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Home , Aedesius, Basilides (Stoic), Chrysanthius, Destiny, Horus (athlete), Latitudinarian

Glossary Prepared by Crystal Addey

Abhinavagupta

975–1025 AD. Born in Kashmir, he wrote encyclopedically on Kashmiri Shaivism, and on the of . Like other , West and East, he practised what he wrote about, and is regarded as both scholar and by Shaivites.

Abu Yazid

Died 874. Sufi mystic who introduced the concept of fana, the passing away of the empirical self, a crucial and controversial theme in later Sufi .

Achilles

Greek mythological figure. The central character of Homer’s , where he is depicted as the greatest of the Greek heroes in the Trojan War. In mythology, he is the son of Peleus and Thetis.

Aeon

Greek: Aio¯n. This concept is of great importance in ancient Graeco-Roman reli- gion and philosophy, but has a wide variety of uses and meanings. Primarily, it means ‘life,’ ‘life-’ but this meaning was extended to ‘long periods of time,’ i.e., ages. It could also denote . In , Aeon was personified as a , the son of , another important deity. Mithraic depictions of this deity influenced the conception of Aeon as supreme deity and led to its adop- tion as tutelary deity of Alexandria. In Gnostic speculation, Aeon underwent strange metamorphosis. In Hermetic literature, Aeon as the deuteros theos (‘sec- ond god’) creates the and Time (‘chronos’).

Agamemnon

A Greek mythological figure who is probably best known for his role in Homer’s Iliad as the King of and commander-in-chief of the Greek expedition against Troy. In mythology, he is the son of Atreus, brother of Menelaus and husband of Clytemnestra.

Alexander of Aphrodisias

Late second/early third century AD. Commentator on . He was appointed public teacher of Aristotelian philosophy at some time between 198 and 209 AD,

302 Glossary 303 probably (although not certainly) in . He is referred to by later writers as ‘the commentator’ on Aristotle. Commentaries on various Aristotelian works survive; many others are extensively quoted by later writers. He also wrote short treatises on various subjects, which demonstrate his development of Aristotelian material.

Al-Farabi, Abu nasr c.870–950 AD. Leading Islamic , thinker, logician, musician and major political scientist. He was known to the Arabs as the ‘second Master’ after Aristotle of . Deeply influenced by , Al-Farabi was one of the first philosophers to transmit Aristotelian to the Islamic world; he has been called the ‘Father of Islamic Neoplatonism’. He wrote exten- sively on and logic, and expanded Aristotle’s description of the intellect. He influenced major Islamic philosophers, such as Ibn Sina, but also major thinkers of Christian medieval Europe including Thomas Aquinas.

Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid

1059–1111 AD. Islamic jurist, theologian and mystical thinker. Primarily a theo- logian, Al-Ghazali taught in Baghdad but later abandoned academic study for a life of contemplation. He spent the rest of his life engaged in writing, Sufi prac- tices and teaching his disciples. He valued the insight given by mystical com- prehension above that attained through logic or . Generally, Al-Ghazali attacks the range of claimed by philosophers, particularly through a critique of knowledge of causation.

Al-Hallaj

854–922 AD. Sufi mystic. He was put to death for blasphemy, after seeming to assert identity with God.

Allegory

Allegorical interpretation of works of literature – above all the mythological poems of Homer and Hesiod – involved the ‘decoding’ of secret, hidden mean- ings ‘underneath,’ or implied by, the literal meaning. The works of Homer and Hesiod were decoded allegorically as accounts of the physical world or the of and as early as the sixth century BC. Stoic philosophers provided a detailed range of allegorical readings and techniques. Neopythagorean and Neoplatonic philosophers, from the second century AD onwards, produced strongly allegorical readings, presenting the Greek poets, particularly Homer, as the first and greatest philosophers (Numenius, fragments 30–32, Des Places; Por- phyry, Cave of the Nymphs; , Commentary on ’s , 2, 3 and 10).

Amelius Gentilianus

Third century AD. Neoplatonist philosopher and the pupil of from 246– 269 AD, and thus ’s fellow student. He was of Etruscan origin and briefly 304 Glossary studied with a Stoic philosopher named Lysimachus. He wrote extensively, mainly presenting and defending Plotinus’ philosophy. He was a great admirer of Numen- ius and indeed moved to Apamea, Numenius’ home town, in 269 AD, where he spent the rest of his life.

Ammonius c. 434/45–517/26 AD. Neoplatonic philosopher and Head of the Neoplatonic school of Alexandria (from c. 470 AD onwards). He was the son of the Neo- platonist philosopher Hermeas and had been a student of Proclus. He himself taught , Olympiodorus, Simplicius, Philoponus and Asclepius. His output was fairly prolific and he is particularly well-known for his extensive commentaries on Aristotle. He seems to have argued for an even greater level of harmony between Plato and Aristotle than was commonly accepted even by most Neoplatonist philosophers.

Ammonius Saccas

Third century AD. Platonist philosopher, active in Alexandria in the first half of the third century AD. He is most famous as the teacher of Plotinus, who studied under him 232–242 AD, as well as of the Christian, Origen the pagan, Longinus and others. According to Porphyry, he was brought up as a Christian but reverted to as soon as he began to think for himself. An elusive figure, he wrote nothing, yet his legacy to Neoplatonism involves his instruc- tion and teaching of Plotinus for eleven .

Anaxagoras

Probably c. 500–428 BC. Pre-socratic philosopher. A native of Clazomenae, he became the first philosopher known to have settled in Athens, where he was later prosecuted on a charge of impiety. Fragments of only one book of Anax- agoras’ survive, preserved in Simplicius’ writings. He was concerned with meta- physics, cosmology and . His doctrines include the fundamental homogeneity of and the idea that our differentiated cosmos was created by the action of mind, an entirely discrete principle, unmixed with any other substances but capable of ordering and controlling them.

Anaximenes of Miletus

Flourished c.546–525 BC. Pre-socratic philosopher. He followed in composing a treatise in Ionian prose in which he developed a world system on the basis of an infinite or unlimited principle, which he identified as ae¯r (cosmic air).

Antony, St. of Egypt c.251–356 AD. Christian hermit and Desert Father. In approximately 269 AD Antony gave away his possessions and devoted himself to a life of ; Glossary 305 in c. 285 AD he retired completely into the desert. He attracted a number of dis- ciples and organized them into a community of hermits who lived under rule in approximately 305 AD. He later exercised his influence in support of the Nicene party in the Arian controversy, in which he was associated with Athanasius.

Apollo

Greek god of the sun, , healing and purification, and , poetry and music, care for young citizens. One of the twelve Olympian deities, Apollo was the son of and Leto and brother of Artemis. His main cult cen- tres, Delos and Delphi, are well-known. The Delphic was sacred to Apollo; he was thought to deliver oracles to enquirers through the mouth of the Pythia, the prophetess of the shrine. One of his cult epithets was Musagetes, ‘Leader of the Muses’. He is also associated with philosophy.

Aquinas, St. Thomas

1225–1274 AD. Italian philosopher-theologian, the most influential figure of the medieval period. He produced a powerful philosophical synthesis that com- bined Aristotelian and Neoplatonic concepts within a Christian context. His writings continue to exert an influence amongst Catholic theologians and some contemporary philosophers of .

Aristotle

384–322 BC. One of the most significant and influential Greek philosophers, Aristotle was born in Stagira and therefore is sometimes called the Stagirite. Aris- totle travelled to Athens at the age of seventeen and entered Plato’s Academy, where he remained until Plato’s death in 348/7 BC. Plato’s philosophical influ- ence is evident in all of Aristotle’s work. Aristotle also tutored Alexander the Great while in Macedon. In 335 BC, Aristotle established his own philosophi- cal school, the Lyceum. Aristotle is particularly well-known for his scientific writings and biological research. He also wrote works on logic and metaphys- ics, nature, life and mind, ethics, politics and . Aristotle’s achievements have been fundamental to much of the subsequent of .

Asclepius

Fifth–sixth centuries AD. Alexandrian Neoplatonist philosopher. The student of Ammonius, who was Head of the Neoplatonic School at Alexandria. His extant works are commentaries on Aristotle.

Athanasius

Alexandrian rhetor, probably of the fourth century. He wrote a commentary on Hermogenes’ On Issues; an epitome of the prolegomena survives, along with a few fragments. We also have a few fragments from his commentaries on speeches by Demosthenes and Aelius Aristides. 306 Glossary c.297–373 AD. Early Christian Church Father, bishop in Alexandria and a lead- ing protagonist in the fourth-century disputes concerning Christ’s relationship to God (the Arian controversy). He made leading contributions to the doctrine of the Incarnation and the .

Augustine, St (Aurelius Augustinus)

354–430 AD. Christian Church Father, writer and apologist, philoso- pher. Augustine was born in Thagaste (modern Souk Ahras, Algeria). He taught rhetoric at Thagaste, Carthage and . He was an adherent of Manicheism, a Gnostic sect promising Wisdom but then underwent a life-changing conver- sion, in 386, to , under the patronage of Ambrose, bishop of Milan. He was ordained priest of in 391 and became bishop in 395. Augustine’s major works include an autobiographical masterpiece, the Confessions and De civitate Dei (), presenting a definitive juxtaposition of Christian- ity with paganism and Neoplatonism. Augustine transformed Latin Christianity through his philosophical views, which were influenced by Neoplatonism. He has left his distinctive mark on most aspects of Western Christianity.

Bacon, Francis

1561–1626 AD. English philosopher, essayist and scientific methodologist. He endorsed the new resulting from the achievements of early modern science. He opposed alleged knowledge based on appeals to authority, arguing for a new and attitude based strictly on scientific principles.

Bardesanes

154–222 AD. Syrian philosopher and theologian with Gnostic tendencies. He lived at the court of Abgar IX of Edessa, where Syrian, Iranian and hellenistic influences intermingled. He wrote in Syriac and wrote the Book of the of the Lands, showing his interest in other nations. He opposed the dualism of Mar- cion and the denial of freewill in astrology, but was influenced by the latter. His cosmology was regarded as Gnostic.

Basilides

Second century AD. An Alexandrian Gnostic. Irenaeus and Hippolytus give versions of ’ teaching, which involved a complex Gnostic metaphysical scheme and a large array of , powers and angels, grouped severally in 365 heavens.

Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb

1714–1762 AD. German philosopher, who is known primarily for his introduc- tion of the term ‘aesthetics’ to describe the effects of art and nature, which in the course of the seventeenth century replaced the older theory of beauty. Thus, he introduced the discipline of aesthetics into . Glossary 307

Berkeley, George

1685–1783. Irish philosopher and bishop in the Anglican Church of Ireland. He is regarded as one of the three great British empiricists along with Locke and Hume. He developed new and influential views on the visual perception of dis- tance and size, and an idealist metaphysical system which he defended partly on the ground that it was the best defence of common sense and safeguard against scepticism.

Bhagavad Gita

From Sanskrit Bhagavadgīta¯, meaning ‘song of the exalted lord / blessed one’. A famous Hindu philosophical and spiritual poem, often considered to encap- sulate many of the main teachings of Hinduism. It was composed and edited between the fifth century BC and the second century AD, and contains eighteen chapters and seven hundred verses and forms the sixth book (Chapters 23–40) of the Indian epic Mahabharata. Much commented on by hundreds of Indian authors and translated into all the major languages of the world, it is the best- known Hindu scripture worldwide.

