sign in sign up
<<
Home , Martin Lewis Perl, Sheldon Lee Glashow, Steven Chu, William Daniel Phillips

View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE

Electrical Engineering. Great Events. Famous Names UDC 621.3: 537.8: 910.4 doi: 10.20998/2074-272X.2017.1.01

M.I. Baranov

AN ANTHOLOGY OF THE DISTINGUISHED ACHIEVEMENTS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNIQUE. PART 36: LAUREATES IN FOR 1995-1999

Purpose. Implementation of brief analytical review of the distinguished scientific achievements of the world scientists-, awarded the for period 1995-1999. Methodology. Scientific methods of collection, analysis and analytical treatment of scientific and technical information of world level in area of modern theoretical and . Results. The brief analytical review of the scientific openings and distinguished achievements of scientists-physicists is resulted in area of modern physical and technical problems which were marked the Nobel bonuses on physics for period 1995-1999. Originality. Systematization is executed with exposition in the short concentrated form of the known scientific and technical materials, devoted opening of -, experimental discovery of electronic , opening of superfluidity of liquid helium-3, creation of methods of cooling and «capture» of atoms by a ray, opening of new form of quantum liquid with excitations of fractional and clearing up of quantum structure of electroweak interactions of elementary particles scientists-physicists. Practical value. Popularization and deepening of scientific and technical knowledges for students, engineer and technical specialists and research workers in area of modern theoretical and experimental physics, extending their scientific range of interests and further development of scientific and technical progress in human society. References 25, figures 13. Key words: modern physics, achievements, tаu-lepton, electronic neutrino, superfluidity of liquid helium-3, cooling and «capture» of atoms, quantum liquid with excitations of fractional electric charge, quantum structure of electroweak interactions of elementary particles, review.

Приведен краткий аналитический обзор выдающихся научных достижений ученых мира, отмеченных Нобелевской премией по физике за период 1995-1999 гг. В число таких достижений вошли открытие тау-лептона, экспериментальное обнаружение электронного нейтрино, открытие сверхтекучести жидкого гелия-3, создание методов охлаждения и «пленения» атомов с помощью лазерного света, открытие новой формы квантовой жидкости с возбуждениями дробного электрического заряда и прояснение квантовой структуры электрослабых взаимодействий элементарных частиц. Библ. 25, рис. 13. Ключевые слова: современная физика, достижения, тау-лептон, электронное нейтрино, сверхтекучесть жидкого гелия-3, охлаждение и «пленение» атомов, квантовая жидкость с возбуждениями дробного электрического заряда, квантовая структура электрослабых взаимодействий элементарных частиц, обзор.

Introduction. The Nobel Prize has been more than a particles tau- are the third generation of century is one of the most prestigious international awards microparticles [1, 2]. American experimental in the world. It is awarded by the Nobel Committee of the (Fig. 1) working at Stanford heavy Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for outstanding duty linear accelerator at energies up to 21 GeV scientific research, revolutionary invention, a major with the length of the accelerator «tube» in 3200 m (USA) contribution to culture and the development of human [3] in 1975 opened a new tau-lepton society [1]. Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry, (in other words, a «heavy» electron) [4]. This is an physiology, , literature and peace were important discovery in high-energy physics and established in accordance with the will-known Swedish elementary particles confirmed the theory of «Big Bang» engineer and inventor of dynamite Alfred Nobel (1833- in the creation of the Universe [1, 5]. 1896) according to which for these purposes, and the financial support of Nobel laureates was created fund Nobel. They are handed to 1901 in the capital of Sweden – Stockholm (except for the award ceremony which takes place in the capital of Norway – Oslo). Traditionally, the annual awards ceremony for the winners of this prestigious award is held on the day of the death of A. Nobel – December 10th. Note that in 1968 by the Bank of Sweden Prize in in memory of A. Nobel (Nobel Prize in Economics) was established [1]. The size of remuneration of the Nobel Prize, for example, in 2012, amounted to 8 million SEK (1.2 millon USD). Until 2012, this amount was considered the award of 10 million SEK. The Board of Directors of the in the summer of 2012 was forced to take a decision on the «cuts» monetary reward laureates for 20 % due to the need to «preserve the fund's capital in the Fig. 1. Prominent American experimental physicist long term» [1]. Martin Lewis Perl (1927-2014), 1. The discovery of the tau-lepton. According to Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1995 the classification adopted in the physics of elementary © M.I. Baranov

ISSN 2074-272X. Electrical Engineering & Electromechanics. 2017. no.1 3

For this fundamental scientific result M. Pearl in the phenomenon of superfluidity in the isotope helium 4 1995 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics [4, 5]. 2 He − liquid helium-II [10]. For the «basic inventions This award he shared with other prominent American and discoveries in the field of low-temperature» physicist (Fig. 2) who discovered the Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR neutrino [4, 6]. P.L. Kapitsa was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for 1978 [4, 10]. Taking into account the fundamental of obtained by D.M. Li, R.C. Richardson, and D.D. Osheroff scientific results, in 1996 they were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics [4, 7-9]. The discovery of superfluidity of liquid helium-3 promoted promising fundamental and applied research in many fields of physics [4, 7].

