WWA Journal Volume 6

Edited by Murari Prasad Regmi and Yasuo Nakatani

Associate Editor Antigonos Sochos

Series: World Without Anger: A Cross-cultural Journal on Emotional Intelligence

Edited by Murari Prasad Regmi, Yasuo Nakatani and Antigonos Sochos

This book first published 2017

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

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To the Right Honourable Poet William Shakespeare (1564–16616) On the Auspicious Occasion of his Tetracentennial

"Make thee another self, for love of me, That beauty still may live in thine or thee." (Sonnete X)

CONTENTS

List of Figures...... ix

List of Tables ...... xi

Editorial ...... xiii

Acknowledgements ...... xv

Contributors ...... xvi

Chapter One ...... 1 Indigenous Psychology in Nepal: Wider Perspectives Murari Prasad Regmi

Chapter Two ...... 18 The Applicability of Emotional Intelligence through CEFR towards Enhancing Cooperative Teaching and Self-learning in Japan Yasuo Nakatani

Chapter Three ...... 31 Learning to Respond: The New Positive Behaviour Dean Van Leuven

Chapter Four ...... 41 Down the Emotional Rabbit Hole: The Tradition of Higher Education Meets the Behemoth of Neo-Liberalism Talbot W. Rogers

Chapter Five ...... 53 Eliminating Personality-view for Well Establishment of World Peace: A Buddhist Perspective Sanu Bhai Dangol

viii Contents

Chapter Six ...... 61 Well-being as a Thread of Emotional Intelligence Aradhana Shukla

Chapter Seven ...... 78 HRD Delivery Approaches in Nepali National Banks: A Case of EI-Training Programmes Arhan Sthapit

Chapter Eight ...... 95 Emotional Intelligence and Diversity in Organizations Neha Bhutra

Chapter Nine ...... 122 Emotional Intelligence as a Predictor of Creativity and Innovation in the Workplace Deepali Dabas and Puja Chhabra Sharma

Chapter Ten ...... 137 Gender Matters in the Peace Process: From Rhetoric to Reality Tara N. Poudel

Chapter Eleven ...... 150 Emotional Intelligence: A Theme of Positive Psychology Kiran Karnatak

Chapter Twelve ...... 159 Emotional and Behavioural Problems Exhibited by Nepalese Children and Adolescents Suraj Shakya

Chapter Thirteen ...... 167 Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership from a Cross- Cultural Leadership Perspective Jiban Khadka

Chapter Fourteen ...... 187 Perceived Parenting and Personality: A Cross-cultural Study Narendra Singh Thagunna

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter One

Fig. 1.1 Indigenization from within (Enriquez) Fig. 1.2 Indigenization from without/Domination of Foreign Country Fig. 1.3 Venn Diagram of Cultures Fig. 1.4 Universal Psychology

Chapter Two

Fig. 2.1 Frequent Use of Modal Verbs in CEFR-based textbooks.

Chapter Seven

Fig. 7.1 Schematic Study Framework

Chapter Eight

Fig-8.1 EI Model Fig. 8.2 The Blake Mouton Grid Fig. 8.3 Demographic Fig. 8.4 Marital Status Fig. 8.5 % of Income Slab Fig. 8-6 Emotional Intelligence Fig. 8-7 Leadership Effectiveness Fig. 8.8 Age & Emotional Intelligence Fig. 8-9 Gender and Leadership Effectiveness Fig. 8.10 Relationship b/w EI and Leadership Effectiveness Fig. 8.11 Emotional Intelligence Fig. 8.12 Leadership Effectiveness

Chapter Nine

Fig. 9.1 Harvard Business Review, March 2010 x List of Figures

Fig. 9.2 Organizations that have been successful with innovation have found that innovative ideas come from a variety of sources—and from collaboration among those sources.

Chapter Twelve

Fig. 12.1 Main Problem Categories emerged

Chapter Thirteen

Fig. 13.1 Conceptual Framework

Chapter Fourteen

Fig.14.1 Impact of grade and cultural variation on perceived parenting Fig.14.2 Impact of grade and sex on perceived parenting Fig.14.3 Impact of cultural variation and sex on perceived parenting Fig.14.4 Impact of grade, cultural variation and sex on perceived parenting

LIST OF TABLES

Chapter One

Table 1.1 Sample Means and Ranks for 10 Value Facets of the Schwartz Value Survey

