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Xuan Zang's Five Transliterations Revisited International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Translation ISSN: 2617-0299 (Online); ISSN: 2708-0099 (Print) DOI: 10.32996/ijllt Journal Homepage: www.al-kindipublisher.com/index.php/ijllt Xuan Zang’s Five Transliterations Revisited: A Corpus Linguistic Study of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra Xiaodong YANG1 and Zhen LI 2 12College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China Corresponding Author: Xiaodong YANG, E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT Received: April 05, 2021 This paper examines the early translation theory of the Five Transliterations, which has Accepted: May 21, 2021 been considered to be proposed by Xuan Zang back to 1300 years before, through Volume: 4 corpus linguistic methods. The statistics based on our Sanskrit-Chinese Parallel corpus Issue: 5 of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra reveals that there exists very weak linguistic evidence that DOI: 10.32996/ijllt.2021.4.5.25 Xuan Zang proposed such a translation theory. The tension between historically recorded translation theories and practice is also discussed based on our findings. It is KEYWORDS recommended that a corpus linguistic study may play a significant role in analyzing historical translation documents. Xuan Zang, the Five ransliterations, Buddhist translation, Sanskrit- hinese corpus, Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra 1. Introduction 1 The translation of Buddhist scriptures and sutras in China can be dated back to the introduction of Buddhism to China by the Indian monk Kasyapa Matanga in the first century CE. Kasyapa Matanga and Dharmaranta passed Indian Buddhist texts and images to China and first translated the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters into Chinese purportedly. Then An Shigao (c. 148-180 CE), the “Parthian Marquess”, translated many works including meditation, Abhidharma and basic Buddhist doctrines, more than a dozen of which are currently extant. Massive translations of Buddhist scriptures and sutras date back to the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 AD –220 AD) when Dao’an (312 AD – 385 AD) spent the last years of his life supervising translation and interpretation of Buddhist scriptures and sutras. The Buddhist translation activities with the participation of Chinese and overseas translators also inspired the development of translation theories. Even though Dao’an didn’t engage in translation practice, he compiled the first Buddhist contents Zhong Jing Mu Lu (眾經目錄, Contents of All Sutras), which significantly contributed to the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures and sutras later. He noticed the unfaithful translation in early versions of scriptures and concluded his thesis of Wu Shi Ben (五失本, the five losses from the original) and San Bu Yi (三不易, the three difficulties) in the Preface to the Prajnaparamita. He demanded translators to follow the format of the original text and keep the Chinese versions as closely as possible to the original. The Buddhist translation peaked at the Tang Dynasty after Kumarajiva’s (c. 344-c. 413) efforts in a massive translation of more than 300 volumes of sutras among others. Xuan Zang (c. 602-c. 664) was second to none on his contributions to the quality and quantity of translations of Indian Buddhist texts to Chinese in the rest of his life. His achievements in Buddhism were also known to the world for his translation methodologies. According to Dao Xuan’s Xu Gao Seng Zhuan (續高僧傳, Supplemental Bibliography of Venerable Masters), the translation of sutras was traditionally done through word-by-word translation in the first step. Then the word order was adjusted by following Chinese grammar. Literati were invited to modify the discourses in the third Published by Al-Kindi Center for Research and Development, London, United Kingdom. Copyright (c) the author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license Page | 226 IJLLT 4(5): 226-235 step. Such translation procedure yielded problems of unfaithfulness or even misunderstanding of the doctrine. What Xuan Zang did in translation was that he interpreted the texts orally to accord with Chinese convention. Then his interpretation was recorded by other translators. Xuan Zang also had to collate the Sanskrit scripture with other versions for faithfulness. Xuan Zang’s version was thus referred to as the “new versions” compared to previous versions or the “old versions” (Xie 2009, p.54). It has been widely accepted that Xuan Zang’s most significant contribution to the development of translation theory lies in the thesis of Wu Bu Fan (五不翻, the Five Transliterations), which refers to as “five categories of untranslated but transliterated Buddhist terms”. The five categories include the esoteric terms, the polysemic terms, terms denoting things without equivalent in China, old established terms, and original terms which had Buddhist implications. However, the arguments with the Five Transliterations are found in none of Xuan Zang’s works. The Five Transliterations was firstly introduced in the first volume of Fan Yi Ming Yi Ji (翻译名义集, Collection of Meanings and Terms in Translation)2 authored by Fa Yun in the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) as cited below3: 唐奘法師明五種不翻: 一、秘密故不翻，陀羅尼是。