Journal Volume 14, Jan./Feb. 2016

INDEX

Sr. Page Name of the Research Paper Author No. No. Urbanization and Urbanization process – K. Narmada, 1 1 , a curtain raiser G. Bhaskaran Mobility Comfort of School Children in Sumant Sovani 2 11 Borivali, Mumbai Dr. Arun Bhole A Geotectonic And Geomorphological 3 Appraisal of Aloobari Landslide in Darjiling Dr. Paromita Majumdar 24 P.S/ Sadar Identifying the LULC changes around Tamilelakkiya. M 4 Cauvery North Wildlife sanctuary, Dr. G. Bhaskaran 29 Tamilnadu. Majid Omar Iqbal Flood as an Environmental Blight In Kamla- Mr. Suvradip Halder 5 Balan River Basin : A Case Study of 35

Madhubani District , Bihar Mango Production in Sindhudurg Lokhande Anant N. 6 44 District: Status and prospects Geoinformatics To Estimate The Land K. Narmada Surface Temperature And Its Comparison Dr. G. Bhaskaran, 7 49 With Vegetation and Impervious Surface Ektha Singh, Manasi Debnath Geographical Analysis of Female Social 8 Dr. V.K. Pukale 57 Aggressive Behavior in Solapur District Socio – Economic status of schedule casts in Mahendra A. Thakur 9 65 Sindhudurg District Shivram A.Thakur Swacha Bharath And Managing The Waste: 10 Dr. Basavaraj R. Bagade 71 An Environmental Study

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Urbanisation and Urbanisation Process – Chennai, a Curtain Raiser

K. Narmada, Research Scholar & G. Bhaskaran

Department Of Geography,

INTRODUCTION Urban area is characterised mainly based on the population density and impervious surface. Annual rate of urban population growth in is about 2.3% 4. Also it has been estimated that by 2025, 60% of the global inhabitants will live in urbanised areas, 72% by 2050 in contrast with 53%of inhabitants living in urban areas at present. Urban regions start agglomerating and filling up patches of other land use and in process form the areas of dominating impervious surface creating various environmental problems such as heat island, etc., this process of agglomeration of impervious surface is called urbanisation. Urbanisation is a complex irreversible socio-economic phenomenon that generates changes in land use and landscape patterns. It is worth to mention that rural land undergoes several changes at landscape levels to finally result into an urban area leaving significant amount of environmental impacts. The aftermath of urbanisation includes escalated vehicle and traffic density, severe problems on biodiversity, environment and ecosystem. Land use fragmentation and most importantly the rapid changes in hydrological cycle i.e changing rainfall patterns and flooding regimes. Rural landscape as well as the small towns and villages lying in the vicinity of the city or a metropolis is also vulnerable to urbanisation. Urbanisation process leads to unbalanced population density, unplanned infrastructure and significant lack of basic necessary facilities. Haphazard dispersed development at the fringes of a city which attenuates resources as a consequences a large land use change (conversion of green lands, water bodies, parks etc) has become a serious issue to be addressed by the rapidly developing cities. This rapid change in land use and land cover can be stated as urban sprawl. Urban sprawl pattern refers to the trend or extent of urban expansions taking place in the fringes of the city which can identify the real dynamics of the urban landscape transformation seen on a temporal basis with the help of remote sensing data. Urban sprawl leads to multidimensional issues related to flooding, loss of cultivable land and urbanization of public infrastructure beyond threshold, increase in crime rates, sanitation problems and health impacts. Of late, peri-urban areas have become a highly contested terrain due to rapid urban expansion, demographic pressure and industrialization. The institutional vacuum prevailing in these areas aggravates the intensity of problems in democratic countries such as India. Unplanned expansion of mega-cities and increasing scarcity of natural resources such as land and water for urban expansion have contributed to more intense conflicts and serious livelihood problems. The conventional notion that cities are engines of growth is not proving to be entirely true. On the contrary, growth of cities results in serious negative implications such as using rural and peri-urban areas as dumping yards for the wastes generated (solids, liquids and bio-medical),

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transportation of water, encroaching rural lands for urban expansion, transferring pollution loads etc. Chennai City – A Background study: Chennai formerly known as Madrasapattinam is the capital city of state, India. It is located at the east coast – Coromandal coastline also known popularly as “Gateway Of South India”.

Source: CMA The Chennai basin is located between latitudes 12 °40’N and 13 °40’N and longitudes 79 °10’E and 80 °25’E in the Tamilnadu State of India. The Chennai basin consists of group of small rivers such as Araniyar, Kusathalayar, and . The total area of the Chennai basin is 7282 sq.km of which 5542 sq km lie in Tamilnadu and the rest in the adjacent Andhra Pradesh State. All the four rivers once brought fresh water in to the city. For instance, the Araniar, which runs to a total length of 132 km, drains an area of 1470 sq km of which roughly 50% falls within the state of Tamilnadu – finally joining the Bay of Bengal near Pazhaverkadu village. The Kusathalayar forms with the surplus from the Kaveripakkam tank (which is a part ofthe Palar Anicut system), across which has been constructed in 1945 with a view supplying drinking water to the Chennai city in the year 1945. The capacity of this reservoir is 77.91 Mm 3 or 2753 mc ft below the Poondi reservoirs, two regulators were constructed (namely, Thamaraipakkam anicut in the year 1879, and Valur anicur in 1872) basically with a view to regulating water during flood seasons.

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While Cooum river takes from Kesavaram Anicut (constructed across Kosathalayar river in the upstream), the Adyar river carried the surplus water to the Chembarambakkam tank. There was another water course – a man-made canal called constructed in the year 1806 linking up various lagoons all along the east coast to a total length of 618 km of which 161 km lie within the State of Tamilnadu. During the past, it served as useful navigational purpose. Major surface supply sources to the Chennai city are the following: • Poondi reservoir – capacity: 77.91 Mm3 or 2753 mcft • Red Hills – a lake (formerly an irrigation tank) – has been one of the most important sources since 1870. Capacity: 80.65 Mm3 or 2850 mcft • – an irrigation tank until 1969 – contributes to the city’s water supply- Capacity: 25.13 Mm 3 or 888 mcft • Chembarampakkam – formerly an irrigation tank – currently contributes to the city’s water supply. Capacity: 103.03 M m3 or 3645 mc ft Chennai city profile and growth: Madras (now Chennai) in 1600 was formed of scattered settlements separated by long distances. Each settlement grew around a nucleus of a temple and has its own history. Regional setting of Chennai, the capital City of Tamil Nadu is the fourth largest Metropolitan City in India. The CMA falls in three Districts of the Tamil Nadu State viz. , part of Thiruvallur District, and part of Kancheepuram District. The extent of the Chennai District (covered in Chennai Municipal Corporation area) is 176 sq.km and comprises 55 revenue villages in five Taluks [viz. (i) Fort- Taluk, (ii) - Taluk, (iii) - Taluk, (iv) - Taluk and (v) - Taluk]. In Thiruvallur District out of total districtarea of 3427 sq.km, 637 sq.km in , Thiruvallur, Ponneri and taluks fall in CMA. In Kancheepuram District out of 4433 sq.km, 376 sq.km in , Sriperumbudur and Chengalpattu Taluks fall in the Metropolitan area. Topographically plain terrain with few isolated hillocks in the south-west, city is bounded on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the remaining three sides by Kanchipuram and Thiruvallur district. Average annual rainfall is about 1,300 mm. The city of Chennai, one among the four major metropolitan cities of India, located in the southern India lies between 12° 09’, 80°12 NE and 13° 09’, 80° 19’NE. It is having population of 6.04 million in an area of 170.47 Sq. km. It is growing at an average of 25% per decade. Chennai city does not have much of green space, except the with an area of 270.57 hectares, which is under reserve forest category. Chennai has two administrative boundary, the outer boundary is Chennai metropolitan boundary – encompass the suburban areas; the inner one is the corporation boundary, which include only the urban area. Chennai lacks natural gradient for free run-off. This necessitates an effective storm water drainage system. Sewage system in Chennai was originally designed for the population of 0.65 million at 114 L per capita per day of water supply, and was further modified during 1989 - 1991, and is now much below the required capacity Cooum and Adyar rivers in Chennai city are almost stagnant and do not carry enough water except during rains. These rivers play a major role during floods, collects surplus water from about 75 and 450 tanks, in their respective catchments. Chennai municipal area has a network of canals and channels within its boundary. Buckingham, originally a navigation channel and waterway till 1954, now serves only as drainage channel. City with plain terrain lacks natural gradient for free runoff and