Chapter Two

Table 2.1 Modal usage according to the Core Inventory for General English (p. 19) Table 2.2 Criterial Features of Modals based on Learners’ Corpus Table 2.3 Corpus Size of Each Level Table 2.4 Frequency of Modal Verbs out of Every 10,000 words in each CEFR Level

Chapter Seven

Table 7.1 HRD Delivery Approaches/ Modes Table 7.2 Population and Sample-size of Respondents Surveyed Table 7.3 Supervisors’ Preference/Expectation for EI-based Training- Delivery Modes Table 7.4 Current Banking Practices on EI-Training Delivery Approaches (by Banking Sectors) Table 7.5 EI-Training Delivery Approaches: Supervisors’ Preference vs Current Practices Table 7.6 Correlation between Supervisors’ Preference and Current Banking Practice Relating to EI-Training Delivery Modes

Chapter Eight

Table 8.1 Demographic Findings Table 8.2 Table 8.3 Table 8.4 Table 8.5 xii List of Tables

Table 8.6 Table 8.7

Chapter Nine

Table 9.1 A brief history of emotional intelligence Table 9.2 What Best Demonstrates Creativity? (1 = most popular choice)

Chapter Twelve

Table 12.1 Main Problem Categories emerged Table 12.2 Glossary

Chapter Thirteen

Table 13.1 Mean and Standard Deviation of Emotional Intelligence in Inter-cultural Context Table 13.2 Bivariate Pearson Correlation between EQ and TFL in Inter- cultural Context Table 13.3 Descriptive Statistics of EQ and TFL in both Cultural Contexts Table 13.4.Independent Samples Test of EQ and TFL in Cultural Context

Chapter Fourteen

Table 14.1 Schematic presentation of experimental design Table 14.2 Summary table showing the impact of grade, cultural variation and sex on parenting

EDITORIAL

Welcome to the Sixth Volume of the WWA’s International Journal. The WWA Journal is like a forum for global discussions and aims to stimulate researches on anger reduction, propagation of peace, meditations, yoga and Buddhism. It focuses on encouraging theoretical and empirical papers. It also publishes original scientific researches on cross-cultural approaches in management studies and book reviews. All articles will be published in English.

The WWA International Journal publishes unsolicited manuscripts, brief reports, special issues, and book reviews, annually by the Research Division of World Without Anger, Nepal.

Information for subscribers: Requests should be addressed to the journal’s publishers; cheques should be made payable to Cambridge Scholars Publishing, in the UK.

Notes for contributors

Authors should submit two copies of computer printed manuscripts. Authors need to follow the Chicago Manual of Style 15th edition. Please mail to Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Lady Stephenson Library, Welbeck Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA.

Authors should keep a copy of their manuscripts to guard against loss.

• An Abstract of not more than 150 words in English should precede each article. • All submissions will go through the editorial review that usually takes one month. • An accepted research paper is normally published. The editor reserves the right to make any necessary changes in the articles. • The views expressed are those of the author(s) and do not reflect positions of other persons. xiv Editorial

Submission of manuscripts

Please send your manuscripts to the Managing Editor, Mr Dess Mardan Basnet, World Without Anger (WWA), Dillibazar-33, Kathmandu, Nepal, GPO Box: 13708, Email: [email protected], together with an electronic version (pdf) on an IBM or compatible disk.

Proofs: Authors will receive proofs of their article from the publisher, and are required to correct and return them to the editor as specified in the accompanying letter.

About the Journal

This journal contains a total of 14 papers. Eight papers are on aspects of emotional intelligence. Two papers are concerned with educational psychology, one deals with a thought-provoking issue. Similarly, one paper reviews indigenous psychology. Buddhism, peace research, a case study and cross-cultural psychology provide insights into the critical reading of researches. These researches examine and explore various wider views on social inquiry. These papers encourage students and professors to think about the case-related glossary in Chapter-12 to understand the Nepalese key terms.

—Prof. Murari Prasad Regmi, PhD, Founder & Chief Editor, WWA Former Member of International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) & International Council of Psychologists (ICP). GPO Box 13708, World Without Anger (WWA), Dillibazar-33, Kathmandu, Nepal, Email: [email protected].

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A journal production is a group achievement, and I am fortunate in working with intelligent persons. I offer heartfelt thanks to Victoria Carruthers, Author Liaison, and Amanda Millar of Cambridge Scholars Publishing (CSP), UK for their information and support. I am grateful to reviewers of manuscripts.

My cordial gratitude goes to Dr. Antigonos Sochos, CPsychol AFBPS, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University of Bedfordshire, Park Square, Luton, UK for his help in improving the language of manuscripts.