Blake, William

1757–1827 AD. Poet and painter. Blake was a mixture of extremes, both in his thought and work. He evolved a highly intricate mythology, its allusive sources only now unravelled by scholars. His interest in legend and antiquity was revived with the Romantics’ rediscovery of the past, especially the Gothic and the medieval. He insisted on the need to remake these legends in the poet’s own terms and the need to find a new language for expressing them.

Bonaventure, St. c.1221–1274 AD. Italian theologian. Born John of Fidanza in Bagnorea, Tus- cany, he was educated at Paris and later joined the Franciscans about 1243 and was elected minister general of the order in 1257. He wrote and preached extensively on the relation between theology and philosophy, developing a synthesis of them in which Neoplatonic doctrines are used within a Christian framework.

Brentano, Franz Clemens

1838–1917 AD. A philosopher and psychologist who made significant contribu- tions to many branches of philosophy, including and , , ethics and the . He also published sev- eral works on the history of philosophy, particularly Aristotle, and argued that philosophy proceeds in cycles of advance and decline. His ideas influenced the phenomenological movement of the twentieth century. 308 Glossary

Cambridge Platonists

A group of seventeenth-century philosopher-theologians at the University of Cambridge. The leading figures included (1614–1687), Ralph Cud- worth (1617–1689), (1609–1683), John Smith (1618–1652), Peter Sterry (1613–1672), Nathaniel Culverwell (1619–1651) and John Worthing- ton (1618–1671). As a generic label, ‘’ is a useful umbrella term rather than a signal of doctrinal unity. Broadly speaking, they believed that Plato and were compatible with or useful for Christianity. They inter- preted Plato in a Neoplatonic manner. Their concerns were ultimately religious and theological rather than primarily philosophical. They wanted to defend ‘true ’, namely, their latitudinarian vision of Anglican Christianity, against a wide variety of perceived enemies.

Cassian, John c. 360 to after 430 AD. Christian monk. As a young man, he joined a monas- tery in Bethlehem but left soon after (c.385 AD) to study monasticism in Egypt, where he was much influenced by Evagrius Ponticus. In approximately 404 AD he became a deacon of the Church of and later (c.415 AD) founded two monasteries near Marseilles. He wrote two works, the Conferences and the Institutes, the latter of which sets out the ordinary rules for the monas- tic life. This work greatly influenced the later formation of monastic rules, being drawn on, for example, by St. Benedict.

Chaldaean Oracles

A of mystical oracles and teachings, used extensively by later Neoplatonist philosophers such as Proclus and . Written in Greek hexameter verse, they comprise a complete cosmology and metaphysical system, and a set of moral and instructions, particularly aimed at those practising . This collec- tion of oracles is thought to have been composed in the first or second century AD. Most of the oracles contained within the collection are ascribed to the Greek deities Apollo and Hekate. The Chaldaean Oracles survive only in fragments, pre- served mostly by Neoplatonic philosophers such as Proclus and Damascius.

Clement of Alexandria c.150 to after 211 AD. Christian writer. He was probably born at Athens to pagan parents. He converted to Christianity and after extensive travels to seek instruc- tion from Christian teachers, he studied in Alexandria. Some of his works survive, including the Protrepticus, or ‘Hortatory Address to the Greeks’ (c.190), designed to prove the superiority of Christianity to pagan cults and way of life. He added little to Christian dogma, but his philosophy points the way to Origen.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor

1772–1834 AD. British philosopher, critic and romantic poet. Coleridge’s reputa- tion as a poet is secured by a small, though radiant, corpus of major works. The Glossary 309 distinctively Continental cast of his thought was new to British contemporaries. His theory of the poetic imagination as a unifying and mediating power within divided modern cultures provided one of the central concepts of Romantic aes- thetics. He was friends with William Wordsworth and provided much inspira- tion to younger romantic poets, such as Byron.

Damascius c. 462–540 AD. Late Neoplatonist philosopher. He was the head of the Academy in Athens at the time of its closure in 529 AD. He largely accepted the meta- physical system of and Proclus, but subjected it to dialectical demon- stration and scrutiny in a series of commentaries and especially in his treatise On First Principles. He was the teacher of Simplicius.

David

Sixth-century philosopher. Author of prolegomena to philosophy, and a com- mentary on Porphyry’s Isagoge.

Democritus

Fifth century BC. Born: 460/457 BC. Greek philosopher, who was born in Abdera in Thrace. He apparently wrote works focusing on mathematics, music, ethics, physics and biology, although none of this work survives (however there are surviving fragments of his work containing ethical maxims). From the time of Aristotle, and are jointly credited with the creation of the atomic theory of the universe; it is now impossible to distinguish the contri- bution of each. He defended ideas of the infinite universe, plural and perishable worlds, efficient, non-teleological causes and the atomic theory of . His major followers in antiquity were and .

Derrida, Jacques

1930–2004 AD. A prolific French philosopher born in Algeria. His major argu- ment asserts the necessity of interrogating the Western philosophical tradition from the standpoint of ‘.’ Deconstruction is concerned with the category of the ‘wholly other.’ Although Derrida eschewed any definition of deconstruction, it is often taken to be a method of examining texts to reveal their contradictions, silences and blindspots.

Descartes, René

1596–1650 AD. French philosopher and mathematician, a founder of the ‘mod- ern age’ of philosophy and one of the most important figures in the intellectual revolution of the seventeenth century. Descartes’ theory of knowledge has been widely influential in , and he is one of the central points of reference for modern philosophy, particularly as regards epistemology, theory of mind, theory of matter and metaphysics. 310 Glossary

Determinism

The idea that every is necessitated (determined) by antecedent conditions and the laws of nature.

Dianoia

Greek: intelligence, mind, thought.

Dunamis/dynamis

Greek: active and passive capacity, power, potentiality. For Neoplatonist philoso- phers, as for Aristotle, dunamis is potentiality as distinct from actuality.

Elias

Sixth-century philosopher, possibly a pupil of Olympiodorus. Author of com- mentaries on Porphyry’s Isagoge, and Aristotle’s Categories and .

Eliot, T.S. (Thomas Stearns)

1888–1965 AD. Poet, critic and dramatist. In 1948 Eliot received both the Nobel Prize for Literature and the Order of Merit. These honours acknowledged his vital role in showing poetry how to become modern. With its dense allusions to earlier literature, The Waste Land (one of his major works) had crucially rede- fined the traditions of use to the modern poet. Eliot’s praise of the Elizabethan dramatists and the metaphysical poets in his criticism confirmed a preference for intellectual toughness, energy and wit.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo

1803–1882 AD. The son of a Unitarian clergyman, Emerson was born in Bos- ton and educated at Harvard. He studied philosophy extensively, and acted as a channel for many religious, philosophical and literary currents of the early nineteenth century, exemplified by his meetings with Coleridge and Words- worth. He was the central figure of New England , a move- ment centred on the ‘Transcendental Club’ formed in Boston in 1836. Emerson had a huge following and his journal The Dial was the main literary organ of New England transcendentalism.

Eunapius of Sardis

Fourth century AD. Greek , historian and biographer, who was born at Sardis c. 345 AD and studied there under and later in Ath- ens under Prohaeresius. When he returned to Sardis he entered the circle of local Neoplatonists, learned theurgy and medicine and mainly taught rhetoric. A great admirer of the emperor and a vehement opponent of Christi- anity, he wrote to defend the traditional Graeco-Roman pagan religion. He is Glossary 311 most famous for his work Lives of the and Philosophers, which contains biographies of many Neoplatonist philosophers and, on the basis of first-hand , deals mainly with fourth–century Neoplatonists, tracing a line of Neoplatonic descent from Iamblichus.

Eurystheus

A Greek mythological figure who was granted rule of the Argolid by the god Zeus through the Hera’s trickery. Heracles was enslaved to him while he performed his twelve Labours, at the command of the Delphic oracle and as a punishment for killing his wife and children in a fit of madness.

Eusebius of Caesarea

269–339 AD. A Christian Church Father, biblical scholar and apologist and the effective founder of the Christian genres of Church history and . He is an important contemporary source for the reign of Constantine I. He was elected as bishop of Caesarea in c.313 AD and held this post until his death in 339 AD. During this period he played a significant role in ecclesiastical poli- tics in the eastern empire. He wrote biblical commentaries, historical works and apologetic treatises, the most well-known of which are the Preparation for the Gospel and the Proof of the Gospel, which refute and attack pagan philosophy while advocating the supremacy of Christianity.

Evagrius Ponticus

346–399 AD. Christian Desert Father and writer. A native of Pontus, he was ordained deacon by St Gregory of Nazianus and became a preacher at Constan- tinople. In 382 AD, he went to the desert, where he spent the rest of his life. In his writings, he was influenced by, and developed, Origen’s metaphysics.

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb

1762–1814 AD. German philosopher, who developed Kant’s Critical philosophy into a system of his own, which he named ‘Theory of Science’ or Wissenschaft- slehre. Fichte continually revised this system and his output was prolific.

Ficino, Marsilio

1433–1499 AD. Italian Neoplatonic philosopher who played a leading role in the cultural milieu of Florence. Through Ficino’s translation and commentar- ies, the works of Plato first became accessible to the Latin-speaking West. He accepted Neoplatonic interpretations of Plato, whom he saw as the heir of Hermes Trismegistus, a mythical Egyptian and supposed author of the Hermetic corpus. He endorsed the idea of a prisca theologia, an ancient wisdom encapsulating religious and philosophical truth, which was handed on to Plato, and later validated by Christian revelation. 312 Glossary

Freud, Sigmund

1856–1939 AD. Freud developed the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, one of the most influential schools of psychology and psychotherapy of the twenti- eth century.

Galileo, Galilei

1564–1642 AD. Italian astronomer, natural philosopher and physicist. His Dialogue concerning the Two Chief World Systems (published in 1632) defended Copernicus by arguing against the major tenets of Aristotelian cosmology. His work was highly controversial at the time; he was called before the Inquisition and made to recant his Copernican views and spent the last years of his life under house arrest. His work Discourse concerning Two New Sciences (published 1638) created the modern sci- ence of mechanics: it proved the laws of free fall, thus making it possible to study accelerated motions and proposed a theory of parabolic ballistics. His scientific and technological achievements were prodigious. He made important scientific discov- eries and his astronomical observation led to the discovery of four of Jupiter’s satel- lites, the moon’s mountains, sunspots and the nature of the Milky Way.

Geist

German: spirit, or mind. The general term employed by Hegel and his fol- lowers to describe the all-pervasive substance from which mental life, in their view, is composed. The German idealist philosophers supposed Geist to be the ultimate reality, and the universe to be intelligible as the object of its own self-understanding.

Gibbon, Edward

1737–1794 AD. Historian. He is famous for writing the voluminous work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, mapping the history of the fall of the Roman Empire during the late antique period, additionally covering the Eastern half of the Roman Empire.

Gnosticism, Gnostics

A religion and in the ancient Graeco-Roman world. comprised many sects in various places, under various leaders. Because of this, recent scholars have become wary of using the term ‘Gnosti- cism’ as a generic label. Generally, Gnostic sects merit their designation by each claiming a secret gnosis (‘knowledge’) about the constitution of the universe, human nature and destiny. Mankind was generally seen as having a dual nature: a spiritual and material element. They could be saved from their wretched mate- rial state by acquiring true knowledge (gnosis) of their real nature, aiming to free Glossary 313 their to return to communion with the Supreme Being. The incarnation of Christ could really be explained in Gnostic terms as the descent of a divine aeon from Supreme Being to mediate to men a saving gnosis. Therefore there were many Christian Gnostic sects.