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necessitates an effective storm-water drainage system. Since the beginning of the 20th Century, Chennai has witnessed a steady deterioration of and decrease in water bodies and open spaces. Migration Consequences : Chennai population has grown 8 times in 1901 – 2001 period and per hectare population density has increased from 80 to 247. 2Chennai has large migrant population came from other parts of Tamil Nadu or other parts of the country, accounting a figure of 21.57% of Chennai population in 2001. There are three major watercourses (Cooum, Buckingham Canal and Adyar) in the Chennai city and the banks of all the areas are highly encroached. The slums (number recorded to be 30,922) have developed there without basic amenities and are subjected to flood every year. They often pollute the water courses making health situations worse (CPREEC, 2008). The green covers reduced rapidly across the city between the year 1997 to 2001, at some ward almost 99% of the green covers replaced by the non-vegetative developments (www.hindu.com). As a result, the water holding capacity of the city’s surface gone down drastically. The reduced city’s surface water holding capacity combine with the augmented impermeable surface increased the peak flow, up to 89% from the year 1997 to 2001 at some of the wards. Increased surface runoff and reduced retention capacity of the land cover almost stopped the ground water recharging processes in the city. The ground water level came down up to 10 m from the year 1997 to 2001 (Source: CMWSSB). The analysis shows that the green cover reduction and the increased impermeable surfaces lowered the ground water level to the extent of 33% at some part of the city between the year 1997 - 2001. This eventually reduced the ground water quality (The Hindu, 2004). Urban land use changes, governance and floods. Urbanization Issues and Problem: Some scholars think that the process of urbanization will bring numerous benefits for monetary growth, expansion of business activities, social and cultural incorporation, resourceful services, as well as resources of utilization. Though, there are some issues occur due to the urbanization. These include: Rapid rate of urbanization: It is observed that fast rate of urbanization which is increasing every year has needed more growth of new areas for housing, social amenities, commercial and other urban land uses. Though, the lack of clear urban limits has led to the formation of urban slump encroaching upon environmentally sensitive areas, major agricultural areas and areas which are not appropriate for development (TCPD, 2006). In addition, the high demand of land use at strategic areas also has led to land use variances. These situations led to various urbanization issues such as environmental pollution, traffic congestion, depletion of green areas and degradation in the quality of urban living. 4 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

Problems due to rapid rate of urbanization: Degradation of environmental quality: Due to urbanization, there is environmental degradation especially in the quality of water, air and noise. With the influx of more people in cities, there is great demand of facilities such as housing. Some unlawful factories and even houses which have a poor infrastructure, the waste from buildings are directly channelled to the nearest river or water resources which directly pollute the water. The domestic waste, industrial effluents and other wastes that were dumped directly to the river, degrade the water quality.1 Another after effects of rapid urbanization is the air pollution which has also increased due to emanation from motor vehicles, industrial development and use of non-environmental friendly fuel sources. The noise pollution is produced from the various human actions which also degrade the environment and ultimately affect the human health. The growth of population has generated a very high quantity of solid waste and there is pressure to provide a waste disposal place in the urban areas. Inefficient transportation system: Urbanization created severe problem of transpiration. Due to movement of people into metropolitan cities, the number of vehicles on the road is increasing every year. Although various types of public transportation are provided in the cities but people in cities still prefer to drive private vehicles. This is due to the ineffective public transportation. The public transportation facilities are provided without referring to the need to integrate the different modes of transportation. Consequently it is difficult for the user to change the modes of transportation. Since the public transportation is not trustworthy, people usually travel from private vehicles which led to the severe problem of blockage in the cities. If any traffic jam happens, public transportation, especially bus and taxi and private vehicles are trapped together and cannot move. It creates lot of problem for people. Decline in quality of living for urban dwellers: Urbanization is major concern for management researchers because it decline in quality of living for urban inhabitants. As the metropolis becomes a developed city, the land value will also increase. The housing provision will focus more to fulfil the needs of the high income group. As such, there will be a problem in the provision of housing, especially for the middle and low class people. The supply of housing for the urban poor is still inadequate as the cost of these houses is very high to which low and middle income group cannot afford. The lack of housing provision for the low income group has led to the continuation of unlawful resident settlements in the city. These unlawful tenant settlements will certainly lack in proper infrastructure that will bring about many hindrances to the urban environment and create social problems such as child education, crime, drugs, delinquency and others. Besides housing problem for low income group, the process of urbanization has also increased the demand on infrastructure and utility which cannot be fulfilled from the existing facilities. The maintenance of drains and debris collection is incompetent which can raise other serious problems such as flash floods and poor public health. The reappearance of flash floods is 5 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

due to the drainage system being unable to contain surface water run-off that has greatly increased with the higher intensity of urban activities.3 Overcrowding is a situation in which large number of people lives in too little space. Overcrowding is a consistent result of over-population in urban areas. It is obviously expected that cities are increasing their size due to massive movement of people from undeveloped areas but it squeezed in a small space due to overcrowding. Housing: It is another intense problem due to urbanization in India. Overcrowding leads to a constant problem of scarcity of houses in urban areas. This problem is particularly more severe in those urban areas where there is large invasion of jobless or underemployed immigrants who could not find place to live when they come in cities and towns from the nearby areas. The major factors for housing problems are lack of building materials and financial resources, insufficient expansion of public utilities into sub-urban areas, poverty and unemployment of urban immigrants, strong caste and family ties and lack of enough transportation to sub-urban areas where most of the available land for new construction is to be found. Unemployment: The problem of joblessness is also serious as the problem of housing. Urban unemployment in India is estimated at 15 to 25 per cent of the labour force.4 This percentage is even higher among the educated people. It is approximate that about half of all knowledgeable urban unemployed youth are living in four metropolitan cities such as in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai. Additionally, although urban incomes are higher than the rural incomes, they are awfully low because of high cost of living in urban areas. Major causes of urban unemployment are the huge relocation of people from rural to urban areas. Tamil Nadu was one among the nine States having unemployment rate lesser than that of all India. The unemployment in rural Tamil Nadu at 15 ranked 8th place among the States. Slums and Squatter Settlements: A rapid increase in urban population results in the problems of straining or breaking-down of sanitary facilities and other infrastructure in cities and towns. The local bodies are faced with the responsibility of providing amenities with limited or often scant resources. The net result of this incongruity between the resources and responsibilities not only leads to formation of new slums but also gives new dimensions to the problem of slums. Slums are a formidable problem merely because the gap between resources and demand for shelter tends to exist perpetually. The urban poor by themselves can neither afford to build pucca house or spare the hard earned money for stay in rented houses with basic amenities. Such people encroach Government and private lands kept vacant. Many slums are situated in vulnerable locations like river margins, water logged areas, road margins, etc. The slum population prefers to live in unhygienic conditions and in areas prone to floods and accidents. Slum population accounts for 20 percent of the total population in the State. It is well known that the slum huts lack proper basic amenities such as living space, drainage, toilet and other facilities. Ultimately this aggregates the degree of morbidity and mortality among slum population. It is now widely recognized that the Government should only play a role of 'facilitator' and creator of 'enabling' climate for housing activities instead of being a direct provider of housing units. The Government of Tamil Nadu evolved its Housing Policy (1988) on the lines of the National Housing Policy. The Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board (TNSCB) was constituted during 1970 for the clearance and improvement of slum areas in Tamil Nadu. The activities of the board were initially confined to Chennai city. Subsequently, the

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activity expanded to other municipalities and town panchayats and currently, TNSCB almost covers all urban centres of the State. It is estimated that more than 35 per cent of the population of Chennai and more than 25 percent of the urban population of the State live in slums. The Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board and Public Works Department have jointly identified 33,313 families living on river margins and 8164 slum families squatting on the river beds in Chennai. Transport: Urbanization poses major challenge to transport system. With traffic blockage, almost all cities and towns of India are suffering from severe form of transport problem. Transport problem increases and becomes more complex as the town grows in dimension. With its growth, the town performs varied and complex functions and more people move to work or shop. Water: Water is one of the most essential elements of nature to maintain life and right from the beginning of urban civilisation. However, supply of water started falling short of demand as the cities grew in size and number. Sewerage Problems: Urban centres in India are almost consistently beset with inadequate sewage facilities. Resource crisis faced by the municipalities and illicit growth of the cities are two major causes of this pitiable state of affairs. Most cities do not have proper arrangements for treating the sewerage waste and it is drained into a nearly river or in sea as in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai and these activities pollute the water bodies. Trash Disposal: Urbanization pushed Indian cities to grow in number and size and as a result people have to face the problem of trash disposal which is in alarming stage. Enormous quantities of garbage produced by Indian cities cause a serious health problem. Most cites do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal and the existing landfills are full to the edge. These landfills are breeding grounds of disease and countless poisons leaking into their environs. Wastes putrefy in the open inviting disease carrying flies and rats and a filthy, poisonous liquid, called leachate, which leaks out from below and contaminates ground water. People who live near the decomposing garbage and raw sewage get victims to several diseases such as dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice, diarrhoea, and typhoid. Health problem due to urbanization: Factors affecting health in slums are Economic conditions, Social conditions, Living environment, Access and use of public health care services, Hidden/Unlisted slums and Rapid mobility. Environmental problems can cause many other problems such as Poor air quality that can produce asthma and allergies or contribute to physical inactivity, an impure water supply can cause the spread of infectious diseases through the water supply or through food such as waterborne and food borne diseases, climates changes can cause deaths from severe heat or cold , noise can cause sleep disturbances, and hence poor performance at work and in school, Lead poisoning leading to developmental and behaviour problems, Second-hand smoke and exposure to carcinogens can cause cancer. In general, poor environmental quality contributes to 25– 33% of global ill health. Physical, mental, and social health is affected by living conditions. There are numerous examples that impact on human living such as lead exposure, noise, asbestos, mould growth, crowding, respiratory disease, and spread of infectious diseases, accidents, and mental illness. Urban Crimes: In developed cities of India, people get connected with different types of individuals who do not have similarity with one another. The problem of crimes increases