Er Ram Rohan Panta President, Global Peace Foundation Nepal has been supporting the International Conferences of WWA. Similarly, I thank Dr Talbot W. Rogers, University of Tennessee, USA for his cordial support. I regret the untimely death of Mr Hari Kumar Basnet, Legal Advisor of WWA for his continuous & sincere suggestions since the establishment of WWA.

I gladly thank Sunrise Graphic Design & Print Solution, Old Buspark, Adwaitmarg, Kathmandu (Mr Bhuwan Aryal and Mr Madan Aryal) for their unending support in printing. I am grateful to former VC Prof. Dr Tulasi Ram Vaidya of Lumbini Buddhist University (LBU) and Dr Arhan Sthapit of Tribhuvan University (TU) for their suggestions for manuscripts. Last but not the least I am grateful to the entire team of CSP, UK for their amazing success.

—Prof. Dr. Murari Prasad Regmi

CONTRIBUTORS

Neha Bhutra Mrs Neha Bhutra has a BTech. in Dairy Technology and a PGDM in Human Resource Management. She always had been good at academic work, receiving many awards and scholarships, and has handled many live projects.

Deepali Dabas A PhD student from Ansal University, at present working as Counsellor/ Psychologist with GEMS education, Dubai. Previously worked as Counsellor at Max Hospital and NGOs.

Sanu Bhai Dangol, PhD He was a Buddhist Scholar and Researcher of Lumbini, Buddhist University, Lumbini, Nepal.

Kiran Karnatak Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Govt. Degree College, Doshapani, Nainital, India. She has published many research papers in national and international journals.

Dean Van Leuven, LLD Author of Emotional Intelligence: Taking Control of Your Life and founder of the World Emotional Literacy League. He is a pioneer scholar in the area of anger control and peace.

Yasuo Nakatani, PhD Professor of the Faculty of Applied Linguistics at Hosei University. He received his PhD from the University of Birmingham and was a visiting scholar at Oxford University. He has published three research articles in the Modern Language Journal. He is a reviewer for TESOL Quarterly and Language Learning.

Tara N Poudel Tara N. Poudel is a PhD candidate of Kathmandu University, School of Education. His PhD research focused on gender and violence in school. He is involved with Macrothink Institute, USA, as an editorial board member WWA Journal Volume 6 xvii of the peer review journal Education and Linguistic Research ISSN:2377- 1356. Additionally he is a member of the research council of Global Journals Inc USA and an invited member of the International Society for Development and Sustainability (ISDS) Japan. His research interests include gender, discrimination, social inclusion/exclusion, educational leadership etc. He is Education Systems Coordinator, USAID/Nepal EGR Project.

Murari Prasad Regmi, PhD Prof. Regmi is a leading behavioural scientist who did post-doctoral advanced research training at the Freie Universität Berlin (1992), Germany. He has 43 years’ experience in teaching at Tribhuvan University. He was visiting Professor at Auburn University Alabama (1999), USA. He is one of the most influential psychologists in Asia, conducting groundbreaking research in the areas of emotional intelligence and cross-cultural psychology. He has contributed to Psychology Moving East (ed. G.H. Blowers and A. Turtles, Westview Press, USA, 1987) and the International Encyclopedia of Adolescence (ed. J.J. Arnett, New York and London: Routledge, 2007; in the field of mental health he is co-author of Frauen und Gesundheit: Ethnomedizinische Perspektiven (ed. Christine E. Gottschalk-Batschkus, Judith Schuler and Doris Inding, VWB, Germany, 1997). He is a leader in the science of learning and co-author of Learning in Nepal (University of Karlstad, Karlstad University Press, Sweden, 1997). His 51 researches are published in international journals. His fame has reached far beyond the limits of Asia.

Talbot W. Rogers, PhD Talbot Rogers was born in Fort Knox, Kentucky and received a Bachelor's degree in English Literature from Berea College, KY in 1974. He received a Masters Degree in English Education from the University of Tennessee in 1977. In 1997 he received his PhD from the University of Tennessee. He taught elementary school for 26 years and on a university level for13 years specializing in qualitative research and directing approximately 20 dissertations utilizing this methodology. Now retired, he lives with his wife Judy in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA.

Suraj Shakya, MA, MPhil Suraj Shakya is a Lecturer in Clinical Psychology at the Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Institute of Medicine, Tribhuwan University. He completed his MPhil in Clinical Psychology in 2012 and he is currently a PhD student. His research interest is in the development and xviii Contributors validation of psychological test tools, mindfulness and post-traumatic stress issues. His clinical practice is focused on Cognitive Behaviour Therapy.