Gregory Nazianzen, St. c. 330–390 AD. Cappadocian bishop, Patristic philosopher and early Church Father. He studied at the University of Athens and later adopted the monastic life. His writings include an elaborate treatment of the doctrine of the .

Grosseteste, Robert c.1170–1253 AD. Grosseteste’s thought represents the conflicting currents in the intellectual climate of Europe in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. He made accessible the texts and ideas of the Arabic and Greek intellectual tra- ditions to his Latin contemporaries. He worked on science, , metaphysics, ethics and theology. He was also a translator and commentator on Aristotle and pseudo-Dionysius. He was greatly influenced by Augustine.

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

1770–1831 AD. German philosopher, who was one of the most influential of the German Idealists. He is also well-known for his and . His works include The Phenomenology of Spirit, Science of Logic (an attempt to give a philosophical account of the concepts necessary for all kinds of account-giving), Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences and The Phi- losophy of Right (a controversial book on ).

Heidegger, Martin

1889–1976 AD. German philosopher, initially influenced by Husserl’s phenom- enology but developed his own existential variant. His most famous work, Sein und Zeit (Being and Time), published in 1927, emphasized human finitude and our being-towards-death.

Hekate

Greek goddess who was popular from the time of Hesiod until late antiquity. Unknown in Homer and harmless in Hesiod, she emerges by the fifth century BC as a more sinister divine figure associated with and witchcraft, lunar lore, the Underworld, creatures of the night, dog sacrifices, doorways and crossroads. This goddess is often depicted with three faces. In the theurgy of the Chaldaean 314 Glossary

Oracles adopted by the Neoplatonists, Hekate, though still associated with demons, has become an epiphanic celestial deity and a cosmological principle – the World Soul – accessible through ritual and contemplation.

Heracles

A Greek mythological figure who was the greatest of the Greek heroes. He famously had to perform twelve Labours, at the command of the Delphic oracle, after killing his wife and children in a fit of madness. He took part in the expe- dition against Troy and sacked Oechalia, accompanied the Argonauts, founded the Olympian games and ultimately died by burning on Mt. Oeta, after he had been inadvertently poisoned by his wife Deianira.

Heraclitus

Flourished c.500 BC, Pre-socratic philosopher and thinker. His work only survives in fragments, which are fairly cryptic and dense. ’ central concept is that of , by which he seems to mean, simultaneously, his own discourse, connected discourse and thought in general, and the connected order in things that we apprehend. Heraclitus asserted that the order we is in a con- stant process of change; thus, if we step into the same river, we find different waters constantly flowing by us.

Hermetic literature, Hermetica

Hermes Trismegistos, Hermes thrice great, was the Greek rendering of the Egyptian title of Thoth, who was identified with Hermes. He was reputed to be the author of a series of philosophical and religious revelations, written in Greek. These writ- ings, known as the Hermetica or Hermetic literature, originate in Egypt. They represent a Graeco-Egyptian synthesis and reproduce a kind of theosophy which synthesizes many religious traditions of the ancient Near East.

Hippolytus of Rome c.170–c.236 AD. Christian bishop of Portus. He died in exile in Sardinia under Maximinus’ persecution. A statue of him in Rome lists his works, but the attri- bution of almost every work ascribed to him has been disputed.

Homer

The ancient world attributed to the poet Homer the two epic poems, the Iliad and the , the earliest and among the greatest works of Greek literature. Nothing reliable is known about Homer. There is general scholarly agreement that the Iliad and the Odyssey should be dated in the second half of the eighth century BC. As for Homer himself, his provenance is unknown but Chios and Smyrna have the strongest claims to have been his birthplace. Glossary 315

Horace

65–8 BC. Roman poet. He was accepted into Maecenas’ circle of writers in 38 BC, a group which included Virgil. In his later years the emperor Augustus also sought to be on close terms with him. His works include the Epodes, Odes (Car- mina), Satires and .

Hume, David

1711–1776 AD. Scottish philosopher and historian who may be considered the leading neo-sceptic of the early modern period. Many of Hume’s immediate predecessors (Descartes, Bayle and Berkeley) had dealt with important elements of scepticism. Hume consciously incorporated many of these same elements into a philosophical system that manages to be both sceptical and constructive.

Husserl, Edmund Gustav Albert

1859–1938 AD. German mathematician, philosopher and a founder of phenom- enology. Husserl has been very influential in twentieth-century philosophy, particularly in Continental Europe and has inspired work in the social sciences. His concept of intentionality is viewed as a way of overcoming the Cartesian dualism between mind and world.

Hypostasis

Greek: standing under, substance; real being (frequently in opposition to appear- ances). The process of regarding a concept or abstraction as an independent or real entity. Thus the concept is viewed as an underlying subject or substance that supports attributes.

Iamblichus c.240–c.325 AD. Neoplatonist philosopher and theurgist, born at Chalcis in Coele , It is reported that he was taught by the Neoplatonist Porphyry and later founded his own school in Syria (almost certainly in Apamea). Extant writings include a compendium of Pythagorean philosophy and ‘The reply of Abammon to Porphyry’s Letter to Anebo’, now known as De mysteriis. Iamblichus’ lost writ- ings include an extensive work on Chaldaean theology; letters and commentar- ies on Plato and Aristotle, which were fundamental sources for later Neoplatonist commentators. Iamblichus’ successors, especially Syrianus and Proclus, credit him with determining the direction taken by later Neoplatonic philosophy. He established a standard school curriculum, extended the use of mathematical ideas in philosophy, refined Neoplatonic metaphysics and integrated the ‘the- ologies’ of the ancients (Egyptians, Persians, Chaldaeans, Orphics, Pythagoreans) into Neoplatonic philosophy. He was a supporter and defender of ritual, particu- larly Chaldaean theurgy. 316 Glossary

Ibn Bâjja, Abu Bakr Muhammed ibn Yahya ibn as-Say’igh

Birth date unknown. Died 1138 AD. Islamic philosopher. Ibn Bâjja’s philosophy is epitomized in two words: al-ittisal (conjunction) and al-tawahhud (solitude). By conjunction, he means union with the divine realm, which he argued is the means to one’s completion and thus happiness, as a human being. Solitude is separation from a society that is lacking in knowledge. His works include medical works, commentaries on Aristotle and al-Farabi and original philosophical treatises.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Abu Ali Al-Husayn

980–1037 AD. Leading Islamic philosopher and Neoplatonist. Avicenna was born in Bukhara in Central Asia, and educated in literature, law, logic, and mathemat- ics, as well as science and metaphysics. He wrote between one and two hundred works on diverse subjects, mostly in Arabic but also in Persian. Avicenna repre- sents a Neoplatonic version of , a strand of thought considered influential on thirteenth-century .

Ibn T ufayl, Abu Bakr Muhammed c. 1110–1185 AD. Islamic philosopher, known in the West as Abubacer. His only extant work is H ayy Ibn Yaqzan (The Living Son of the Vigilant), a philosophical treatise in an endearing literary form. It relates the story of human knowledge, as it rises from a blank state to a mystical or direct experience of the divine after passing through the necessary natural .

Idealism

Any philosophical doctrine holding that reality is fundamentally mental in nature, that it is mind-correlative or mind-coordinated. In other words, any doctrine which holds that the real objects constituting the ‘external world’ are not independent of cognizing minds, but exist only in some way correlative to mental operations. Therefore, is opposed to the naturalistic that mind is itself to be exhaustively understood as a product of natural processes.

Intellect

Greek: . Intuitive intellect. This is held by Neoplatonist philosophers to be unitary and exists prior to individual human souls – it is the unitary and divine element in all man, since all souls participate in Intellect.

Julian

331–363 AD. Commonly known as Julian ‘the Apostate,’ Julian’s full name was Flavius Claudius Iulianus. As the last pagan Roman emperor (361–363), Julian sought to restore traditional Graeco-Roman religious cults and practices to the Glossary 317

Late Roman empire. Julian himself was a Neoplatonist who was heavily influ- enced by Iamblichus. Julian’s personal piety and intellectual and cultural inter- ests are reflected in his extant works, which show considerable learning and some literary talent. They include panegyrics, polemics, theological and satiri- cal, and a collection of public and private letters. Only fragments of his anti- Christian critique, Against the Galileans, survive.

Justinian I

482–565 AD. A saint of the Orthodox Church, and emperor from 527 AD. In his time Roman Law was codified (and stills serves as the basis of civil law in many modern states), some of the older territories of the Western Empire were recov- ered, and Hagia Sophia was rebuilt. That the School of Athens was closed on his orders in 529 is perhaps an exaggeration, but pagan philosophers did not pros- per under his rule. Historians, poets and artists had better fortune.

Justin Martyr c.100–165 AD. Christian apologist, who died a martyr in Rome after his condem- nation as a Christian. After leaving Samaria, his birthplace, he set up a small school in Rome, and wrote two Apologies, nominally directed to Pius. One defends Christianity against intellectual contempt; the second is inspired by acts of persecution following denunciations of Christians to the authorities.

Kant, Immanuel

1724–1804 AD. Important German philosopher whose distinctive concern was to vindicate the authority of reason. He made important contributions to moral philosophy and metaphysics. He also wrote important essays on science, legal and political theory and the philosophy of history. His major works are Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of and Critique of Judgement.

Krishna

The most popular (eighth) incarnation (avatara) of Vishnu, the supreme being and a saviour god of Hinduism. For many of his worshippers, he is the only full manifestation of Vishnu. He is the subject of major Hindu classics such as the Bhagavad Gita.

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm

1646–1716 AD. German rationalist philosopher, mathematician and polymath, who made significant contributions in geology, linguistics, historiography, math- ematics, physics and philosophy. He was most well known in his lifetime for his contributions to mathematics, especially to the development of the calculus, where there was great debate over whether Newton of Leibniz should be credited 318 Glossary with priority for its discovery. The current scholarly consensus is that each dis- covered the basic foundations of the calculus independently. Leibniz also made important contributions in philosophy, particularly in the areas of metaphysics, epistemology and logic.

Levinas, Emmanuel

1906–1995 AD. French philosopher influenced by the phenomenology of Husserl and Heidegger. Levinas questioned the basis of traditional ethics on the grounds that it did not take into account that one’s obligations to the Other are unlimited and cannot be diminished by some criterion such as one’s responsibility being limited to what is within one’s power to achieve. Thus, his work attempted to explore the meaning of ethics from a phenomenological starting point.

Locke, John

1632–1704 AD. English philosopher and the senior figure of British empiricism. Locke is particularly famous for his two major works, Essay concerning Human Understanding (1689) and Second Treatise of Government (published anonymously in 1689). Locke’s contribution lies in his close attention to the actual phenom- ena of mental life, but his philosophy is balanced between the radical empiri- cism of followers such as Berkeley and Hume and the theological world of reliance on reason that formed the climate in which he lived.

Materialism

The view that the world is entirely composed of matter.

Maximus of

Fourth century AD. Died: 370 AD. A Neoplatonist philosopher and theurgist who famously taught the emperor Julian. A pupil of , who was himself a pupil of Iamblichus, Maximus followed his teacher’s tendency to emphasize theurgy. However, he produced work on Aristotelian logic and wrote a commentary on Aristotle’s Categories. One of the most famous anecdotes about this philosopher is related by the ancient biographer , who describes how Maximus once performed an act of telestike, animating a statue of the god- dess Hekate in a temple.

