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 19/12/2012 12:45:50 PM Key in Key Concepts 00-Braham_Prelims.indd 1 01-Braham_Chapters.indd 102 102 key concepts in sociology olog moneyed andprivilegedasuniversalentitlements)theclassicexampleofide (whichtheyseeasportraying rightsthat can onlybeexercisedbythe to acceptthatLiberalism isitselfanideology, whileMarxistswouldtreat Thus, liberals mightcondemncommunism andfascismasideologies, butrefuse describe one’s ownideas, perhapsthis If theword with thecommentthat, inthelatetwentiethcentury: this distortstheirunderstanding(Eagleton, 1991: 3). This viewisconsistent suggest thattheyarejudgingagivenissuewithpreconceivedideasand To sayinordinaryconversationthatsomeoneisspeakingideologicallyto normative andactive: (2003: 6). Inhisview, straddled theboundary betweendescriptive, regime; anall-embracing politicaldoctrinethatclaims a monopolyoftruth an officially sanctioned set of beliefs used to legitimise a political system or that propagate a false among the exploited or oppressed; the ideasofrulingclass; theworldviewofaparticularsocialclassorgroup; of ideology: apoliticalbeliefsystem; anaction-orientedsetof political ideas; 1995, quotedinHeywood, 2003: 5). Heywoodlistedthefollowingmeanings as ‘the mostelusiveconceptinthewholeofsocialsciences’(McLellan, sciously derivedfromsocialtheory(Williams, 1976). the twentiethcenturytocriticiseanysocialpolicythat was thoughttobecon or revolutionaryideas, andthelabel ‘ideology’ continuedtobeusednegativelyin often used pejoratively in the nineteenth century to refer to supposedly extreme democracy –andthe ‘ oftheideologues’. Following Bonaparte, itwas ideology differentlyandpejoratively toattackEnlightenmentvalues –especially to announceanew ‘ of ideas’. Subsequently, NapoleonBonaparteused Tracey, whouseditinrespectofphilosophicalquestionsandemployedtheterm gie emphasis added) world becomesintelligible, ... canbeexplained bythefactthat,inprovidingveryconceptsthroughwhich ‘’,‘’, and even ‘’. ‘’, (Grossberg, 2005: 177) was pejorative: ideology is opposed to ‘’,Still, the most common use of ‘ideology’ The firstappearance oftheword ‘ideology’ inEnglish(fromtheFrench Though ideologyhasbeenmuchdebatedinsociology, ithasbeendecribed ) was in1796atranslation ofaworkbytheFrench philosopherDestuttde y (Heywood2003: 7). ideology isoftenusedtodescribetheideasofothers, andneverto our ideologyiseffectivelyinvisible.(Heywood,2003:13, idéolo 19/12/2012 12:50:27 PM - - - ideology 103 19/12/2012 12:50:27 PM - - - - - As well as referring in a neutral way to a set of beliefs that are more or less way As well as referring in a neutral is the , which is the ruling material force of , is at the same its is the ruling class, which is the ruling material force of society, The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas: i.e. the class, which The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas: i.e. the class, which identify with his power; and any practice of political emancipation thus involves thatidentify with his power; and any practice ourselves from ourselves. (1991: xiii–xiv) most difficult of all forms of liberation, freeing The most efficient oppressor is the one who persuades his underlings to , desire andThe most efficient oppressor is the one who are inevitably structured in a particular direction by the very concepts we structured in a particular direction by perceptions are inevitably 1990) Thompson, also see x; 1986: Hall, and (Donald using. are Without these frameworks, we could not make sense of the world. But with them, our these frameworks, we could not make sense Without cal action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or overthrow the existing the existing or overthrow to preserve, modify whether this is intended cal action, order, of the existing (a) offer an account therefore All power. system of a ‘worldusually in the form of view’, a desired , a vision (b) advance a model of and should be brought how political change can society’, and (c) explain of the ‘good 12) (2003: … about ... [it] is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides a basis for organised politi a basis for organised set of ideas that provides or less coherent ... [it] is a more nomic) ‘base’ which was held to determine these ideas. According to Marx, the According to Marx, these ideas. held to determine ‘base’ which was nomic) inexploitative relations of industrialisation and would inevitably result provided by a dominant alienation and conflict unless hidden by ideas and values much quoted formulation: In his ideology. The modern sociological treatment of ideology stems primarily from Marx’s discus The modern sociological treatment of ideology stems primarily from Marx’s in particular, sion of the relationship between and social processes and, of ideas and the material (eco ‘superstructure’ his distinction between the cultural of ideology is that it is linked to power and domination and is focused of ideology is that it is linked to power to that they find congenial, values on the ability of those in power to promote to dis and in particular, ’ about the social formation, ‘inconvenient conceal version: In Eagleton’s their position. credit views and that challenge the chains of (often contradictory, fragmentary, incomplete) that ordinary fragmentary, the chains of (often