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Commentary South African Journal of Science 102, September/October 2006 375

Biodiversity conservation in the Conserving and increasing Western Cape The most productive farmlands in the biodiversity in the large-scale, Western Cape are situated in what is known as the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), intensive farming systems of the an area of approximately 90 000 km2 at the southwestern tip of Africa and one of the Western Cape, South Africa world’s richest regions in terms of botani- cal diversity.2 Approximately 9000 species of vascular plants are found here, of J.H. Giliomee* which about 70% are endemic. Of these, 1406 are Red Data Book species, the highest known concentration of threatened and he Convention on Biological Diversity, systems. The international concern for rare species in the world.3 A major threat adopted in 1992 in Nairobi and signed by the conservation of biodiversity resulted to these species is habitat transformation Tmany states, including South Africa, at in negotiations leading to the United Na- through cultivation for agriculture. A the United Nations Conference on Environ- tions Convention on Biological Diversity, recent study showed that almost 26% of ment and Development in Rio de Janeiro later that year, urges nations to conserve biological which was opened for signature at the the CFR is currently transformed by agri- diversity. This places a special responsibility United Nations Conference on Environ- culture, while urbanization and alien on farmers, who own most of the land. Yet ment and Development held at Rio de plant invasion contribute another 1.6% agricultural practices usually aim at simplify- Janeiro in 1992. South Africa ratified the each.4 This may seem relatively low and ing ecosystems in favour of the crops (and convention in 1995 and followed it up no reason for concern, until it is realized animals) that are produced. In the Western with the National Environment Manage- that the percentage of untransformed Cape province of South Africa, this process ment: Biodiversity Act (No. 10 of 2004). In land is inflated by large areas that are has resulted in extensive monocultures of wheat, grapevines and fruit trees. The questions terms of this act, the South African mountainous or too dry for intensive agri- arise: should farmers bring more biodiversity National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) culture. If the 16 primary and 87 second- back into these systems and, if so, how can has been established, which is charged ary Broad Habitat Units (BHUs) into they do it? Apart from the moral obligation to with monitoring the status of the country’s which Cowling and Heijnes5 divided the do so, perceived benefits include the possibility biodiversity, the conservation status of all CFR are examined individually, it appears of greater economic and ecological stability, listed threatened or protected species, that 80% of the primary BHUs called especially under conditions of global climate and the status of all listed invasive species. Coastal Renosterveld has been cultivated change; enhanced aesthetic appeal and In view of these international and national (covering approximately 14 000 km2), greater acceptance of farming practices by the public in general and purchasers of farm policies and actions to address bio- where most of the wheat fields and the produce in particular. Possible disadvantages diversity conservation, this paper focuses vineyards of the Western Cape are found. are short-term losses in productivity and on the benefits of biodiversity to farming For two of the secondary BHUs of this profitability. Measures that will contribute systems, steps being taken in the Western 14 000 km² area, namely Swartland and towards increasing biodiversity include: Cape province of South Africa to conserve Overberg Coastal Renosterveld, it rises to intercropping; the planting and maintenance biodiversity and, in particular, on the role about 88% and 94%, respectively.6 Simi- of shelter belts, buffer strips and natural corri- of the farming community, who owns larly, the Elgin subunit of the Fynbos/ dors; retaining riparian and other areas of high value natural vegetation; making dams most of the land, including 80% by area of Renosterveld Mosaic BHU (136 km²), attractive to wildlife; reducing the impact of the most scarce and threatened vegeta- where mostly apples are grown, is 86% pesticides; educating farmers and farm workers tion types in South Africa.1 cultivated.4 Apart from the plants, the about the values of biodiversity conservation; and providing financial incentives to land- owners for biodiversity conservation. An overview is provided in this paper of current international and national biodiversity conservation policies and programmes and some of the local initiatives that are active in the Western Cape to protect and re-establish biodiversity. Introduction Together with the prospect of global climate change, the loss of biodiversity is arguably the most pressing environmental problem of our time. It has become clear that the world is rapidly losing its biologi- cal wealth as human activities such as polluting, habitat destruction and inva- sion by alien plants and animals escalate, and threaten the continued existence of many species and the functioning of eco-

