AQA GCSE GEOGRAPHY REVISION

Paper 1: Living with the physical environment (1hr 30mins)   The Challenge of Natural Hazards – Natural hazards, Tectonic hazards, Weather hazards and Climate change

 The Living World – Ecosystems, Tropical Rainforests and Hot deserts NOT COLD ENVIRONMENTS

 Physical Landscapes in the UK – UK landscapes, River Landscapes and Coastal Landscapes NOT GLACIAL LANDSCAPES

Unit 1: Challenges in the Physical Environment – Natural Hazards PLC

Spec Key Idea Theme Red Amber Green 1. Natural Hazards Natural hazards pose What are natural hazards? major risks to people and Name the different types of hazard property What is hazard risk?

2. Tectonic Hazards Earthquakes and volcanic Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes – are eruptions are the result of there any patterns? physical processes Physical processes at plate margins – constructive, destructive and conservative The effects of, and The effects of earthquakes – Nepal and Italy responses to, tectonic case studies hazards vary between areas of contrasting levels Responses to earthquakes – Nepal and Italy of wealth case studies Management can reduce Living with the risk from tectonic hazards – the effects of tectonic include examples of places living with the risk hazards Reducing the risk from tectonic hazards – monitoring, prediction, protection and planning 3. Weather Hazards Global atmospheric Global atmospheric circulation model – How circulation helps to does it work? How does it affect the world’s determine patterns of weather? Give examples. weather and climate Tropical storms What is a tropical storm? (hurricanes, cyclones, Where and how are tropical storms formed? typhoons) develop as a result of particular physical The structure and the features of tropical storms, conditions including frequency, distribution and intensity. Tropical storms have Typhoon Haiyan – Primary and secondary significant effects on effects, Immediate and long-term responses. people and the Reducing the effects of tropical storms – environment monitoring, protection, planning and prediction The UK is affected by a Weather hazards in the UK – extreme weather – number of weather thunderstorms, prolonged rainfall, hazards drought/extreme heat, heavy snow/extreme cold and strong winds. Extreme weather events in Beast from the East cause and effects – social, the UK have impacts on economic and environmental human activity Beast from the East responses Extreme weather in the UK – is it going to get worse? 4. Climate Change Climate change is the What is the evidence for climate change? result of natural and What are the natural causes of climate human factors, and a change? range of effects What are the human causes of climate change? Managing climate Managing the impacts of climate change - change involves both mitigation mitigation (reducing Managing the impacts of climate change - causes) and adaptation adaptation (responding to change)

Definition of a natural hazard.

A natural hazard is a natural event which could cause death, injury or disruption to humans or destroy property and possessions. Types of natural hazard.

The Hazard can be …

Geological Hazards, these hazards can be split up in to two types; those that occur inside the earth (tectonic/geophysical) processes e.g. earthquakes and volcanoes and those occurring on the Earth’s surface (geomorphic) processes e.g. landslides and avalanches.

Hydrological Hazards, this is where there is either a harmful change in quality of earth's water or in the distribution or movement of water e.g. (avalanches and floods),

Climatological Hazards, this is where there are changes in the earth’s climate e.g. extreme temperatures (hot or cold), drought and wildfires.

Meteorological / Atmospheric Hazards, this is caused by extreme “one off” weather conditions e.g. cyclones and storms/wave surges.

Biological Hazards, this is where living organisms are affected e.g. disease epidemics and forest fires Factors affecting hazard risk.

Natural disasters frequently occur across the world, affecting both High Income Country (HIC) and Low Income Country (LIC). However some populations are clearly more vulnerable than others. Different communities and countries are more susceptible to the impact of these hazards especially those in LICs.

Vulnerability

 Poorer housing quality in LICs which causes higher death tolls, when the buildings collapse.  LICs have a poor economy so residents often have risky jobs in areas prone to natural events. E.g. mining sulphur on volcanoes, farming on floodplains.  Increasing urban populations where natural events occur. The more people the higher the death toll.

Capacity to cope

 In HICs there are high quality buildings, using strong building materials and designs. E.g. Earthquake proof buildings.  In HICs residents of areas prone to natural hazards have, better education, trained search and rescue teams, action and evacuation plans.  In HICs more money is spent on technology to predict and protect the residents of the country. E.g. In Japan, locals have texts warning them of approaching tsunamis.

Nature of the Natural Hazard

 Duration: The length of time that a hazard lasts for. As a general rule the longer the hazard the more severe it is likely to be.  Regularity: If hazards happen often and in quick succession e.g. a earthquake followed by multiple aftershocks then the severity is likely to be greater.  Predictability: Some hazards are easier to predict than others. Generally speaking hazards that hit with no warning are going to be more serious.  Magnitude: This is the strength of a hazard. Most hazards are measured on a scale. Generally speaking, the stronger the hazard the more severe the hazard is.

Tectonic Hazards - Plate tectonics theory.

The Earth is made up of 4 layers. The crust, the mantle, the outer core and the inner core. The crust and the upper mantle form the lithosphere. The lithosphere is broken into several major fragments called tectonic plates, which either form the continents or the ocean floors.

Continental crust (lithosphere)

Land on top Thick (30 – 100km) Light in weight Made of granite Flexible Will not subduct (Continental uplift.) Older in age (3.8 billion years)

Oceanic crust (lithosphere)

Covered by ocean Thin (5 – 10km) Dense (heavy) Made of basalt Can be made to subduct. (Sunk and melted into the mantle.) Younger in age (200 million years) Global distribution of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and their relationship to plate margins.

Each plate has a different name. The plates move in different directions; some move towards each other, some alongside each other and some away from each other. Where plates meet it is called a plate boundary/margin.

Convection currents occur when the core heats the mantle. This creates a convection current in the mantle. The current drags the plates very slowly moving them at the about the same speed finger nails grow.

A ridge push occurs when the weight of an elevated ridge pushes an oceanic plate towards a subduction zone.

A slab pull occurs as the weight of the subducting plate pulls the rest of the crust (lithosphere) into the subduction zone.

Physical processes taking place at different types of plate margin (constructive, destructive and conservative) that lead to earthquakes and volcanic activity.

There are 3 different Plate Margins.

Constructive - When 2 plates move apart. Magma forces its way to the surface and as it breaks through the overlying crust it causes earthquakes. The magma is very hot and fluid. It will flow a long way before cooling, resulting in a shield volcano.

E.g. North American and Eurasian Plates forming Iceland in the Atlantic Ocean.

Destructive - Where 2 plates move towards each other (this can be either an oceanic plate or continental plate moving towards each other or two continental plates which collide). Where an oceanic and a continental plate meets the denser oceanic plate subducts beneath the less dense continental plate. (It also pulls the tip on the continental plate down too, forming a deep ocean trench.) Friction between the plates causes strong earthquakes. As the oceanic plate enters the mantle it starts to melt, which creates more magma. The eruption are violent and explosive due to the steam which is built up from the ocean water. Steep sided volcanoes called composite volcanoes are formed here.

E.g. Pacific Oceanic Plate dipping under the South American Continental Plate.

Conservative - When 2 plates move alongside each other. Friction between the plates builds up and can cause severe earthquakes.

E.g. San Andreas Fault. The effects of, and responses to, a tectonic hazard vary between areas of contrasting levels of wealth. Primary and secondary effects of a tectonic hazard - earthquakes.

Primary effects of an earthquake are the immediate impacts of the ground shaking e.g. buildings and bridges collapsing, homes destroyed, people injured or killed by collapsed buildings or debris, transport networks are damaged, power, water and communication networks cut off.

Secondary effects are what happen later on, often as a result of the primary effects e.g. earthquakes can trigger landslides and tsunamis, leaking gas pipes can result in fires, people are left homeless and could die from extreme weather conditions, shortage of clean water and poor sanitation can lead to disease, destroyed transport networks results in difficulties getting emergency vehicles in and trade, businesses destroyed which results in loss of income. Immediate and long-term responses to a tectonic hazard.

Immediate responses are to stop loss of life e.g. rescue rapped people and treat injuries, recover dead bodies to reduce spread of disease, put out fires, give shelter to homeless, provide water and food, charities send aid workers.

Long term responses are where people are rehoused, repair buildings, transport and communication networks, improve building regulations to prevent disaster occurring again.

Use named examples to show how the effects and responses to a tectonic hazard vary between two areas of contrasting levels of wealth.

Location Gorkha, Nepal – L’Aquila, Italy – LIC Case study HIC Case Study Date 28th April 2015 6th April 2009 Magnitude 7.8 6.3 Primary 8,841 deaths 308 deaths Effects 16,000 injured 1,500 injured one million made homeless 67,500 made homeless Iconic historic buildings collapsed 15,000 buildings collapsed. 26 hospitals collapsed churches, medieval buildings, monuments and museums Secondary Avalanche on Everest, swept through Aftershocks caused landslides and rock fall Effects base camp killing 19 damage to housing and transport The economy and employment in tourism Lack of housing in the area meant that decreased considerably house prices and rents increased Rice seeds kept in buildings which Much of the city’s CBD (city centre) has collapsed during the earthquake, led to been cordoned off due to unsafe buildings food shortages. Short term Nepal could not cope requested Within an hour the Italian Red Cross were responses immediate international help searching for survivors with 7 dog units. Temporary shelters were set up by Red 10,000 homeless people were put up in Cross who provided tents for 225,000 hotels and 40,000 tents handed out people. 400,000 were unreachable by road or air. Water, hot meals, tents and blankets were The Sherpas were used to take supplies to distributed. Mortgages, bills for Sky, those stranded. electricity, and gas were suspended. Long term UN, EU and the World Bank reported that New settlements were built to responses 23 areas needed to be rebuilt, including accommodate over 20,000 residents who homes, schools, roads, hospitals and used to live in the damaged city centre. monuments $274 million had been promised for the The EU granted $552.9 million. recovery of the country. Mount Everest was reopened for tourists Students were exempt from paying in August 2015, with alternative routes university fees for 3 years, had free public planned transport and discount on equipment.

Reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from a tectonic hazard.

People have deliberately chosen to risk all those hazards and live near them, even on the slopes of active volcanoes that have erupted within living memory. They choose to live close to volcanoes because they felt that the advantages outweighed the disadvantages. Most volcanoes are perfectly safe for long periods in between eruptions, and those that do erupt more frequently are usually thought of, by the people who live there, as being predictable.

Today, about 500 million people live on or close to volcanoes. We even have major cities close to active volcanoes.

Farming

Volcanic rocks are rich in minerals, but when the rocks are fresh the minerals are not available to plants. The rocks need thousands of years to become weathered and broken down before they form rich soils. When they do become soils though, they form some of the richest ones on the planet. (Volcanic soils are only found on less than 1% of the Earth’s surface). Ash from previous eruptions provides very fertile soil. This is perfect for farmland. Today, the slopes of Vesuvius is intensively cultivated and produces grapes, vegetables, orange and lemon trees, herbs, flowers and has become a major tomato growing region. Geothermal Energy

Volcanoes can provide geothermal energy. Hot rocks beneath the volcano can provide a source of cheap power for residents. Water is sent down into the volcanic rocks via a pipe. It returns to the surface as steam. The steam turns a turbine, which is connected to a generator, which makes electricity.

Countries such as Iceland make extensive use of geothermal power, with approximately two thirds of Iceland's electricity coming from steam powered turbines, it is an excellent example of renewable energy.

Tourism

Volcanoes attract more than 100 million visitors every year, for different reasons. As an example of the wilder side of nature, there are few things that can beat seeing an erupting volcano. Even the less active ones that are just puffing out steam and smoke are impressive sights and attract tourists from around the world. Around the volcano may be warm bathing lakes, hot springs, bubbling mud pools and steam vents. Tourism creates jobs in shops, restaurants, hotels and tourist centres / national parks. Locals economies can profit from volcanism throughout the year, whereas skiing, for example, has only a limited winter season.

Mining

Magma deep inside the earth contains a range of minerals. This means that minerals such as tin, silver, gold, copper and even diamonds can be found in volcanic rocks. Most of the metallic minerals mined around the world, particularly copper, gold, silver, lead and zinc are found in rocks deep below extinct volcanoes. This makes the areas ideal for both large scale commercial mining and smaller scale local activities by individuals and small groups of locals.

Families

Families have lived next to volcanoes for generations. They have a life there and do not want to move away from their home. Many people do not take the threat particularly seriously or believe they will have plenty warning to evacuate.

How monitoring, prediction, protection and planning can reduce the risks from a tectonic hazard.

There are four main management strategies for reducing the risk from tectonic hazards;

Monitoring (Using scientific equipment to detect warning signs of events.

Prediction – Using historical data, scientists can make predictions about when a tectonic hazard may occur.