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with the increase in urbanisation. In fact the increasing trend in urban crimes tends to upset peace and tranquillity of the cities and make them insecure to live in mainly for the women. The problem of urban crime is becoming more complicated in current situation because criminals often get shelter from politicians, bureaucrats and leaders of the urban society. Urban crimes such as rape, murder, kidnapping, dacoity, robbery are more prominent in the northern-central parts of the nation. Even the economic crimes such as theft, cheating, breach of trust are concentrated in the north- central region. Problem of Urban Pollution: Chennai witnesses 425 new vehicles put on road every day causing pressure for motorable and parking space. Increase in road space accounts for only 3 - 4% as compared to 11% in Bangkok and 20 -25% in developed cities like London, Paris or New York (Gupta and Nair, 2009). Rising urbanisation in present situation led to develop industries and transport systems out of proportion. These developments are mainly responsible for contamination of environment, particularly the urban surroundings. Urban pollution is mainly the collection of impurities created by cities which would certainly shock city dwellers. It includes Air, water, ground the entire environment. Air pollution has dangerous consequences which emerge due to urbanization. Cities are the source of several dangerous gases, particularly vehicles like passenger cars, Lorries, buses which generate carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxides (Nox), benzene, ozone in addition to fine particles released by diesel motors which create a serious threat to human health. Heating installations use fossil fuels which also contaminate the air of urban centres. However, in numerous urban agglomerations, the main source of the worsening of air quality is from industrial facilities which emit veritable poisons into the air, which is then inhaled by riverside dwellers. Water is also source of pollution in urban areas. Since earlier times, cities are attracting millions of rural residents to their recognizable shores. Each of these individuals has required water to live, and consume for other basic needs. Cities under continuous development must increase their water resources and their water treatment capacities. In many countries, this has created nearly insoluble problems and millions of human beings are not assured daily access to potable water. As regards wastewater, the lack of effective collection and treatment facilities means that wastewater is often quite simply dumped back into Nature, often into the ocean, which creates severe and long lasting pollution problems. Flooding in Chennai : The Chennai floods have thrown up some fundamental flaws in our system of urban planning. The Chennai floods show all these problems can surface in other Indian cities. The geography of South India demonstrates how rivulets, ponds, streams and rivers emanating from the Western Ghats flow towards the East to the Tamil Nadu coast. On the other hand, this coast is also highly vulnerable to storms, depression, tsunami and floods. Chennai is one such area where an enormous watershed finally drains into the sea through its rivers and canals. Has any regional planning exercise recognised this primary natural layer on which urban development forms the secondary layer? No. On the contrary, the watershed on the west of Chennai has been the major venue for industrialisation in corridors going up to Kanchipuram further to the west. Traditionally the sub-region surrounding Chennai had big and small ponds connected by a working overflow system. The water was allowed to spread into fields and thousands of smaller ponds, with the entire region acting as a ‘sponge’ to absorb the excess water, supporting paddy fields and fish farming. These overflow systems and multiple canals

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finally find their way to lakes that surround Chennai city. Finally the rivers in Chennai absorb this flow. In Tamil Nadu’s hurry to industrialise, these watershed areas have been ravaged, with all the major industries, new educational institutions, housing estates, etc. coming up in the past two decades. Thousands of smaller ponds and streams have been filled up, increasing the surface water flow manifold. The major tanks are silted and the amount of water flowing into them has increased. This increased run-off has found its way into the city. Unprecedented rain, induced by climate change, has compounded the problem. While the disaster has been caused by nature, the impact would not have been so severe but for the man-made factors. Decline in area under water bodies has been remarkable, owing to eutrophication, their use as waste dumping sites, later encroaches by slums or poor colonies, then converted to land for housing complex, playgrounds or garden/parks but significantly loosing natural flood control sites. Most of the temple tanks in the entire Chennai are degraded now and inefficient in controlling floods or storing water. Figure 6 shows degradation of wetlands or other water bodies. Degeneration and loss of temple tanks are another attribute of land-use modifications leading to reduced flood control systems . The main causes of flooding in Chennai are identified as follows: (a) Uncontrolled urban sprawl and loss of natural drainage. Drainage channels have been blocked and urban lakes filled and encroached, canals degraded and polluted, heavily silted and narrowed. A 1994 survey revealed waterways contamination and anaerobic digestion led to sludge accumulation causing hydraulic hindrances, (b) Inadequacy of storm water drainage system and lack of maintenance3. City has only 855 km of storm drains against 2,847 km of urban roads. Plastic and polythene constituents to the storm water stream along poor or no maintenance aggravates floods, (c) Increase in impervious surfaces. Paving of roadsides, park and open areas causing flood severity and condition for following droughts, (d) Lack of coordination between agencies. Lack of unified flood control implementing agency that could integrates the functions of Corporation, Development Authority, Public Works Department, Slum Clearance Board, Housing Board, etc., adds to weak points. Many of the water bodies including man-made wetlands/lakes and natural depressions and have disappeared due to human induced succession, filled with waste and development or slum encroachments. 2This is the common observation in most of the Indian cities and is guesstimate that urban wetlands have reduced to 30% during last 50 years .3 Conclusion : In urbanism, the focus shifts from opportunistic development of individual plots, buildings and gated-settlements to community-disciplined development of wards and zones with specialised strategies to secure social and economic advantage in the city. Examples of community-based urbanism include the traditions of the bazaar, the mohalla the madrassa as well as the ‘cosmopolitan slum’, as in the prominent contemporary case of Dharavi in Mumbai. The advantage of this approach is that its production of many micro and small- scale units and the mixing of units of different sizes to co-locate residential, commercial, and small manufacturing functions makes it accessible to low-income populations, and creates efficient, productive, and governable units of the growing city. The disadvantage is

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that the approach tends to be based on incremental, cash-flow based building, and is therefore investment-poor. Building standards, public health, and urban services problems are endemic. But these are not irresolvable. As cities grow, inclusive urbanism gets abandoned giving place to commercial commodification – producing, selling and purchasing generic built-units (square-foot) adopting industrial batch production approach. This is the hallmark of today’s globalisation-driven urbanisation, which is both exclusive and expansionist, keeping majority of citizens away from the ‘development stream’ and allocating scarce economic and environmental resources to the select few. This has become a common phenomenon in urban India and Chennai is no exception. Urbanisation sans urbanism will make Chennai a ‘brick and mortar real estate’ entity rather than a vibrant human settlement. Such a monstrosity is dreamt of as ‘Global- City’. Chennai is pursuing such a dream of mutating itself into a distant autocratically governed city like Shangai. The question is whether such dreams are affordable, feasible or sustainable in ‘democratic’ Chennai?

REFERNCES : 1. Chattopadhyay, R.N. and Subramanian, K.P. (1993) Spatial pattern of urban settlements in Tamil Nadu, Journal of Institute of Town Planners, India, Vol.12, No.1(155). 2. Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority (2007) Draft Master Plan – II for Chennai Metropolitan Area – 2026, Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, Chennai. 3. Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority (2008) Second Master Plan for Chennai Metropolitan Area – 2026, Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, Chennai. 4. Demography World Urban Areas and Population Projections: 5th Comprehensive Edition (Revised), April 2009, http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua2015.pdf, dated 20.02.2010. 5. Kanchanamala, S. (1996) Growth Dynamics and Development Interventions in Madras Metropolitan Area, MTP Thesis, , Chennai, Chennai. Nathaniel, J.M. (1974) Readings in Urban Dynamics, Vol. I, Wright-Allen Press, Massachusetts. Web sites : http://census2001.tn.nic.in/pca2001.aspx http://www.tnreginet.net/igr/gvaluemainpage.asp?yr=2002 http://www.tnreginet.net/test1/gvaluemainpage2007.asp http://www.tn.gov.in/cma/Urban-Report.pdf

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Mobility Comfort of School Children in Borivali, Mumbai Sumant Sovani, Associate Professor, KES Shroff College of Arts and Commerce, Bhulabhai Desai Road, Kandivali(W), Mumbai. Dr. Arun Bhole, Professor, Dept. Of Geography, M. J. College, Jalgaon