*Department of Botany and Zoology, University of Stellen- bosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa. The Cape landscape is characterized by extensive agricultural monocultures amongst patches of natural E-mail: [email protected] vegetation, with low and high biodiversity, respectively. 376 South African Journal of Science 102, September/October 2006 Commentary

CFR has lost a great deal of its animal life, intangible benefits as the satisfaction that his decision on what to produce. particularly the larger mammals that once people derive from the continued existence (ii) There is growing evidence that by roamed the grassy lowlands. One mam- of pristine environments; and third, the increasing agro-biodiversity on a mal species, the bluebuck, has become ex- utilitarian principle underlying economic farm, pest populations are stabi- tinct and another 10 regionally extinct, evaluations is inherently inadequate in lized and the need for insecticide although some have been reintroduced.7 valuing the natural world. applications reduced.16,17 This can be Eight bird species have become regionally Globally, the benefits to agriculture of achieved not only by planting a mix- extinct since European settlement.8 maintaining natural biodiversity include ture of crops, but also by adding From these facts it should be clear why the following: buffer strips and windbreaks that the CFR is considered a global bio- (i) Plant breeders, by applying tradi- tolerate or promote non-crop plants diversity hotspot, which is defined as an tional or new technologies, can trans- where they do not compete with the area featuring exceptional concentrations fer desirable traits (such as disease or crop and maintain natural vegetation of endemic species and experiencing drought resistance) in related and un- on the edges of crops. In this way, exceptional loss of habitat.9 related ’wild’ plants to existing or new barriers are created to inoculum or Over the years, some areas in the CFR crop plants, thereby increasing their insect pest movement as well as have received some form of ’protected productivity and potential to provide refugia where natural enemies can area’ status and today national, provincial, a higher income to the farmer and maintain themselves on pest hosts. local authority and private nature reserves food to consumers. However, one negative aspect of in- comprise more than 20% of the total (ii) ‘Wild’ plants are a potential source of creasing biodiversity on farms that area.10,11 However, these conservation new crops for food, oils, medicines, produce crops for export is that areas are not representative of the bio- fibres, etc. it increases the likelihood of endemic diversity patterns or processes that gener- (iii) Natural habitats are a source of natu- insects being discovered on the ex- ate them, but skewed towards land with a ral enemies that can be used for the ported products, which may result in low value for agriculture (such as moun- biological control of pests and dis- consignments being rejected (K.L. tainous and rocky areas), where the eases. Pringle, Department of Conservation opportunity costs for conservation are (iv) Maintenance of ecological processes Ecology and Entomology, University low and there is little threat of transfor- that agricultural systems largely de- of Stellenbosch, pers. comm.). mation.4 It is therefore important that in pend on, such as soil formation, nutri- any conservation strategy for the CFR, ent cycling, erosion control, water Conservation of fragmented particular attention should be given to the storage, pollination, etc. ecosystems on Western Cape farms privately owned fragments of natural These benefits, except (iv), are not expe- Approximately 18 000 renosterveld vegetation still remaining in the lowland rienced to any significant degree by the fragments remain, more than half of regions with high agricultural potential.12 fruit, vine and wheat farmers of the West- which are smaller than a hectare.6 These ern Cape, where only small remnants of fragments are found mostly along river Benefits of biodiversity to Western the original vegetation and wildlife remain. courses, steep slopes, road reserves and Cape farming systems However, increasing agro-biodiversity on less productive land. The question Biodiversity conservation is not only on the individual farm level in the inten- should be raised: are these highly frag- about species conservation, but also about sive Western Cape farming systems can mented natural areas worth conserving the conservation of the genetic variation have the following benefits: and what is the minimum fragment size within species and the habitats or ecosys- (i) The risk of ‘having all the eggs in one for ecological viability? Studies have tems within which they occur. For the basket’ is reduced. Changes in product shown that the composition and diversity indigenous or exotic plants and animals prices due to