Protection – Designing buildings etc to withstand the tectonic hazards.

Planning – Train individuals as well as specialist teams on what to do in the event of a tectonic hazard.

Weather Hazards - Global atmospheric circulation helps to determine patterns of weather and climate. General atmospheric circulation model: pressure belts and surface winds.

The atmosphere is the air above our heads. It contains gases, liquids and solids. E.g. water vapour, carbon dioxide and oxygen. It is where our weather processes occur. A little like the lithosphere where all the tectonic hazards occur. The atmosphere is where all the weather /climate hazards occur. Changes in climate is mainly due to latitude. At the equator there is more insolation (amount of solar radiation received in an area) than at the Polar Regions. The air at the equator is heated strongly and has high insolation (areas of high solar radiation). It becomes less dense and rises towards the poles. This creates an area of low pressure and causes poor weather e.g. cloud, rain and strong winds. It is known as a depression. At the poles there is low insolation (areas of low solar radiation) so the colder dense air sinks towards the ground causing an area of high pressure. This causes fine dry and settled weather known as anticyclones.

The Global Atmospheric Circulation Model involves a number of circular air movements called cells. These cells all join together to form the overall circulation of the Earth’s atmosphere. Convection cells are created where there are differences in air temperature which lead to areas of high and low air pressure. There are three convection cells that operate; Hadley cell – between the equator and the tropics of cancer and Capricorn. Ferrel cell – between the tropics and the polar fronts Polar cell – between the poles and the polar fronts. Not only is there the cells operating but there is also surface winds which affect the weather and climate. The winds always travel from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. These winds transfer heat and moisture from one place to another.

Global distribution of tropical storms (hurricanes, cyclones, typhoons).

A tropical storm is a huge storm that develops in the Tropics (Between the Tropic of Cancer (30°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (30°S). They are an intense low pressure weather system. In different location in the world tropical storms have different names. In the USA and the Caribbean they are called hurricanes, in South-East Asia and Australia they are called cyclones and in Japan and the Philippine's they are known as typhoons. An understanding of the relationship between tropical storms and general atmospheric circulation. Causes of tropical storms and the sequence of their formation and development.

Tropical storms only develop over warm water when the sea temperature is 27°C or higher and there is an atmospheric low, where air rises. When the warm, moist air rises due to the condensation occurs and it releases huge amounts of energy, which makes these powerful storm systems. All tropical storms move towards the west because of the easterly winds near the equator. The Earth’s rotation (Coriolis Effect) deflects the paths of the winds, which causes the storms to spin. The storm gets stronger due to energy from the warm water, so wind speeds increase.  On average there are between 80-100 tropical storms a year.  Most tropical storms occur between 5 and 30°N/S of the Equator (depending on who you ask!!) any further north or south the water isn’t warm enough, however this is changing!!  They do not form exactly on the equator though as there is not enough spin.  The majority of storms are in the northern hemisphere, especially in the Pacific. They happen in late summer and autumn when the sea is at its highest temperature.  They lose strength as they move over land or cooler water as the energy from the warm water is cut off, usually lasting7-14 days.  They only develop where there is good depth of warm water (70m).  They spin anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere  To record the intensity of the tropical storm the Saffir – Simpson Scale is used.

The sequence of their formation and development.

1. A strong upward movement of air draws water vapour up from the warm ocean surface. 2. The evaporated air cools as it rises and condenses to form thunderstorm clouds. 3. As the air condenses it releases heat which powers the storm and draws up more water from the ocean. 4. Several smaller thunderstorms join together to form a giant spinning storm. When the wind speeds reach 120km/hr or 75 mph it is a tropical storm. 5. The storm develops an eye at its centre where air descends rapidly. The outer edge of the eye, the eyewall is where there is the most intense weather conditions. 6. As the storm is carried across the ocean by the prevailing winds it continues to gather strength. 7. On reaching land the storms energy is cut off. Friction with the land slows it down and begins to weaken. If the storm reaches warm seas after crossing the land, it may pick up strength again.

The structure and features of a tropical storm.

How climate change might affect the distribution, frequency and intensity of tropical storms.

Climate change may affect tropical storms in 4 main ways…  Global temperatures are expected to rise as a result of climate change. This means that most of the world’s oceans, sea surface temperatures (SST) could be above 27°C, so more places in the world may experience tropical storms. (Distribution)  Oceans will stay at 27°C or higher for more of the year, so the number of tropical storms each year could increase. (Frequency)  Higher temperatures, will mean greater evaporation and higher wind speeds making the tropical storms stronger, resulting in more destructive storms. (Intensity)  As temperatures increase, sea levels will rise due to thermal expansion. The impact of rising sea levels will mean storm surges are expected to become higher. (Intensity)

Data collection has improved through satellite monitoring, this may result in more storms being recorded. As well as this the destruction may also seem to have increased due to more people now living in expensive homes near the coast. Primary and secondary effects of tropical storms.

Primary effects of tropical storms are:  The strong winds (upwards of 125 mph) can cause widespread damage to buildings, infrastructure (power lines, roads, and airports), trees and crops.  Storm surges, with the low air pressure sea levels are very high, along with strong on-shore winds huge waves are created causing extensive coastal flooding.  Heavy rainfall can cause widespread flooding.  Sometimes there are localised tornadoes. Secondary effects of tropical storms are:  There may be landslides and mudslides as unstable slopes become saturated by the heavy rain.  Polluted water supplies can cause diseases and further deaths.  People may be forced to make make-shift shelters due to the damage to their homes.  Basic services affected as infrastructure awaits repair. Immediate and long-term responses to tropical storms.

Immediate responses - When a tropical storm hits an area, the population and government need to respond immediately e.g. putting the emergency services on alert, evacuating the area, rescuing and treating victims of the storm. In HICs detailed plans, forecasting and efficient communication means that damage and loss of life will be kept to a minimum. The population will be alerted through the media. The police and army will ensure that people evacuate from the area. However in LICs infrastructure e.g. decent roads and poor communication make it difficult to alert people to the dangers. Help from friendly governments will provide help. Long term responses – When the danger is over rebuilding damaged housing and infrastructure and improving protection systems e.g. levees. In HICs there is often less damage and where there is damage governments respond quickly to make sure bridges and roads are repaired quickly. In LICs it may be months if not years before things return to normal. Normally there are long term health concerns with increasing incidence of diseases such as cholera, typhoid and malaria.

Use a named example of a tropical storm to show its effects and responses. Super Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in November 2013. It was classed as a category 5 with winds of 170 mph and waves 15 metres high. There were also storm surges (wall of water) of 5 metres high.

Primary Effects Secondary Effects Approx. 6300 people died most through 14 million people affected, many left drowning by the storm surge. 30,000 homeless and 6 million lost their income. fishing boats destroyed by the surge Over 600,000 people displaced due to Looting and violence broke out in 90% of Tacloban city destroyed. Tacloban city. Tacloban airport and port badly Aid efforts were disrupted doe to damaged. damage to the airport and port. 400mm of rain fell causing widespread Flooding and landslides blocked roads flooding. cutting off aid to many remote places. Buildings, bridges and power lines were Power supplies cut off for months, destroyed. hindering people’s lives and businesses. Water supplies contaminated and crops Shortages of water and food led to destroyed. outbreaks of disease.

Immediate responses  International aid agencies responded quickly with food, water and temporary shelters.  The Philippines Red Cross delivered basic food aid e.g. rice & canned food.  Over 1200 evacuation centres set up for the homeless. UK sent shelter kits to provide emergency shelter for a family.  The French, Belgian and Israeli set up field hospitals to help the injured. Long-term responses  The UN donated financial aid, supplies and medical support.  Rebuilding of the airport, ports, roads and bridges.  “Cash for Work” schemes where locals were paid money to clear debris.  Oxfam helped finance replacement of fishing boats.  More cyclone shelters have been made away from coastal areas.

How monitoring, prediction, protection and planning can reduce the effects of tropical storms.

Monitoring and prediction Satellite monitoring agencies can identify the formation of tropical storms and track their paths and strength (using the Saffir- Simpson scale). Meteorologists can also use the monitoring to provide warnings with the use of a tracking cone. However these are not 100% as the storm can change its path and intensity very quickly. The cone becomes larger with time as the uncertainty of the storm increases. Protection In coastal areas buildings are often windproof and storm proof, with reinforced windows, doors ad roofs. In LICs there are often storm shelters designed for the survival of whole villages. In some locations the buildings are built on stilts, so the storm surge will pass beneath. Sea walls also protect key properties along the coast. Planning Tropical storm planning is mostly about raising awareness both to individuals and communities. In the USA there is a National Hurricane Preparedness Week, educating people about the potential dangers. Governments produce posters, leaflets ad information for the media and people are encouraged to prepare disaster kits.

An overview of types of weather hazard experienced in the UK.

Weather hazards are extreme weather events. Even the UK experiences extreme weather, where damage can be inflicted on communities. The main types of weather hazards are hydro- meteorological hazards e.g. storms, flooding. Drought and extremes in cold weather.

Storm events

The UK is regularly hit by depressions which bring heavy rain to the west coast of the UK. In October 2013 the St Jude storm had winds of 160km/hr killed 5 people, felled trees, toppled lorries, thousands lost power and people were stranded at Gatwick airport as the planes were grounded.

Flooding

Flooding often occurs due to depressions bringing persistent heavy rainfall and strong waves. Storm surges can occur when strong winds funnel coastal water into the mouth of a river e.g. In 1953 a storm surge hit the Thames estuary killing 300 people. Flash flooding after heavy rainfall can cause huge problems e.g. the village of Boscastle in Cornwall was overwhelmed in 2004. After a period of heavy steady rainfall the ground can become saturated causing slow onset river flooding e.g. in 2014 the River Thames burst its banks. After intense rainfall water collects in valleys causing surface water flooding e.g. in June 2007 thousands of homes flooded causing £3 billion in damage.

Drought

Drought is an extended period of low or absent rainfall. In the UK this means 15 consecutive days with less than 0.2 mm of rain. The longest drought in the UK occurred over an 18 month period in 1975 and 1976. Temperatures exceeded 32°C for 7 consecutive days. Drought conditions have also been recorded in 2003 (This drought affected large areas of Europe as well and accounted for 20,000 deaths across the continent, there was also the highest ever recorded temperature in the UK 38°C), 2006 and 2012.

Heavy snow and extreme cold

Unusually cold winters occurred in 2010-11 and 2014-15. This caused frost which destroyed crops and killed livestock with temperatures plummeting to -10°C, over 17,000 trains were cancelled in 2014 because of freezing conditions and flights were hindered considerably.

An example of a recent extreme weather event in the UK to illustrate: causes social, economic and environmental impacts, how management strategies can reduce risk.

Beast from the East meets Storm Emma February – March 2018

Causes

The Beast from the East was caused by an event that occurred in January when there was sudden stratospheric warming. This involved a huge rise in air temperature of around 50°C in an area around 18 miles above the Earth in the North Pole. This sudden stratospheric warming caused a weakening of the jet stream (which usually brings in the warmer air) and allowed the cold air from western Russia to "flood" over Europe.

Social Impacts

 10 killed across the country  Hundreds trapped in their cars on roads and motorways  Gas supplies were running low and thousands without power  UK issued with a gas deficit warning  NHS cancelled non urgent operations  Schools across the country were closed for up to 3 days. Economic

 Trains stranded on tracks overnight causing delays to many businesses  Thousands of businesses without or reduced power causing loss of earnings  Road closures meant workers and materials needed to operate some factories were unable to get where they were required forcing some businesses to shut.  Shops, leisure facilities, theatres, cinemas and restaurants were severely impacted as people were told to stay indoors and not travel.  Farmers lost crops and livestock during the freezing conditions  The cost to the UK economy was estimated at least £1bn a day

Environmental impacts

 15-20cm of snow fell over 3 days. There were snow drifts of up to 7m in rural areas.  Temperatures dropped to -10°C with wind chill of -22°C  Wind speeds exceeding 70mph

Management strategies

 Armed forces deployed to rescue drivers and drive NHS workers to work to help the sick and poorly  Greggs delivery van driver handed out food to those trapped in their cars to avoid hunger  Community centres were opened for those who are homeless to avoid further deaths from exposure to the extreme temperatures  Taxi firms provided help to the elderly by bringing shopping and medicines to those in need  Met Office issued Red Waring to stop people travelling  Snow ploughs gritters and tractors out to clear roads to help people travel again  Government asked businesses to reduce their gas usage so the country didn’t run out allowing people to have their heating on for longer  Red Cross issued blankets to people stranded in Glasgow Airport.