ABSTRACT : Commuting for various purposes within and between cities rely on quality of transport facilities. However, today’s transport environment of urban areas has gifted unpleasant effects in form of accidents, traffic jams, pollution and travel fatigue.Commuting within and between cities has no longer remained a joy. Today’s transport planning is unfavourable to non-motorized modes such as cycles and pedestrians.This, in turn, affects the overall urban mobility. Unescorted students / children form a sizable number of daily commuters in any urban environment; but they are least cared by transport facilities. Present research primarily aims to study the level of sustainability and comfort of neighbourhood urban mobility of Borivali Taluka of Mumbai Suburban District, in students’ perspective. Borivli is a well-developed and assisted with better infrastructure taluka of Mumbai Suburban Districts. It was expected that, from students’ point of view, this region will have an excellent mobility situation, better walking and cycling friendly infrastructure, and a comfortable mobility environment for students / children. In reality however, students have less mobility comfort, if not poor. It is very evident that unless the needs of non-motorised modes of traffic are met, it will be almost impossible to design any sustainable transportation system for urban areas. Students in Borivali have less mobility comfort, primarily due to poor walking friendly environment- especially very poor footpaths, terrible traffic conditions, and poor cleanliness. Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbaiwhich is, one of the richest corporations in India, must emphasis on improving the basic and significant facilities to improve the mobility environment for all citizens. Key Words: Commuting, Urban mobility, Urban Transport, Mobility Comfort. INTRODUCTION : Commuting for various purposes within and between cities rely on quality of transport facilities. Transportation needs of people within cities are very diverse. These diverse needs, however, are supported with one and only transport facility network. Therefore, urban mobility largely shows a great variation in its existence, quality and utility. Today’s urban transport systems have achieved higher speed, improved accessibility and better mobility; but the same speed and accessibility have gifted unpleasant effects in form of accidents, traffic jams, pollution and travel fatigue. Commuting within and between cities has no longer remained a joy1. In fact, accessibility and mobility became challenging task for planners; andtransportation has emerged as a crisis than catalyst. Urban transport is all about people and goods and not about vehicles and speed; and hence, urban transport design must be for the people2. In reality, current transportation policies in developing countries like India favour motorization. This is unfavourable to non-motorized modes such as cycles and pedestrians. Even in new townships and planned towns, very less emphasis is

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given to provide and maintain quality footpaths (sidewalks) and dedicated corridors for public transport buses and cyclists. This, in turn, affects the overall mobility. Better mobility is a pre-requisite for better economic growth and prosperity of city; and in that sense, importance of intra – urban transportation is undisputable.Urban mobility has a social dimension as well. The Preamble and the Directive Principles of the Constitution of India assures its citizens equality, freedom of movement and access to opportunities. Uniform mobility provides uniform access to services and opportunities and freedom of movement. Local self-governments which run the day-to-day affairs of cities, charge several kinds of taxes like street tax, green tax, tree cess, etc. City dwellers are, therefore, consumers of services. Better mobility is a paid service than a free favour and urban citizens have every right to have better mobility. Commuting habits and preferences of residents is a reflection of mobility traits. Hence, it is appropriate to throw some light on travel patterns and travel behaviours of very residents of urban areas. Travel behaviour of citizens largely depends on the activities they carry on. Residents and their commuting behaviour thus depend on their mobility within and between the neighbourhoods of their residence.Urban transportation, particularly mobility in the neighbourhood, needs urgent attention. It is because, addressing neighbourhood mobility will help arresting urban transport related problems at the very grass root level. Present study, therefore, aims to look in to mobility problems of school children in Borivali taluka of Mumbai Suburban District.

School Children Mobility-Issues: Children have their own sphere of life. They not only go to schools every day, but also venture out for many other activities and some domestic / family related works. Past studies related students mobility are very wide and exhaustive. Children in age group of 10-14 in Johannesburg have outspoken about unsafe places in neighbourhood, pedestrian problems, public transport, street light, traffic conditions, and road crossings3. Exposure of children in developed countries due to poor neighbourhood situation is very low not only in terms of their routine activity of going to School, but also in terms of their recreational physical activity of outdoor play4. Studies related to urban mobility of School children in western developed world is primarily related to study of physical activity of children and health related issues. A research has been done to measure `urban sustainable transport composite index’ based on environmental, economic and social indicators5. However, it has been also observed that, neighbourhood with similar design may have different mobility behaviour6. All these studies have, regrettably, focused more on physical and health related aspects of children than urban mobility and transport issues. Studies carried out on urban mobility in Indian context are relatively very few. These studies are mainly addressing mobility problem in adults’ point of view and not in students’ point of view. The comparison among the Asian cities also shows that Indian cities are below or well below average transport conditions7. One can expect that the mobility within Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) is ought to be better, safer, faster and convenient due to its very composition with the cities like Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Thane, Kalyan etc. Planning priorities given to transport projects in this area are also responsible to get this impression. It is; therefore, appropriate to discuss certain factors of better mobility. Speed and accessibility of transport network is naturally fundamental basis of better

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mobility. However, this cannot be the only parameter applicable for all the sections of society. Reliability, comfort level, freedom to move freely and independently, cost effectiveness, approachability, amenability, accommodative to unescorted young and old aged people are some of the criteria of better urban mobility. Better mobility also needs to be long lasting and hence, sustainable. Measurement of urban mobility is a herculean task. Perception on urban mobility changes with people and their socio-eco-cultural background. School going children are comparatively objective and free from bias. They travel comparatively less but more frequently and regularly. They preferably go to nearby schools and move around in their neighbourhood for other activities. Secondary school children are in the age group of 10-15 years. They are young ones, who have now started moving independently and occasionally travel beyond neighbourhoods. Mobility of school going children is decided to be the basic parameter or urban mobility. Present research primarily aims to study the level of sustainability of neighbourhood urban mobility in students’ perspective, with an assumption, that what is good for neighbourhood is good for the whole city as well. OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY: Present study intends to focus on following aims and objectives. 1. To understand the mode of transport / travel that students normally use to go School and other nearby places in the neighbourhood for several purposes. 2. To understand degree of mobilitycomfort for students in their neighbourhood. NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY: It is a joy to go to school with companions and buddies. It is; therefore, appropriate to assume that Secondary school children are comfortable, free and independent to move around in and beyond their neighbourhoods. They can walk down or ride a cycle to their schools. This comfort level of both parents and children, in fact, is the best parameter of measuring neighbourhood transportation mobility in isolation. Comfort level of both parents and children is also a reflection of good city design, better foot paths, disciplined traffic and considerate society within the neighbourhood. The present study, therefore, helps to understand comfort of mobility and independence of commuting of an individual, particularly unescorted young Secondary school children. UTILITY OF RESEARCH: All Municipal Corporations and Municipal Councils can use the outcome of study to decide town planning, city design and strategies for neighbourhood mobility development.NGOs and neighbourhood community can undertake various issues like a drive to free foot path and ease out pedestrian movement in their area.It will focus the need of environmental friendly, sustainable means of daily commuting within urban area and young students will become sensitized to the issue of sustainable urban mobility. METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES OF DATA: Both primary and secondary data is utilized; however, more thrust is given to primary data. Borivali Taluka is studied as per revenue Department’s sajjas.Random sampling method was

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applied to select one schoolfrom each Sajjas of Borivali. Separate and detail questionnaires were prepared to take first hand inputs from students, parents and school authorities from selected sample schools. Students in class VI are in 11-12 years of age group. These students are at the entry level of their free and independent commuting. Class IX students are in 14-15 years of age group and these students are in their comfort zone of commuting. Hence, a sizeable 516 students of class VI and IX from 9 sample schools were surveyed through questionnaire. In order to cross verify the parents’ perception on their take on students’ commuting, a sizable 132 parents of class VI and IX from each sample school were surveyed through questionnaire; either in person outside the school or it was sent to them through an e-mail. Similarly, school authorities were interviewed to understand their perception as well as contribution in students commuting. Onsite visit(s) of the researcher and observations made by him are also taken into consideration while drawing the inferences. All filled-in questionnaires were processed, with suitable statistical techniques.

STUDY AREA: Mumbai, the capital city of Maharashtra state, is actually referred as a Greater Mumbai. It has two administrative districts, the Southernmost district is known as Mumbai City with Colaba as its headquarter; while the Northern Mumbai is known as Mumbai Suburban District and it has its headquarter at Bandra. Borivali is one of the three talukas of Mumbai Suburban District (See the Map). Borivli Taluka is not only dense, but also very diverse in nature with cosmopolitan characteristics.

Map: Study Area and Sample Schools (a) (b)

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DATA ANALYSIS: Purpose and Mode of Travel: There are some specific activities and places where students often go. During the pilot study it was observed that there are 37 places in the neighbourhood of students’ residences, which students normally visit either daily or occasionally. In a way, these 37 places are indicative of the sphere of student’s life associated with their day to day life, peers and family. These places were re- grouped for better analysis and understanding; and were identified with different names as per the purpose of mobility. 1) Mandatory Mobility: Schooling is the main focus of students’ daily routine and hence they are primarily oriented to academic work. Hence, there are certain places where students visit regularly every day in order to complete their academic part. This includes visit to school, stationary shop, library, tuition classes, hobby classes and even facility like Xerox. Visiting these places daily is, in a way, a mandatory mobility of students. 2) Mobility for Personal day to day work: Students’ sphere of life, particularly in urban settlements is stretched beyond their academic sphere as well. Therefore, they move out of home to visit number of other places in order to fulfil their day to day personal works. There are six specific places where students go for their personal day to day work. Those places are cobbler, umbrella repairing, cycle repairing, friend’s house, gymkhana /gymnasium or approaching nearby bus stop for further journey. It is obvious that all students may not go to all these places. 3) Mobility for Personal Occasional Work: Apart from scheduled activities of students, there are some five places, where students are likely to go as and when need arises, and hence students go there occasionally and not daily. These places are mainly related to visit to doctor, medical shop, photo studio, relatives and tailor. This is, in a way, students’ occasional mobility. 4) Mobility for family day to day work: Every Student is an integral part of family and hence, apart from his personal day to day work, they have to play at home, a significant role in daily family chorus. Therefore student has to take care of certain family responsibilities as well. There are seven places identified where students visit in order to complete some or other minor financial work, Those places are bill centre to pay bill, flour mill, grocery shop, laundry, milk vendor, ration shop and nearby vegetable or fish market. 5) Mobility for Family Occasional work: Apart from family day to day work there are family occasional works also, where students may be required to visit these family oriented places occasionally. Such places are Banks, Civil hospital, courier, gas centre, market, municipal office, post office and sweet market. 6) Mobility for Recreational / Fun Activities: Apart from personal and family related activities, there is one more area closely concerned to student’s day to day life. Such activities are mainly recreational. Students visit number of places for their recreational / fun activities. These are cyber café, fast food centre, juice and ice cream parlour, park / garden, playground and worship places like temple, church etc. 7) Students’ Mobility Trend in Borivali, Mumbai: Walking to nearby places is presumably a common and most convenient means of travel for students as their activities are normally concentrated in their neighbourhood of residence. Actual mode of transport used by student for