Puja Chhabra Sharma, PhD Dr Puja Chhabra Sharma is presently working as Professor and Area Chair – HR in School of Management Studies at Ansal University, Gurgaon. She holds a dual Masters degree in Commerce from St John’s College, Agra and HRD Management (MHRDM) from Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management, Mumbai. Prof. Sharma has more than 23 years’ experience of industry and academia. She has multifaceted experience as a pioneer woman commissioned officer in the Logistics Branch of the Indian Navy.

Aradhana Shukla, PhD Professor and Dean, Kumaun University, India. Prof. Shukla is a famous scholar of Northern India.

Arhan Sthapit, PhD Dr Arhan Sthapit is Lecturer on a Masters’ Programme, Faculty of Management, Tribhuvan University. Previously, he was Senior Associate Editor at The Rising Nepal English national broadsheet for 15 years and worked with NABIL Bank and Nepal Bangladesh Bank for a total of six and a half years and GTZ for one year. Dr Sthapit has published 18 research papers in peer-reviewed journals including two international ones. He earned his PhD degree from Jodhpur National University, Rajasthan (India) in strategic HRD.

Narendra Singh Thagunna, PhD He obtained a PhD in cross-cultural psychology from Kumaun University, Nainital. Dr Thagunna is working as a teacher in the MA Psychology Programme in Tri Chandra Campus, Tribhuvan University. He served as a psychosocial trainer at TPO Nepal for four years and was in a refugee project.

CHAPTER ONE

INDIGENOUS PSYCHOLOGY IN NEPAL: WIDER PERSPECTIVES

MURARI PRASAD REGMI NEPAL

Abstract

Psychology became naturalized in the land of individualism, after Wundt’s students influenced and imported as well as transplanted psychology to the USA. In this paper, the author highlights indigenous knowledge systems through different cultures (endo and exo-indigenization processes). Cultures from China, India and Nepal share significantly in the construction of their identities. Consequently, this paper suggests the important roles of rituals, myths, values and languages in the formation of cross-cultural traditions. The cultural needs, values, humanism, pluralism and emotional styles shaped the psychology of Nepalese people. The unique social reality was not reflected in pre-1960 research. Nepalese psychology was a slowly developed discipline. Patanjali, Buddhist, Zen, Taoist, Vipassana, Christian and other forms of meditation are basically similar; all these practices constitute a universal psychology of meditation and spiritualism.

Introduction: The History of Indigenization

The history of psychology in Nepal is related deeply to the Vedas’ (2000– 600 BC) concept of self and not-self (matter or object). Self is the core of personality and its essence is pure cosmic consciousness as viewed in the Hindu scriptures (Regmi, 1997b). Modern psychology has European “seeds” which flower in America. Indigenous psychology has thus emerged in countries like China, Japan, India, the Philippines and Nepal where imported theories have been proved fruitless and futile. The nature of cultural sciences, for example, is indigenous, reactive, interactive and creative. Man is conscious, creative, wise and spiritual being. He is an agent capable to interacting with his environment. Indigenous psychologies 2 Chapter One represent one version of the cultural sciences tradition. The importance of indigenization was emphasized by Berry (1974) in Canada, Ho (1988) in Hong Kong, Sinha (1984) in India, Azuma (1984) in Japan. Azuma (1984) and Atal (1981) emphasized the term endogenization for indigenization. While endogenization means having an internal origin the word “indigenization” is derived from Latin indigena, “a native”. Many scholars prefer native traits or culturally unique traits as the goal of indigenization. The efforts of Adair et al. (1995), Moghaddam and Taylor (1986) are significant in the field of indigenization. Indigenous psychology is designed for natives and examines the systems in the natural environment. It also emphasizes the commonsense psychology of ordinary people. The ordinary person interacts more adaptively as a true human being.