Evidence that weather is becoming more extreme in the UK.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has warned that temperatures will increase during this century. This will result in more evaporation and more rainfall. Scientists believe that the UK will experience higher amounts of rainfall. Since the 1980s extreme winter rainfall has increased. (Record rainfall amounts for the Lake District fell in Nov 2009, December 2015 was the wettest month ever recorded in the UK)

UK temperatures have increased by about 1°C since 1980. (UKs highest ever recorded temperature in Kent 38.5°C in 2003). Climate Change - Evidence for climate change from the beginning of the quaternary period to the present day

A geological timescale has been devised by those who have studied the history of the Earth. The timescale has both Periods (Longer periods of time) and Epochs (Shorter periods of time within the Periods). The period of time we are currently in has been named the Quaternary period or Ice Age which stretches back to 2.6 million years. During this Quaternary period there has been a global drop in temperature and is often referred to as an ice age as there is permanent ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica. The Quaternary Period has been split into the Pleistocene Epoch where there were cold glacial episodes lasting 100,000 years, where the thick ice would expand over continents but then also retreat, when there were warmer interglacial periods. The second part of the Quaternary Period is the Holocene Epoch, the time we live in now, where the climate has begun to get a lot warmer. Evidence of Climate change

Before reliable data records proxy data (natural recorders) have had to be used such as tree rings, fossil pollen, ice cores and ocean sediments to estimate what the climate was like. However these are not as reliable as they only indicate climate change rather than specific accurate temperatures. Scientists drill into the ice sheets of Antarctica to get cores of ice. Within the ice there are gases trapped. They can tell what the temperature would have been each year from these gases. Records go back to 800,000 years. As a tree grows it forms a new ring each year. The thicker rings show that the year was warmer and wetter. Tree rings are a reliable source of climate change over the last 10,000 years.

Pollen found in the bottom of lakes and peat bogs can help determine what species were around at a particular time. If scientists know what conditions those plants live in then they can tell what the climatic conditions were like. Evidence of recent Climate change Glaciers throughout the world are shrinking and retreating.  The average global sea level has risen between 10-20 cm due to thermal expansion. As ocean water warms it expands in volume.  Tree flowering and bird migration is advancing.  The 134 billion tonnes of ice has melted in Antarctica since 2002.

Possible causes of climate change – natural (orbital changes, volcanic activity and solar output)

Orbital change Milankovitch a Serbian geophysicist and astronomer studied the Earth’s orbit and came up with three theories. Scientists now believe the cycles Milankovitch came up with which occur every 100,000 years coincides closely with the glacial and interglacial periods.  The Earth’s orbit changes from being circular to being elliptical and then back to circular. As the Earth orbits closer to the sun, the warmer the climate becomes.  The Earth spins on an axis causing night and day. This tilt alters between 21.5° and 24.5° every 41,000 years causing differences in the climate.  The Earth is not a perfect sphere so as the Earth spins it wobbles. Solar output The solar output of the sun is measured by observing the sunspots on the Suns surface. The sun spots are caused by magnetic activity in the sun. The number of sun spots increases over an 11 year period. When sunspots are at their maximum the Sun gives off more heat resulting in solar flares. When sunspot activity is at its minimum the solar output is reduced. Volcanic Activity When large ash clouds are thrown vertically into the atmosphere millions of tonnes of sulphur dioxide is released into the atmosphere. When Sulphur dioxide mixes with water vapour it becomes a volcanic aerosol. This can reflect the sunlight away and reduce the heat entering the Earth’s atmosphere.

The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that keeps the Earth warm enough for life to exist. It is thought that without the greenhouse effect the Earth would be approximately 33°C colder and therefore life would not exist how we know it today. Scientists believe that the greenhouse effect has been increased through the actions of people. This action releases greenhouse gases which increase the layer of gases already surrounding the Earth. This traps more heat and is causing the planet to become warmer. It is like adding an extra blanket around the Earth.

Possible human causes of climate change use of fossil fuels, agriculture and deforestation

Fossil fuels – Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and accounts for about 50% of greenhouse gas emissions. Fossil fuels are used in transportation, heating homes and manufacturing industry. They are also burnt in power stations to generate electricity. As the world’s population increases and become wealthier, people demand more and more energy. Agriculture – Agriculture accounts for about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions. It also produces large volumes of methane through cattle and rice paddy fields. Deforestation – Deforestation is the clearing of forests on a huge scale. If trees are removed then carbon dioxide is not absorbed during the process of photosynthesis, Also to remove the trees slash and burn is often used, where the trees are burnt. The carbon stored in the trees is the released. How Climate change effects the environment

 Warmer temperatures are causing the glaciers to shrink and ice sheets to melt.  Sea ice is shrinking leading to the loss of polar habitats.  Sea levels are rising due to thermal expansion meaning areas like the Maldives will be flooded more regularly.  Coral reefs are suffering from bleaching due to increasing ocean temperatures.

How Climate change effects people  More extreme weather e.g. heat and cold waves have led to deaths of the vulnerable.  Where areas are at risk of flooding people will migrate to other areas causing possible overcrowding in some areas.  Agriculture will be affected in some areas, farmers will be able to grow a greater range of crops, whilst other areas will suffer and not be able to grow as much e.g. maize yields have got smaller.  If crop yields decrease there may be malnutrition, ill health and possibly even death.

Managing climate change through mitigation (reducing the causes) e.g. alternative energy (renewable), carbon capture, planting trees and international agreements.

Mitigation looks at the cause of the problem, so looks to see how to reduce and prevent greenhouse gases which causes the climate change. Renewable Energy Sources – Wind, solar, geothermal, wave, tidal and biomass forms of energy are being developed and used more frequently as world population grows and incomes grow and with it an increased demand for electrical products. In 2010 new investments in renewable energies reached a high of US$211 billion. By 2020 the UK aims to produce 15% of its energy from renewable energies. Carbon Capture and Storage – Coal is the most polluting fossil fuel and countries rely heavily on it to produce energy e.g. 80% of China's energy, 70% of India and 50% of the USAs energy come from coal. Carbon capture is a process where 90% of the carbon produced is captured and returned underground via an injection well.

Planting trees (afforestation) – Trees act like carbon sinks, removing CO² from the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. They also release moisture into the atmosphere producing clouds, which reduces the incoming radiation. International Agreements Climate change is a global issue and requires global solutions. Carbon emissions spread across the world and affect everyone. Kyoto Agreement 2005 Over 170 countries agreed to reduce carbon emissions by 2012. Copenhagen Accord 2009 Pledge to give LICs financial support to lower their impacts on climate change. Paris Agreement 2015 195 countries signed the first universal and legal global climate deal. Reach a balance between sources and sinks of greenhouse gases, keep global temperatures increase below 2°C. Managing climate change through adaptation e.g. changing agricultural systems, managing water supply, reducing risk from rising sea levels.

This looks at responding to the impacts of climate change and tries to make populations less vulnerable to climate change. These strategies are more local than global. Changing agriculture – Agriculture needs to become more “climate smart”. In some areas where there is less rainfall, irrigation systems may need to be introduced. Drought resistant crops may also need to be developed through biotechnology.

Managing water supply – Climate change is already causing more frequent droughts and floods. Vulnerable area in rural areas of LICs are going to be hit hardest. In Asia, millions of people rely on the water from the melting glaciers in the Himalayas, water security is threatened. Artificial glaciers have been formed in India where water is collected during the summer, is frozen in the winter and as it melts in spring it provides water for the villagers.

Reducing the risk of coastal flooding - Since 1900 sea levels have risen by 20cm. By 2100 sea levels are expected to rise a further 26-82cm. This could flood important agricultural land in countries like Bangladesh, India and Vietnam. As sea levels rise rates of coastal erosion will increase. Fresh water supplies will become contaminated with sea water. The Maldives are going to be severely threatened with future sea level predictions. Some believe the islands will be inhabitable by 2030. In response to this 3 metre sea walls have been constructed around the capital using sand bags, buildings are raised off the ground on stilts, 3m high artificial islands have been constructed. The worst case scenario is that all the inhabitants will need to relocate to Sri Lanka or India.

Natural Hazards

1) What is a natural hazard? ______

2) Give two factors affecting hazard risk. ______

Tectonic Plates

3a) Name the type of plate margin where two plates are moving towards each other. ______Draw a simple diagram of the plate margin in the box below

3b) Name the type of plate margin where two plates are moving sideways against each other. ______

Draw a simple diagram of the plate margin in the box below

3c) Name the type of plate margin where two plates are moving away from each other. ______

Draw a simple diagram of the plate margin in the box below

4) Why do volcanoes form at destructive plate margins? (Remember to use the following key words in your answer; convection currents, oceanic, continental, subduct, mantle, pressure, friction, weakness, crust) ______

5) At which types of plate margins can earthquakes occur? ______

6) Why do earthquakes occur at plate margins? ______Effects of Tectonic Hazards 7) Give two primary and two secondary effects of a volcanic eruption. Primary______Secondary ______

8a) Give an example of an earthquake in a HIC. ______8b) Describe two primary effects of the earthquake and two secondary effects of the earthquake. Primary______Secondary ______

8c) Give two immediate responses to the earthquake ______8d) Give two long term responses to the earthquake ______

9a) Give an example of an earthquake in a LIC. ______

9b) Describe two primary effects of the earthquake and two secondary effects of the earthquake. Primary______Secondary ______

9c) Give two immediate responses to the earthquake ______9d) Give two long term responses to the earthquake ______

10) Explain why do people live in areas prone to tectonic hazards? ______11) Describe how management can reduce the effects of tectonic hazards. (Include at least one method from Monitoring, Prediction, Protection and Planning) ______

Global Atmospheric Circulation and Tropical Storms 12) Fill in the blank model of the Global Atmospheric Circulation Model with the following; The cells; Ferrell, Hadley and Polar Cells, Low and high Pressure and the direction of the surface winds.

13) Describe the distribution of tropical storms. (Give latitude lines and the name of the zone) ______14) Name 3 conditions which are required for a tropical storm to develop? ______

15) In what direction does a tropical storm move? ______16) Which way do tropical storms rotate in the northern hemisphere? ______

17) What can cause a tropical storm to lose strength? ______

18) Describe two characteristics of the eye of a tropical storm. ______

19) How might climate change affect tropical storms? ______

20) Using an example describe two primary and two secondary effects of tropical storms. Primary______Secondary ______

21) Using an example, describe the immediate and long-term responses to a tropical storm.

22a) Give two immediate responses to the tropical storm ______22b) Give two long term responses to the tropical storm ______Extreme Weather in the UK

23) List four types of extreme weather that can be experienced in the UK. ______

24) Give two pieces of evidence for the weather becoming more extreme in the UK. ______

25a) Give an example of one extreme UK weather event and explain what caused it. ______25b) Describe two social, economic and environmental impacts of the extreme weather event. Social impacts ______Economic impacts ______

Environmental impacts ______

26) What is the Quaternary period? ______27) Give four sources of evidence for climate change over the Quaternary period. 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______

28) Describe and explain the three main natural factors that can cause climate change? 1. ______2. ______3. ______29) What is the greenhouse effect? ______

30) What is the enhanced greenhouse effect? ______

31) How can human activities increase the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere? (Give 4 activities and explain how they cause greenhouse gases). ______32) Describe three mitigation strategies in which to reduce climate change. 1. ______2. ______3. ______33) Why are international agreements on climate change so important? ______34) Name two international agreements designed to help tackle climate change ______35) Describe three adaptation strategies in which to reduce climate change. 1. ______2. ______3. ______

Unit 1: Challenges in the Physical Environment

Section B: The Living World Personalised Learning Checklist

Spec Key Idea Theme Red Amber Green 1. Ecosystems Ecosystems exist at a Introducing a small-scale ecosystem – tropic range of scales and levels within an ecosystem, food chains and involve the interaction food webs. between living and How does change affect ecosystems? non-living components Natural changes and human activity. Global ecosystems – distribution and characteristics of eight global ecosystems. 2. Tropical Rainforests Tropical rainforests Environmental characteristics of rainforests – have distinctive location, climate, soil, plant and animal environmental adaptations. characteristics Deforestation has Causes of deforestation in Malaysia – economic and logging, mineral extraction, population environmental impacts pressure, commercial farming and subsistence farming. Impacts of deforestation in Malaysia – social, economic, and environmental. Tropical rainforests Managing tropical rainforests. need to be managed Sustainable management of tropical to be sustainable rainforests. 3. Hot Deserts Hot desert ecosystems Environmental characteristics of hot deserts have distinctive – location, climate, soil, plant and animal environmental adaptations. characteristics Development of hot Opportunities for development of hot desert environments deserts – Mojave, USA. creates opportunities Challenges of development in hot deserts – and challenges Mojave, USA. Areas on the fringe of Causes of desertification in hot deserts – hot deserts are at risk of The Sahel Region. desertification Reducing desertification in the Sahel.