Megasthenes c.350–290 BC. A diplomat and historian, who lived with Sibyrtius, whom Alex- ander the Great made governor of Arachosia and Gedrosia. He served on several embassies, 302–291 BC, and his mission to Chandragupta, the founding king of the Maurya empire in north India, was especially significant to his work. He embodied his firsthand experience in an Indian history, which included geography, including peoples and cities, system of government, classification of the citizens and religious customs, and archaeology, history and legends. Glossary 319

Neoplatonism

A modern term used to describe a philosophical movement. The Neoplatonists were pagan philosophers, beginning with Plotinus, who gave a new direction to Platonic philosophy between the third and sixth centuries AD. The word ‘Neo- platonists’ and ‘Neoplatonism’ are modern terms. These philosophers thought of themselves as simply ‘Platonists’, philosophers who followed Plato. They syn- thesized the thought of Plato with other main schools of Greek philosophy, for example, with the thought of Aristotle. They wrote philosophical commentaries on the works of Plato and Aristotle, as well as their own works on philosophi- cal topics. The impact of their work includes their religious and moral ideals, their conception of reality as spiritual activity or states of . For the Neoplatonists, philosophy was a way of life. They viewed the human soul as a voyager with its ultimate aim the re-ascent to its divine origins.

Neopythagoreanism

A modern term for the renewed interest in Pythagorean ideas and practices that took widely different forms and began to appear in the . Individuals described as ‘Pythagoreans’ appear in the first century BC in Alexandria and Rome ( and his circle, among others) and are found in the first century AD (, ) and in the second ( of Gerasa, Numenius, Alexander of Abonuteichos). Some were philosophers interested in Pythagorean metaphysics, mathematics and number symbolism. The Pythago- rean way of life, involving ascetic, spiritual and vegetarian practices, was followed by Moderatus and by Apollonius. Much of and the legend of were incorporated in Neoplatonism by Porphyry and Iamblichus.

Nicholas of Cusa

1401–1464 AD. German philosopher, an important Renaissance Platonist. He is also called Nicolaus Cusanus, Nicholas Kryfts. In 1437–38, he had his famous insight into the coincidence of opposites (coincidentia oppositorum) in the infi- nite, upon which his work On Learned Ignorance is based. His central insight was that all oppositions are united in their infinite measure, so that what would be logical contradictions for finite things coexist without contradiction in God, who is the measure of all things, and identical to them in so far as he is identi- cal with their reality or essence.

Noêsis

Greek: thought, in wider and narrower senses: Plato says that knowledge (epistêmê) and reasoning () taken together can be called noêsis, implying a level of discursive thought. For Proclus, noesis is pure intuitive apprehension.

Numenius of Apamea

Second century AD. A leading Platonist and Pythagorean, about whom little is known. Substantial fragments of two of his works are extant: a metaphysical 320 Glossary dialogue On the Good and a history of the Academy designed to show how much it had corrupted Plato’s teaching. He claimed that Plato’s teaching was Pythago- rean and related it to the ancient wisdom of the , , Egyptians and the , whose scriptures he interpreted allegorically. He shared ideas with the Chaldaean Oracles and certain types of Gnosticism. He had considerable influ- ence on Plotinus, Origen, Porphyry and later Neoplatonists.

Ockham’s razor

Also called the principle of parsimony, a methodological principle endorsing a bias towards simplicity in the construction of theories. Found already in Aris- totle, the phrase, ‘entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity’ became associated with William Ockham, possibly because it characterized the spirit of his philosophical conclusions.

Odysseus

A Greek mythological figure. The central hero and protagonist of Homer’s Odys- sey and an important hero and member of the Greek expedition in Homer’s Iliad. In mythology, Odysseus was the king of Ithaca, son of Laertes and Anti- clea, father of Telemachus and husband of Penelope. In the Odyssey he is in some ways the typical ‘trickster’ of folktales, who uses guile and deception to defeat stronger opponents. He is depicted as clever and cunning.

Olympiodorus c. 495/505 to after 565 AD. Alexandrian Neoplatonist philosopher, possibly head of the at the time of the Justinian edict resulting in the closure of the pagan schools in 529. Some of his commentaries on Platonic dialogues and the works of Aristotle survive, mainly in the form of notes taken on his lectures.

Origen c.184/185 to 254/255 AD. Christian writer and philosopher. Origen was born at Alexandria of Christian parents. Origen wrote a wide selection of work, but only a fraction has survived. He was a pioneer in textual criticism of the Bible, and . He wrote commentaries on biblical scripture, an original exposition of Christianity (De Principiis) and apologetic works, such as the , which provides a detailed refutation of the learned attack of the Middle Platonist Celsus.

Orpheus

A mythological figure, said to be the son of Apollo and a Muse. He was a famous musician, whose song had superhuman or semi-divine power. By the fifth century BC, ’ powerful songs were thought to encompass epic poetry, healing songs, oracles and initiatory rites. His most well-known myths involve his tragic Glossary 321 love for Eurydice and journey into the Underworld to retrieve her, and his dis- memberment by a group of Thracian women or Bacchic maenads. An important consequence of his miraculous song was his authorship of the so-called Orphic poetry: Pythagoreans and initiates of Bacchic mystery cults adopted him as their figurehead, and the Neoplatonist philosophers discerned deep theosophical knowledge in these poems and viewed Orpheus as a primary theological thinker.

Parmenides

Early fifth century BC,. of Elea was a Pre-socratic philosopher, who is said to have legislated for his native city and to have visited Athens in his sixty- fifth . His philosophical poem, in hexameters, survives in large fragments. It describes the journey of the initiate poet-speaker to a mysterious place where night and day cross paths and opposites are undivided. Here the poet-speaker is greeted and instructed by a goddess who teaches him the ‘Way of Truth.’ The poem combines sublime religious language and imagery with philosophical rig- our and logic.

Philo c.20 BC–50 AD. was a Jewish thinker living in Alexandria who sought to harmonize the Hebrew Scriptures with current Greek . God was essentially One, but represented by twin powers, of and mercy, com- bined in the heavenly Logos, which was also identified with the heavenly Adam, our paradeigm and inspiration. His hermeneutical techniques, similar to those used by the Greek philosophers on the stories of Homer, were also followed by later Christian commentators. He is known to have headed a delegation to the emperor Caligula in defence of the Alexandrian Jewish community, and to have survived the experience.

Philoponus, John c. 490 to the 570s AD. Christian Neoplatonist, who studied and wrote in Alex- andria. He influenced subsequent science down to Galileo by replacing many of Aristotle’s theories with an account focused on the Christian idea that the uni- verse had an absolute beginning. But because his own was unorthodox, he was anathematized in 680, and his scientific influence came to the West much later through the Arabs. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle, as well as a treatise attacking the philosophical paganism of Proclus and a series of treatises on Christian theology. He was taught by Ammonius son of Hermeias and was known as Grammaticus. Two of his works on grammar survive, as do works on many other subjects.

Philostratus, L. Flavius

Third century AD. Died: c.244/29 AD. A biographer and writer of the Second Sophistic period and cultural milieu. He enjoyed a distinguished local career and a place in the circle of Iulia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus. She commissioned 322 Glossary his ‘Life’ of Apollonius of Tyana, a philosophical holy man of the first century AD; later he produced a work entitled Lives of the Sophists.

Plato c.429–347 BC. Plato is arguably the most influential and significant of all Greek philosophers, certainly he has had a profound influence on the subsequent his- tory of Western philosophy. The major philosophical influence on his life was , whose ideas and method of questioning (elenchus) are preserved by Plato in his dialogues. Plato’s works are all in the form of dialogues in which he himself does not appear. Plato has made decisive and profound contributions to metaphysics, ethics, politics, epistemology and psychology. He is original, radi- cal and daring, but also elusive. His ideas are logically clear and uncompromis- ing, challenging the reader to join in the dialogue and take up the challenge, following the arguments presented.

Plotinus

205–269/270 AD. Founder of Neoplatonism and teacher of Porphyry, Plotinus is regarded as the most significant Neoplatonist philosopher. He studied under at Alexandria and later settled in Rome as a teacher of philoso- phy, where he became the centre of an influential circle of intellectuals. Plotinus’ writings consist of a series of philosophical essays arising directly from discus- sions in his seminars. These treatises were published by his student Porphyry, who edited them in six sets of nine, giving them their title, . Plotinus’ essays range over almost the whole field of : ethics, aesthetics, physics and cosmology, psychology, metaphysics, logic and epistemology.

Plutarch of Chaeronea c. 50 to after 120 AD. Middle Platonist philosopher, historian and biographer. came from a well-established family in Chaeronea in Boeotia, Greece. He knew Athens well, and visited both Egypt and Italy, lecturing and teaching in Rome. For the last thirty years of his life Plutarch was also a priest of Apol- lo’s shrine at Delphi. He wrote approximately 230 works, of which some 128 survive. Many of his works are dialogues and he also wrote rhetorical and ethi- cal works. The ‘Parallel Lives’ remain his greatest achievements, pairs of biogra- phies of Greek and Roman statesmen and leaders. We have 23 pairs, 10 of them with ‘comparisons’ attached. These biographies do not aim to write continuous political history, but rather to exemplify individual or vice in the careers of great men.

Porphyry

234–c.305 AD. Neoplatonist philosopher, scholar and student of . He was born at Tyre and originally bore the Syrian name Malchus. He studied under Longinus at Athens and became a devoted disciple of Plotinus with whom he Glossary 323 studied in Rome (263–268). He was probably the teacher of Iamblichus. He wrote many works (69 titles can be listed with reasonable ), including introductions and commentaries on Aristotle, , apolo- getic and historical works, metaphysical and religious works.

Proclus

410/412–485 AD. Neoplatonist philosopher, who studied with Plutarch of Ath- ens and Syrianus, whom he succeeded as head of the Platonic school (diadochos) in 437. He was the last great systematizer of the Greek philosophical inherit- ance, and as such exerted a powerful influence on medieval and Renaissance thought. His learning was encyclopaedic and his output vast. Extant works include philosophical and metaphysical treatises, commentaries on Plato, scien- tific works and literary works. He was also a supporter and advocate of theurgy.

Pronoia

Greek: forethought, providence. The notion of an intelligent purpose operating in the universe. It is associated with the intelligence of the divine. In later Pla- tonism, pronoia is distributed through the entire range of deities and the direct involvement of the supreme principle in pronoia was thought to be lesser, since the supreme principle was held to be transcendent.

Prosopography

An historical tool used to gain some insight into individual persons’ interests and intentions by identifying their family ties and associations (see, for exam- ple, Ronald Syme on The Roman Revolution 1939). Family ties are perhaps of less importance for the study of philosophers than of statesmen (though we do sometimes know of them), but relations with their ‘schools’ or else their favour- ite teachers (the line from Ammonius, to Plotinus and on to Porphyry, for exam- ple) may also help to understand their works.

Pseudo-Dionysius

Late fifth/ early sixth century AD. Christian Neoplatonist who presented himself as Dionysius the Areopagite (St Paul’s Athenian convert in Acts 17). The identity of the actual author has been the subject of great debate and remains undeter- mined. The extant treatises represent the peak of synthesis of Christianity and later Platonism, drawing especially on Proclus. They give a metaphysical view of the cosmos, centering on the absolute transcendence of God and the idea that the whole of reality is a theophany.