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their different types of mobility is related to number of things. It speaks volume on their preference of travel, their social and economic background. However, it is also a parameter to gauge the degree of individual’s comfort as well as physical set up of neighbourhood.The very purpose of this study is to understand the mobility traits and comfort of school going children. Hence, the commuting mode as ‘walking and / or cycling’ was considered to be the friendliest and comfortable mode of transport. In fact, the total percentage of students using both walking and cycling as a mode of transport put together is considered as ‘mobility comfort rate’. The mode of transport students normally used to visit each of these 37 places were tabulated and classified as per the type of mobility; and given in the table below. Table No. 1 Consolidated Average Percentage of Students using different modes of transport for different types of mobility By Mobilit Mode of Alway perso y Transport Unlikel s alone By By By hired nal Comfor y to by walk Public vehicle bike By t Rate Place of visit walk with transport like with personal (b+c) visit some or by someo like bus Ricksha parent Car with places cycle ne /railway w / Taxi s parents a b c d e f g (b+c) Mandatory Mobility 9.14 50.01 26.95 4.71 5.08 3.63 2.01 76.96 Personal 77.01 day to 10.62 46.2 30.81 3.10 3.89 4.45 1.35 dayMobilit y Personal 66.66 occasional 3.29 26.55 40.11 6.39 7.56 8.91 7.17 Mobility Family 65.88 day to 13.56 32.55 33.33 3.10 7.36 6.78 3.29 dayMobilit y Family 18.02 16.09 29.46 6.00 13.57 10.66 6.2 45.55 Occasional Mobility Recreation 77.32 3.88 37.01 40.31 3.29 4.46 6.00 5.04 alMobility A consolidated table of comparison given above brings out the overall picture of students mobility comfort rate in their neighbourhood. The percentage of mobility comfort rate is more than 76 in case of mandatory mobility, day to day mobility and recreation mobility, while mobility comfort rate related to occasional and family related work is around 65%. Mobility comfort rate in respect of family occasional work is 45.55% which is less than rest of the mobility comfort rate figures. The consolidated table also indicates that the use of public transportation is hardly around 16 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

3.1% to 6.39%. This is the matter of concern primary because the infra-structure development is not good and the use of public transportation seems to be non-friendly to students. About 20 to 30% students depend on some or other vehicle for their daily mobility is also not a good sign. It indicates that either, the local built environment is not conducive to student needs, or the physical and social security is a matter of concern. Thus, from the mode of travel students use to move in their neighbourhood, a very distinct trend about the mobility comfort of students is observed.Students predominantly walk for their mandatory and day to day avidities, use public transportation for occasional work and use vehicles for family related work. 10. Students’ Mobility Comfort in Borivali, Mumbai: Mode of transport used by students gives us the mobility trend. However, mobility comfort is based on other parameters like conditions of footpath, traffic conditions etc. As far as Mobility Comfort of students is concerned, a detail analysis gives very interesting trends. Table 1 Students’ Opinion about Conditions of Footpath in neighbourhood Students’ Opinion Frequency Percent Does not have footpath at all and Students have to walk on the road 104 20.2 Has irregular footpath with encroachments on it 76 14.7 Has irregular footpath 94 18.2 Has continuous but poor quality footpath 98 19.0 Has continuous good and wide footpath 144 27.9 Total 516 100.0 From the above table, it is observed that only 27.9% students felt that they enjoy continuous, good quality and wide footpaths; it means rest 72.1% students are not fully happy about footpath condition. 19% students felt that footpaths in their area are of poor quality; while 18.2% students felt that footpath in their area is irregular and therefore, many a times, they have to walk on the road and hence felt inconvenient. 14.7% students said that their footpath have encroachments and a sizeable 1/5 of the students i.e. 20.2% said that there area has no footpaths at all. So, in general, conditions about footpath in this area are not encouraging for walkers and hence have less mobility quality. Similar response on the traffic conditions of the area was also taken from the students, and shown in the Figure below:

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Fig. 1 Students’ Opinion about Traffic conditions in neighbourhood

From the above figure, it is seen that as good as 65.7% students felt that there are light and very light traffic conditions. 23.3% students felt that there is a heavy traffic and only 6.2% students felt that traffic is unbearable. Table 2 Students’ Opinion about Degree of Comfort at Road Crossings Students’ Opinion Frequency Percent Very risky and troubling 34 6.6 Risky 55 10.7 Difficult 135 26.2 Safe 173 33.5 Very safe and simple 119 23.1 Total 516 100.0 When students go to school or other places by walk, they need to cross the roads. Crossing the roads and the facilities available to cross the road at ease was therefore sensed through students’ response.23.1% students said that road crossing is very safe and simple; while 33.5% students said it is safe. But a good 26.2% students felt crossing the road is difficult while 10.7% students felt it’s risky. 6.6% students felt it very risky and troubling. Overall, it seems that facilities to cross the road at ease like road divider, traffic lights (signals), zebra crossing, subways and foot over bridges are either absent or not up to the mark. Hence, students have difficulty in crossing the road.

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Table 3 Students’ Opinion about Degree of Comfort to go to various places alone Students’ Opinion Frequency Percent Its worrisome and impossible 14 2.7 Never, because unsafe 53 10.3 Sometimes I can 171 33.1 Always, but not in the early morning 73 14.1 Always and any time 205 39.7 Total 516 100.0 However, when it comes to going to various places alone, Table 3shows that only 39.7% students are ready to move alone. It means, for Schools, students are more used to go alone than to other places, probably due to frequent mobility to school and used-to surroundings. 14.1% students said that they are ready to go alone except early / wee hours and 13.00% students said that they feel it unsafe to go alone. Thus overall social safety seems to be poor. All these isolated parameters of mobility comfort discussed above were further processed for more clarity and applicability in other areas. This was done by assigning the weighted score to each of these parameters. Percentages of Students were multiplied by the weighted score assigned to each variable. Variables encouraging for better mobility comfort were given positive score while discouraging variables were given negative score; a final Mobility Comfort Index was worked out. Table 4 Degree of Mobility Comfort in Neighbourhood based on Weighted Score Discouraging Final Neutral, Encouraging variables, variables, hence, Weighted No Score hence, positive score negative score Score Assigned Weighted -2 -1 0 +1 +2 Score Distance to school 2 km 1.5 to 2 km 1 to 1.5 About 1 km < 1.00 km Distance to km school 13.6 19 15 – 1 21.5 30.8 x -2 x -1 N x 1 x 2 ------27.2 -19 21.5 61.6 + 36.9 Mode of transport Private Hired Bus / Walk with Walk / Mode of Vehicle Vehicle School escort cycle alone transport Bus 12.6 6.6 19. 6 34.5 26.7

x – 2 x – 1 N x 1 x 2 ------+ 56.1 -25.2 -6.6 34.5 53.4

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Condition of Footpath No Irregular Irregular Continuous Continuous Condition footpath footpath with footpath but poor and wide of Footpath at all encroachment quality footpath footpath

20.2 14.7 18.2 19 27.9

x – 2 x – 1 N x 1 x 2

------+19.7 40.4 14.7 19 55.8 Road crossing Very Risky OK Safe Safe and Road risky and Simple crossing troubling 6.6 10.7 26.2 33.5 23.1 x -2 x – 1 N x 1 x 2 ------+ 64.8 -13.2 -10.7 33.5 46.2 Cleanliness of Very Dirty OK/tolera clean Very clean Cleanliness neighbourhood dirty ble of 3.9 13.8 51.6 25.6 5.2 neighbourh x – 2 x -1 N x 1 x 2 ood ------7.8 -13.8 25.6 10.4 + 14.4 Overall ambience Very bad Congested Average Clean Clean and Overall noisy but and OK green ambience and bearable crowdie

8.7 10.3 51.6 19 10.5

x -2 x -1 N x 1 x 2 + 12.3 ------17.4 -10.3 19 21.0 Going to School Avoid Worried OK Feel bore but No problem Going to alone going and still go alone School nervous alone 3.7 3.3 15.9 18.0 59.1

x – 2 x – 1 N x 1 x 2 ------+ 125.5 -7.4 -3.3 18.00 118.2 Going in Avoid Worried OK Feel bore but No problem Going in neighbourhood alone going and still go alone neighbourh nervous ood alone 2.7 10.3 33.1 14.1 39.7 x – 2 x – 1 N x 1 x 2 + 77.8 ------5.4 10.3 14.1 79.4