fluctuating currency of the vegetation on fragments of 4 ha or that are directly or indirectly involved in values, consumer preferences and more in size for fynbos19 and less than 1 ha the raising of crops and livestock on farms global market conditions, together for renosterveld20 were not substantially (agro-ecosystems), the term agro-bio- with climate variation and uncontrol- different from that of nearby larger areas, diversity can be used.13 The most promi- lable pests or diseases, can have in the latter case despite disturbance by nent characteristic of agro-ecosystems is devastating effects when single crops grazing, trampling, crop spraying and their high degree of biotic simplification,14 and single cultivars are grown. This frequent fires. One of the explanations which refers to the reduction in species was the case when grape phylloxera offered for the weak fragmentation effect numbers. In the wheat, wine and fruit wiped out most of the vines in the of renosterveld is that most of the species production systems of the Western Cape, Cape (as in Europe) in the 1880s are resprouters and have wind-dispersed this has reached such an extreme degree and was brought home to the apple seeds.20 Many of the 1500 species of that biodiversity in all its dimensions is farmers in recent years when export geophytes in the CFR survive today in severely depleted. While the economic prices for their products dropped these remnants, although a number have benefits, particularly to the individual significantly, putting some of them become extremely rare, such as some farmer, of these conversions are obvious, out of business. Some farming prac- of the very attractive Morea21 and Aristea the costs to society of the loss in biodi- tices are complementary, such as species whose survival depends on a few versity are impossible to quantify. Ehren- wheat and sheep production, and hectares of land remaining untrans- feld,15 as quoted by Gollin and Smale,16 combining them reduces market vul- formed. Similarly, many other rare plant gives three reasons why this is so. First, nerability. However, when all goes species can be maintained in the thou- there is a lack of adequate biological well, more profits can be made by a sands of remaining ‘pocket-handker- knowledge about the functions of genes, monoculture of the most lucrative chief’ patches, provided they are man- species and ecological communities. crop or variety. This is the trade-off aged to retain the disturbance regimes.10 Second, it is difficult to put values on such on which the farmer has to base The role of the small fragments in Commentary South African Journal of Science 102, September/October 2006 377

supporting animal life is less well docu- yields, promote compliance with laws, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and mented. In a study on the insect pollinators integrate biodiversity concerns into Food operates several agri-environment in such fragments,22 it was found that catchment management and promote schemes in which farmers are compen- overall richness of bees, flies and butter- sustainable nature-based tourism; and sated for loss of income if they adopt less flies did not vary significantly between (iii) to strengthen institutions, policies intensive, low-input practices that benefit smaller and larger fragments of and laws, enhance cooperative governance biodiversity conservation within agricul- renosterveld shrublands. However, the and community participation.24 With the tural landscapes.27 In South Africa, this abundance of particular species of bees building of partnerships between the powerful incentive would only be possi- and monkey beetles was significantly stakeholders, it is hoped to ensure that ble with funding from external sources. affected by fragment size. One orchid the long-term social sustainability of In the case of South African producers species produced no fruits in small frag- plans matches the efforts towards ecolog- of deciduous fruit, compliance with the ments and in another plant species fruit ical sustainability.25 Ultimately, the strat- requirements of the Capespan Integrated set was significantly reduced in frag- egy will succeed only if the general public, Crop Management certification system ments that were farther from bigger natu- and particularly the landowners, develop gives them a competitive advantage in ral areas, indicating that the long-term a sense of pride in biodiversity conserva- global export markets. Some of these survival of some plant species may be tion (an ethical motivation) or if they can markets demand that the fruit they affected by fragmentation. This may be be convinced that they benefit directly or buy is produced in an ‘environmentally because the critical threshold of resources indirectly from it (an economic motiva- friendly’ way. One of the requirements required by certain pollinators may not be tion). for certification is an Environmental available in smaller patches.22 Many other In terms of the regulations promulgated Management Plan for the farm, in which insects, as well as amphibians, reptiles, in 1997 under the Environment Conser- steps to increase