Fig. 2. Prominent American experimental physicist Frederick Reines (1918-1998), Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1995

2. The discovery of the neutrino. In 1930, an outstanding Austrian theoretical physicist (1900-1958) advanced the hypothesis of the existence of Fig. 3. Prominent American experimental physicist David such «light» of elementary particles like the electron Morris Lee, born in 1931, neutrino v according to the relevant [2] to the absolutely Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1996 e stable particles with no charge and rest mass [4 6]. Working in creative tandem with the renowned American experimental physicist at Los Alamos National Laboratory (New Mexico, ) Clyde Cowan (1919-1974), F. Reines in 1956 to reverse the radioactive beta decay of atomic nuclei (β+ − decay) on the experimental nuclear reactor found in the decay products of the electron neutrino ve [6]. By the time of the award of F. Reines said Prize for 1995 K. Cowan was no longer alive. Therefore his name was not on the list of Nobel Prize winners (according to the current position of this award is only awarded to applicants living this prestigious award). 3. The discovery of superfluidity of liquid helium-3. In 1972, American physicist David Morris Lee (Fig. 3), working in the US as Professor at , in collaboration with another Professor of this University Robert Coleman Richardson (Fig. 4) and graduate student Douglas Dean Osheroff (Fig. 5) have published research results opening at a temperature of 3 about 0.001 K of superfluidity in the isotope helium 2 He − liquid helium-3 [7-9]. Recall that in 1937 the Fig. 4. Prominent American physicist outstanding Soviet experimental physicist Peter Kapitsa Robert Coleman Richardson, (1937-2013), (1894-1984), Head of the Institute for Physical Problems Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1996 (IPhP) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), with the absolute temperatures below 2.19 K was discovered a unique physical effect in the material –

4 ISSN 2074-272X. Electrical Engineering & Electromechanics. 2017. no.1

Fig. 5. Prominent American experimental physicist Douglas Dean Osheroff, born in 1945, Fig. 7. Prominent American physicist , Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1996 born in 1948, Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1997

4. Creation of methods to cool and «capture» of matter atoms. American Research Center of Bell Laboratories in the number of Nobel Prize winners take on today's leading position in the world [11]. In this well- known scientific centers in 1983 as head of the Department of quantum electronics future Nobel Laureate worked (Fig. 6). While addressing the supercooling and the «capture» of atoms using laser technology, in 1985. S. Chu and his colleagues William Daniel Phillips (Fig. 7), and Claude Cohen-Tannoudji (Fig. 8) achieved great success [11-15].

Fig. 8. Prominent French physicist Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, born in 1933, Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1997

It is well known that in the microcosm of the atom of matter the temperature measure (molecules) or particles their kinetic energy [2, 11]. A great contribution to this energy and, respectively, in the temperature gives the translational velocity of said microscopic objects. A smaller contribution of this indicator makes the frequency of natural oscillations [2, 11]. Therefore, the faster moving and more micro-object vary, so it will be «hot». Fig. 6. Prominent American experimental physicist Steven Chu, By physicists it was found that at «minus» 270 С (about born in 1948, Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1997 3 K) translational velocity substance atom is about 100 m/s [11]. T the ambient temperature («plus» 20 С) atoms, this velocity value is close to 1000 m/s [2, 10, 16]. If we reduce the speed of 0.01 m/s, then the atom is