Approaches to Indigenization

Furthermore, the indigenization approach could be extended to the concept of scientific integration of Eastern and Western nations’ meditational researches. The universalization of the meditational concept is useful for psychotherapeutic purposes in the areas of stress and pain reduction and in the treatment of several neuroses. The interactive nature of Nepalese people and their adaptation to tarai, hill and mountain ecology and their way of understanding, controlling and interacting with the diversity of ethnic communities constitute the indigenous psychology (Berry, 1993). The intellectual style of Nepalese people is not yet well developed. Only 10% of people exhibit their wisdom. Nepalese psychology is inclusive. Ardila (1982a, 1982b) emphasized that numerous universities in Africa, Asia and Latin America have founded psychology departments in recent decades. People in the third world are living in poverty. Nepalese people are helpless; they do not use resources properly. Here good luck, God, politics and government control their life. People have weaker controlling over their own lives. Western psychology was imported into Nepal during 1967 by American scientists and Nepalese psychologists. The term “indigenous” indicates cultural products, ethos, myths and omens, which could be empirically analysed. Wundt suggested the blending of psychology with culture. He had coined the term “Volkerpsychologie” as a product of language, myths, customs and folkways. Yuanpei Cai (1891– 1940) was the only Chinese student who studied in Wundt’s laboratory. Cai worked with Wundt from 1908 to 1912. He was appointed president of Peking University. In 1917, Cai Supported Daqi Chem (1886-1983) in establishing the first psychology laboratory in China. (Jing & Wan, 2008). Indigenous Psychology in Nepal: Wider Perspectives 3

The concept of being indigenous is clearer in describing the habitat of flora and fauna. Apples, grapes, mangoes and coconut plants differ in their natural properties, existence and living. Similar conclusions can be derived from the life conditions of humans, bats, pandas, chimpanzees, kangaroos, kiwi fruit, fish and crabs. Berry (1989) highlighted etic/emic approaches. The etic approach explains a universal understanding of a phenomenon. Theories and methods developed in one culture can be tested in another culture. Here, the differences and similarities between these two cultures are thoroughly examined. The emic approach is like ethno-science and cultural anthropology studies only one culture from its own viewpoint and discovers indigenous (specific) structural units of analysis. Thus according to Berry, theories and methods originating in one culture are either transplanted or imposed to another culture and get adapted in the other culture to be included into the indigenous knowledge system (see Figure 1.1). This is similar to the grafting phenomenon in the context of plant propagation.

Culture 3 Culture 4 as Source as Source

Cross-Cultural Knowledge

Culture 1 Culture 2

as Source as Source

Fig. 1.1 Indigenization from within (Enriquez)

Enriquez (1977) proposed that indigenous psychologies emphasize endo- (from inner) indigenization whereas cross-cultural psychology represent exo-indigenization i.e. indigenization due to the impact of foreign agency or imported (Figure 1.2). The indigenous Ashtang Yoga of Patanjali flourished in Nepal and India (Aryawart). The seers of “Aryawart” emphasized truthfulness, self-restraint (control of the sex impulses) and nonviolence. No-injury is advised by the architects of culture as a value of life. It should be blessed and pure. “In many religions the four paths – devotion, knowledge, action and mysticism – are converging into the one 4 Chapter One and the same goal”. This is a saying of the Geeta. Meditation treats an ordinary person as a genius. The basis of meditation is scientific. The way of self-development is the path of mysticism. The meditator lifts his/her self to the stage of samadhi (psychic balance), and strengthens their own personality by self-construal. Similarly, in QiGong (Kikoho) Zen Buddhism and in Confucianism (originating in China, Korea and Japan) (Suzuki, 1970). These yogic systems have taught control of the chitta (mind) and body. “Mindfulness” stems from the vipassana (supravision) and ultimately wisdom is created after the attainment of samadhi. Transcendental meditation originated in Eastern countries like Nepal, India and China. In China, Confucius (552–479 BC) emphasized humanness (jen), righteousness (yi), genuineness (chenjen) and spirituality (shen-jen). He classified the self into four parts: physical self, cognitive self, aesthetic self and moral self. He explained the self (ji) as conscience. Gielen (1996) argues that morality is not merely an offshoot of Western individualism. Morality made its first appearance on the world stage during the “axial ages” of Confucius, the Buddha, Socrates and the Jewish prophets approximately 2,500 years ago.

Hwang (1999) reviewed Confucian concepts of filial piety and the loyalty of agricultural society in traditional China. Ho (1997) differentiated personal self as the small self, and the social identity defined by one’s family members is called the great self. Hirschman (1970) identified three types of loyal behaviour in employers in an organization declining due to selective attention or biased perception, which is unconscious loyalty. Passive loyalty implies a tendency to express patience, supporting the organization privately or in public. Active loyalty ensures and advocates the future of the organization through the conceptualization of the self (Liu, 1982). The Korean concept of me includes family members (e.g., father, mother, brother and parents) as major constituents of the self (Maday and Szalay, 1976).