Ptolemy, Claudius Ptolemaeus

Second century AD. Astronomer and writer. He wrote at Alexandria, between 146 and c.170 AD, definitive works in many of the mathematical sciences, 324 Glossary including astronomy and geography. These works included the , a com- plete textbook of astronomy which reforms and establishes Greek astronomy on a geometrically rigorous basis, the , the astrological accompaniment to the Almagest, and the Geography, an attempt to map the known world, and the Harmonics, an outstanding work on music theory and cosmology.

Pythagoras

Sixth century BC. Greek philosopher, who is one of the most mysterious and influ- ential figures in Greek intellectual history. He was born in Samos and migrated to Croton in c.530 BC, where he founded the sect or society that bore his name. He is said to have introduced the doctrine of transmigration of souls into Greece and his religious influence was reflected in the cult organization of the Pythagorean society, with periods of initiation, secret doctrines and passwords, special dietary restrictions and burial rites. The scientific tradition ascribes to him a number of important discoveries including the famous geometric theorem that bears his name, as well as the discovery of the musical consonances.

Pythagoreanism

The philosophical and religious movement(s) apparently derived from the teachings of Pythagoras. Reliable tradition, derived mainly from Aristotle and his school, presents Pythagoras and his followers as a religious and political asso- ciation in Southern Italy, particularly Croton, where they gained considerable political influence until approximately 450 BC. From then on, survived in two distinct forms: a scientific, philosophical form and a religious, sectarian form. The latter group laid down rules for the ‘Pythagorean life’: veg- etarianism, based on the doctrine of metempsychosis and already ascribed to Pythagoras himself during his lifetime and the belief in metempsychosis and an interest in the .

S´akti

In Hinduism, ‘Divine power or energy’ personified in the Devī (Goddess). She is either conceived as consort of a male god, or as an independent supreme being, created from the united power of all the .

S´ankara

788–820 AD. Indian philosopher who was a great reformer of Hinduism and established Advaita Vedanta Hinduism. He wrote commentaries on the major Upanisads, as well as numerous hymns and smaller treatises. He provided a strong defence of mind–body dualism, of the of a plurality of minds and mind- independent physical objects and of . Then, on the basis of appeal to the Hindu scriptures and an enlightenment experience, he asserts that dualism, realism and theism are illusion (the level of appearance) in favour of a that holds that only quality-less exists (the level of reality). Glossary 325

Simplicius

Sixth century AD. Neoplatonist philosopher, who was one of the seven philos- ophers who left Athens for Ctesiphon after the Athenian Neoplatonist school closed in 529. He probably wrote all his commentaries after 532, when it was safe for the philosophers to leave Ctesiphon. Recent research suggests that he may have settled at Harrân (ancient Carrhae) in present-day Turkey from where Platonism was transmitted to Baghdad in the ninth century. He wrote extensive commentaries on Aristotle’s works, which include many of his own views on topics such as place, time and matter.

S´iva

A Hindu deity, whose followers represent one of the mainstream traditions of Hinduism. Identified very early with the Vedic storm god Rudra, S´iva appears in some late Upanisads and in the epics as the focus of a vast mythology and phil- osophical reflection. This deity has creative, salvific and destructive functions.

Socrates

469–399 BC. Greek philosopher, who wrote no philosophical works but was uniquely influential upon the subsequent history of philosophy. His philosophi- cal interests primarily focus upon ethics and conduct in life, subjects he discussed in public places in Athens. Socrates’ methods as a ‘teacher’, philosophical ideas and character are preserved in the ‘dialogues’ written by Plato and , which represent his discussions and conversations.

Speusippus c.407–339 BC. Greek philosopher, son of Eurymedon and of Plato’s sister Potone. He accompanied Plato on his last visit to Sicily and succeeded him as head of the Academy from 347 to 339. Of his prolific writings, only fragments and later reports remain, but Aristotle treats him with respect and it is clear that he continued some major philosophical interests which the Academy had acquired under Plato.

Spinoza, Baruch/Benedictus de

1632–1677 AD. Dutch metaphysician, epistemologist, psychologist, moral phi- losopher, political theorist and philosopher of religion, he is usually regarded as one of the most important figures of seventeenth-century . Spinoza’s philosophical contributions involve metaphysics, epistemology and psychology, ethics, politics and philosophical theology. He is a leading intellectual forebear of twentieth-century and and of the mind–body iden- tity theory. 326 Glossary

Stobaeus

Fifth century AD. John of Stobi, author of an anthology of extracts from poets and prose-writers, intended in the first instance for the instruction of his son Septimius. The work was probably composed in the early fifth century AD; it consisted originally of four Books and deals with a wide variety of topics, from metaphysics to household . Stobaeus cites many authors, from Homer to , including many excerpts from the Neoplatonists; the absence of extracts from Christian authors suggests that he was a pagan.

Stoicism

Greek philosophical movement, founded by , who came to Ath- ens in 313 BC, and, after studying with various philosophers, taught in his own right in the Stoa Poecile (Painted Porch), from which derives its name. Zeno developed a philosophical position and doctrine divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics. One of his pupils, , took over as head of the school after Zeno’s death and it was Cleanthes’ own pupil, , whose works became the standard formulation of Stoicism. Stoicism survived into the late antique period and continued to be an object of philosophical discussion. Many writers present Stoicism as an attitude or way of life: famous examples include the letters and essays of Seneca, the reported lectures of and the meditations of the Roman emperor .

Sufism

Islamic mysticism, known in Arabic as tasawwuf. Sufism stresses deep personal devotion and an ascetic in the quest for inner illumination and loving communion with God. Rabi’ah (died: 801 AD) is generally regarded as the per- son who introduced the element of selfless love into the strict traditions of the early ascetics and gave Sufism a hue of mysticism. Subsequent Sufi mysticism is love mysticism and uses much of the same love imagery found in the Christian mystical tradition.

Symbolon (pl: symbola)

Greek: symbol (symballein means ‘to join’). In the allegorical tradition of Neo- platonism, the theory of metaphysical, cosmological and theurgic symbolism was elaborated, and the idea of symbolon became a major critical concept. In the Chaldaean Oracles, the symbola are said to be sown throughout the cosmos by the Paternal and serve as the central means of ascent and return to the gods. Symbola were used in theurgic ritual.

Sympatheia

Greek: affected with, cosmic / universal sympathy. The natural sympathy or link between all parts of the cosmos. This concept depends upon a series of premises Glossary 327 present in Greek philosophy from a very early stage: the Milesians saw the world as alive and the Pythagoreans saw it as an ordered whole. Plato describes the cosmos as a visible living creature, having within it all things that are naturally akin, in the . Plotinus described the cosmos as a living organism, all of whose parts are suffused by the universal soul. These parts interact not by rea- son of their being in contact but because of their similarity.

Syncretism

A modern term coined in the nineteenth century to denote the process whereby various names and natures or characteristics of deities are mingled so as to unite the beliefs and practices of different peoples and groups.

Synthema (pl: synthemata)

Greek: token, symbol, passport (in many cases this word has the same meaning as symbolon). The sacred objects in ancient mystery cults are often called synthe- mata. In Neoplatonism, synthemata are used in theurgic ritual since the mate- rial objects that were thought to preserve and display the power of the gods are regarded as synthemata by the theurgists and function as receptacles for the gods.

Syrianus

Fifth century AD. Rhetorician and Neoplatonist philosopher, who succeeded as head of the Academy in AD 431/2. His own pupil and successor was Proclus, who owed much to him. Extant works include commen- taries on Aristotle’s Metaphysics and commentaries on Hermogenes.

Taylor, Thomas

1758–1835 AD. Translator committed to the view of Platonic philosophy as a spiritual disciple, often referred to as the ‘English Platonist.’ He produced the first complete translation of Plato into English, as well as the first complete translation of Aristotle; these translations were accompanied by very extensive notes taken from the Neoplatonist commentaries on them. He also translated many works by Plotinus, Proclus, and other Middle and Late Platonists. He was a major influence on the English Romantic movement and the Ameri- can Transcendentalists.

Telestikê

The Neoplatonic and theurgic ritual practice which involved the consecration and animation of cultic statues of divinities.

Thales of Miletus

Early sixth century BC. Pre-socratic philosopher, who appears to be the most scien- tific member of the Seven Sages. He was credited in antiquity with the prediction 328 Glossary of a solar eclipse and it is reported that he advised the Ionians to form a polit- ical union. He attained legendary status in the ancient world as an engineer, geometer and astronomer; Aristotle refers to him as the first natural philosopher and cosmologist. Since Thales left no written work, it is impossible to ascertain how much historical basis there is for the achievements attributed to him in the ancient tradition.

Themistius c.317–c.388 AD. Greek philosopher and rhetorician, who was born in Paphlago- nia of a cultured family of pagan landowners. He studied in the eastern provinces and in Constantinople, where he opened a school in approximately 345 AD. He attracted the attention of the local government and was appointed to an official chair and became a member of the Constantinopolitan senate. Many of his works survive, including many speeches and many paraphrases of Aristotle’s works which embody material from lost commentaries.

Theurgy

Theurgy, which literally means, ‘god-working’, was a type of religious ritual which was widely respected and extensively used by the later Neoplatonists, such as Iamblichus and Proclus. According to Neoplatonic tradition, the elder Julian (father of the composer of the Chaldaean Oracles) invented the term ‘theurgy’ and developed the practices it described; in support of this traditional suppo- sition is the fact that the terms ‘theurgy’ and ‘theurgist’ are not found in any extant literature earlier than the Chaldaean Oracles.

Thoreau, Henry David

1817–1862 AD. Transcendentalist philosopher and writer. He was one of the founders of the new literature that emerged in the United States in the mid- nineteenth century. He had an education in the classics and in the transcenden- talism of his older friend and teacher .

Transcendentalism

A religious-philosophical movement founded by a group of New England intel- lectuals, of whom Emerson, Thoreau and Theodore Parker were the most impor- tant. This movement was centred around the ‘Transcendental Club’ formed in Boston in 1836. Taking much inspiration from Neoplatonism, this movement tended towards , mysticism and an uplifting optimism about the of the spirit. The Transcendentalists were united mainly by their insist- ence that philosophical truth could be reached only by reason, a capacity com- mon to all people unless destroyed by living a life of externals and accepting as true only secondhand traditional beliefs. Glossary 329

Upanisads/Upanishads

A group of ancient Hindu philosophical texts, or the esoteric sacred doctrines contained in them. Derived from the words upa (near), ni (down) and sad (sit), it includes the notion of ‘sitting near’ the guru. This is the designation of the fourth and last part of the Vedas containing mystical teachings – thus they con- stitute the official source of Veda¯nta teaching. Every Veda¯nta master had to write a commentary on the principal Upanisads.

Wittgenstein, Ludwig

1889–1951 AD. Austrian-born British philosopher, who is one of the most chal- lenging and original philosophical writers of the twentieth century. Wittgen- stein’s work particularly centred on the idea that philosophical problems can be resolved by paying attention to the working of language. His writings are char- acterized by an unusual form of composition, being generally made up of short individual notes that are numbered in sequence and range from fairly technical discussions on the topics of logic, the mind, meaning, understanding, acting, seeing, mathematics and knowledge to observations about ethics, culture, art and the .

World Soul

The existence of a soul for the entire world seems to be an example of Plato’s use of analogous reasoning: if the cosmos is thought to be a living organic unity, it follows that it, like the other living creatures, must have a soul. The World Soul, according to Plato, is a not only for the harmonious movement of the heavenly bodies, but for ethical restoration of harmony in the individual human soul.