ISSN 2074-272X. Electrical Engineering & Electromechanics. 2017. no.1 5 virtually «frozen». This can be done by various physical methods. Studies conducted in the United States by S. Chu, W. Phillips, and C. Cohen-Tannoudji showed that the most convenient for this method is the method of of atoms [11-15]. This group of physicists in the study using a laser beam of atomic processes have achieved the absolute temperature of the substance of the neutral atoms of the order of 10–6 K [11]. It is for this phenomenal achievement S. Chu, W.D. Phillips and C. Cohen-Tannoudji were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for 1997 [4, 11-15]. Developed laser method of supercooling and the «capture» of the atoms in this way is currently used in the design of high-precision atomic clocks, as well as precise positioning and satellite navigation [13]. An important fact characterizing S. Chu like an unusual and talented person, is that S. Chu during the 2004-2008 biennium was the director of the world- famous National Laboratory Lawrence (if the state is 4 thousand employees and an annual budget of 650 million US dollars) and is actively involved in alternative sources of energy (in particular , artificial photosynthesis and methods of generating electricity from solar radiation), and in the period 2009- Fig. 9. Prominent German experimental physicist 2013 – Minister of Energy of the United States [12, 13]. Horst Ludwig Störmer, born in 1949, Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1998 5. Discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractional excitations of electric charge. The physical concept of «quantum fluid» was introduced in the period 1937-1941 by outstanding Soviet theoretical physicist Lev Davidovich Landau (1908-1968) is being developed at that time in the IPhP of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (at the Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR P.L. Kapitsa then worked fruitfully in the field of low-temperature physics and discovered experimentally in 1937 the phenomenon of superfluidity of liquid helium-II) the quantum theory of superfluidity of liquid helium-II [10, 17]. For a quantum fluid characteristic it is that it decisive role in the behavior of its microcomponent (constituent elements) are beginning to play the quantum effects. In this liquid, quantum uncertainty traces its origin (e.g., atoms) according to the Heisenberg uncertainty relation [2, 17] are starting to significantly exceed the current mutual distances between them. Therefore, the physical properties of these liquids will be determined solely by stochastic laws of quantum physics. In the period 1981-1982 research groups of Horst Fig. 10. Prominent American experimental physicist Ludwig Störmer (Fig. 9) and Daniel C. Tsui (Fig. 10) who Daniel C. Tsui, born in 1939, studied «the integer quantum Hall effect» opened in 1980 Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1998. by (born in 1943) at «helium» temperatures (till 1 K) and strong static magnetic fields For a better understanding of a difficult material (at magnetic flux density till 30 T) in the silicon field should be noted that even in 1879 young American effect transistor and the award of the Nobel Prize in physicist Edwin Herbert Hall (1855-1938) exploring the physics for 1985 [4, 18], using a two-dimensional ultra- flow of direct current strength along the IH thin gold plate pure gallium arsenide films at lower temperatures (below placed perpendicular to the lines of induction BH external 1 K) and stronger permanent magnetic fields (for the constant magnetic field discovered the phenomenon arises magnetic flux density over 30 T) opened new «fractional between the «free» edges of the plate electric potential quantum Hall effect» [18-20]. difference or voltage UH («Hall effect») [16]. As is known the cause of the rejection of UH is drifting plates of from the main direction of their drift to its «free» edges of the corresponding action on them in a magnetic field Lorentz force [2]. The value of UH was directly proportional to the current IH and BH induction. In addition, the «Hall» RH resistance equal to the ratio UH/IH