In Confucian society the moral self is a relational concept, while the Taoist aesthetic self is a philosophical concept. In a Taoist society thought and conduct are determined by the aesthetic self. Lao-tzu (Laozi) differs from Confucius. Lao-tzu inspired Zhuangi and they together formed a philosophical school known as “Daoism”. Dao is systems of guiding discourse. The meaning of Dao a path. Lao-tzu considers only the aesthetic self for blissful life. For Chuang-tzu (369–286) meditation is accomplished through the use of breathing; Zen meditation also is performed through the use of breathing, Zen respiration therapy and Zen counselling, Yoga, Raja Yoga, Mantra Yoga; Taijiquan, Japanese quiet Indigenous Psychology in Nepal: Wider Perspectives 5 sitting, Fasting therapy and Shinto breathing methods have the venerable, rich traditions of Eastern psychology (Bankart, Koshikawa, Nedate and Haruki, 1990). Similarly the great mystic philosopher H.I. Khan (1910) said that the Sufi believes in God. The God within him and outside is the divine spirit. Sufism is wisdom, the pure wisdom of the heart (Kwee, 1990). The godly is not always self-realized, but the self-realized is godly. Thus the Sufi emphasizes meditative concentration and self-knowledge like a path not different from “Tao”. All these ways converge on the same point. Vipassana, or insight, the Zen Buddhist egolessness (anatman) and the Hindu self (atman or Swa) and other types of contemplation have psychotherapeutic properties.

Indigenization from without/Domination of Foreign Country

Psychologists’ cross-cultural knowledge can enrich their perspectives on child rearing by understanding how people in other cultures rear children, or they can broaden their perspectives on aggressive behaviour by taking into account what is considered to be aggressive in one culture versus another (Sternberg and Grigorenko, 2001). Friedrich and Regmi (1997) show mothers’ and children’s health concerns. The antecedents of self- esteem was studied by Watkins and Regmi(1989). The self-concept of mountain children was explored by them (1999). Similarly Watkins, Lam and Regmi (1991) investigated Nepalese self-esteem.

Figure 1.3 shows a Venn diagram of two Hindu cultures from India (A) and Nepal (B); C indicates the Sino-Tibetan culture of China, D indicates the Newari culture and E indicates the multi-ethnic groups of Nepal, consisting of 126 castes/ethnic groups and 123 languages and dialects.

6 Chapter One

Dominant Source Culture or Foreign Culture

Psychology of Source Culture

Data from Target Cultures Pseudo Etics/Imposed etics + emics

Cross-cultural (Western) Psychology

Country 1 Country 2 Country n

Country 1 Country 2 Country n Country n

Fig. 1.2 Indigenization from without/Domination of Foreign Country Indigenous Psychology in Nepal: Wider Perspectives 7

Fig. 1.3 Venn Diagram of Cultures

The Nepalese Self

Nepal is the birth place of great philosophers like Vyas, Valmiki, Janak and Birat. Shakya Muni Buddha is famous in Asia and the world. Culture is the ideational aspect of a particular society (Bottomore, 1962, Bottomore & Rubel, 1971). It is the way of life and the manner of living of a people. Visual realities include everyday habits of visual perception as the cultural constructions. Perceptual patterns determine the making of a self. The collective representation of the Nepalese is reflected in the concepts of hami (we), hamiharu (us), hamro (ours) and tapai (you). In the context of relations, maya (affection or love) is a very popular word 8 Chapter One used to express love among siblings parents, friends and teachers. Maya is like an emotional glue showing positive emotion, cordial interdependence and expressing positive valence. So maya is a component of the Nepalese self.

Cross-Cultural Hindu Self

India and Nepal share a Hindu ethos, languages, ritual ceremonies, myths, festivals, values and identities. Both countries are historical components of Aryawart which are famous and favourite neighbours culturally inseparable. In the southern east–west belt of Nepal, the Indo-Aryan languages of Kumaoni, Garhwali, Tharuwani, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Maithili, Hindi and Bangali are spoken. Most of the Nepalese people understand and speak the Hindi language fluently. However, there are cross-cultural differences in their tones and accents. Similarly, in the northern belt, Bhot, Sikkimese, Magar, Tibetan, Chinese, Rai and Limbu languages are spoken. People of the northern Himalayan ranges appear closer to their Sino-Tibetan inheritance and exhibit a Lamaistic tradition, rituals and values. Historically Nepal is proud of two giant benevolent neighbouring nations: India and China. Both are among the superpowers of the world. Nepal shows strong ties with Western countries: Britain, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Finland, Denmark, Sweden and other countries. Among the far northern countries, Russia and Mongolia are famous friendly nations, Australia in the south-east and the USA from northern far west horizon are Nepal’s remote friendly nations.