Xenophon c.430–c.350 BC. Greek soldier and historian, author of several Socratic dialogues, along with important works on history, education, political theory and other subjects. He was interested in philosophy, and was an intelligent ‘social thinker’ whose views on morality and society have been influential over many centuries. His Socratic dialogues, the only ones besides Plato’s to survive intact, illustrate his perspective on Socrates’ character and moral significance and provide a valu- able supplement to the views of Plato.

Zeus

The main divinity of the Greek pantheon, the Father and King of the Olympian gods. He was considered to be a weather god who sends omens by means of dreams, augural signs and thunder and lightning. He was the god of justice who punishes transgressors. He was a god of protection: human kings are under his 330 Glossary special protection and he protects those outside ordinary social bonds – stran- gers, suppliants and beggars. He was also the protector of property and of friend- ship, between individuals and entire communities.

References

The following sources have been used in this Glossary: Audi, R., 1999, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge. Blackburn, S., 1994, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford. Craig, E. (ed.), 1998, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volumes 1–10, London and New York. Honderich, T. (ed.), 1995, The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford. Klostermaier, K. K., 1998, A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Oxford. Stutley, M. and J., 1977, A Dictionary of Hinduism, London. Urmson, J. O., 1990, The Greek Philosophical Vocabulary, London. Index of Names

Abhinavagupta 10, 75, 81, 83, 302 Aristotle 3, 5, 6, 8, 16, 52, 61, 72, Abû Yazîd 89, 302 99, 147, 153, 156, 177, 179, 180, Achilles 135, 176–7, 178, 179, 298, 191, 193–8, 200–2, 204, 205, 209, 302 212, 213, 251, 252, 254, 258, 260, Adams, R.M. 222, 223, 225 269, 296, 302, 303, 304, 305, 307, Adamson, P. 99, 101 309–27 Addey, C. vii, 302–30 Categories 145, 318 Agamemnon 176, 178, 180, 302 De Anima 99, 180, 194 Ajax 176, 179 Generation of Animals 79 Al-Bistâmî 89 Historia Animalium 78 Al-Fârâbî 88, 303, 315 Metaphysics 78, 80, 93, 99, 196–7, Al-Ghazâlî 10, 87–102, 303 212, 327 Al-Hallâj 89, 303 262, 296, Albanese, C.L. 247 300 Alcibiades (character) 255 Parts of Animals 255, 269 Alcott, A.B. 234, 238, 246, 248, 249 Physics 57, 62, 64, 99, 265 Alexander of Aphrodisias 3, 180, 302 Poetics 171 Alexander of Macedon 109, 110, Posterior Analytics 209 150, 305, 318 Rhetoric 152, 156 Alexander of Troy (Paris) 179 Topics 209 Allaire, E.B. 223, 225 Armstrong, H. 15, 16, 66, 77, 82, Allesch, G. 170, 172 105, 245, 248, 296 Altmann, A. 99, 101 Arnold, E. 236 9, 30–43, 303–4 Asclepius (of Tralles) 12, 81, 41, 43, Ammonius Saccas 105, 108, 304, 321 81, 119, 174–87, 305 Ammonius, son of Hermeias 4, 5, Assmann, J. 82, 139 12, 156, 174–87, 304 Athanasius of Alexandria (rhetorician) Amun 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 132, 151, 156 133, 135 Athanasius of Alexandria (theologian) 152, 179, 304 256, 305 Anaximenes 179, 304 Athena 130, 178, 298 Andolfo, M. 212, 222, 224, 225 Athenaeus 40, 42, 184 Anton, J.P. 247 Atum 123, 132, 133, 134, 135, Antony, St. 256, 304–5 137 Anubis 122, 126, 132 Audi, R. 209, 210, 329 Aphrodite 69, 70, 71, 78 Augustine 4, 12, 39, 42, 106, 107, Apollo 21, 23, 25, 27, 28, 167, 261, 169, 238, 281, 306 305, 308, 320 Aulus Gellius 150, 155, 157 Apollonius 108, 319, 321 Aurelius, Marcus 289, 306, 325 Apsines 154, 157 : see Ibn Rushd Aquila 145, 149, 154, 158, 159 Avicenna (Ibn Sînâ) 10, 88, 90, 91, Aquinas, St.Thomas 8, 161, 261, 305 92, 93, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, Aristodemus (character) 255 315–16

331 332 Index of Names

Bacon, F. 260, 306 Burrus, V. 2, 3, 16 Baldry, H.C. 80, 82 Busine, A. x, 9, 21–9 Baly, T.J.C. 139 Bynum, C.W. 77, 82 Bardesanes 106, 107, 110, 114, 306 Barker, A. 63, 65 Cameron, A. 1, 16, 156, 157 Basil of Caesarea 4 Cameron, K.W. 231, 239, 245, Basilides 74, 82, 306 248 Baumgarten, A. 160, 161,170, Cassian, J. 260, 308, 311 172, 306 Cassius Longinus: see Longinus Bayer, R. 170, 172 Castricius 150 Beardsley, M.C. 162, 170, 172 Celsus 238, 320 Beatrice, P.F. 21, 27, 29 Chaldaean Oracles 9, 13, 29, 32, 44, Beierwaltes, W. 45, 50, 63, 64, 66, 74, 106, 129, 140, 171, 230, 231, 209, 210, 224, 225 232, 236, 242, 245, 308 Beiser, F.C. 245, 247 Chesterton, G.K. 297, 300, 301 Benko, S. 81, 82 Chiaradonna, R. 269, 270 Berchman, R. x, 12, 191–210, 225 Child, L. M. 238, 248 Berg, R.M. van den 170, 171, 172 Christ 5, 34, 36, 37, 38, 42, 239, Berkeley, G. 12, 15, 193, 195, 198, 276, 277, 278, 279, 281, 282, 283, 211–27, 306–7, 314 285, 312 Bernard, W. 170, 172 Churchland, P. 99, 101 Bertini, D. x, 12, 211–27 , Marcus Tullius 155, 157, Bidez, J. 21, 27, 29 158 Blackwall, A. 274, 276–9, 286 Cilento, V. 182, 186 Blake, W. 253, 307 Clark, G. vii, 15, 16 Blakeley, D.N. 250, 269, 270 Clark, S.R.L. vii, x, 245, 269, 270, Blänsdorf, J. 171, 172 289–301 Blavatsky, H.P. 236, 249 Clarke, J.F 238, 248 Block, L.J. 239, 242 Clarke, M.L. 286 Blumenberg, H. 54, 64, 66, 223, 3, 40, 41, 80, 224, 225 81, 82, 108, 110, 241, 276, 279, Blumenthal, H. 16, 224, 225 281, 308 4, 15 Coleridge, S.T. 230, 245, 248, 249, 260, 307 253, 286, 287, 308, 310 Bosanquet, B. 162, 170, 172 Constantine 2, 235, 311 Bradatan. C. 223, 225 Conway, A. 273 Brandom, R. 223, 225 Cornell, V.J. 99, 101 Bregman, J. x, 12, 13, 228–49 Corrigan, K. x, 12, 13, 210, 225, Brehier, É. 103, 105, 114, 115, 116 250–72 Brentano, F. 114, 115, 209, 260, Coulter, J.A. 182, 186 307 Cousin, V. 66, 230 Brisson, L. 40, 42, 114, 115, 154, Cragg, G.R. 286 158, 226, 247 3 Brown, P. 1, 2, 16 Cudworth, R. 230, 245, 273, 307 Brucker, J. 274, 280, 287 Culverwell, N. 273, 308 Buckley, J.J. 81, 82 Cürsgen, D. 171, 172 Buddha 108 Curtius, E.R. 239, 248 Buffière, F. 182, 186 Cusanus: see Nicholas of Cusa Burnyeat, M. 197, 209, 210, 286 Cyril of Alexandria 234, 238 Index of Names 333

Dacier, A. 274–6, 278, 279, 287 Ficino, Marcilio 161, 237, 273, 311 Daiber, H. 191 Fideler, D. 240, 247, 248 Damascius 5, 17, 42, 121, 128, 151, Fiedl, A.J. 182, 187 152, 157, 186, 234, 239, 309 Filliozat, J. 108, 114, 115, 116 Daniel, S.H. 222, 225 Filoramo, G. 81, 82 David 150, 152, 155, 157, 182, Findlay, J.N. 243, 244 187, 309 Fodor, J.A. 209, 210 Davidson, H.A. 100, 101 Fowden, G. 15, 16, 27, 29, 139 De Conick, J. 81, 82 Foxe, J. 283, 287 Deleuze, G. 264, 270, 271 Frede, M. 8 Demetriou, K. 286 Freud, S. 260, 311; Freudian 70 Democritus 180, 309 Fuller, M. 231 Demosthenes 147, 151, 152, 153, Fuller, R.C. 238, 247, 248 155, 156, 157, 158 Derrida, J. 65, 66, 266, 267, 270, Galen 79, 82, 147, 156 271, 309 Galileo Galilei 8, 218, 311 Descartes, R. 8, 15, 191, 193, 194, Gelpi, D. 238, 247, 249 195, 200, 207, 225, 309 Gero, S. 81, 82 Dillon, J. xi, 9, 16, 30–43 Gersh, S. 50, 63, 65, 66, 209 Diocletian 2 Gerson, L. 15, 16, 80, 82, 209, 210 Laertius 15, 40, 42 Gibbon, E. 278, 312 Dionysius see Ps-Dionysius Gilbert, K.E. 162, 170, 172 Dodds, E.R. 7, 15, 16, 42, 44, 47, Gilson, E. 223, 226 52, 56, 66, 139, 242 Glucker, J. 286, 287 Drob, S.L. 243, 248 Gordian 105 Goswami, A. 15, 16 Ea 130 Goulet, R. 22, 27, 29, 116, 158 Einstein, A. 55, 61 Gregorios, P.M. 103, 116, 209, 210 Elias 152, 157, 182, 187 Gregory Nazianzen 240, 247, 256, Eliot, T.S. 268, 271, 310 312 Emerson, R.W. 13, 228–49, 253, 4, 79, 82, 154, 209, 310, 328 242 Emilsson, E.K. 209, 210, 269, 271 Griffel, F. 101 Enfield, W. 274, 280–3, 284, 287 Grosseteste, R. 260, 313 Epictetus 153, 157, 325 Guattari, F.: see Deleuze Eriugena 209, 223 Gutas, Dimitri 88, 89, 93, 99, 100, Eunapius 118, 139, 143, 148, 149, 101, 102 154, 157, 234, 236, 310 Guthrie, K.S. 239, 240 Eurystheus 177, 310 of Caesarea 9, 23, 25, 29, Haas, C. 182, 187 30, 40, 42, 276, 311 Hadot, Pierre 77, 82, 156, 157, 224, Eustathius 182, 187 226, 239, 249, 269, 271 Evagoras 145, 149, 150, 154 Halliwell, S. 170, 172 Evagrius of Pontus 256, 260, 270, Harper, G.M. 230, 234, 239, 246, 248 271, 272, 308, 311 Harpocration 144, 154 Evans, F.B. 286, 287 Harris, R.B. 66, 103, 115, 116, 117 Harris, M. 292, 300, 301 Ferwerda, R. 77, 82 Harris, W.T. 238, 249 Fichte, J.G. 206, 253, 311 Hasse, D. 100, 102 334 Index of Names