The Living World – Ecosystems - An example of a small scale UK ecosystem to illustrate the concept of interrelationships within a natural system, an understanding of producers, consumers, decomposers, food chain, food web and nutrient cycling.

An ecosystem is a community of plants, animals, soils and the climate. There are complex relationships between these 4 components. Biotic components are the living parts of the ecosystem. (Plants and animals.)Abiotic components are the non-living pars of the ecosystem. (Climate, soils, water and light.)

Ecosystems can be small scale (e.g. a garden) or a global scale (e.g. a rainforest or desert). These are called biomes.

Keyword Definition Producers Producers convert energy from the environment (mainly sunlight) into glucose. E.g. plants convert energy from the sun by photosynthesis. Consumers Consumers get energy from the sugars produced by the producers. Decomposers Decomposers break down plant and animal material and return the nutrients to the soil. E.g. Bacteria and fungi. Food Chain Shows the direct link between producers and consumers in the form of a simple line. Food Web Shows all the connections between producers and consumers in a rather more complex way. Nutrient Nutrients are foods that are used by plant and animals to grow. Decomposers Cycling help recycle the nutrients making them available for the growth of plants and animals.

A small scale UK ecosystem – Birkacre woodland

Sunshine and rain are needed for photosynthesis. Wind is also important for Animals found in the seed dispersal. woodland include insects, birds, rabbits, squirrels and foxes.

Plants include trees, wild flowers, grasses and mosses. They provide food and shelter for animals.

Micro-organisms e.g. fungi and

bacteria are decomposers. They release nutrients back into the ecosystem.

Soils store water and contain nutrients which plants can use. Soils are home to insects and decomposers. A woodland food chain A woodland food web

At each of the trophic levels the amount of biomass and energy is lost this is because:

 Many parts of the plants are not eaten by animals e.g. the roots and carnivores do not eat all their prey e.g. the bones. Also most of what the animal eats is also excreted.  Energy is lost at each level when animals are chasing their prey, and also through respiration.

Decomposers are organisms which break down dead organic matter and animal excretions. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi help return the nutrients to the soil in the form of an organic substance called humus.

Nutrient Cycling

Plants and animals rely on nutrients in food for their health and vitality. Nutrients occur naturally in the environment and are constantly recycled. See below.

The balance between components. The impact on the ecosystem of changing one component.

Physical events can disturb ecosystems for example an extreme weather event or climate change. In the years 1976-77 southern England had a drought of 18 months that killed many trees. A further 15 million trees were felled in the Great Storm of 1987. As a result population numbers declined.

Sometimes ecosystems can be damaged permanently through deforestation. The removal of the canopy resulted in the soil beneath getting washed away making it impossible for the ecosystem to recover.

An overview of the distribution and characteristics of large scale natural global ecosystems.

Tundra or cold desert. Coniferous Forests Deciduous Forests These are found at the Found at 60°north where These grow in places Arctic Circle where the winter temperatures are of higher latitudes e.g. Sun’s rays have little extremely cold due to a lack the UK and Western strength. Temperatures of insolation. The trees have Europe, east coast of are below freezing for adapted by having needs to Asia, North America most of the year. Only reduce moisture and heat loss and New Zealand tough grasses can in the cold dark months where rain is plentiful. survive.

Mediterranean Hot deserts

Drought resistant small Found close to the trees and evergreen Tropics of Cancer and shrubs grow between Capricorn. These are 30° and 40° north and areas of high pressure south of the equator but where air sinks causing only on the west coast calm dry conditions. E.g. of continents. Sahara and Australia.

Tropical grasslands / Tropical Rainforests

Savannah These lie along the equator in Asia,

Sandwiched between Africa and South America. There is the rainforest and the high insolation here as the sun is desert. These areas directly overhead. The warm moist air experience dry and wet rises here which leads to heavy seasons. Think rainfall. These are perfect conditions Madagascar! for plant growth and high biodiversity.

Tropical Rainforests - The physical characteristics of a tropical rainforest.

Location

Climate

Tropical rainforests occur close to the equator, the climate is warm and wet. Annual temperatures average around 26°C and show little variation from day to day and month to month. Annual rainfall usually exceeds 2500 mm.

Line = temperature

Bars = rainfall

Soil

The soils in the rainforest are mainly thin and poor. This is the opposite to what you would think as there is such an abundance of vegetation. The nutrients come from nutrient cycling. The warm humid conditions cause the litter to decompose very quickly. The rainfall washes away the litter nutrients making the soils infertile.

The interdependence of climate, water, soils, plants, animals and people.

See nutrient cycle diagram

Biodiversity

There is a high level of biodiversity in the rainforest. There are two-thirds of the world’s plant species found in the forests and half of the known animal species. This rich biodiversity is getting threatened by human activity, the challenge is to use the rainforest in a sustainable way and not threaten the biodiversity.

How plants and animals adapt to the physical conditions.

 A rapid cycling of nutrients through the ecosystem.  The absorption of sunlight, leading to photosynthesis.  The warm, humid climate which is ideal for plant growth.  The ability to adapt to adapt as they compete for sunlight and nutrients. The water cycle

Water is constantly recycled every day. The leaves of the trees are waxy and have drip tip leaves to allow the water to run off them. The leaves also follow the sunlight.

The canopy intercepts the heavy rainfall before it hits the ground. Some of the water is evaporated back into the atmosphere. The canopy acts like an umbrella to prevent too much hitting the ground causing soil erosion. The smooth bark allows the water to flow down to the forest floor easily.

Most rainforest plants have shallow huge roots called buttress roots that take rainwater and dissolved nutrients directly from the decomposing leaf litter.

Competition for sunlight

There is a definite structure to the rainforest with four distinct layers. In each layer they have adapted to the physical conditions. The forest floor receives very little sunlight so plants have huge leaves to try and intercept the sunlight. Other plants (epiphytes) attach themselves to the tall trees to enable them to receive more sunlight.

How have animals learnt to compete for food

There is a great deal of competition for food. Some animals are specialised and live off a particular plant. E.g. toucans have strong beaks to crack open the hard nuts. There are relationships between plants and animals as they rely on them to spread seeds. The birds eat the fruit and then they fly some distance before they excrete dispersing the seeds.

Some animals use camouflage to hide from their prey, other animals use bright colours to warn predators to leave them alone.

A case study of a tropical rainforest to illustrate: Malaysia

Causes of deforestation – subsistence and commercial farming, logging, road building, mineral extraction, energy development, settlement, population growth

Malaysia is a country in South East Asia. It is made up of Peninsular Malaysia and Eastern Malaysia, which is part of the island of Borneo.

Deforestation is the cutting down of trees, often on a very large scale. The timber is a highly valued export, but also the land beneath the forest is in high demand.

The rate of deforestation in Malaysia is increasing faster than in any other tropical country in the world. Between 2000 and 2013 Malaysia’s total forest loss was an area larger than Denmark!

Commercial farming

Malaysia is the largest exporter of palm oil in the world. During the 1970s large areas of land were covered to palm oil plantations. Plantations were given a 10 year tax incentive so increasing amounts of land has been converted to oil palm plantations.

Logging

Malaysia became the world’s largest exporter of tropical wood in the 1980s. Clear felling where all trees are chopped down in an area was common. This led to total destruction of forests.

Road building

Roads are being constructed to provide access to mining areas, new settlements and energy projects. Logging companies require roads to be constructed to bring in machinery and take timber away.

Mineral extraction

Mining (mainly tin) is common in Peninsular Malaysia. Drilling for oil and gas has recently started on Borneo.

Energy Development

In 2011 the Bakun Dam started to produce electricity. The dam supplies energy for industrialised Peninsular Malaysia. The dam’s reservoir flooded over 700km² of forest and farmland.

Impacts of deforestation – economic development, soil erosion, contribution to climate change

Economic development

Deforestation in many parts of the world is driven by profit. However whilst deforestation may result in short term economic gains it may lead to long term loses too.

Economic gains

 Development of land for mining and farming and energy will provide jobs both directly and indirectly.  Companies will pay taxes to the government which can be used to improve services e.g. education and water and energy supplies.  Improved transport infrastructure opens up new areas for industrial development and tourism.  HEP will provide cheap and plentiful energy.

Economic loses

 Fires can cause pollution. They can be burnt out of control destroying valuable forest.  The number of tourists attracted by rainforests could decrease.  Global warming can occur as trees absorb CO² (carbon dioxide) and emit O². CO² is a greenhouse gas which can lead to global warming. If the trees are burned they also emit CO².  Gold mining can release mercury into the ground as it is used to separate the gold from the rock. This causes pollution of water supplies.  Without the canopy, soil erosion can occur which results in the soil becoming even more infertile preventing crops from growing. Deforestation and the removal of the tree roots prevents the soil binding together,  Indigenous tribes can experience conflict with the different economic activities as they are forced off their land.

Value of tropical rainforests to people and the environment.

Value to people

 Native food crops e.g. cocoa, sugar, bananas or products such as rubber or chemicals from the plants are used to make perfumes, soaps, polishes and chewing gum.  Wild meat and fish  Building materials (timber)  Energy from HEP  Water supplies  Medicines. Pharmaceutical companies are finding new ingredients to treat and cure diseases. Currently over 120 prescriptions drugs come from plants. 25% of our cancer- fighting drugs come from the rainforest.

Value to the environment

 Air purification (The trees absorb the CO²)  Water and nutrient recycling as shown previously in the booklet.  Protection from soil erosion.  Wildlife habitats for the abundant number of creatures which live in the forest.

Strategies used to manage the rainforest sustainably – selective logging and replanting, conservation and education, ecotourism and international agreements about the use of tropical hardwoods, debt reduction

To protect the world’s tropical rainforests they need to be managed sustainably. There are two main reasons for this a) to ensure that rainforests remain a lasting resource for future generations b) to allow valuable rainforest resources to be used without causing long term damage to the environment.

Selective logging and replanting

Malaysia set up a Selective Management System in 1977.

1. Firstly they study the areas prior to felling any trees 2. Trees which are suitable for economic gain are marked. Arrows are drawn on so that they are cut in a particular way to avoid unnecessary damage to surrounding trees. 3. Only licence holders are allowed to fell the trees. 4. Afterwards felling a survey is carried out on the site to ensure no illegal logging has taken place. 5. Plan drawn up to restore the forest. 6. Replacement trees planted 7. After 30-40 years cycle begins again.

Conservation and Education

Rainforests can be protected by having areas turned into national parks or nature reserves this ensures that no illegal activity can take place in them. The areas can be used for education, scientific research and tourism.

Some large international companies want to protect the rainforests so that they can keep on extracting raw materials from the rainforest for the products they are making so they help protect large areas so that they are not destroyed.

Ecotourism

Ecotourism aims to introduce people to the natural world, to benefit local communities and protect the environment for the future. Through income generated by ecotourism local people and governments benefit from retaining and protecting their rainforest trees. This is more sustainable than cutting them down for short term profit. International and National Strategies for managing tropical rainforests sustainably.

In order to protect the rainforests of the world and prevent them from being lost forever, action needs to be taken on a global, national and local level.

Global Level

Inter government agreements on hardwood trees and endangered species.

The International Tropical Timber Agreement (2006) and The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) restricts the trade in hardwood trees. The very high prices paid for tropical hardwoods like mahogany has encouraged a huge amount of illegal felling. This illegal felling usually occurs in more remote areas of the forest away from forestry officials. However in the 2006 agreement hardwood timber must be felled in sustainably managed forests. This is monitored by having each log marked with a registration number. Without the number the trees cannot be sold for money.

The CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 1973) treaty blocks the illegal trade in rare and endangered animals and plants. However it is very difficult to monitor illegal trade and it is still worth millions of pounds.

Debt Reduction by HICs

Most of the countries with tropical rainforests are Newly Emerging Economies (NEE) or Low Income Countries (LIC). They may also have large debts from HICs in the form of loans to help with the development of their country. Different schemes have been created such as “Debt-for-Nature Swaps” have been arranged. In 2010 the USA signed an agreement with Brazil to convert the £13.5 million debt into a fund to protect large areas of tropical rainforest. These swaps are known as debt reduction schemes. This is where HICs agree to wipe out the debts of LICs so there isn’t as much pressure to cut down the rainforest for economic activities so as to pay back the debts owed.

Conservation and Education by NGOs

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) such as WWF & World Land Trust are charities that rely on volunteers and donations. NGOs are not just bothered about rainforests they will operate anywhere there they think ecosystems are being severely threatened. The work the NGOs do is as follows:

• Promote conservation through education programmes in schools and colleges.