The Newar people are a sub-cultural group showing a high impact of Hinduization and having their own indigenous unique cult of Kumari, i.e., worshipping the living virgin goddess. This culture is not found outside Nepal. Sherpa, Gurung, Tamang, Magar, Rai, Limbu and Tharu constitute different cultural subgroups.

Nepalese Values

Researches on values have agreed on defining values as broad trans- situational goals that serve as guiding principles in life. Values play a central role in the social sciences as key antecedents, consequences and correlates of human action and experience (Schwartz, 1994). Nepalese people prefer conformity, universals, self-direction, achievement, security, benevolence, hedonism, stimulation, tradition and power in rank order (Bohenke, Regmi, Richmond, Chandra and Stromberg, 1994). The ranking Indigenous Psychology in Nepal: Wider Perspectives 9 of ten value types are given in table 1.1 accompanied by means. Six values showed the mean scores above three and four values exhibited below three means.

Western scholars are learning more from Sanskrit story literature, the Panchtantra. This book has been translated into Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, Persian and other languages. The works of the poet Kalidas have been translated into many languages of the world. This is certainly a process of indigenization of India’s Sanatan culture as well as a globalization of Indology in Europe and abroad. Similarly, the works of Charak and Sushrut have gained popularity in the area of modern medicine and surgery. Furthermore, the inner yoga of the Hindu system operates a six- or seven-chakra system, while the Tibetan Buddhist system employs five chakras (energy centres). The three commonly used chakras are those of the forehead, throat and heart. Other chakras are at the navel, genitals and between genitals and anus. They are also known as super-conscience, mental, vital and physical sub-conscience chakras. Currently, yoga psychology has spread over East Asian countries and recently it has covered the USA, UK, Australia and other parts of the world. Yoga has now become a part of psychotherapy. Morita therapy and Naikan therapy are indigenous to Japanese Buddhism.

Table 1.1: Sample Means and Ranks for ten Value Facets of the Schwartz Value Survey

S.N. Rank & Value Mean 1 Conformity 3.79 2 Universalism 3.67 3 Self-direction 3.53 4 Achievement 3.29 5 Security 3.22 6 Benevolence 3.13 7 Hedonism 2.39 8 Stimulation 2.14 9 Tradition 2.12 10 Power 2.10

Some Indigenization Researches in Nepal

Psychologists in Nepal and South Asia ought to serve in national poverty alleviation, illiteracy control and health problems. There is a necessity of 10 Chapter One cross-cultural and cross-national collaborative researches on violence, terrorism, peace and management of international conflict. The anger cognition study of Regmi and Basnet (2009) showed high significance in the Nepalese context. Significant gender difference in anger was reported by Regmi, Shakya and Basnet (2012) for school-going adolescents (N=238) from four Nepalese sub-cultural groups: Brahmin (N=60), Chhetri (N=58), Janajati (N=59) and Dalit (N=61). The mean anger score was highest for Brahmin (97), followed by Dalit (93.11), Janajati (92.54) and Chhetri (89.31) respectively. In Nepal, the collectivistic value of sharing among the family members is highly prevalent in the hilly regions. The social life of Nepalese people is oriented to humanism, altruism, bravery and kindness. The indigenization of psychology started slowly with Dart and Pradhan (1967) and Kasaju, Feeman, Pant and Regmi (1971) in Nepal. Both the researches were based on an ethno-cognitive model of children. Piaget, and Elkind were regarded as the pioneers in this field. An American educator of mathematics, Feeman, inspired Regmi to continue such researches in future. Some significant researches were conducted in Tribhuvan University’s Central Department of Psychology, Kathmandu, during the years 1982 to 2011. Regmi taught at the Tribhuvan University for 43 years without a break and has completed nearly fifty researches in international journals in the USA, UK, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Japan and India (see references below). Regmi’s main contributions are in the areas of personality structure, cross-cultural learning, self-esteem and fatalism. Children’s spatial cognition has been studied by Niraula (1998) and by Niraula and Mishra (2001); their sample was Nepalese Newar children. Eco-cultural factors in cognitive style were studied by Sinha and Shrestha (1992) and Nepalese learning by Dahlin and Regmi (1997). Young et al.’s (2011) study of patterns of fatalistic thinking and Subedi and Regmi’s (2015) research on the Nepalese personality of government employees are important researches.