biodiversity should be birds, and small mammals (even small vation Act (No. 73 of 1989), a compulsory specified.28 There are presently no guide- predators) are likely to survive in the frag- environmental impact assessment is lines available on what farmers can do to ments if they are properly maintained required for the change in land use from achieve this, but they may include actions and managed. grazing to any other form of agriculture. such as making irrigation dams ‘fish and In the case of the deciduous fruit farms Furthermore, a ploughing permit must be bird friendly’ (by providing shallow areas in the Elgin district, the number of bird obtained from the National Department for vegetation and islands with trees), species increased after fruit farming of Agriculture before virgin land (older what to plant in wind breaks, and so on. started.23 This is attributed to the increase than 10 years) is developed (Conserva- Similarly, wine producers that comply in new waterbird habitats as a result of the tion of Agricultural Resources Act, No. 43 with the sustainable production guide- construction of storage dams for the of 1983). It is the author’s impression lines of the Integrated Production of irrigation of the orchards. However, six that farmers often do not abide by these Wine (IPW) scheme, receive an annual species that occurred in the adjacent regulations when small pieces of land are certificate. This certificate is not only a natural vegetation were absent from the involved and that they are seldom prose- prerequisite for producers’ grapes to be orchards. The study also showed that cuted when contravening this law. The accepted at many of the larger co-operative more species were recorded in an orchard problem of illegal ploughing also stems wineries, but also for major buyers of with islands of natural vegetation either from landowners’ ignorance of wine and export markets. In both the amongst the blocks than in one without.23 laws that oblige them to apply for an EIA Capespan and IPW schemes, producers application or ploughing permit, or due who practise integrated pest management Implementing biodiversity to the lengthy permit approval process and avoid the use of harmful chemicals conservation measures that frustrates many farmers.26 score highly. This approach to pest In view of the importance of the remain- In addition to education of landowners control in itself would favour biodiversity ing fragments for biodiversity conserva- and their workers, and the provision of conservation. In these biodiversity guide- tion, the first priority should be to ensure technical assistance and extension infor- lines within the broader IPW scheme, that they are not further diminished. The mation by the national and provincial retention and management of natural question therefore is: what measures or departments of agriculture, conservation habitats on farms and corridors and buffer programmes are in place or can be taken agencies, universities and NGOs, the strips of indigenous plants are recom- to conserve them? The increasing global ultimate requirement is financial incen- mended. In addition, 37 vine growers had concern about biodiversity depletion and tives. In a survey of landowners who become accredited members of the growing awareness of the plight of the owned Coastal Overberg Renosterveld, Biodiversity and Wine Initiative (BWI) by CFR led to the development of the Cape 93% of those interviewed considered that the end of 2005, and amongst them Action Plan for the Environment (CAPE), offering landowner incentives is a good conserve 16 905 ha of pristine natural later changed to Cape Action for People idea for promoting conservation on vegetation.29 The Biodiversity and Wine and the Environment. This comprehensive private land.12 One major financial incen- Initiative is a partnership between the programme started with an initial grant tive has already been introduced into the conservation sector and wine industry to from the Global Environment Facility in new Property Rates Act (No. 6 of 2004), minimize the further loss of threatened 1998 and is sustained by further grants which came into effect on 1 July 2005. In natural habitat and contribute to sustain- from this body and the Critical Ecosys- terms of this bill, land rates will in future able wine production with benefits for tems Partnership Fund. The objectives of be levied on all land, but provision is both biodiversity conservation and the the programme are: (i) to establish an made for rates exclusion on privately wine industry.30 effective reserve network in the CFR, owned areas of high conservation value One hopes that these initiatives, to- enhance off-reserve conservation and that receive protected area status in terms gether with CAPE, will make landowners support bioregional planning; (ii) to of the Protected Areas Act (No. 57 of 2003) more aware of the value of fragments of develop methods to ensure sustainable and are properly managed. In Britain, the natural vegetation, as awareness levels 378 South African Journal of Science 102, September/October 2006 Commentary

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