• Provide training for conservation workers.

• Provide practical help with sustainable schemes.

• Buy up threatened areas and create nature reserves.

The organisations believe it is essential that these people and organisations which are exploiting the rainforest are made to understand the consequences of their actions.

National Level

National Governments

Many countries with tropical rainforests have set up national parks and reserves within the rainforest to help protect their rainforests. This restricts the damaging activities that can take place in the area e.g. tin mining or logging. However there are huge problems in this strategy; a) few governments want to slow down their economic activity and have a nature reserve instead, b) some governments seem unwilling to enforce and monitor laws aimed at protecting or conserving the rainforest as they have more immediate problems, c) there is a lot of corruption in the countries for e.g. illegal loggers and developers will pay bribes to officials to allow them to log illegally.

As a result HICs are now paying money in exchange for rainforest conservation; Norway has paid $1 billion into Brazils Amazon Fund to help pay for conservation in the rainforest. Hot Deserts

The physical characteristics of a hot desert.

Location Hot deserts are found between 15° and 30° north and south of the Equator, along the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Large areas of the Earth’s surface are covered by hot deserts including the Australian, Thar, Arabian, Gobi, Kalahari ,SW USA e.g. Mojave desert in The USA / Mexico and the largest of all the Sahara.

Climate In this area the climate is hot and dry. The area is extremely arid with less than 250mm of rain fall annually. This is because air around the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer is dry. This is a zone of high air pressure where the air sinks. Air at the equator rises and cools - condensation then forms rain. The air then moves north and south until it gets to about 30° north and south of the equator, where it sinks. This air is dry and no condensation can form, so there is no rain. This is known as the Hadley Cell.

There is also a big variation in temperature between day and night – the diurnal ranges. This is the difference between the lowest temperature at night and the highest temperature during the day. Sometimes during the day, temperatures can reach 50°C, however by night they can drop to 0°C.

Soils

Desert soils tend to be sandy or stony with little organic matter due to the general lack of leafy vegetation, making them mostly infertile. Soils are dry but can soak up water rapidly after rainfall. Evaporation draws salts to the surface (salinization) often leaving a white powder on the surface.

In some areas, calcium is present in the soils which is important for plant growth as it has not been leached away. Once irrigated the land can be very productive for agriculture.

Issues related to biodiversity.

Desert biodiversity is far lower than other global ecosystems due to the dry conditions, hot climatic conditions. Plants that survive the dry conditions are called xerophytic.

How plants and animals adapt to the physical conditions

Drought tolerant trees – Acacia trees have developed short fat trunks that act as reservoirs for water. They are fire resistant in the intense heat and can spread up to 50m in search of water.

Cacti e.g. Saguaro and Prickly Pear are called succulents they store water in their tissue. The cacti spikes deter consumers and their spikes minimise transpiration.

Flowering plants like the Yellow Daisy only germinate after heavy rains. The bright flowers help attract insects for pollination to occur.

Lichen using their own acids. They grow on bare rock surfaces. They break down the rock chemically to get nutrients.

Animal adaption

In the hottest desert regions few animals can cope with the harsh environment apart from a scorpions and small reptiles. In areas with some water supply levels of biodiversity increases meaning in more vegetation which allows mammals like foxes and coyotes to survive along with buzzards and hawks.

Desert foxes / coyotes along with hawks are usually the top carnivores.

Kangaroo rats do not need to drink water, they get it from their food. They live in burrows during the day to avoid the extreme heat. They do not perspire and have highly efficient kidneys that produce little urine. Their back legs are a lot longer to allow them to jump away from predators and kick sand at them.

Desert foxes have thick fur on the soles of their feet, protecting them from the hot ground. The light coloured fur reflects sunlight and keeps them cool. They have big ears that help cool the fox down and very good eyesight to see in the dark.

The interdependence of climate, water, soils, plants, animals and people

The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are interdependent. Within the food web animals eating plants have gained nutrients from the soil and water. The vegetation helps to bind and stabilise the soil/sand to prevent erosion and desertification. Increasing human use of the deserts especially the fringes threatens the environment.

A case study of a hot desert to illustrate: development opportunities in hot desert environments: mineral extraction, energy, farming, tourism and the challenges of developing hot desert environments: extreme temperatures, water supply, and inaccessibility.

SW USA Desert

Despite the barren nature of the desert a lot of different economic activities occurs. There are the huge tourist attractions of Las Vegas and Grand Canyon, farming, mining, residential complexes and energy production. All these activities bring wealth to the USA, however due to the delicate nature of the ecosystem, it has to be managed carefully and sustainably.

Development opportunity 1 - Farming

Despite the harsh desert climate, in Southern California there are lots of farms growing fruit (e.g. lemons and grapes) and cotton for the neighbouring big cities e.g. Los Angeles. To have successful farms there needs to be efficient irrigation.

Challenge of water supply 1

Irrigation of crops (supply of water to dry areas) is a big problem in the south of the USA and uses a huge amount of water. This can be either by using aquifers (large stores of water underneath the ground) which can be brought to the surface or from the River Colorado. Nearly, 80 percent of the River Colorado's flow goes to farming. Much of it to low-valued crops, such as fruit, cotton and potatoes that require lots of water. To ensure farming can continue in years to come and so the sparse water from the River Colorado is not wasted, direct watering to the roots is being trialled to prevent transpiration instead of spraying.

Development opportunity 2 - Tourism in Las Vegas

Guaranteed dry weather and sunshine attracts huge numbers of tourists each year to the west coast of the USA which has led to tourism becoming the Western Deserts most important source of income. There are a number of tourist’s attractions in the desert in Western USA such as Death Valley, Grand Canyon, Colorado River, Hoover Dam, Las Vegas and Route 66. The entire economy of Las Vegas is built around entertainment and attracts 37 million visitors a year. To cater for these tourists Las Vegas has a number of hotels, many with fountains and pools outside them. One such hotel/casino is the iconic Treasure Island Casino.

The challenge of inaccessibility 1 – Due to the low population density of the desert there is a lack of surfaced roads. However accessibility has improved as cities in the desert have developed e.g. Las Vegas has an airport which receives over 40 million people each year. Surfaced roads have been laid along with railroads.

The Challenge of water supply 2

The huge hotels consume large quantities of water with their fountains and hotel rooms with their toilets and showers. The basement of the Treasure Island casino in Las Vegas is home to a water recycling plant that cleans 100,000 gallons of water from its rooms and restaurants every day and reuses it for outdoor landscaping. The hotels also have low flush toilets and water efficient showers.

Economic Activity 3 – Mineral Extraction

The west of the USA has a huge quantity of minerals below the surface of the ground and is one of the USA’s most important mining areas. In the past gold and silver attracted early settlers to the area. Today copper, lead, uranium and coal are more economically important. Bingham copper mine near Salt Lake City is the largest open-pit mine in the world. The mine is 2½ miles across, and ¾ mile deep. To extract the minerals and resources high powered hoses are used to remove the topsoil, thus wasting thousands of gallons of water a year. A plan for uranium mining near the Grand Canyon was halted due to a campaign from the indigenous people who were concerned about the risk to wildlife and possible contamination of the water supply.

Economic Activity 4 – Energy

The strong insolation in the desert regions provides fantastic opportunities for solar power. The Sonoran Solar Project in Arizona is a new solar plant project which will eventually produce energy for 100,000 homes and requires 360 people to build it.

Hydroelectric Power (HEP) also supplies western communities with energy. Water leaving Lake Mead over the Hoover Dam helps provide locals not only with energy but also employment too. In the mid-1930s the Hoover Dam employed over 5000 people.

There are also large reserves of fossil fuels in the Western Desert. Since 1905 people have been drilling for oil in Arizona. Today there are 25 working oil sites in the area.

Challenge of extreme heat / water supply

Residents in the hot desert have adapted their homes by having air conditioning, small homes which are whitewashed to reflect the heat and to keep the building cool. Some residents have opted for fake grass in their gardens to avoid the water wastage required to keep grass alive. They have also opted for xeroscaping where they use stones and flags instead of grass for their gardens.

Causes of desertification – climate change, population growth, removal of fuel wood, overgrazing, over-cultivation and soil erosion.

On the borders of hot deserts there are the world’s semi-arid areas also known as desert fringes. An example of a desert fringe is the Sahel which is to the south of the Sahara.

In these desert fringes rainfall is slightly higher than in the desert areas so agriculture is possible. However despite the higher rainfall the desert fringes are very fragile environments, especially due to climate change and poor land management. As a result desert fringes are at constant risk of desertification. (This is where the land slowly loses nutrients and becomes more desert like and unable to support a variety of plant and animal life). This is a major problem in some locations, for example The Sahel, as 50 million poor and vulnerable people live there. The main causes of this desertification are…

 An increasing population growth and migration from other less fertile areas puts more pressure on the semi desert areas as more people try and grow food to support themselves (over cultivation) and rear grazing animals on (overgrazing). This takes the nutrients out of the soil and results in the soils becoming infertile and unable to support life.  Climate data shows that the Sahel has had a long term reduction in rainfall in recent decades. Scientists are certain that global temperatures will rise but they are unsure about rainfall patterns and some believe that rainfall will in fact increase “greening” the Sahel, or it may become drier destroying valuable crop land.

Strategies used to reduce the risk of desertification – water and soil management, tree planting and use of appropriate technology.

The majority of the 50 million people who live in the Sahel region suffer from poverty. Niger is losing 250,000 hectares of farmland every year through desertification. Millet crops have failed resulting in a loss of both food and also money. Women often have to walk as 25 km a day to fetch water for their families to use.

A range of water and soil management measures can help preserve soil quality and water supplies;

• Tree planting schemes to bind and protect the soil

• Planting grass on slopes to stabile the topsoil so it doesn’t get blown away

• Building small rock dams to trap rainwater in gullies

• Collecting rainwater on roofs by designing a flat roof with a surrounding lip

• Building terraces (flattened sections with a retaining wall) on slopes. Tree planting

Tree roots help to stabilise the soil, and the decomposing leaf litter adds valuable nutrients into the soil. The African Union proposes to plant a wall of trees (Great Green Wall) across the entire Sahel region. It will be decades until the trees reach maturity but it offers hope for a sustainable future for the communities who live there. The planting of the trees also provides work for some of the desperately poor in the region. Finally it has brought political cooperation in the area, which will hopefully reduce conflict and the need for refugee camps which adds further pressures to the fragile environment.

Appropriate Technology

In the past the removal of trees has been one of the biggest contributors of desertification. People have used wood as a cooking fuel for thousands of years and as population increases this has put further pressure on the area. Recently however an alternative ay of cooking has been introduced using appropriate technology called “efficient stoves”. The stoves can be made locally using materials like clay and small amounts of wood and charcoal and some have also been designed to generate enough electricity to charge a mobile phone! Also in the desert fringe areas solar power is being introduced. As well as providing energy for cooking, money made from the solar power could help tackle the problem of desertification in the desert fringe areas.