contradictory, and make sense of their social and political people use in everyday life to interpret xi-xii). world (1986: ‘ideology’ has been widely used – especially the term consistent with one another, dis or false judged only not are that beliefs of cluster a describe to – Marxists by aspect a vital Here, concealing some hidden interest. but also as deliberately torted, Thus, Donald and Hall’s treatment of ideology encompassed not just the great Donald and Hall’s Thus, but and , such as Liberalism, of thought’, ‘systems organic they referred to By this, of common sense’. ‘the terrain also what they described as An ideology refers not just to frameworks of thought used to explain, make sense make used to explain, of thought not just to frameworks An ideology refers involve links between these ideas but also to the way to society, or give meaning of, thereby political world, a perspective on the social and one another to create is that: The paradox sense of the puzzling or the unexpected. allowing us to make 01-Braham_Chapters.indd 103 01-Braham_Chapters.indd 104 104 key concepts in sociology the Levellers (1991: 6). A further objection was made by Abercrombie and Warde, dominant politicalpower’, andherehecitedsocialism, , theSuffragettes, and every bodyofbeliefthatpeople ‘commonly termideological’is ‘associated witha still bejudgedasideological(Jones, 2003: 257)?Moreover, asEagletonsuggested, not ogy? And evenifIamsomehow freeof be freeoftheideologiesthatconstrain othersandsobeabletorecognisewhatisideol acts andthinksinaway contrary toitsinterests?IfI amraised inasociety, howcanI its interests, whileanother, theproletariat, infusedbyabeliefinthedominantideology, several : whyisitthatoneclass, thebourgeoisie, hasanideologythatreflects material conditionsofsocietytobemisrepresented(Heywood, 2003: 7). the imagealways appearsupsidedown)toshowhowideologycausedtheactual considered ideologyoperated, Marxusedthenotionofa and distortedperceptionoftheunequalreality). To betterconveytheway thathe and asaresultdevelop ‘’(inthiscase, asystematicallydefective his analysis, theproletariat(workingclass)wouldbemisledby ‘bourgeois ideology’ presenting itsowninterestsasiftheywereuniversalcultural andmoral values. In needed toreconciletheoppressedtheiroppression, andcouldbestdosoby class system, andspecificallytotheinterests and outlookoftheruling class, which Thus, Marx’s of ideology connected falsehood and mystification to the of humanaction, consciousness and in themaintenanceof capitalism, which: andunreality(Eagleton, 1991: 3). Gramsci gave particularemphasistotherole cerned withthefunctionofideasinsociallife, rather thanwithdiscussionsabout cupied withideologyasillusion, mystification andfalsification; the othermorecon illustrates howfarMarxism has combined two approaches to ideology: onepreoc directing attentiontowards therelativeautonomyof ‘ideological realm’, and Notebooks took inideology(2003: 8). Gramsci’s conceptof proved optimisticthatlargelyexplainedtheparticularinterest thatlaterMarxists According toHeywood, itwas becauseMarx’s predictionofthedemisecapitalism shared bymorethanthreequartersofthepopulation, promptingthemtosay: posed dominantideology: theyhighlightedasurveythathadshownnovalue was who doubtedwhethertherewas agreementinBritainaboutthecontentofanysup ject to it. (Marx and Engels, 1970 [1854–1856]: 64) thereby, generallyspeaking, thosewholackthemeansofmentalproductionaresub disposal, hascontrolatthesametimeovermeansofmentalproduction,sothat ruling intellectualforce.Theclasswhichhasthemeansofmaterialproductionatits tutionalized, legitimizedandenshrined inadominantandhegemonicculturewhich, tion, dependsalsoupontheways inwhichtheseinstitutionsandstructuresareinsti ... howevermuchitisorganized institutionallyandstructurallyatthelevelofproduc nalize’ it. (1998: 366) If thereisadominantideology, alargeproportionofthepopulationhasfailedto‘inter The Marxist account of ideology and false consciousness has been questioned for The Marxistaccountofideologyandfalseconsciousnesshasbeenquestionedfor (writtenbetween1929and1935), hasbeenparticularlyinfluentialin existing ideologies, whywouldmyviewsnot camera obscura , expoundedin (inwhich Prison Prison - - - - 19/12/2012 12:50:27 PM - - - - ideology 105 19/12/2012 12:50:27 PM , , - - - , Bell , Ideology The EndThe Ideology and Utopia (1964), Bell’s Bell’s (1964), The End of Ideology Consciousness and Action inAction Consciousness and Conservatives Working (1976). In (1976). The Dominant Ideology Thesis Thesis The Dominant Ideology One Dimensional Man Dimensional One Politics and Ideology and Politics (Mann, 1973) and (Mann, was to examine the way that capitalism had developed to examine the way was has declined in academic debate. He gave two reasons two reasons He gave has declined in academic debate. ideology (1936 [1929]), Marcuse’s Marcuse’s [1929]), (1936 (1960), and Seliger’s and Seliger’s (1960), One Dimensional Man, One Dimensional Man, According to Grossberg, at the start of the twenty-first century, the centrality the centrality at the start of the twenty-first century, According to Grossberg, A consistent topic in postwar British sociology was how best to explain the pas explain the to best how was sociology British postwar in topic consistent A tine of humdrum explains the acquiescence of the working class. (2006: 179) (2006: