30, 30, 31 grammar 118, 146 syllables 41, 51, 54, 55 language 23, 80, 82, 89, 90, 92, 97, 98, monosyllables 51 233 syllabograms 48, 49, 53 grammatical afﬁxes 248 symbol 18, 19, 25, 26, 28, 34, 36, 38, 284, 315, nouns 248 331, 349 pronouns 146 synecdoche 84 verbs 248 synonyms 22, 23–24, 25 Listenliteratur 101 synoptic fallacy 11 literature 221 syntax 81, 82, 286, 287, 292, 315 loan-words from early Semitic 149 Syria 73, 74, 99, 119, 122, 140, 188 loan-words from Indo-European 149 tables 329, 330, 331, 333, 336, 337, 340–342, logographs 52 346 number words 146 tablets 75, 77, 103, 104, 108, 110, 112, 113, 120, numerical systems 146 121, 122, 141, 143, 146, 151, 175 onomastics 101 archaic 80, 96, 98 relation to non-Sumerian names 149, Uruk IV 77, 154 248 Tajikistan 59 sign z´ız 115, 117 Takashima, Ken’ichi 237 s`ıla 147 Tall-i Malyan 143 substrate lexemes in 149 tattoos 286, 287, 292 syllables 50 Taube, Karl 292, 309 ugula 146 taxograms 49, 53 Sumerologists 101 Taylor, Isaac 40 Sumerology 101 teachers 244 Sundance seminar 4–5, 13–15, 97, 185, 236, technology 39, 67 273, 351 efﬁciency of 67

416 Index

Tehran Museum, Tehran 143 phase IV at 76, 85, 86, 122, 146, 164, 172, Teotihuacan, Basin of Mexico, Mexico 277, 176, 177, 184, 188 278, 278, 300, 308 tablets 120, 126 emblematic writing 277 phase V at 148 Tepe Yahya, Iran 143 radiocarbon dating of 142, 148 excavations at 148 RedTemple at 122 proto-Elamite presence at 148 scribes 139 thinking 333 sexagesimal notations at 146 Thompson, J. Eric S. 71 sign list 101, 107, 143 Thote, Alain 241 stratigraphy of 126 Tibetan-Burman languages 53 tradition 140 Tigris 94 Uto-Aztecan languages 283 Tikal dynasty 302, 302, 303 Uyghur 59 Tinney, Stephen 244 Aramaic writing of 59 Tlatilco, Basin of Mexico, Mexico 288 tokens 40, 73, 74, 75, 77, 83, 84, 95, 100, 101, Vachek, Josef 83 119, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 140, Vaiman, Aizik 147 175 Vallat, Franc¸ois 146 complex 119, 126 van Ess, Margarete 142 Toynbee, Arnold 11 van Stone, Mark 14 tribute 47 verbs 53 Trigger, Bruce 4, 39, 80, 83, 95, 352 Venn, John 323 Tsien Tzuen-hsuin 243 Venn circles 323, 330, 334 Turkish 66 Veracruz, Mexico 276, 297 typewriter 332 Early Classic period 297 verbs 53 Ugarit, Syria 56 auxiliary 53 Ugaritic 176 medio-passive 33 U-j tomb 11, 155, 156 transitive 33 Umma, Iraq 100, 102, 110, 117, 119, 120, 121, Vimose, Denmark 263, 264 122, 124, 126, 128, 139, 141, 143, 147 vowels 41, 42, 44, 45, 50, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, Umm al-Aqirib 124 63, 65 Unger, Marshall 66 complex 32 uniliterals 54, 56 disharmonic 32, 34 universals 93, 94 silent 32 Uqair, Iraq 81 synharmonic 32, 34 Ur, Iraq 80, 82, 82, 142, 147 Urartian 53 Wadi Qena, Egypt 166 Urcid Serrano, Javier 294 Wallace, Rex 273 Urton, Gary 13, 14, 93, 97, 99, 351 Wanderw¨orter 149 Uruk, Iraq 72, 73, 74, 75, 75, 76, 76, 81, 84, 86, Wang Haicheng 237, 239, 243 93, 95, 97, 102, 119, 119, 120, 121, 122, warriors 268 124, 126, 127, 128, 142, 146, 147, 151, Watson, James 328, 329, 329–330 171, 220, 244 Webster, David 14 adjusted chronology of 142, 148 Welch, Jack 14 Expansion 73, 74, 95, 119, 140 West Africa 40, 55 German excavators of 102, 121 Westenholz, Joan 97 Late Uruk at 72, 74, 103, 119, 121, 122, 141, western Asia 52, 54, 65, 95, 102 147, 151, 175, 188 Western culture 333 scribes 112 Western technology 319 phase III at 76, 81, 85, 86, 184 Wheeler, Mortimer 275

Index 417

Whitmore, Simon 15 permitting correct reading of religious texts Whittaker, Gordon 98, 141 57 Wilcke, Claus 97, 239 semasiographic 313, 314, 317, Wilkinson, Endymion 243 318 Williams, Bruce 187 Phoenician 56, 57, 64, 65 Williams, Henrik 14, 262, 263 phonemic 56, 60 Williams, Ronald 239, 244 phonic 319, 332, 351 Wolf, Eric 275 presentist models of 4, 5 view of “peasants” 275 relation to speech 20–21, 80–84 words 40, 41, 57, 65, 96, 150, 290, Siniform 53 333 statist views of 8–10, 300, 352 dividers of 59, 60 syllabic 179 spoken 36 Tangut 53 writing 39, 42, 44, 65, 67, 220, 224, 290, 308, technological metaphors of 6, 7 333 teleological misconception of 233, 248 alphabetic 6, 314, 332, 333, 334 Tukic Orkhon 59 alternative systems 313–346 unievolutionary models of 5 as fetish 350 universals of 93, 94 as information retrieval 333 utilitarian models of 5 as information storage 83, 151, 318, 333 value judgments of 314 as means of decontextualization 83 Yi 53 as means of marking ownership 228, 235 biological analogies of 7, 279, 353 Xochicalco, Morelos, Mexico 277 Brahmi 60 Xoxoctolan Tomb 9 294 “closed” 164, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, Xu, Jay 244 288–308 Xu Shen 220, 243 cognitive effects of 6 dictionary of 220, 243 consonantal 178 creators of 351 Yangzi region, China 224, 244 cursive 266 Yiddish 57 Darwinian metaphors of 279 Yoffee, Norman 9 deﬁnitions of 43–46 Yucatan peninsula 301 east Asian 172 “ethnogenetic” 352 Zapotec 294, 295 extinction of 14 calendar 294 fossil metaphors of 280–282 calendar names 294, 295 “full” 351 conquest slabs 293, 295 function of 19, 20, 35 “Danzantes” 276, 277, 295, 295 gradualistic models of 5 highland 293 hieroglyphic 8 language 292, 293, 294, 296 iconic 290 morphemes 294 Indian 60 mummy bundles 293 invention of 161, 162, 170 syntax 294, 295 Kharoshthi 60 writing 7, 274, 280, 293–296, 298, Lamarckian metaphors of 279 300 linearity of 286, 287, 292 as brief labels 296 logoconsonantal 50, 52 as complex texts 296 materiality of 350 Zealand, Denmark 271 mechanistic models of 349 Zhengzhou, China 246 non-phonic deﬁnitions of 313–315 Zimansky, Paul 95 non-verbal 313 zodiac 346