Ecosystems Revision Questions Ecosystems 1) What is an ecosystem? ______

2) Give two biotic features of ecosystems. ______

3) Give two abiotic features of ecosystems ______4) What is a producer and give an example. ______

5) Describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems. ______6) What is transferred in a food chain from each trophic level? ______7) Why is some energy lost at each trophic level? ______8) What is the difference between a food chain and a food web? ______9) Which biome is found between 15° and 35° north and south of the equator? ______10) Which biome is found above 60° north of the equator? ______Tropical Rainforests 11) Describe the climate of tropical rainforests. (Include rainfall and temperature) ______12) Give an example of an interdependent relationship in the tropical rainforest ecosystem. ______13) Describe and explain three ways that plants are adapted to living in tropical rainforests. 1. ______2. ______3. ______

14) What is biodiversity? ______

15) Describe and explain three ways that animals are adapted to living in tropical rainforests. 1. ______2. ______3. ______16) Give four causes of deforestation in tropical rainforests. 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______

17a) Give an example of a tropical rainforest you have studied. ______

17b) Describe three causes of deforestation in the rainforest you have studied. 1. ______2. ______3. ______17c) Describe the environmental impacts of deforestation in that rainforest. ______17d) Describe the economic impacts of deforestation in that rainforest. ______18) Why is it important to protect tropical rainforests? ______

19) What is sustainable management? ______20) What is selective logging? How does it help protect the tropical rainforest? ______21) What is ecotourism? How does it help protect the tropical rainforests? ______

22) How do international hardwood agreements help in the sustainable management of rainforests? ______

23) Explain how reducing debt can be used in the sustainable management of rainforests. ______

Hot Deserts 24) Describe the climate of hot deserts. (include rainfall and temperature) ______

25) Describe and explain three ways that plants are adapted to living in hot deserts. 1.______2.______3.______26) Describe and explain three ways that animals are adapted to living in hot desert. 1. ______2. ______3. ______27) Describe two ways that people cope with the lack of water in hot deserts. ______

28) Name four development opportunities available in the hot desert you have studied. 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______29) Describe how inaccessibility can make development challenging in hot desert environments that you have studied. ______30) Describe how extreme temperature can make development challenging in hot desert environments that you have studied. ______

31) Describe how water supply can make development challenging in hot desert environments that you have studied. ______32) What is desertification? ______33) How is climate change affecting desertification? ______34) How is human activity affecting desertification? ______35) Explain how tree planting can reduce the risk of desertification. ______36) What is appropriate technology? ______37) How can appropriate technology reduce the risk of desertification? ______

Spec Key Idea Theme Red Amber Green 1. UK Physical Landscapes The UK has a range of The UK’s relief and landscapes – what is relief? diverse landscapes Where are the main upland areas and the main rivers in the UK? 2. Coastal landscapes in the UK The coast is shaped by Waves types and their characteristics – a number of physical constructive and destructive. processes Weathering and mass movement Coastal erosion processes – hydraulic power, abrasion, corrasion, solution and attrition. Distinctive coastal Coastal erosion landforms – wave cut platform, landforms are the headland and bays, cave, arch, stack and result of rock type, stump. structure and physical Coastal deposition landforms – beaches, spits, processes bars and sand dunes. Coastal landforms at Swanage – location and type of coastline Coastal landforms feature’s at Swanage Different Managing coasts – hard engineering – groynes, management rock armour, gabions and seawall. strategies can be used Managing coasts – soft engineering – beach to protect coastlines nourishment, dune regeneration and dune from the effects of fencing. physical processes Managing coasts – managed retreat – costs and benefits. Coastal management at Mappleton 3. River landscapes in the UK The shape of river Changes in the rivers and their valleys valleys changes as Changes in the rivers and their valleys – long rivers flow downstream and cross profile. Fluvial (River) Processes – processes of erosion and transportation. Distinctive fluvial (river) River erosion landforms – waterfalls, interlocking landforms result from spurs and gorges different physical River erosion and depositional landforms – processes meanders and oxbow lakes River landforms on the River Tees Different Factors increasing flood risk – human and management physical factors strategies can be used Managing floods – hard engineering to protect river Managing floods – soft engineering landscapes from the effects of flooding Managing floods – Banbury Case Study

Physical landscapes in the UK

In this section, students are required to study UK physical landscapes and two from Coastal landscapes in the UK, River landscapes in the UK and Glacial landscapes in the UK.

An overview of the location of major upland/lowland areas and river systems.

Upland areas Lowland area The Fens River systems

Coastal Landscapes - Wave types and characteristics.

Waves are formed from wind blowing over the sea, the friction causes ripples to form which develop into waves. The distance the wind blows over the surface is called the fetch. The longer the fetch the more powerful the waves.

Constructive Waves; build up beaches as they deposit material with their strong swash and weak backwash. They are low in height and form often hundreds of kilometres away from the beach.

Destructive Waves; destroy the beach as they have a weak swash and strong backwash. They are high and steep in height and closely spaced producing a chaotic swirling mass of water. They are formed from local storms,

Coastal processes: Weathering processes – mechanical, chemical

Cliffs can collapse because of different types of weathering. This is the weakening or decay of rocks. It is mostly caused by weather factors such as rainfall and changes in temperature.

Mechanical weathering – the disintegration of rocks. Where this happens piles of rock fragments called scree can be found at the base of the cliff. Freeze thaw weathering (frost shattering) is an example of mechanical weathering.

Salt weathering is also a type of mechanical weathering where the slat in the sea water gets into a crack. The water evaporates and crystallises putting pressure on the surrounding rock and weakening it.

Chemical Weathering – is caused by a chemical reaction when rain water hit rock and decomposes it away. This can occur when carbonic acid in the rainwater reacts with calcium carbonate in limestone to form calcium bicarbonate, which dissolves the rock away.

Mass movement – sliding, slumping and rock falls

Mass movement is the shifting of rocks and loose material down a slope e.g. cliff. It happens when the force of gravity acting on it is greater than what is supporting it. Mass movement makes cliffs retreat rapidly. In 1993 60 metres of cliff slipped onto the beach near Scarborough in North Yorkshire.

Sliding: This is the downhill Rockfalls: Slopes must be Slumps: Usually found on weaker rocks (Clay), that becomes movement of a large extremely steep. They are a result of a variety of cause’s saturated and heavy. Human amount of rock, soil and e.g. extreme weathering activity increases pressure on mud. such as freeze-thaw action rocks too. may loosen material.

Erosion – hydraulic power, abrasion and attrition

Marine erosion is the removal of material by waves. Erosion will be higher where the coastline is exposed to large fetch, strong winds blow (crating destructive waves) and there is no beach to act as a buffer between the sea and the cliffs.

Hydraulic action is the force of the destructive waves pounding the cliffs. This causes repeated changes in air pressure and water is forced in and out of faults and cracks.

Abrasion (Corrasion) is when destructive waves hurl sand and shingle at a cliff. The result is the scratching and scrapping of the rock surface is called abrasion.

Attrition is the grinding down of particles as they are carried by the sea.

Transportation – longshore drift

Load is transported material. Most of it originates from river deposits, from eroded headlands and the sea bed. The larger and stronger the waves are the more load the sea can carry and transport.

Longshore drift

The load is transported along the coast by longshore drift. The direction is determined by the prevailing wind. The swash travels up the beach in the direction of the swash but due to gravity the backwash returns at right angles to the shore. The load is therefore transported in a zig-zag manner. Longshore drift is required for spits and bars to form.

Deposition – why sediment is deposited in coastal areas.

Coastal deposition takes place in areas where the flow of the water slows down and the waves lose their energy. This results in the sediment that has been carried getting deposited. Causes of deposition

 There is low energy, in sheltered bays where constructive waves are present.  Where there is a large expanse of flat beach so the swash spreads out over a large area.  Where engineering works like groynes trap sand.

How geological structure and rock type influence coastal forms.

The different geology, rock types and rock structure around the UK coastline has led to a variety of different coastal landforms. Rock structure looks at how the rocks are aligned in relation to the coastline e.g. concordant and discordant.

Characteristics (what they are look like or are like) and formation of landforms resulting from erosion – headlands and bays, cliffs and wave cut platforms, caves, arches and stacks.

Characteristic of a headland – A headland is a cliff that juts out into the sea. They are made up of hard rock e.g. granite, chalk or limestone which are difficult to erode. They have a near vertical cliff face and are surrounded by water on three sides. There are often stacks and stumps.

Characteristics of a bay – A bay is a crescent shape indentation in the coastline found between two headlands. It usually has a beach made up of sand or shingle.

Formation of headlands and bays – Headlands and Bays form at discordant coastlines where there are bands of hard (often chalk and limestone) and soft rock (e.g. sands and clay). The soft rock erodes a lot quicker through the processes of hydraulic action and abrasion. Once the headlands and bays form the processes change, in the bays there is less energy and deposition occurs whereas the exposed headland becomes the target for erosion.

Durlston Headland and Swanage Bay in Dorset Characteristic of cliffs – In Dorset the cliffs are 45 metres in height, with a near vertical bare rock face. There are wave cut notches at the base or foot of the cliff and there are fallen rocks in some places.

Characteristic of a wave cut platform – An area of bedrock which is visible at the base of some cliffs when there is low tide. The platforms gently slopes at an angle and are pitted with rock pools whilst other areas are smooth due to the process of abrasion.

Formation of a wave cut platform – Destructive waves hit the base of the cliff and through the processes of hydraulic action and abrasion they erode the base to form a wave cut notch. As further erosion occurs the cliff above is left unsupported until the overhang can no longer defy gravity and falls to the beach. This creates a steep cliff. Over time the cliff retreats back and leaves behind the former base of the cliff as a wave cut platform.

Characteristics of caves – Caves are found in headlands and may be several metres in height at their entrance but taper back. There are many caves found at Durlston Head in Dorset. Blow holes may appear in the caves. Characteristics of an arch – Arches are found in headlands, they often have a wider base due to wave cut notches. The sea water can go right through the gap.

Characteristics of a stack – These are detached pillars of rock located off a headland. They are made of hard rock and often several metres in height, with wave cut notches at the bottom.

See diagram for formation – remember you must mention destructive waves, hydraulic action and abrasion when writing about any of the erosion landforms mentioned on this page!

Characteristics and formation of landforms resulting from deposition – beaches, sand dunes, spits and bars.

Characteristics of a beach – A beach is a coastal deposition landform which lies between the high and low tide levels. They are formed of sand, sand and shingle or pebbles, as well as mud and silt.

Sandy beach

 Gradient is almost flat  Dominant waves are constructive  Long distance  Sand dunes sometimes present at the back of the beach

Pebble beach

 Gradient is steep  Dominant waves are destructive  Short distance  Pebbles increase in size towards the back of the beach

A beach is formed through deposition, where the waves lose energy and deposit the load they are carrying. A beach profile shows the gradient from the back of the beach to the sea. On some beaches berms will form, this is where in calmer weather the constructive waves deposit material onto the beach. These berms can eroded away in the winter with the more destructive waves. The material which is eroded away from the berm can sometimes be deposited offshore to create an offshore bar.

Characteristics of a sand dune

Sand dunes form on the dry backshore of a sandy beach.

Formation of a sand dune. For a sand dune to form there needs to a be

 A large flat beach On the windward  A large supply of sand side there is a  A large tidal range so the sand gentle slope. can dry  An onshore wind to move the sand from the beach inland  An obstacle for the dune to On the leeward side form. (sheltered) there is a steep slip slope. Formation of a sand dune

Characteristics of a spit - A spit is a sand or shingle beach that is joined to the land but projects into the sea. They are narrow steep beaches, often several kilometres log with a curve at the end. In the sheltered area behind the spit there are often salt marshes.

Formation of a spit – For a spit to form there needs to be longshore drift occurring and a sudden change in the coastline or at the mouth of a river where there is a sudden drop in the waves energy.

Characteristics of a bar – A bar is a ridge of sand or shingle that stretches from one side of a bay to another, forming a lagoon behind it. Formation of a bar – A bar is created by longshore drift transporting sediment from one side of a bay to another.

Offshore bars also form see beach topography diagram and explanation.

An example of a section of coastline in the UK to identify its major landforms of erosion and deposition.

Swanage is a seaside town in Dorset on the south east coast of England. The area has both impressive erosion and deposition landforms due to the differing rock types and structure. There are a number of bays and headlands due to the discordant coastline.

The costs and benefits of the following management strategies: hard engineering – sea walls, rock armour, gabions and groynes.

Coasts sometimes need to managed and protected from erosion and flooding. With rising sea levels, coastal flooding is expected to worsen and coastal protection strategies will become more expensive. Areas with high property values will be protected whilst other stretches of coastline will be left undefended.

Hard engineering techniques are expensive artificial structures. They are effective but do not blend in well with the natural environment.

Sea walls are concrete barriers usually placed at the top of the beach. They are usually curved to reflect the wave back out to sea, and impedes the oncoming wave reducing the erosive power. Benefits (advantages) - They are very effective at stopping erosion and flooding. If maintained they last for many years. Often have a walkway or promenade, especially useful in tourist towns. Costs (disadvantages) - They can look obtrusive and unnatural, they sometimes restrict access to the beach. They are also very expensive

(£5000 metre) and have high maintenance costs.

Rock Armour are piles of large boulders dumped at the foot of the cliff. The rocks force waves to break absorbing the energy and protecting the cliffs. Benefits – Relatively cheap and easy to maintain (£1000 – 3000 metres). They can be constructed quickly in a matter of weeks. Costs – The rocks are usually from other parts of the coastline or abroad (Norway and Sweden) so can be costly to transport. The rocks can stand out as they don’t fit with the local geology, some feel it looks ugly and can trap driftwood and litter. It is difficult to access the beach.

Gabions are wire cages filled with rocks that can be built up to support a cliff or provide a buffer against the sea. Benefits – They are cheap to produce (£100 - 500 metre) and flexible. Vegetation usually starts to grow over them making them blend into their surroundings more. Costs – They can look really unattractive and the cages only last 20-25 years but after 5-10 years they start to rust. Maintenance is required so that people and animals don’t get cut on the broken steel mesh.