6 ISSN 2074-272X. Electrical Engineering & Electromechanics. 2017. no.1

described by the relation of the form [18]: RH=BH/(nee0), sufficiently low temperature and very strong magnetic where ne is the average density of free electrons with the field, a two-dimensional «electron gas» conductor –19 electric unit charge e0=1.602·10 C in the material of the (semiconductor) of the Fermi liquid becomes a kind of a flat-plate conductor. That is why the Hall effect could be new type of quantum fluid [18, 21]. Electrons with half- used for measuring the magnetic field, and determining integer values of their spin are part of this «Laughlin» the concentration of charge carriers (positive «holes») in quantum fluid, and occurring in her excitement starting to conductors and semiconductors. E.H. Hall performed his behave like quasi-particles with integer spin (as ) experiments at room temperature (about 293 K) and the [18-21]. «Laughlin» quantum liquid became a Bose levels of magnetic induction BH less than 1 T [18]. In the liquid, for which it is possible Bose condensation, and early 1980s by K. von Klitzing at the above-mentioned hence the phenomenon of superfluidity and extreme conditions it was found that the «Hall» conductor superconductivity. The latter phenomenon was made resistance RH (semiconductor) with increasing levels of possible when driving in this particular quantum fluid is exposure to it the magnetic induction BH does not change electrically charged. R.B. Laughlin in the proposed theory continuously, but jumps, taking discrete (quantized) suggests that these quasi-particles in the quantum liquid 2 values RHi=h/(ie0 ), where i=1,2,3,.. are the integer are collective entities whose existence is ensured by long- quantum numbers i; h=6,626·10–34 J·s is the Planck range interaction between electrons and a strong magnetic 2 constant [2]. Note that in this case the value of h/e0 is field. According to R.B. Laughlin a composite quasi- approximately 26 . According to the eminent German particle () in the «Laughlin» quantum liquid is a physicist Carl von Klitzing turned out that the «Hall» RH combination of an electron and three magnetic flux quanta resistance, regardless of the type of material under the [18, 21]. New «Laughlin» quantum liquid characterized action it ultralow temperatures and strong magnetic field by unusual physical properties added to it the electron is is quantized. The experimentally discovered by K. von so energetically unfavorable for it, that it be born Klitzing «integer quantum Hall effect» was explained excitation with a fractional electric charge e0/3 [18]. R.B. sequential filling of Landau levels (discrete energy levels Laughlin first theoretically demonstrated that of electrons in a magnetic field) with increasing magnetic quasiparticles in condensed state of matter can have induction level. In these experiments by H.L. Störmer and fractional electric charges. This theoretical approach by D.C. Tsui scientists have discovered new quantum leaps R.B. Laughlin allows individuals to explain the 2 for the «Hall» resistance RHk=h/(ke0 ) which is three times «fractional quantum Hall effect» previously set by H.L. higher than the largest RHi in earlier experiments by K. Störmer and D.C. Tsui. For the fundamentality and von Klitzing. The fundamental difference in this case was «discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractional the fact that the value of k is the fractional value electric charge excitations» H.L. Störmer, D.C. Tsui, and (1/3, etc.). In 1983, the American theoretical physicist R.B. Laughlin was awarded Nobel Prize in physics for Robert Betts Laughlin (Fig. 11) proposed a theoretical 1998 [4, 18-21]. It should be noted that despite the fact justification of this effect. that fractional electric charge quasiparticles participating in the course of events «the fractional quantum Hall effect» in a kind of Bose condensate set and measured now, thanks to the outstanding achievements in electronics and metrology reliably talk about the direct supervision of the microparticles with charge is premature. However, the research results of the new Nobel Laureates allow us to state that there was an important event in the scientific world, which forces scientists to reconsider many of the provisions in our current understanding of the world around us. 6. Clarification of the quantum structure of electroweak interactions of elementary particles. In the 1960s, by prominent American (born 1932), (1933-1996) and Pakistani (1926-1996) theoretical physicists, quantum theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions in microcosm has been developed using the principle of gauge invariance [22]. This theory was based on the fact that in the microcosm the weak and electromagnetic interactions are manifestations of a single . The practical application of this theory to Fig. 11. Prominent American theoretical physicist calculate the physical properties of elementary particles Robert Betts Laughlin, born in 1950, which it should predict had no good results [23]. In the Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1998 1970s to address the problem in the field of elementary actively involved physicists of the According to the theoretical substantiation by R.B. University of Utrecht (Netherlands), Martinus Veltman Laughlin of the open empirically by H.L. Störmer and (Fig. 12) and Gerard Hooft (Fig. 13). They do a D.C. Tsui «fractional quantum Hall effect» at the mathematical formulation of gauge theories and

ISSN 2074-272X. Electrical Engineering & Electromechanics. 2017. no.1 7 theory of so-called non-Abelian gauge Developed by G. Hooft and M. Veltman new theories which are the foundation of all modern physics of mathematical methods of renormalization of Yang-Mills elementary particles [24]. Developed by these theoretical fields as massless, and the weight was due to spontaneous physicists mathematical apparatus and, based on a symmetry violation in the microcosm of the laws, allowed computer program showed that many of the most to predict some effects of electroweak interactions of problematic aspects of a non-Abelian gauge theories – the elementary particles [22-24]. So, in 1977, it based on theory of electroweak interactions in the process of these methods and theoretical approaches failed to predict mathematical calculations are compensated [22-24]. This the mass of the top , experimentally discovered in program became the foundation for the difficult work of 1995 at the National Laboratory of Nuclear scientists to verify the different approaches to the Research (USA) [22]. In addition, by using the proposed renormalization theory, which would allow to obtain a by G. Hooft and M. Veltman quantum theory of reasonable prediction of particle physics. electroweak interactions were predicted mass of the intermediate vector bosons W± and Z0 – two new elementary particles discovered thereafter experimentally at the Large Hadron Collider [3] at the European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN, Switzerland) [22, 24]. One of the Nobel Prize Laureates in physics in 1979, Sh.L. Glashow (the Prize «for his fundamental contribution to the theory unifying weak and electromagnetic interactions» in the field of elementary particle physics, he shared with his fellow physicists and collaborators S. Weinberg and A. Salam [4, 25]) on the scientific achievementsof M. Veltman and G. Hooft said the following [24]: «... the theory of electroweak interactions cannot be engaged in earnest without computing innovations introduced by Veltman and Hooft». In 1999 «for clearing the quantum structure of electroweak interactions» M. Veltman and G. Hooft were awarded [4, 22-25] Nobel Prize in physics. In subsequent years, M. Veltman and G. Hooft in the field of elementary particle theory fruitfully engaged in so-called «Higgs» problem associated with superheavy Н* which field is, according to physicists, generates mass of Fig. 12. Prominent Dutch theoretical physicist all existing in the microcosm particles [24]. Martinus Veltman, born in 1931, Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1999 REFERENCES