Other interesting cross-cultural and social researches are an investigation of participation in sports by Watkins & Regmi (1989); a cross-cultural comparison of Nepalese and U.S. students’ attitude toward cancer by Domino and Regmi (1993); a study of Bhutanese refugees’ self-esteem (Regmi, 1997c); of cognitive skills among Nepalese child labourers (Alaraudanjoki et al., 2001); research on forgiving personality (Watkins and Regmi 2004); another forgiveness investigation (Watkins et al., 2011); a research study of anxious affect and depression (Regmi, 2015); and a study of individualistic and collectivistic values in role stress among the government officers of Nepal (Rayamajhi and Regmi, 2015). Subedi’s (2015) doctoral research and the doctoral research of Rayamajhi (2016) Indigenous Psychology in Nepal: Wider Perspectives 11 are very significant studies which depict the status of psychology in South East Asia.

A study of Nepalese social life and challenging socio-psychological health of the Jajarkot people (Subba, 2002) is an important piece of research on perception of disease and illness. Subba’s work on the Nepalese society is appreciable. The collaborative researches on the Gurung people and community started at the end of 1979. The child rearing practices of Gurung people and their myths, rituals, festivals and omens exhibited Empathy. Their personality reflected extratensive type of experience balance (Regmi, 1985, 1987, 1988). Recently Rayamajhi (2014) explored level of stress among the government officers of Nepal; his study is timely and contextually most relevant; at the end of his paper, the author quotes Boski’s (1983 and 1988) view that indigenous psychology is equal to the product of indigenous problems and the sum of cultural values plus intellectual styles. The cultural tradition of Nepalese spiritualism has been derived from Vedas, Samhitas and Upanishads. Spiritualism is a part of Nepalese life style. Indigenous approach to pain control by mindfulness meditation was discussed by Buddha in detail; emphasizing aversion to eliminate undesirable behaviour and modern self-monitoring are similar approaches of modern behaviour therapy or behavioural psychotherapy (Kwee, 1990). So in early Buddhism there were behaviour modification techniques similar to coping (Regmi, 1997b). The technique of meditation is a means of personal growth (de Wit, 1987). Meditation is never practised in a context-free environment. Several types of meditations emanate from various indigenous cultures. They look different but their objectives are the same. So Eastern and Western perspectives of meditation are complementary (Del Monte and Haruki, 1988).

Transcendental Meditation

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in 1957 initiated research on Transcendental Meditation (TM) which showed that during practice, the latent reserves of the brain are enlivened, and indicated increased use of the brain’s total functioning. During a TM session individuals displayed higher mean EEG coherence in overall frequencies and brain areas in contrast to control periods. TM is a mental process by which the individuals reach the stage of transcendental consciousness which is a source of infinite energy, intelligence and creativity (Maharishi, 1972, 1974, 1978). Orme-Johnson & Haynes (1981) reported that the TM-Sidhi programme practice improved the participants’ quality of life. Researchers showed that forty 12 Chapter One major qualities of the unified field of all the laws of nature are directly related to forty Vedic qualities of intelligence. In this context, the research works of Professor Tony Nader, international president, Maharishi Open Universities in 1998 are highly praiseworthy.

Johansson (1970) has extracted Abhidhamma sources for the healthy personality of the arahat or yogi who has perceptual changes on the face. Csikzentmihalyi (1978) stated that the arahat reflects calm delight with flow of actions. Goleman (1990) advocates the arahat is an ideal type of person who has optimum balance of mental state.

Cultural Differentiation

Culture differs in the approach to indigenization from within. The cross- indigenous method uses a multi-cultural approach based on indigenous viewpoints (Enriquez,1977). Nepal should create its own psychology based on reality as emphasized by Berry (1974), a Canadian psychologist. The final target is to focus on Universal Psychology from the indigenous psychology of a society (Figure 1.4).

(Indigenous Psychology) 1 First World

Second World Universal Psychology (Indigenous Psychology) 2 Third World 3 (Indigenous Psychology)

Fig. 1.4 Universal Psychology

Nepalese personality is shaped by mythology, religion and rituals (1997b). Nepal has faced the difficulty of transportation and socio-political fragmentation. Northern Nepal is too cold in winter and southern Nepal is too hot in summer. The Himalayan mountains have very low temperatures and sparse population. These special features are similar to Canada. Nepal is inhabited by native peoples, immigrants and ethnic groups showing cultural pluralism. Berry (1993) emphasizes the integration of one’s cultural theories and methods with totally different cultural theories and methods to give rise to Universal Psychology.