Groynes are timber or rock barriers built out to sea at right angles to the coast. They trap sediment being moved by longshore drift and make the beach larger. The wider the beach the better it is as acting as a buffer to the destructive waves. Benefits – They create wide beaches which are popular for tourists. They are not too expensive (£50,000 - 150,000 each placed at 200m apart) and can last up to 40 years. Costs – The sand trapped starves the beach further along the coast often leading to increased rates of erosion elsewhere. Groynes look unnatural and can look unattractive, especially older, decaying ones. The groynes impede walking along the

beach and can be dangerous as they create uneven beaches.

Soft engineering – beach nourishment and profiling, dune regeneration, managed retreat – coastal realignment.

Soft engineering techniques are less intrusive and more environmentally friendly. They are generally less expensive but often less effective as well.

Beach nourishment is where there is a replacement of the sediment which has been lost. A wider beach helps absorb the wave’s energy resulting in less erosion of the coastline. The sediment is either taken from the sea bed or from areas down drift where material has been transported by longshore drift. Benefits – It looks natural and blends in with the environment, the beach buffers the waves and allows protection of expensive coastal properties and a wider beach will encourage more tourists into the village/town. Costs – Access to the beach is restricted for several weeks. Despite lower costs than hard engineering techniques, it still costs e.g. £500,000 per 100 metres.

Beach reprofiling is the artificial re-shaping of a beach using existing beach material. Sediment can be removed in the winter months, bulldozers move the shingle back up the beach in order to protect the cliffs. Benefits – It is very cost effective, reprofiling costs approx. £30 million whereas repair costs could cost up to £125 million. The beach looks more natural than those with hard engineering. Costs – bulldozers restrict access to the beach. The beach is steep and may look uninviting to tourists.

Sand dune regeneration is the artificial creation of new sand dunes or restoring existing dunes, Sand dunes absorb the wave energy and water, in this way they protect the land from the sea. Benefits – Sand dunes are popular as picnic and walking areas. Habitats are created for rare species e.g. sand lizards. Costs – fencing round sand dunes whilst they establish may put tourists off, walkways have to be bought to prevent trampling of vegetation. Sand dunes are dynamic systems which are constantly changing so there is no guarantee they are stable, especially during storms.

Coastal realignment is where coastline is engineered into a new position, often using managed retreat.

Managed retreat is a deliberate policy of allowing the sea to flood or erode an area of relatively low land value. It is a more sustainable method instead of spending large sums of money on hard engineering techniques. People are moved out of the areas and buildings are demolished. Benefits – It is often cheaper to use managed retreat rather than building hard engineering strategies and takes the pressure off other areas. It also creates new habitats on the mudflats e.g. Shellduck. Costs – Relocation of people into new homes causes disruption and distress, destroying coastal village communities. Large areas of agricultural land are lost and some habitats are destroyed.

An example of a coastal management scheme in the UK to show: the reasons for management the management strategy and the resulting effects and conflicts.

Holderness is a 50km stretch of Yorkshire coastline. It is one of the fastest eroding coastlines in Europe. Over the last 2000 years, 26 villages have disappeared into the North Sea and the village of Mappleton is under threat of being number 27.

The reasons for management – There is a need to protect this coastline as it is made of soft boulder clay which is a very soft rock. This along with the highly destructive wave and thin beach results in 7-10 metres of coastline being lost to the sea each year.

There are a number of socio economic reasons why there is a need for management; a number of farms have been lost, resulting in unemployment, the B1242 main coastal road is under threat, properties and businesses in Mappleton are under threat, the gas plant close to the coast is also under threat of closure which would cause huge unemployment in the area.

Management strategies

In 1991 £2 million was spent on saving Mappleton. They shipped in granite from Norway for rock armour and two rock groynes, to help reduce longshore drift and to build up the narrow beach. Cliffs have been covered in vegetation to stabilise the boulder clay to avoid further slumping.

Effects

 Many people’s homes and businesses were saved. It has allowed the community to continue and stopped the disruption and distress of moving house.  A number of cliff top businesses benefited from the scheme as a caravan park and some shops were saved.  The B1242 road was saved! In the long term this saved lots of money as it would have cost much more to re- route it.

Conflicts

 There has been a massive increase in erosion rates south of Mappleton due to the protection schemes. This has led to farms and other businesses having to close further along the coast.  Some people believe that too much money was spent in Mappleton (£2 million) and that government money should be used for more important things like schools and hospitals.  Some people are not happy with the management scheme at Mappleton on the grounds that it makes the coastline look unnatural.  Due to the groynes, Spurn Head spit has had a smaller amount of sediment being transported to it by longshore drift. Environmentalist are worried that habitats for rare birds are being affected by this.

Coastal Landscapes in the UK Weathering and Erosion

1) What is weathering? ______

2) How does freeze-thaw weathering break up rock? ______3) What is carbonation weathering? ______

4) Name three types of mass movement? ______

5) Name three types of erosion caused by waves? Explain how they work. 4. ______5. ______6. ______

6) Give four characteristics of destructive waves. 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______

7) How does a wave-cut platform form? Draw and label 4 diagrams to show the formation.

8) Are headlands made of more or less resistant rock? ______9) Label the diagram below and then describe and explain how erosion can turn a crack in a cliff into a cave.

______Transportation and Deposition 10) How does longshore drift transport sediment along a coast? Draw a diagram in the box below.

11) What are the other four ways in which the sea transports material? 1.______2. ______3. ______4. ______

12) When does deposition occur? ______

13) What are the characteristics of constructive waves? ______

14) Name four characteristics of spits ______15) How do spits form? ______

16) What are sand bars? ______

17) How do sand dunes form? ______18) Label the different parts of the sand dune system

Coastal Management

19) Describe three differences between hard and soft engineering management strategies. 1. ______2. ______3. ______20) Name one benefit and one cost of the following hard engineering strategies. Sea Wall Benefit ______Cost ______Gabions Benefit ______Cost ______Rock Armour Benefit ______Cost ______21) What is managed retreat? Why do some people think this is the best option? ______Coastal Management example 22) Why is coastal erosion occurring at your chosen example? ______23) What management strategies have been put in place at your chosen example? ______24) What conflicts occurred at your chosen example, Try and give at least two differing viewpoints. ______Types of Rock

Rocks found on the Earth's surface actually come from inside the Earth - so they tell us a lot about the Earth's interior. They are classified (organised) into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

Sedimentary rocks

A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks are deposited. The deposited rocks build up in layers, called sediments. This process is called sedimentation. The weight of the sediments on top squashes the sediments at the bottom. This is called compaction. The water is squeezed out from between the pieces of rock and crystals of different salts form. The crystals form a sort of glue that sticks or cements the pieces of rock together. This process is called cementation. These processes eventually make a type of rock called Sedimentary rocks contain rounded grains in layers. Examples of sedimentary rock are: sandstone, chalk, limestone and shale. The oldest layers of the rock are at the bottom and the youngest layers are at the top. Sedimentary rocks may contain fossils of animals and plants trapped in the sediments as the rock was formed. It may take millions of years for sedimentary rocks to form.

Igneous rocks

The inside of the Earth is very hot - hot enough to melt rocks. Molten (liquid) rock forms when rocks melt. The molten rock is called magma. When the magma cools and solidifies, a type of rock called igneous rock forms. Igneous rocks contain randomly arranged interlocking crystals. The size of the crystals depends on how quickly the molten magma solidified. The more slowly the magma cools, the bigger the crystals. If the magma cools quickly, small crystals form in the rock. This can happen if the magma erupts from a volcano. Obsidian and basalt are examples of this type of rock. They are called extrusive igneous rocks because they form from eruptions of magma. If the magma cools slowly, large crystals form in the rock. This can happen if the magma cools deep underground. Granite is an example of this type of rock. They are intrusive igneous rocks because they form from magma underground. Unlike sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks do not contain any fossils. This is because any fossils in the original rock will have melted when the magma formed.

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed when other rock (igneous and sedimentary rocks) are changed by heat and pressure. Earth movements can cause rocks to be deeply buried or squeezed. As a result, the rocks are heated and put under great pressure. They do not melt, but the minerals they contain are changed chemically, forming metamorphic rocks. Sometimes, metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks are close to some molten magma, and so get heated up. When a metamorphic rock is formed under pressure, its crystals become arranged in layers. Slate, which is formed from shale, is like this. Slate is useful for making roof tiles because its layers can be split into separate flat sheets. Marble is another example of a metamorphic rock. It is formed from limestone. Metamorphic rocks sometimes contain fossils if they were formed from a sedimentary rock, but the fossils are usually squashed out of shape.

An overview of the location of major river systems

An overview of the location of major upland/lowland areas

The long profile of a river and the cross profile of a river and its valley

A drainage basin is an area of land drained by the main river and its tributaries (small rivers).

Source is the start of a river, which is usually found in the upland areas (hills and mountains).

Tributary is a small river joining the main river.

Confluence is where two rivers meet.

Channel is where the river flows.

Watershed is the higher land surrounding the river or drainage basin. Any precipitation falling within the watershed flows into the river.

Mouth of a river is the end point usually into the sea or a lake.

The long profile of a river and the cross profile of a river and its valley

A long profile shows the gradient of a river as it journeys from source to mouth. The source of a river is where it starts and the mouth is where is meets the sea. A river tries to achieve a smooth curve in order to reach its base level at the sea. This is called a graded long profile.

A cross profile is a section taken sideways across a river channel and or a valley. A channel cross profile only includes the river. A valley cross profile includes the channel, the valley floor and the slopes up the sides of the valley.

The diagram shows that as you move down the long profile of a river the channel depth, width, velocity, discharge and volume of load all increases.

Whereas the load particle size, channel bed roughness and the gradient of the channel all decreases.

(Load the material the river carries)

Upper Course Middle Course Lower course Steep gradient Gentle gradient Very gentle gradient Shallow depth Deeper Very deep Narrow steep sided channel Flatter channel with steep Flat channel with gentle sides sloping sides Quite fast velocity Fast velocity Very fast velocity Steep v shaped valley U shaped valley Wide flat valley Waterfalls and interlocking Meanders and floodplains Meanders, oxbow lakes, spurs floodplains and levees

Fluvial processes – erosion; hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, solution, vertical and lateral erosion

1. Hydraulic Power. This is the force of water hitting the river banks. Solution 2. Abrasion. This is the sandpapering effect of rocks scraping away at the river bed and banks.

3. Attrition. This is the process of rocks hitting each other in the river and breaking into smaller rocks.

4. Solution. Some rocks are dissolved by water. For example limestone and chalk, which form much of the UK landscape.

Vertical erosion is when the river erodes downwards, deepening the river channel. It attacks the river bed. In the upper course the river does not have enough energy to erode the land laterally (sideways) so erodes almost entirely vertically.

Lateral erosion is when the river erodes width ways, widening the channel. It attacks the river banks. In the lower course vertical erosion continues however the river can also erode sideways leading to a changing channel location.

Fluvial processes – transportation; traction, saltation, suspension and solution

Fluvial processes – deposition, why rivers deposit sediment

Deposition occurs in rivers when there is a decrease in velocity and the river slows down. This is because as the river slows, the amount of energy decreases and the amount the river can carry decreases too.

1. Large rocks get deposited in the upper course of the river as they are too heavy to be carried far.

2. Smaller particles held in suspension are deposited when a river slows down, for example on a river bend where there is greater friction.

3. Most deposition takes place at the mouth of the river where the river loses energy when it meets the sea. Characteristics and formation of erosion landforms; interlocking spurs, waterfalls and gorges

Interlocking spurs are located in the upper course of the river, close to the source of the river.

They are ridges of more resistant rock either side of the rivers course. The velocity of the river is not strong enough to erode through the spurs of land so has to travel around them.

Waterfall formation

Waterfall characteristics

As the waterfall continues to retreat upstream a steep sided gorge is formed.

Characteristics and formation of erosion and deposition landforms; meanders and oxbow lakes

The Thalweg is the fastest line of velocity in a river. It swings from the outside of one bend to the outside of the next bend.

The velocity is strongest on the outside of the bend causing erosion creating a river cliff

The velocity is slower on the inside of a bend causing deposition creating a river beach or a river slip off slope.

Cross section of a meander

This process of erosion on the outside of a bend and deposition on the inside of a bend causes the river to move across the valley floor.

Oxbow lake formation

1. Erosion causes the outside of the bends to get closer until there is only a small bit of land left between them called the neck. 2. During a period of flood, the neck of the meander is broken through and the river takes the course of least resistance to form a new straight channel. 3. Deposition eventually cuts the new meander off forming an oxbow lake.

Characteristics and formation of deposition landforms; levees, floodplains and estuaries.

A flood plain is a flat area of land either side of a river in its lower course. When the river floods it takes with it the load it carries. (Rocks that have now turned into silt – tiny particles of sand/mud.)