Hathor 127, 134, 137; see also Nut Irenaeus 40, 80, 81, 83, 306 Heath, M. xi, 11, 65, 143–59 Isnardi Parente, M. 224, 226 Hector 179–80 Hedley, D. 245, 248, 286, 287 Jabre, F. 100, 102 Hegel, G.W.F. 12, 163, 172, 191–210, Jantzen, G. 77, 82 248, 312, 313 : see Christ Heidegger, M. 255, 313, 317 John, St. 9, 30–43 Hekate 24, 29, 118, 135, 308, 313, Johnson, T. M. 13, 234–49 318 Jufresa, M. 80, 82 Heliogabeles 106 Julian 29, 118, 123, 140, 230, 234, Helleman-Elgersma, W. 269, 271 235, 236, 238, 243, 310, 316, Hephaestion 147 318 Heracles 177, 178, 310, 313 276, 279, 317 Heraclitus 30, 33, 34, 37, 179, 229, Justinian 2, 17, 234, 316, 320 245, 314 Heraiskos 128 Kant, I. 191–210, 269, 317 Hermes Trismegistos 79, 83, 229, Kennedy, G.A. 154, 156, 158, 170, 311, 314; see also Thoth 172 145, 152, 154, 184, 187 Kheper 126; see also 123, 124, 125 Hermogenes 144–58, 327 Kohlenberger, H. 209 Hippocrates 79, 81, 82, 147 Kremer, K. 182, 187 Hippolytus 40, 45, 81, 82, 108, 110, Kripal, J. 77, 82 114, 115, 306, 314 Krishna 112, 317 Hirn, Y. 170, 172 Kristeller, P.O. 161, 162, 170, 172, Homer 12, 28, 147, 165, 171, 242 174–87, 236, 240, 249, 298, 302, Kroll, J. 286, 287 303, 313, 314 Kroll, W. 43, 66, 168, 170, 173, 187 Horace 163, 166, 170, 172, 314 Kronos 41 121, 122, 126, 127, 131, 132, Kueny, K. 100, 102 135, 139 Kuhn, H. 162, 170, 172 Hume, D. 193, 195, 278, 306, Kuisma, O. xi, 11, 160–73, 182, 187 314, 318 Kukkonen, T. xi, 10, 87–102 Hurowitz, V.A. 130, 139 Kustas, G.L. 154, 158 Husserl, E. 59, 65, 66, 197, 209, 313, Kutash, E. xi, 9, 10, 44–66 315, 317 234 Lachares 145, 152, 154, 157, 159 Lacombe, O. 104, 114, 115, 116 Iamblichus 4, 17, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29, Lacrosse, J. xi, 10, 77, 83, 103–17 41, 44, 45, 47, 52, 53, 63, 64, 79, 82, Lakoff, G. 80, 83 121, 132, 140, 144, 154, 206, 230, Lamberton, R. 182, 184, 187, 235, 236, 239, 241, 249, 286, 289, 308, 246, 249 315, 319 Laurent, J. 212, 222, 224, 225, 226 Ibn Bâjja 88, 316 Leibniz, G.W. 12, 15, 211–27, 317 Ibn Gabirol, Solomon (Avicebron) Lesky, E. 80, 83 236, 249 Lévèque, P. 185, 187 Ibn Rushd (Averroes) 100, 101, 102 Levinas, E. 266, 270, 271, 317 Ibn Sînâ: see Avicenna Levinson, R.B. 239, 249 Ibn T ufayl (Abubacer) 10, 87–102, Lewy, H. 300, 301 316 Lloyd, A.C. 16 Index of Names 335

Locke, J. 193, 195, 198, 213, 222, Nicomachus 41, 43, 80, 175, 319 306, 317–8 Norris, J. 273 Long, A.A. 182, 187 Nostradamus 289 Longinus 143, 145, 147, 148, 154, 30, 31, 32, 42, 157, 158, 304, 322 83, 239, 303, 304, 319 Lorton, D. 139, 140 Nussbaum, M. 269, 271 Louth, A. 15, 16 Nut 126, 131, 134 Lovejoy, A. 185, 187 Nygren, A. 77, 80, 83 Lovelock, J. 269, 271 Lysimachus 31, 33, 304 O’Daly, G. 80, 83 O’Donnell, J.J. 16, 17 Manchester, P. 45, 63, 66 O’Neill, W. 47, 66 Manetti, G. 220, 224, 226 O’Meara, J. 16, 21, 116, 158 Manolea, C.-P. xii, 12, 174–87 Odysseus 178, 179, 320 Mansfeld, J. 156, 158, 286, 287 Oehler, K. 209, 210 Marcellinus 153, 156, 157 Oenopides 65 Marinus 171, 172, 235, 239, 242 Ockham, William of 260, 261, 319, Markolefas, E. vii 320 Mary Magdalene 36 Olympiodorus 153, 157, 177, 184, Matthiessen, F.O. 232, 245, 249 229, 304, 320 Maximus 118, 318 Onians, R.B. 81, 83 Mazur, Zeke xii, 10, 67–83 Origen 3, 4, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 78, McEvilley, T. 15, 16, 114 83, 148, 238, 241, 256, 281, 304, Megasthenes 108, 110, 114, 318; 311, 320 Megasthenian 109 Ormsby, E.L. 99, 102 Melville, H. 240, 249 Orpheus 177, 181, 241, 320 Menander 145–8, 151, 154, 158 Osiris 122, 126, 129, 131, 133, Metrophanes 144, 148, 149, 134 154, 155 Ouranos 41 Miles, R. 2, 16 Miller, M.H. 64, 66 Pancratius 148 Mills, J. 274, 278–80, 287 Park, D. 65, 66 Milne, E.A. 55, 66 Parmenides 55, 177, 181, 212, Minucianus 147, 148, 155, 157 320–1 Mohr, R. 58, 66 Parmentier, M. 256, 269, 271 More, H. 273, 307 Patrides, C.A. 286, 287 Mortley, R. 77, 83 Paul of Tarsus 4, 256, 282, 323 279, 285; Mosaic 274, 278 Pausanias (character) 255 Most, G. 255, 269 Pépin, J. 182, 187, 224, 226 Mother Shipton 289 Pericles 152, 153, 238 Mott, W.T. 231, 232, 246, 248 Perczel, I. 77, 83 Muller-Ortega, P.E. 81, 83 Phanes 32, 41 Myer, I. 236, 249 Phanes Press: see Fideler, D. Philo of Alexandria 4, 281, 291, 296, Naess, A. 253, 269, 271 301, 321 Narbonne, J.-M. 222, 225, 226 Philoponus, John 5, 180, 321 Naydler, J. 126, 139, 140 108, 114, 155, 321 Nicholas of Cusa 60, 65, 209, Phrynichus 150 319 Pigler, A. 77, 83 336 Index of Names

Plato 3–17, 29, 30, 67–8, 74, 104, Plutarch of Athens 152, 322 119, 122, 135, 145, 147, 148, 149, Polychronopoulou, K. 171, 173 151, 156, 161, 168, 176, 177, Porphyry 3, 4, 9, 21–9, 31, 32, 40, 191, 193–8, 200–2, 209, 216, 222, 41, 48, 63, 67, 80, 81, 103–17, 228, 233, 239, 241–3, 251, 254, 143, 144, 147, 148, 149, 238, 249, 273–88, 293, 296, 321 254, 261, 272, 289, 293, 150, 275, 278, 279, 280 303, 322 170 Commentary on Ptolemy’s 275 Harmonics 48, 63, 66 275 Commentary on Rhetoric 147, 148 150, 152, 153 Commentary on the Timaeus 40 I Alcibiades 235, 275, 286 De Abstinentia 106, 108, 114 II Alcibiades 275, 277 De Antro Nympharum 249, 303 165 De Philosophia 21–4 275 De Regressu Animae 21, 29, 106, 107 Laws 121, 123, 165, 300 Epistle to Anebo 22, 24, 25, 26, 28 28, 315 Parmenides 41, 51, 53, 66, 105, Fragments 27, 28, 114, 143, 148, 124, 201, 255, 269 154, 155, 158 134, 209, 254, 275, 284 Isagoge 8, 187 69, 77, 79, 126, 136, 150, Peri Stugos 107 165, 170, 230, 266, 270 Pros Gauron 79, 80, 83 275 Vita Plotini 31, 32, 40, 41, 77, 81, Republic 23, 27, 29, 41, 53, 65, 152, 105, 149, 293, 300 153, 164, 165, 168, 171, 207, 209, Poster, C. xii, 12, 13, 273–88 255, 269, 303 Preminger, A. 170, 172 Seventh Letter 96 Priestley, J. 280, 283–5, 286, 287, 288 Sophist 192, 201, 202 Proclus 4, 9, 11, 13, 15, 32, 34, 41, 36, 67, 69, 77, 79, 81, 44–66, 145, 152, 154, 160–73, 254, 269, 174, 176, 177, 181, 182, 184, 187, 296, 300 206, 209, 228–49, 261, 266, 289, Timaeus 3, 32, 33, 37, 48, 54, 79, 304, 308, 309, 315, 319, 321, 80, 81, 170, 262, 277, 326 322–3, 327 Pliny 150 De Decem. Dub. 65 Plotinus 3, 4, 6, 10–17, 31, 41, 45, De Magia 237 47, 67–83, 103–17, 133, 162, Elements of Theology 65, 115, 165, 191–210, 211–27, 228, 234, 170, 235, 240 242–3, 250–72, 289–301, 322 Hymn to the Muses 236, 242 Ennead 77, 118, 136, 137, 246, In Alcibiaden 235 254, 300 In Parmenidem 66 Ennead II 300 In Rem Publicam 41, 43, 163, 164, Ennead III 32, 35, 42, 83, 197, 300 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, Ennead IV 271, 300, 301 303 Ennead V 115, 133, 197, 229, 240, In Timaeum 32, 33, 40, 41, 42, 43, 300 44, 63, 64, 65, 135, 163, 170 Ennead VI 77, 115, 300, 301 Institutio Physica 63 Pluhar, W.S. 269, 271 On the Chaldaean Oracles 245, 249 Plutarch of Chaeronea 79, 83, 156, Platonic Theology 122, 126, 132, 158, 163, 170, 322 165, 167, 170, 171 Index of Names 337