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Traffic condition Very Heavy OK / Light traffic Very light Traffic heavy traffic Tolerable traffic condition traffic 6.2 4.8 23.3 45.7 20.00 x – 2 x -1 N x + 1 x 2 +68.5 ------12.4 -4.8 45.7 40.00 Traffic noise Irritating Trouble Noticeable bearable Does not Traffic some feel at all noise 16.7 15.7 17.8 27.1 22.7 x – 2 x – 1 N x 1 x 2 ------+ 23.4 -33.4 -15.7 27.1 45.4 Total Mobility Score for entire Borivali +499.4 (Ideal score is 2000) Actual Each parameter is having a maximum possible score i.e. ideal score of 200.(100% students with +2 score= 200) It is seen from the table that with a weighted score of +125.5; almost 3/4th of the respondent students have no problem to go to school alone. But the same score falls to just +77.8 out of 200 when it is related to going for other works alone. Traffic condition in the neighbourhood is also getting a score of just +68.5 out of 200, which shows that outside is non friendly to students. What is surprising and shocking is that the score of overall ambience (as low as +12.3); cleanliness (just +14.4); condition of footpath (about +19.7) and traffic noise (+23.4) is suggestive of just average condition of these facilities. Most of the students have given their response as ok / tolerable indicating that these facilities are best to be ignored and failed to make any imprint on the students. The overall weighted score of +499.4 out of 2000 is also not impressive at all. It indicates that the degree of Mobility Comfort for students in this area is very poor.In order to calculate the Mobility Comfort Index, following Formula is used.

Actual Degree of Mobility Comfort Score X 100 Ideal Degree of Mobility Comfort Score

Assuming that each and every students in the neighbourhood experiences maximum Degree of Mobility Comfort, the ideal Mobility Comfort Score for the region could be 100% *+ 2 * 10 = 2000; 499.4Actual Mobility Comfort Score shows the Mobility ComfortIndex is

499.4 X 100 = 24.97 2000

The Mobility ComfortIndex is positive but just 24.97. It means that the actual mobility conditions are just comfortable to Students. However, since the index score is just 24.97, it is a bare 21 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

minimum comfort level of mobility. This also shows that there is a lot of scope to improve the actual mobility comfort conditions. 11. Findings and Summery: Based on the objectives of the study following important inferences are drawn. Objective -1: To understand the mode of transport / travel that students normally use to go School and other nearby places in the neighbourhood for several purposes. Observation 1) The mode of transport / travel normally used by students to go to School and to other places in the neighbourhood is regrettably not `walking’. This is contradictory to expectation. Three is a sizeable number of students who depend on some or other vehicle. This is reducing the basic mobility index of the neighbourhood. 2) From the mode of travel students use to move in their neighbourhood, a very distinct trend about the mobility comfort of students is observed. Students predominantly walk for their mandatory and day to day activities, use public transportation for occasional work and use vehicle for family related work. Objective -2: To understand degree of mobilitycomfort for students in their bout neighbourhood.

Observation 1) As far as mobility comfort of neighbourhood based on traffic conditions, footpath, road crossing etc. is concerned, the traffic condition in the neighbourhood is somewhat tolerable; however, footpath, comfort of road crossings, cleanliness, parking and noise are pulling down the degree of good ambience and thereby mobility comfort. Mobility comfort is, therefore, just above average. 2) The overall weighted score of +499.4 out of 2000 is also not impressive at all, indicating that the degree of Mobility Comfort for students in this area is very poor. 3) The Mobility ComfortIndex is positive but just 24.97. It means that the actual mobility conditions are just comfortable to Students. However, since the index score is just 24.97, it is a bare minimum comfort level of mobility. This also shows that there is a lot of scope to improve the actual mobility comfort conditions. 12. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations: Conclusion : To conclude, Borivli is a well-developed and assisted with better infrastructure Taluka of Mumbai Suburban Districts. It was expected that, from students’ point of view, this region will have an excellent mobility situation. It was also expected that a majority of the students must be walking or cycling more freely, frequently and comfortably. Besides, it was also expected that Borivli Taluka will have good degree of walking friendly infrastructure. In reality however, students have less mobility comfort, if not poor. From this study, it’s very clear that unless the needs of non-motorised modes of traffic are met, it will be almost impossible to design any sustainable transportation system for urban areas. Students in Borivali have less mobility comfort,

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primarily due to poor walking friendly environment- especially very poor footpaths, terrible traffic conditions, and poor cleanliness. Policy Recommendations: In order to overcome these problems, some urgent as well as long term policies are suggested.Students must be encouraged to walk to School and to other areas in neighbourhood in a group of peers. Schools can give priority entry and exist for students coming by walk / cycle to encourage walking/cycling. Local authorities must take care of improving conditions of footpath and keeping them approachable, clean and free from encroachments.Improving zebra crossing, road crossing over the divider across the Borivli Taluka is also essential not only from students’ point of view, but also for all other citizens as well. Traffic cooling measures especially near schools and dense residential areas shall also be ensured. Scope for Future Studies 1. Similar study for entire Mumbai City for proper regional comparison. 2. Development of some mobility and walkability friendly model...... (Authors wish to express their sincere thanks to Dr.Madhukar Dalvi of N.K College, Malad (W), for his valued inputs in statistical data analysis; and Shri Mukesh Ambre, Dadar (W), for cartographic assistance.) REFERENCES : 1Singh, Sanjay K. (2005) REVIEW OF URBAN TRANSPORTATION IN INDIA; Journal of Public Transportation, 8 (1): 79-97. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/2375- 0901.8.1.5Available at: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jpt/vol8/iss1/5 2BrentToderian, http://sdapa.org/download/Daniel_Haufschild.pdf 3Jill Swart Kruger and Louise Chawla, (2002); ''We know something someone doesn't know'': children speak out on local conditions in Johannesburg; Environment & Urbanization; Vol 14; No. 2; pp84-96 Retrieved on 17.11.2014 from http://eau.sagepub.com/content/14/2/85 4Handy, Susan, et al (2008). “Neighbourhood Design and Children’s Outdoor Play: Evidence from Northern California.” Children, Youth and Environments 18(2): 160-179. Retrieved on 16.11.2014 from http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye 5Hossein Haghshenas et al; (2013); SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT ASSESSMENT IN ASIAN CITIES; Current World Environment; Vol 8(2), pp221-30 http://dx.doi.org./10.12944CWE.8.2.07 6Mehdi Moeinaddini et al (2012); “THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PRIVATE MOTORIZED TRIPS INDICATORS IN REDUCING CAR USAGE”; International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2012, 2(4): 347 – 358; UDC: 656.13.021:711.73 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7708/ijtte.2012.2(4).05 7Jan Friederich, Gavin Jaunky, Ran Xu, Manoj Vohra, (2011), Asian Green City Index Assessing the environmental performance of Asia’s major cities, A research project conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit, sponsored by Siemens, Munich, Germany, Publisher: Siemens AG Corporate Communications and Government Affairs Wittelsbacherplatz 2, 80333. * * * * *

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858 A Geotectonic And Geomorphological Appraisal of

Aloobari Landslide In Darjiling P.S/ Sadar Dr. Paromita Majumda Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Vidyasagar College for Women, 39, Sankar Ghosh Lane, Kolkata. ABSTRACT : Darjeeling is most famous for its tea plantations. It is also famous for landslides which are natural yearly phenomena. The tea plantations thrive here because of the rolling topography, moderate temperatures and high rainfall. These conditions are ideal for tea growth but are not good for slope stability. Thus the slopes are prone to landslides. Preservation of the slope can minimise the occurrence of landslides, and indeed the tea plantations generally do this reasonably well if managed carefully. But the tea garden owners of Darjeeling hills due to sheer negligence on their part are under consequent enhancement of landslides engulfing a large part of the productive sections. The old age of the tea bushes gives rise to shrunken bushes together with heavy use of chemical fertilizers and weedicides make the soil acidic and prone to slips and slides in every monsoon. The ill effects of deforestation, grazing and firewood extraction are factors which accentuate the process. Thus the present crisis of the tea industry is largely enhanced due to the landslide problem. With rapid population growth (which means that there are more people needing more houses and more food), deforestation, uncontrolled building, intense monsoon rainfall, and the construction of low cost roads with poor engineering standards the problem has aggravated to a very large extent. This has brought to the front the issue of environmental degradation and the consequent landslides in Himalayan environments. In the present paper a major landslide in a very small tea estate very near Darjeeling town (appox 5 kms) has been analysed and the causative factors have been found together with recommendations.