This mud is deposited on the land when the river returns to its channel after the flood. The material left on the floodplain is called alluvium. The floodplain is built up over hundreds of years with each flood.

Levees

Levees are natural embankments (raised bits) along the edges of a river channel. During a flood, eroded material is deposited over the whole of the flood plain.

The heaviest material is deposited closest to the river channel because it gets dropped first when the river slows down. Over time the deposited material builds up creating levees along the edges of the channel.

Estuaries

Estuaries are found at the mouth of a river where the river meets the sea. The land is close to sea level and the valley is at its widest. The water here is tidal, the river rises and falls each day with the tides. The water floods over the banks of the river carrying the silt and sand it is carrying and deposits them on the valley floor. As the tide reaches its highest the water is moving very slowly so the sediment is deposited.

Over time more and more mud and silt builds up creating large areas of mudflats. At low tide the mud flats can be seen.

An example of a river valley in the UK to identify major landforms or erosion and deposition

The River Tees is located in the north of England. It flows east from its source in the Pennines to its mouth, on the North Sea coast. The source of the River Tees is Cross Fell in the Pennines. In its upper course, the River Tees flows over hard, impermeable rocks.

Vertical erosion has formed classic V-shaped valleys. The image below shows interlocking spurs close to Cauldron Snout.

The UK’s largest waterfall, High Force, is located in the upper course of the River Tees. An area of hard rock, called Whin Sill (or Whinstone), is located above a layer of soft rocks (sandstone and shale) and together they create the waterfall.

As the River Tees reaches its middle course lateral erosion overtakes vertical erosion and is evidenced by winding meanders. Meanders in the lower course are much larger. Oxbow lakes have formed in some areas. The town of Yarm is found in the inside of a meander.

In the lower course, The River Tees has a large estuary with mudflats and sandbanks.

How physical and human factors affect flood risk; precipitation, geology, relief and land use.

River floods usually occur after a long period of rainfall, often during the winter. The volume of water steadily increases causing the river levels to rise. Eventually the river may overtop its banks to cause a flood. Sudden floods can occur after torrential storms. These are called flash floods. These are often associated with heavy thunderstorms in the summer.

Physical Factors Human Factors Precipitation – a sudden heavy downpour can As towns and cities grow new pavements, lead to flash floods or long periods of steady roads, shopping centres, schools, leisure rainfall can lead to flooding or when large centres are built. The greater the area covered amounts of snow melts it can cause flash floods. by buildings and roads, which have impermeable surfaces the greater the flood risk. Geology – Clay soils and impermeable rocks Felling trees (deforestation) can also leave the such as granite doesn’t allow water to soak soil being exposed to the heavy downpours. through (infiltrate) so the water builds up on the This can result in soil runoff in to the rivers, surface, increasing surface run off and flooding leading to rivers building up their river beds and reducing the volume of the river channel. Relief – The shape of the land can sometimes As large scale intensive market gardening is cause flooding. Steep slopes will result in a increasing (e.g. growing tomatoes and fruits), quicker run off in to the river often causing fields are getting replaced with polythene flooding Low lying lower course areas are prone greenhouses. The greenhouses intercept the to flooding as there isn’t often enough gradient rainfall but don’t have the ability to soak up to remove the excess water water.

The use of flood hydrographs to show relationship between precipitation and discharge

A hydrograph shows how a river is affected by a storm. This helps to understand discharge patterns of a particular drainage basin and helps to predict flooding and plan flood prevention measures.

A hydrograph shows two graphs - a bar chart showing rainfall, usually from a storm and a line graph showing discharge from before, during and after the rain storm shown in the bar graph.

River discharge - the volume of water that flows in a river per second. It is measured in cumecs (cubic metres per second)

Peak discharge – The highest discharge in the period of time.

Lag time – The delay between the peak rainfall and the peak discharge. Lag time happens because most rainfall doesn’t land directly in to the river channel, there’s a delay as rainwater gets to the channel. It either gets there flowing quickly overland (surface run-off) if the ground beneath it is impermeable, which will mean a short lag time and a higher chance the river will flood or by soaking into the ground (infiltration) which will mean a slower lag time with the river is less likely to flood.

Rising limb – The increase in the river discharge as rainwater flows in to the river.

Falling limb – The decrease in river discharge as the river returns to it normal level. Basically, a hydrograph shows you the ways in which a river is affected by a storm. This helps us to understand discharge patterns of a particular drainage basin and helps to predict flooding and plan flood prevention measures.

As you can see in the graph, the peak rainfall is the time of highest rainfall. The peak discharge is the time when the river reaches its highest flow. There is a delay because it takes time for the water to find its way to the river. This is called lag time.

The normal (base) flow of the river starts to rise when run-off, ground and soil water reaches the river. This is shown on the hydrograph as the rising limb.

The falling limb shows that water is still reaching the river but in decreasing amounts. The run- off/discharge of the river is measured in cumecs - this stands for cubic metres per second. Precipitation is measured in mm - this stands for millimetres.

The costs and benefits of hard engineering management strategies; dams and reservoirs, straightening the river channel, embankments and flood relief channels.

Hard engineering management strategies are where human made structures prevent or control a river from flooding. These can be expensive to construct and are often used to protect areas of high value landuse such as housing estates.

Dams - A huge wall built across a river usually in the upper course. A reservoir (artificial lake) is stored behind the dam

Benefits Reservoirs can store water especially during high rainfall therefore reducing the risk of flooding.

The water in the reservoir can be used for drinking water, to generate hydroelectric power and for water sports and recreation.

Costs Dams are very expensive to build and the huge reservoirs flood large areas of land.

The load the river carries is deposited in the reservoir instead of as alluvium in the floodplains, causing the farmers’ fields to be not as fertile.

Sometimes there can be design faults, like the Whaley bridge dam. This resulted in the local town being evacuated through fear of flooding if the dam broke.

Straightening the river channel / Channel straightening – The rivers course is straightened and the meanders are cut out by building artificial straight channels

Benefits

Water moves along the course of the river quicker and because it doesn’t need to travel as far there is less risk of flooding. This reduces the chance of flooding in vulnerable areas.

Costs

The concrete channels often look unsightly and are an eyesore. Flooding may also occur downstream instead as the water is carried faster there. Due to the speed of the water flow there may be also more erosion occurring downstream.

Embankments – Raised walls are built along the river beds.

Benefits

The river can hold more water as the river banks are higher therefore increasing the channel size. This will protect the buildings and landuse on the floodplain.

Costs

Embankments are quite expensive and there’s a risk of severe flooding if the water rises above the level of the embankments or if they break.

Flood relief channels. – Channels which are built to divert the water around important areas or take it elsewhere if the water level in the river gets too high.

Benefits

Flooding is prevented in urban areas because the channel redirects the river away from the area during periods of heavy rainfall. Gates on the flood relief channels mean that the water can be control as and when it is needed.

Costs

There will be increased discharge where the flood relief channel re-joins the river, which could cause flooding in that area. If the water level gets too high for the relief channels they could also flood.

The costs and benefits of soft engineering management strategies; flood warnings and preparation, floodplain zoning, planting trees (afforestation) and river restoration.

Soft engineering management techniques involves with the rivers natural processes to manage flood risk. It aims to reduce and slow the movement of water into a river channel to help prevent flooding. Flood warning and preparation

This is where the Environmental Agency warns people about possible flooding through TV, radio, newspaper and the internet. Warnings are given such as Flood Watch – flooding of low lying land and roads is expected, Flood Warning – there is a threat to homes and businesses and Severe Flood Warning – Extreme danger to life and property is expected. Buildings are modified to reduce the amount of damage a flood cause. People can make plans for what to do in a flood, they can keep torches and blankets. Benefits

The impact of flooding is reduced and gives people time to prepare for the flood by moving possessions upstairs, putting sandbags at their doors or even evacuate. People will worry less as they are not caught unaware.

Costs

Warnings don’t stop the flood coming, and some people, especially the elderly may not be aware of the oncoming flood risks. Some people may get a false sense of security and feel that they would be ok in a flood. It’s expensive to modify houses to protect them from flood risks. Floodplain zoning Floodplain zoning is where different landuse are restricted to different locations on the floodplain. Areas closest to the river and at high risk of flooding can be kept clear of high value landuse such as housing and industry and are instead used for parklands and playing fields.

Benefits

The risk of flooding is reduced, impermeable surfaces aren’t created e.g. buildings and roads. If playing fields and parklands are closest to the river, there is no property to be damaged.

Costs

Floodplain zoning cannot be used in areas where landuse has already been built on. Also urban areas cannot not be expanded if they are close to the river.

Planting trees (afforestation)

Planting trees to establish a woodland is called afforestation. Trees obstruct the flow of water and slow down the transfer of water to the river channel. Water is soaked up by the trees or evaporated from leaves and branches.

Benefits

Discharge and flood risk are reduced. Vegetation reduces soil erosion in the valley and provides habitats for wildlife. Tree planting is also relatively cheap and looks natural, blending in with the surroundings.

Costs

The trees take time to establish and mature so will take many years to become effective. There will be less farm land available with the increase in tree coverage. River restoration

River restoration is when the river is made more natural and returned to its original course. For example man made embankments could be removed so the river can flood the floodplain naturally. Benefits

There is less risk of flooding downstream as discharge is reduced. There is limited maintenance needed as the river is left in its natural state and it is better for the environment as habitats for wildlife develop. Costs

Local flood risk can increase, especially if nothing is put in place to reduce or prevent flooding. An example of a flood management scheme in the UK; why the scheme was required, the strategy used and the social, economic and environmental issues

Flood management at Banbury

Why the scheme is required

Much of the town of Banbury with a population of 45,000 is built on the floodplain of the River Cherwell a tributary of the River Thames. Banbury is 50km north of Oxford.

Banbury has had a history of flooding. In 1998 large flooding causes the railway station and main roads to close.

£12.5 million of damage was caused.

More than 150 homes and businesses were affected.

In 2007 the town of Banbury was affected again by widespread flooding.

The flood management strategy used at Banbury

In 2012 Banbury’s new flood defence scheme was completed.

 A 2.9k earth embankment was built parallel to the M40 to create a flood storage area. The embankment had a maximum height of 4.5km. It’s capable of holding around 3 million cubic metres of water.  Two flow control structures have been built to regulate the flow of the river. See above.  The flood storage area collects rainwater which would have otherwise caused flooding to the town.  The A361 road has been risen and drainage beneath the road has been improved.  New earth embankments and floodwalls have been built to protect property and businesses.  A new pumping station has been built to transfer excess rainwater into the river below the town. The social, economic and environmental issues of the flood management schemes

Social Economic Environmental The raised A361 route into The cost of the scheme was Around 100,000 tonnes of Banbury will be open during a about £18.5 million. earth were required to build flood, to avoid disrupting the embankment. This was people’s lives extracted from nearby, creating a small reservoir. Quality of life for local people By protecting 441 houses and A new biodiversity Action Plan is improved with new 73 commercial properties, the habitat has been created with footpaths and green areas benefits are estimated to be ponds, trees and hedgerows. over £100 million Reduced levels of anxiety and Part of the floodplain will be depression through fear of deliberately allowed to flood if flooding river levels are high.

River Landscapes in the UK 1) What does a river's long profile show? ______

2) Label the long profile diagram below with the following labels; mouth, source, middle course, lower course and upper course

3) Describe two differences between the cross profile of a river's lower and upper course. 7. ______8. ______4) Name the part of the river course where vertical erosion is dominant. ______

5) What's the difference between abrasion and attrition? ______

6) Name the four different types of transportation. (Saltation, Suspension, Solution, Traction)

7) When does deposition occur? ______

Features of Erosion and Deposition 8) Where do waterfalls form? ______9) The diagram below with the following labels; Hard rock, Soft rock, Plunge pool, Overhang

10) Explain how waterfalls form ______11) What are interlocking spurs? ______

12a) Where is the current fastest on a meander? ______

12b) What feature of a meander is formed where the flow is fastest? ______

13) Name the landform created when a meander is cut off by deposition. ______

14) What is a flood plain? ______15) What are levees and how do they form? ______16) What is an estuary? How do they form? ______

Flooding and Flood Defences 17) What is river discharge? ______18) What is lag time? ______19) Label the flood hydrograph below with the following labels; Rising limb, falling limb, peak rainfall, peak discharge, lag time.

20) What is the relationship between lag time and flooding? ______21) Describe two physical factors which can cause flooding ______

21) Describe two human factors which can cause flooding ______

22) Name 3 hard engineering management strategies to prevent river flooding. 1.______2. ______3. ______

23) Name 2 soft engineering management strategies to prevent river flooding. 1.______2. ______24) What is the diagram below showing? How does it manage river flooding?

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