二、多含故不翻，如「薄伽梵」含六義故。三、此無故不翻，如閻浮樹。四、順古故不 翻，如「阿耨菩提」，實可翻之。但摩騰已來存梵音故。五、生善故不翻，如「般若」尊重，「智慧」輕淺。令人生 敬, 是故不翻。 Master Xuan Zang of the Tang Dynasty indicated five categories of untranslated terms. First, esoteric terms, such as dhāraṇī (mantras). Second, polysemic items, such as Bhagavan, enclosing six connotations (namely, powerful, burning, attractive, good reputation, auspicious and venerable). Third, terms denoting things without equivalent in China, such as jambū tree which is not found in China. Fourth, old established terms, such as anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi, which is translatable (as the unsurpassed correct enlightenment) but transliteration is widely used. Fifth, original terms which had Buddhist implications, such as prajñā. “Prajñā” sounds respectful whereas “wisdom” informal, so it is better not to translate it. Delhey (2016, p. 53-54) indicates that none of the detailed arguments written by Xuan Zang on translation has been preserved, comparing to some statements from his collaborators and disciples. Murata (1975) doubts that the so-called Five Transliterations appears to be summarized through the Heart Sutra (Prajñāpāramitā hṛdaya). He concludes that Xuan Zang’s translation tends to follow the old translations of Buddhist texts rather than empathizing with new methods of translation. In addition, the Five Transliteration is also applicable in the history of China’s Buddhist translations. Whether it was Xuan Zang who proposed the Five Transliterations remains debatable. Its origin has been widely discussed from perspectives of textual criticism, religious studies, as well as translation studies (Fang 2006; Li 2019; Wang 2017; Yang 2010; Yang 1986). However, Fa Yun’s record of the Five Transliterations has a profound influence on the later practice of Buddhist translation in China. As Fang (2006) summarizes, the stances on the Five Transliterations in the history of China’s Buddhist translation are threefold. First, the Five Transliterations is considered to be a technical convention instead of a translation theory (Liang 1988). Second, the Five Transliterations is considered to be the core of Xuan Zang’s translation theories (Wang 1984). Third, the Five transliterations are deemed to be a sum-up of Xuan Zang’s translation experiences, for transliteration is not the ultimate method to handle by a translator (Luo 1981). In this paper, we attempt to revisit the Five Transliteration from the perspective of corpus linguistics for two purposes. On the one hand, we will present Xuan Zang’s strategies of processing some Buddhist terms mentioned in Fa Yun’s preface. On the other hand, we will try to better understand the tension between historically recorded translation theories (such as Fa Yun’s assertion) and practice (such as Xuan Zang’s operation) through a particular focus on the Sanskrit-Chinese Parallel Corpus of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra. This paper is organized into five sections. In the first section, we briefly introduce the background of the Five Transliterations in Buddhist translation. Then in the second section, we will briefly introduce the corpora and methodology. Based on the results shown in Section Three, we will discuss our findings so as to achieve the above-mentioned goals in Section Four. Section Five concludes this paper. 2 It is commonly regarded that the Five Transliterations were found in the preface of Fan Yi Ming Yi Ji (翻譯名義, Collection of Meanings and Terms in Translation) authored by Zhou Dunyi. Cao (1979) indicates that this is not accurate, for Zhou simply paraphrased Fa Yun’s assertion even with errors (see Fang 2006 for details). 3 SAT Daizōkyō, Vol. 54, p.1057. Page | 227 Xuan Zang’s Five Transliterations Revisited: A Corpus Linguistic Study of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra 2. Corpora and Methodology 2.1 Corpora This paper is based mainly on two self-built corpora: the Corpus of Buddhist Translations by Xuan Zang (henceforth CBTX) and the Sanskrit-Chinese Parallel Corpus of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra (henceforth SCPC-VNS). The CBTX is based on the SAT Daizōkyō Database, in which 1330 fascicles among 74 texts of Buddhist scriptures translated by Xuan Zang are included. The scriptures are separately saved into 74 TXT files, with 2,646,159 Chinese characters in total. We compare the translations of each term and report the frequencies in Section Three to discuss Xuan Zang’s translation strategies in Section Four. In addition, we employ the SCPC-VNS to closely focus on how exactly Xuan Zang dealt with such Buddhist terms. The SCPC-VNS consists of the Sanskrit text, the three Chinese translations by Zhi Qian, Kumarajiva and Xuan Zang, and the English translation by Robert A. F. Thurmann (Thurmann 1976). We also refer to two online sources that associate with VNS: Bibliotheca Polyglotta by the University of Oslo and the Database of Chinese Buddhist translation and their Sanskrit parallels for the Buddhist Chinese Studies by the Education University of Hong Kong.
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