class. working the of acquiescence the explains existence humdrum of tine Everyday life does not require any coherent ideological legitimacy, because the dull rou ideological legitimacy, Everyday life does not require any coherent quo. (Walsh, 1998: 288) 1998: (Walsh, quo. as it becomes taken for granted within society as common sense, preserves the status sense, preserves within society as common taken for granted as it becomes of the concept of in globalisation’ ‘neo-liberal of dominance increasing the that was one this: for would be decided pragmatically on the basis of efficiency, rather than on the basis rather on the basis of efficiency, would be decided pragmatically approach to the Seliger took a more neutral of opposing class-based ideologies. explain and ‘a set of ideas by which men posit, concept of ideology by defining it as irrespective of whether such action aims justify the ends and means of social action, 325). uproot or rebuild a given ’ (1970: amend, to preserve, particular social order (ideologies) and idealised representations of a future societyparticular social order (ideologies) and concern, Marcuse’s groups (utopias). that better served the interests of subordinate in In ideology to shape thought and restrict opposition. theAmerica signalled War World developments in post-Second argued that various where issues consensus, marked by and broad social of an era arrival Mannheim drew a distinction between thought systems that served to protect aMannheim drew a distinction between key contributions on the subject of ideology include Mannheim’s of ideology include Mannheim’s Other key contributions on the subject Utopia and of Ideology the Western Working Class Working the Western a dominant of Gramsci’s questioned which 1980), al., et (Abercrombie ideology, and of the working class not toattributed the apparent complacency and to the effects of eve but to the material conditions of their existence ideology, put it: Turner as – indeed, ‘mere survival’ ryday needs as well as sivity of the British working class and their lack of revolutionary consciousness. This consciousness. working class and their lack of revolutionary sivity of the British including responses, of sociological produced a variety idea of hegemony to explore the role of socialisation in which drew on Gramsci’s and concluded that this amounted to a working-class support for the Labour Party, by working-class subcultures – from the‘symbolic act of ’ – fostered 282); 1967: (Parkin, of British society dominant values to create a consensus in which the existing order is seen as natural and normal: since and normal: natural in which the existing order is seen as to create a consensus and as it did power depended as much on in a bourgeois society was though what prevailed secured; power could never be permanently on force, intellectual and political, evenly matched social forces for not a contest between domination. of straightforward it a neither was leadership, cultural Gramsci (1971) considered that ideology was embedded in every level and aspect embedded in every level and (1971) considered that ideology was Gramsci system and the the literature, arts and culture, of society – in popular a constant dominant group was He argued that what confronted the . existing social order and consent of the less-privileged to the struggle to obtain the 01-Braham_Chapters.indd 105 01-Braham_Chapters.indd 106 106 key concepts in sociology fromtheEnlightenmenttopostmodernism. Eagleton discussesthedifferentdefinitionsofideologyandexaminesconcept’s major contributionstothetheoryofideology. In In ideologies derivedfromthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesareexhausted. working class; and Bell’s talist society produces ‘one-dimensional thought’ and a false consciousness in the of the Ideology Advanced IndustrialSociety ogy simplyreflectsclassmembership; Marcuse’s andUtopia Ideology nation. Otherimportantworksonthesubjectofideologyinclude: Mannheim’s that thesubordinationofworkingclassdependsprimarilyonideologicaldomi Prison Notebooks ideology isalsoexplainedintermsofitseconomicstructure. In In See also: ogy) and ‘representation’ (2005: 178). course’ (thoughothershave suggestedthatdiscourseistheequivalent ofideol was thattherewerenewways ofthinkingaboutpowerandideas, suchas ‘dis could notbeascribedto ‘ideological domination, consensusorstruggle’; theother international relationsandtheadvances madeby ‘new conservative movements’ were wary ordisparaging ofwhatwas new, whiletheusesof ‘modernise’ were to thenineteenthcentury, mostusesof ‘modern’, ‘’ and ‘modernist’ cate thepresentfrombothmedieval andancienttimes. Williams notedthatprior sixteenth century, whenitwas usedmoreorlessasasynonymfor ‘now’ todemar According to Williams, theword ‘modern’ begantoappearinEnglishthelate The GermanIdeology Ideology andModernCulture Ideology Capitalism, Class,,Orientalism,Race (1971) Gramsci usesthenotionof ‘’toargue (1936 [1929]), whichtakesissuewiththepositionthatideol (1970 [1854–1856])MarxandEngelsarguethatasociety’s The EndofIdeology FURTHER READING (1990) Thompson providesacritical appraisal of (1964), whicharguesthatmoderncapi (1960), which argues thattheolder One DimensionalMan: Studiesin Ideology: An Introduction Ideology: An Selections from the Selections fromthe (1991) (1991) 19/12/2012 12:50:27 PM ------