´ Prohaeresius 148, 149, 310 Siva 83, 107, 324; Sivait 109 Ps-Dionysius (of Halicarnassus) 145, Smith, A. 15, 17, 22, 27, 29, 80, 116, 146, 154, 156, 157 154, 159, 224, 227 Ps-Dionysius (the Areopagite) 4, 162, Smith, J. 273, 307 171, 172, 209, 256, 263, 266, Smith, R. 80, 83 267, 323 Socrates 13, 116, 152, 254, 255, 266, Ps-Elias: see Elias 273–88, 293, 321, 325, 329 Ps-Menander 146, 147, 154 Solomon, R.C. 209, 210 Ptah 122, 125, 130, 132, 133, 137 Sopater 156 Ptolemy 8, 48, 66, 323 Sorabji, R. 15, 17, 64, 66, 209, 210 Pythagoras (of Rhodes) 24, 25 Soranus 79, 83 Pythagoras (of Samos) 6, 108, 175, 74, 325 241, 277, 279, 319, 323 Spinoza, B. 15, 198, 222, 223, 227, 253, 271, 325 Quintilian 150, 153, 155, 158, 159 Stead, C. 15, 17 Steinmetz, P. 182, 187 Radhakrishnan, S. 115, 116 Sterry, P. 273, 308 Rahman, F. 101, 102 Stewart, C. 270, 272 Raine, K.: see Harper, G.M. Stobaeus 107, 114, 245, 325 Ramesses II 124 Strange, S.K. 269, 272 Rappe, S. 15, 17, 209, 210 Striker, G. 8 Reale, G. 222, 224, 226 Stroumsa, G. 81, 82, 83 Reichenbach, H. 55, 64, 66 Swedenborg, E. 232, 233 Richard, M. 182, 187 Symmachus 14, 16 Rist, J. 77, 83, 111, 115, 116, 117, Syrianus 48, 66, 144, 145, 149, 152, 224, 225, 226, 244, 249 154, 155, 159, 174, 177, 180, 181, Ritzenfeld, A. 63, 66 182, 184, 186, 187, 309, 315, Roberts, A. 139, 140 322, 327 Roberts, J.D. 286, 287 Robinet, A. 224, 226 Tarrant, H. 158, 286, 287 Robinson, J.M. 80, 83 Tatarkiewicz, W. 162, 170, 173 Robinson, T. 251, 269, 271, 272 Taylor, C. 15, 17 Rogers, G.A. 286, 287 Taylor, T. 228, 230, 234, 235, 237, Rosan.L.J. 239, 242, 243, 247, 248 239, 240, 245, 246, 249, 286, 327 Russell, B. 63, 66 Tempelis, E. 182, 183, 187 Terezis, C. 171, 173 Sambursky, S. 44, 66 Thales 179, 279, 327 Sanborn, F.B. 238, 249 Themistius 180, 325, 327 ´ San˙ kara 103, 115, 324 Themistocles 152, 153 Schleiermacher, F.D.E. 235 Theodosius 2 Shaw, G. 15, 17 Theon 151, 152, 158 Sheppard, A. 15, 170, 173, 182, 187 Thesleff, H. 77, 83 Sheppard, O. 246 Thoreau, H. D. 13, 230, 231, 232, Shestov, L. 299, 301 245, 253, 328 Shorey, P. 210, 239 Thoth 122, 125, 126, 131, 132, 134, Simon Magus 81 136, 314; see also Hermes Simplicius 5, 17, 64, 66, 156, 157, Tiberius 144, 154 180, 324 Tigerstedt, E.N. 286, 287 Siorvanes, L. 15, 17, 51, 63, 66 Tress, D. 252, 269, 272 338 Index of Names

Troilus 152, 153, 156 Wilder, A. 234, 235, 236, 240, 241, Trouillard, J. 65, 66, 115 242 Turner, J.D. 81, 82, Wilson, M.D. 222, 223, 227 Wittgenstein, L. 197, 209, 210, 329 Uzdavinys, A. xii, 10, 11, 118–40, Wolters, A.M. 78, 83, 114, 117 244, 249 Wordsworth, W. 234, 309, 310 Worthington, J. 273, 308 Vaihinger, H. 266, 272 Worster, D. 252, 253, 269, 272 Valentinus 81; Valentinian 38, 80 Wurm, K. 269, 272 Vassilopoulou, P. vii, xii, 1–17 Verrycken, K. 182, 187 Viellard-Bacon, J.-L. 209, 210 Xenophon 277, 281, 284, 325, 330 Vorwerk, M. 247 Wagner, M. 250, 272 Yahweh 118, 119 Watts, E. 15, 17 Wehrli, F. 115, 182, 187 Zebrowski, M. 286, 287, 288 West, M.L. 182, 187 Zeno of Citium 325 Westerink, L.G. 66, 139, 140, 155, 49, 51, 63, 114 159, 170, 173, 182, 187, 286, 287 Zeus 31, 50, 167, 176, 178, 295, 305, Westra, L. see Robinson, T. 310, 330 Whichcote, B. 273, 307 232, 233, 245 White, D.G. 81, 83 Zosimus 135, 151, 156 Whittaker, J. 60, 65, 66 Zostrianus 32 Subject Index

Aeon 42, 302; see Time, Eternity Empiricism 193, 197, 201, 204 Aesthetics 12, 160–73, 302, 306, 309 Ennead (Egypt) 124, 128 Allegory 9, 12, 34, 37, 69, 71, 174, Enneads: see Plotinus 181, 182, 185, 186, 241, 281, 291, Eternity 9, 10, 37, 44–66, 73, 76, 295–6, 303, 326 101, 123–4, 213, 232, 235 Animals 24, 35, 93, 109, 121, 176, 230, 231, 255, 256, 265 Fate 25, 56, 178, 238–9, 294; see also As If 112, 230, 266, 296; Determinism see Metaphor Astronomy 54, 229, 250, 294, 295, Geist 12, 191–210, 312 312, 323 Gnosticism 6–7, 9, 32, 37, 38, 44, 74, 75, 80, 81, 106, 121, 241, Beauty 12, 13, 36, 68, 69, 72, 78, 302, 306, 124, 128, 134–8, 160, 167, 169, 171, Gods 11, 14, 21–9, 30, 33, 34, 37, 211, 218, 224, 228, 234, 254–5, 267, 106, 110, 118–40, 177, 229, 233, 294–6, 298–9, 306 239, 243, 268, 283, 293–4 ‘Beyond Being and Intellect’ 10, 12, Good: see The Good 47, 91, 206, 244, 266, 296 Bhagavad Gita 112, 115, 307 Hellenistic Period 7, 8, 36, 40, 155 Bodies 24, 31, 35, 36, 54, 55, 68, 70, Hermetica 44, 232, 236, 302, 311, 77, 78, 119, 121–2, 125, 135, 196, Humanity 260, 265, 274, 277, 281, 217, 219, 221, 247, 258, 294, 297 283 Buddhism 104, 106–9, 297 Hypostasis 44–66, 70–2, 111, 179, 192, 212, 216, 220, 262, 264, 315 Cambridge Platonists 273–88, 307–8 Causation 51, 52, 91, 95, 165, 178, Iconoclasts 119 198, 213, 216–21, 241, 255, 262, Idealism 193, 196, 197, 198, 206, 292 207, 209, 213, 223, 230, 238, 248, Christianity 1–6, 15, 21–9, 30–43, 307, 316 119, 171, 209, 228–49, 273–88 Idolatry 118–19, 274–5, 279, 282, 283, 285 Dancing 56–61, 65, 229, 231 Imagining 2, 7, 118–40, 165, 199, Determinism 12, 62, 211–27, 290, 229, 232–8, 292, 308–9 309, 325; see also 178 India 10–11, 75, 81, 103–17, 118, 7, 50, 73, 129, 156, 199, 120, 245 201, 204, 207–8, 255 Intellect 316; see Nous Dianoia 50, 203, 255, 310, 319 1, 2, 5, 10, 87–102 Dualism 111, 191, 204; see also 265 Dunamis 48, 50, 90, 71, 78, 212, 263, Jews 10, 68, 106, 109, 119, 276, 279, 264, 310 281, 299

Egypt 11, 118–40, 274, 277, 279 Late antiquity, definition of 1–5 Emanations 40, 42, 74, 75, 93, 96, Logic 24, 48, 61, 175–7, 202, 240, 97, 274 262

339 340 Subject Index

Logos 9, 30–43, 45, 208, 221, 224, Prosopography 143, 144, 156, 323 256–7, 259, 266, 314; see also Pyramid Texts 122, 131, 139 Principles Return 37, 50, 52, 53, 71, 255, Magic 7, 9, 22–5, 44, 118–40, 292, 259–61, 265, 312, 326 293, 297, 299, 313 Rhetoric 11, 143–59, 174, 229 12, 13, 88, 94, 211–27, Ritual 6, 11, 23, 74–6, 81, 124, 297, 318 125–32, 171, 239, 243, 299 Matter 32, 34, 35, 36, 196, 211–16, 220 Sacrifices 9, 21–9, 41, 129, 130, 132, Metaphor 7, 9, 10, 67–83, 94–5, 282, 293, 313 110, 112, 136, 165, 171, 176, Sakti 107, 112, 324 218, 223, 291–2 Sannyasin 108 Music 48, 57, 161, 163, 229 Science 5, 150, 160, 161, 211, 237, Myths 7, 37, 59, 69, 71, 109, 119, 240, 250–72, 294 120, 127, 133, 165, 168, 171, Shaivites 10, 75, 302; see also Siva 245, 254 Self 12, 94, 96, 111–12, 124, 191–210, 253, 290, 296–7, 302 Narrative 1, 37, 59, 87 Sex 10, 67–83, 255 Nature 33, 42, 211, 219, 232, 238–9, Signs 12, 95, 165, 212, 220, 232, 297 257–9 Sodomy 274, 285; see also 68, 255 Neoplatonism 318; and passim Soul 33, 44, 45, 47–52, 58, 61, 69, Neopythagoreanism 31, 74, 109, 71–2, 111, 119, 206, 212–13, 216, 119, 184, 234, 237, 240, 241, 219–21, 229 245, 277, 281, 303, 319, 320, Stars 14, 54, 58, 123, 132, 134, 323 218–21, 230, 292, 294 Noêsis 197, 202, 209, 231, 255, Stoicism 4, 30, 33, 34, 74, 99, 224, 319 303, 326 Nous 6, 12, 34, 47, 59, 70, 74, 111, Substance(s) 24, 72, 93, 96, 107, 122, 121, 127, 130, 133, 191–210, 213, 128, 192, 197, 211–27, 241, 259, 220, 221, 229, 238–9, 245, 263, 262–5, 266 316 Sufism 10, 87–102, 121, 302, 303, Nous Poietikos 194, 195, 200, 256 326 Symbola/Sumbola 135, 241, 326; see Ockham’s Razor 260–1, 319–20 also Allegory One: see The One Sympatheia 56, 231, 237, 242, 253, Oracles 9, 21–9, 119, 120, 122, 128, 326; see 10 228; see also Chaldaean Oracles Syncretism 44, 104–5, 107, 230, 235, 236, 240–2, 327 Phantasia: see Imagining Sunthema/Sunthemata 327; see also Poetry 11–2, 160–73, 174–88, 229 Symbola Principles 22, 26, 44, 52, 59, 71–3, 77, 79, 120, 123–5, 136–7, 178, Telestikê 11, 118–40, 171, 318, 202, 205, 209, 213, 228, 237, 295; 327 see also Logos The Good 56, 61, 62, 67–83, 263, 37, 45, 50, 60, 63, 71–2, 265–6; see also The One 73, 80, 128 The One 12, 51, 53, 55, 60, 67–83, 105, Pronoia 51, 56, 60, 65, 256, 323 107, 111–13, 121, 197–8, 205–7, 220, Proodos: see Procession 231, 239, 246, 257, 261–2, 263, 294 Subject Index 341

Theurgy 25, 118–40, 236, 241–4, Upanishads 103, 105, 108, 112, 294, 297, 327 324, 329 Time 9, 37, 44–66, 107, 126–7, 213, 235, 302 Virtue 72, 136, 164, 283, 296 Transcendentalism 13, 228–59, 310, 328 World Soul 40, 42, 213, 221, 258, Trinity 13, 266, 274 259, 313, 329 Truth 6–8, 10–12, 14, 26, 50, 58, 91, 100, 150, 152, 166, 174, 195, 200, 207, 229, 235, 265, 284, 290, 299