AREA OF STUDY : The tea estate of Aloobari (Fig 1) is one of the oldest gardens in Darjiling P. S/ Sadar. The garden established in 1852 is situated in the western valley of Darjiling town at an average height of 5000ft .The plantation covers about 26% of gross area which is about 22 hectares (Fig 2) with a total production of tea about 3000kgs (2014).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM : Following heavy precipitation in October 1985, a portion of the pipe line for water supply to Darjiling town was damaged in Aloobari area as a consequence of a major landslide. Fresh slides in the same area in 1986, 1990, 1993, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2014 have caused damage and destruction. The Geological Survey of India carried out an extensive investigation and suggested some remedial measures after the slide occurred in 1986. Some of the recommendations have been implemented. But the slide was reactivated in subsequent years. The investigator re-mapped the reactivated slide area in July 2004 and again in June 2014 and noted some changes. An interesting feature noted is that a major part of the old landslide scar has been afforested but new areas have been engulfed by fresh rock-debris flow and the slide area has increased in depth. The slide in this area is a combination of rock and debris slide and has occurred due to saturation of the slope forming material by surface and sub-surface run- offs.

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OBJECTIVE OF STUDY :  To study the factors of instability and vulnerability  To identify the changes in slide configuration area from 1986-2014  To analyse the soil characteristics of the slide.  To note the changing land use in slide area

Factors of Instability of the Aloobari slide: The vulnerability of the eastern slope of Darjiling town to slope stability is well established. Excessive rainfall in torrential form during a small span of time has been identified to be the prime factor in the initiation of landslides. The present slide is located on an unstable slope (about 2 kms north of the junction of Tenzing- Norkey and Hill Cart Road) and appears to be an old slide scar re-activated by exogenic processes. (i) Configuration of the slide in 1986-87: The crown of the present slide rested roughly 6 m above T. N. Road (about 2220 mts from M.S.L) and extended down to a slope distance of about 150 mts. A perennial jhora originating from the uphill slope, 10 m above the level of T. N. Road used to drain the affected zone. The jhora crossed the road through a box culvert and flowed over the slope towards the western periphery of the slide. A triangular shaped portion was found to be overhanging as a result of the slide in 1986-87. The width of the slide at the road level was 75 m gradually tapering to 15 m near its toe (Fig 3). (ii) Type of slide: Two types of slides were observed in this area viz rock slide and debris slide. The rock slide has affected the uphill slope above T. N. Road in granite gneiss country and having N 300-E-S 300 W foliation strike and 200 north-westerly dip. The debris slide was restricted in the previous slope wash debris and soil. The slope wash debris in this area consisted of angular blocks of gneiss embedded in sandy soil matrix (Table 1). (iii) Damages: The damages caused to the pipe-line are quite substantial with about 50 m length of pipe becoming ineffective by the removal of ground support due to slide and subsidence. The stone masonry retaining wall constructed in steps from the downhill slope to pipe lines bench had cracked and bulged at mid-height level due to lateral pressure from the uphill side. The existing chute drain following the jhora course was partially washed away and only a small portion of it was functioning towards the toe. Table 1 : Slope angle of the area examined from uphill to downhill side in and around the slide zone in 1986-87 Slope angle with Area Slope – forming material nature horizontal Above T. N. Road in the rock 1. 700 Weathered granite gneiss slide zone Above T. N. Road in the 2. 400 Soil and slope wash material unaffected zone Below T. N. Road in the 400 down to pipe line 3. Soil and slope wash material unaffected zone level and 330 below it Slide-muck consisting Below T. N. Road in the slide 4. 500 essentially of slope wash zone proper debris Source: G.S.I, Calcutta, 1988

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Present Configuration of the slide in 2014: During July 2004 and June 2014 the site was re- examined by the author and there were major changes in the slide area which have been shown in Table 2. The width of the present slide is 45 m tapering to 10 m near its toe (Fig. 4). It is interesting to note that the area above T. N. Road, where the previous rock slide took place is an afforested area now. The active slide area has been mapped again and some interesting features were found. The width of the slide has decreased considerably from 75m in 1986-87 to 45 mts in 2014. Thus the area has become moderately stable with utish trees and scrub as main types of vegetation. But the active part of the slide has increased in depth. The previous depth of .0.2-0.5 mts has increased to 3 mts. The length of the slide however remains more or less the same. The morphology of the present slide is documented in Table 2. Geology: Geologically the area comprises of biotite bearing quartz- feldspathic granite and gneiss and scattered exposures, lie in the central part (mainly from the rock slide above T. N. Road) of the slide area. Foliations dip from 270-630 in different exposures and such wide variation possibly accounts for the exogenic nature of the rock masses in different site areas. Furthermore, identified gravels appearing as rock exposures are large and vary widely in size upto 4m in length and 2.5 m in width. The gneisses are mainly foliated biotite bearing gneiss and the area has become more prone to slide and unstable due to its foliated structure. Minerals are quartz, feldspar and biotite. The lower portion of the scar is shows ground water oozing out. The rock bodies are dry in nature in the crested zones though the soil and vegetal cover shows moist characteristics. Geomorphology: Geomorphologically the area is situated in a valley where two perennial jhoras have met and with two sides rising as spurs. The main cause of this slide is the erosive activities of the perennial jhoras present here. The central valley part is the main slide area consisting of slide wash materials. Pedological Factors: The following field tests and laboratory analysis of soil samples have been carried out in order to determine the erodibility and resistance factors of this landslide. Table 2 Morphology of Aloobari landslide Sl. Pre-slided condition Post-slided conditions Remarks Rock Types: Composed of

Darjiling gneiss which are This is a fossil slide. The I Length of the scar – folded, faulted and sheared to initiation of this slide was 1. 150 mts. varying degree and subjected in 1980 and after that in II Width-Max- 45 mts to high weathering along the the years 1985, 1986, Min 10 mts drainage channels. 1987 1993, 1998, 2000 Depth- and 2002, 2004, 2009 it 2. Altitude : 2070-2220 mts. III Max – 3 m was reactivated and more Min – 0.5 m areas are engulfed under 3. Slope : 400-700 IV Shape – Triangular this slide Affected area- 2434 sq 4. Rainfall : 100 mms V mts Natural vegetation: Mainly Volume Displaced- 5. scattered utish trees, bushes VI 3010 cubic meter scrubs.

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Processes- saturation Land-use-tea bushes and of the slope forming 6. shade trees scattered here and VII material by surface and there. sub-surface flows. VII Modified slope : 7. Soil was saturated I Concave Soil colour- Upper : 10YR 5/8 Type – Debris / Rock 8. IX Middle : 10YR 5/5 slide Lower: 10YR 6/1 Compiled by the investigator during field work in July 2004 and June 2014. Mechanical analyses of soil samples of the Aloobari Tea Estate landslide (Table 3) from the top, middle and base shows that the predominant fraction in the soil is sand. Texturally the soil may be defined as loamy to sandy loam. Thus it is evident that soils with a low clay content (<12%) and more sand (> 80%) are more susceptible to erosion. The pH values ranging from 6.1-6.4 indicates that the soil is acidic in nature. The organic and chemical constituents of the soil are important because of their influence on aggregate stability. Soils with less percentage of organic carbon can be considered erodable (Evans, 1980). Thus the soils of the Aloobari tea estate with <1% of organic carbon is highly erodable in nature. Table 3: Soil properties of Aloobari Tea Estate Landslide: Organic Moisture Sl. Sample site with height Sand Silt Clay pH carbon in content in % % Base of the slide 2070 1 83.18 11.17 5.65 6.3 0.78 14.08 mts Middle of the slide 2010 2 81.57 10.23 8.20 6.1 0.97 12.86 mts Upper part of the L : S 3 82.22 9.88 7.90 6.4 0.86 13.42 2220 mts Effective Rainfall: This reactivated fossil slide can get initiated following heavy precipitation in the area (about 100 mms in 60 hours). Changes in land use: There has been considerable change in land use in the slide area in 30 years. As it is a reactivated slide, the upper part of the slide has been afforested with quick growing utish trees. The slide muck area (in the middle part of the slide) previously had tea plantations which were destroyed but still a few tea bushes remain scattered. Afforestation through utish variety has also been practised in this area. The active part of the slide where two perennial jhoras are flowing remains devoid of any vegetation and there is large accumulated debris. Conclusion and Recommendations: Afforestation measures adopted in this region have made this slide area moderately stable though a major part of this slide still remains bare and active. Immediate action should be taken to overcome this situation. Since the present slide is an effect of free flowing surface water over the hill slope, the first step in controlling this slide should aim at channellising the surface water flow through a network of well planned drainage system with appropriate embankment construction. In this connection, efforts are to be made to intercept the surface run-off preferably at a higher elevation and divert the same away from the slide. Close monitoring of the behaviour of the slide and the effectiveness of the measures adopted is also to be continued. Such information will be highly useful in evolving protective measures for resisting 27 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