1. Available at: http://news.21.by/other- news/2012/10/09/635932.html (accessed 09 October 2012). 2. Kuz'michev V.E. Zakony i formuly fiziki [Laws and formulas of physics]. Kiev, Naukova Dumka Publ., 1989. 864 p. (Rus). 3. Baranov M.I. Antologiia vydaiushchikhsia dostizhenii v nauke i tekhnike: Monografiia v 2-kh tomakh. Tom 1. [An anthology of outstanding achievements in science and technology: Monographs in 2 vols. Vol.1]. Kharkov, NTMT Publ., 2011. 311 p. (Rus). 4. Khramov Yu.A. Istoriia fiziki []. Kiev, Feniks Publ., 2006. 1176 p. (Rus). 5. Available at: http://www.peoples.ru/science/physics/martin_lewis_perl (accessed 11 April 2012). (Rus). 6. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Reines (accessed 15 August 2012). 7. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist) (accessed 25 September 2013). 8. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson (accessed 22 May 2012). 9. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff (accessed 21 Fig. 13 Prominent Dutch theoretical physicist February 2012). Gerard Hooft, born in 1946, 10. Baranov M.I. Izbrannye voprosy elektrofiziki: Monografija v Nobel Prize Laureate in physics for 1999 2-h tomah. Tom 1: Elektrofizika i vydajushhiesja fiziki mira [Selected topics electrophysics: Monographs in 2 vols. Vol.1:

8 ISSN 2074-272X. Electrical Engineering & Electromechanics. 2017. no.1

Electrophysics and outstanding physics of the world]. Kharkov, 20. Available at: http://www.nkj.ru/archive/articles/8176 NTU «KhPI» Publ., 2008. 252 p. (Rus). (accessed 23 July 2013). (Rus). 11. Available at: http://www.nkj.ru/archive/articles/10172 21. Available at: (accessed 05 May 2011). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin (accessed 06 12. Available at: http://lenta.ru/lib/14194434 (accessed 19 April December 2013). 2012). 22. Available at: http://gruzdoff.ru/wiki/’т_Хоофт,_Герард 13. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Chu (accessed 21 May 2012). (Rus). (accessed 10 July 2011). 23. Available at: 14. Available at: http://velchel.ru/index.php?cnt=9&nbio=704&nubsub=0&sub=0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips (accessed (accessed 11 April 2013). (Rus). 23 March 2012). 24. Available at: 15. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Cohen- http://encyclopaedia.biga.ru/enc/science_and_technology/VELT Tannoudji (accessed 03 May 2012). MAN_MARTIN.html (accessed 18 September 2013). (Rus). 16. Kuhling H. Spravochnik po fizike. Per. s nem. [Dictonary on 25. Available at: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics Physics. Translated from German]. Moscow, Mir Publ., 1982. (accessed 02 June 2015). 520 p. (Rus). 17. Baranov M.I. An anthology of the distinguished Received 29.12.2015 achievements in science and technique. Part 34: Discovery and study of quantum-wave nature of microscopic world of matter. M.I. Baranov, Doctor of Technical Science, Chief Researcher, Electrical engineering & electromechanics, 2016, no.5, pp. 3- Scientific-&-Research Planning-&-Design Institute «Molniya» 15. (Rus). doi: 10.20998/2074-272X.2016.5.01. National Technical University «Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute», 18. Available at: 47, Shevchenko Str., Kharkiv, 61013, Ukraine, http://vivovoco.astronet.ru/VV/NEWS/PRIRODA/1999/NB_PH phone +38 057 7076841, e-mail: [email protected] YS.HTM (accessed 10 April 2014). (Rus). 19. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer (accessed 12 May 2011).

How to cite this article: Baranov M.I. An anthology of the distinguished achievements in science and technique. Part 36: Nobel Prize Laureates in Physics for 1995-1999. Electrical engineering & electromechanics, 2017, no.1, pp. 3-9. doi: 10.20998/2074- 272X.2017.1.01.

ISSN 2074-272X. Electrical Engineering & Electromechanics. 2017. no.1 9