future slides in the Darjiling area. Despite advances of science and technology losses continue in forms of human suffering, life and property loss, environmental degradation etc. We cannot eliminate landslide but we can minimize its impact by human effort. In near future due to lack of our awareness and unscientific land use new landslide prone area is developing and existing landslide zone is becoming more hazardous. Thus immediate action should be taken for landslide mitigation both in habited areas and tea gardens to restore the previous glory of Queen of the hills. REFERENCE:  Basu, S.R & Majumdar, Paromita (1998): Landslides along the Arterial Routes to Darjiling and their Control- Himalayan Natural Resources- Eco-Threats and Restoration Study- Ed by B.D.Sharma and Tej Kumari- Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi pp 245-257.  Basu, S.R (2000): Causes of landslides in the Darjiling Town of the Eastern Himalaya- “Landslides in Research, Theory and Practice” Vol 1 Ed by E. Bromhead et al. Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Landslide held in Cardiff on 26th -30th June 2000, Thomas Telford, Cardiff, pp 133-138.  Bhattacharya, Animesh & Sengupta C.K. (1999): Landslide Hazard Zonation along NH31A from Sevoke to Rangpo- A Terrain Evaluation Study, Journal of Engineering Geology- Vol XXVII Nos 1-4, Engineering Geology Division, Eastern Region pp 75-76.  Bhattacharya, Animesh et. al (1999): A Geotechnical Appraisal of landslides on 7th July 1998 along National Highway No.55. An unpublished report of G.S.I pp 1-28.  Bhattacharya, Animesh et. al (2000): Geotechnical assessment and hazard evaluation of landslides on 7th July 1998, Kurseong Hills Darjiling District, West Bengal Journal of Engineering Geology- Vol XXVII Nos 1-4, Engineering Geology Division, Eastern Region pp 77-79.  Cook, R.U & Doornkamp, D.C (1947): Geomorphology in Environmental Management, Clarendon Press Oxford, pp 108-128.  Chowdhury, A.K & Chowdhury J. Roy (1986): A Geotechnical Report on the slide along water pipe line in Aloobari area of Darjeeling Town, Darjeeling District, West Bengal, An unpublished report of Geological Survey of India pp 1-20.  Ghosh, D. Mitra, A. K. (2001): Landslide Hazard Zonation Mapping in Singtam-Ranipur sector of East Sikkim District- paper on National Seminar on Geotechniques and Geological Hazards, G.S.I. NER, Shillong pp 227-230.  Hansen, J. M (1984): Strategies for classification of landslides- Slope Instability, Edited by D. Brunsden and D.B.Prior, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, London pp 1-25.  Krishna, A.P Kundu (2002): Landslide Hazard- A Perspective from Sikkim Himalaya- Changing Environmental Scenario of the Indian Subcontinent: Savindra, Singh, H.S Sharma & Sunil De (Edited), acb publications, Kolkata pp 366-389.  Leopold, L.B. Wolman, M. and Miller, J.P (1969): Fluvial processes in Geomorphology Eurasia Publishing House (Pvt) Ltd. New Delhi, First Indian Reprint, 1969. pp 333-357.  Mukherjee, Arundhati (1994): Tea Gardens crippled by Landslides – a few case studies in Darjeeling Himalayas– Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies – Institutes of Landscape, Ecology and Ekistics Calcutta, December Volume 17. No.2. Calcutta pp 81-88.  Sarkar, Subir (1999): Landslides in Darjiling Himalayas, India- Transactions, Japanese Geomorphological Union 20, 3 pp 299-315.  Sinha, B.N et al (1975): Landslides in Darjeeling District & adjacent areas- Bulletins of the Geological Survey of India, Series B-36, pp 1-44. 28 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858

IDENTIFYING THE LULC CHANGES AROUND CAUVERY NORTH

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMILNADU

Tamilelakkiya.M1, Dr. G. Bhaskaran2 and Majid Omar Iqbal3 1Research scholar, Department of Geography, 2 Assistant professor, Department of Geography, 3M.sc Student, Department of Geography, University of Madras, campus, Chennai-600005.

ABSTRACT : Land use/ land cover (LULC)change analysis is an important factor in understanding the human interaction with the environment. Cauvery North wildlife sanctuary was recently notified as a wildlife sanctuary region in Cauvery basin of Tamilnadu. The economic status and educational status of the people in the region is very low when compared to the other parts of the state. The unawareness about the importance and the value of the natural resources has put a tremendous pressure on the forest region and continues to do so. To study the LULC changes of the region over a decade between 1995 to 2005, an extensive study is conducted, to get a clear and scientific understanding of the changes in the region. The study would aid in the preservation of the forest region and help in the economic development of the surrounding region as well. The study uses land sat images of 1995 and 2005. The supervised classification has been done for theCauvery wildlife sanctuary landscape and its 1km buffer zone using ERDAS and ARCGIS. To get a broad understanding of the changes in and around the forest the LULC Level-I classification hasbeen done to find the finer changes in the buffer zone of the sanctuary. From the study, it is observed that, the landscape level changes between 1995 and 2005, shows there had been negative impacts on the environment in all the classes but in the buffer zone of the sanctuary, shows the positive impacts except the settlement increase. Though the observation shows the positive impacts in and around the buffer zone, the increase in settlement will causes the more anthropogenic pressure to the sanctuary, so the proper management measures has to be taken in those vulnerable areas. INTRODUCTION : Land use/ land cover (LULC)change analysis is an important factor in understanding the human interaction with the environment. Land use is defined as the activities carried out by humans on the landscape for various beneficial purposes, for example, conversion of forest land into agriculture or plantation land, agricultural land into residential or industrial use and drastic increase in settlements. Land cover refers to the distribution of the entire physical characteristics of the landscape, for example, forest cover, settlement and vegetation. Change analysis study of a landscape is the study of the changes that the study area has undergone in a course of time.Remote sensing is the technique of obtaining geospatial information of an area, geographical phenomenon or an object from a remote location. An image is built by processing the data collected by the remote sensing device which is mounted on different platforms. The remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) have made the studies more accurate, cost effective and time saving. Studying the landscape with different scales with different accuracy will help in better understanding the existing situations and problem and to prepare the appropriate management planning for solving those existing problems. It is a more efficient method with less time and money consumption, which ultimately helps in predicting the future changes with the available current and past data. AREA OF STUDY: The study area Cauvery North wildlife sanctuary, Tamilnadu is located between 12° 41' - 12° 06' N latitudes and 77° 34' - 77° 58' E longitudes covering an area of around 504 sqkms. It is 29 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

bounded on the north by Hosur range and south by Anchetty range of krishnagiri and the eastern part by Palakkodu range of Dharmapuri district and on the west by Karnataka’s Chamarajanagar District. The climate of the district is normally warm with the highest hottest months falling under March to May. It receives the rainfall by both Southwest and Northeast rainfall with the average annual rainfall of 895.56mm and also by summer rainfall up to some extent. Forests are classified under Southern Tropical Dry Mixed Deciduous Forests. Its altitude varies from 200 meters above MSL to 1390 meters above MSL. The study region holds rich endangered flora and fauna like, mammals of about 35,182 birds and 103 tree species. So it is necessary to take proper planning for conserving the endangered resources.

Fig 1: Study area: Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary landscape Unchecked and rampant human activity in a region even in a short span of time changes the LULC pattern abundantly. The main aim of the study is to identify the LULC changes in the CWLS landscape and its buffer zone in a decade of 1995 to 2005. Cauvery wildlife sanctuary is one such region where human exploitation is more for commercial purposes, which has changed the LULC pattern of the region and further put tremendous pressure on the forest region. Since the region was recently notified as a wildlife sanctuary, detailed studies about the LULC changes prior to the notification have not been carried out extensively and exclusively. Land sat images of the years 1995 and 2005 are taken up and the LULC changes occurred between these years are assessed. Supervised classification technique is applied to the land sat images. 30 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

OBJECTIVES:  To prepare the LULC map for landscape.  To identify the LULC changes in the CWLS landscape and its 1km buffer zone. METHODOLOGY: The satellite images of two years, 1995 and 2005 are used for the study. They are analyzed and compared to study the LULC changes in the area. Two types of analysisare done for the images, landscape level analysis and buffer zone analysis. Landscape level Analysis: The landscape level LULC level-I classification analysis is done for two time periods of 1995 and 2005 using ERDAS. The supervised classification is done for the following six major classes namely settlement, forest, water bodies, vegetation and barren land. The result shows the distribution of different classes across the landscape. Area calculation is further done for thelandscape level classification of two time periods, to calculate the percentage of distribution of each class in the landscape. Buffer Zone Analysis: Buffer zone analysis is done to study the pressure and impact of the changes in the area on CWLS. Using arc tool box 1km buffer zone around the boundary of the sanctuary has been created. To observe the edge effect of the sanctuary, only the 1km buffer zone has been clipped from the LULC layer of the years 1995 and 2005. The total area of each class and the percentage occupied by each class has been analyzed. RESULT AND DISCUSSION: The Land Use Land Cover maps of Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary of both the years 1995 and 2005 are compared and analyzed.

Fig 2: supervised landscape map -1995 Fig 3: supervised landscape map -2005

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The fig 2 shows the distribution of features across the landscape of 1995 LULC. This is compared with the LULC map of 2005 for the analysis. The raster data of the two years are classified under supervised classification and the area occupied by each feature is calculated and tabulated. Table 1: Area calculation of LULC landscapes: 1995-2005 LULC Landscape of LULC Landscape of 2005 1995 Area(in Area S.No Class Area(kms) Area in% kms) in% 1 Forest 1384.6 39.8 448.2 12.9 2 Vegetation 542.3 15.6 121.6 35.0 3 Barren 1305.3 37.6 156.1 45.0 4 Settlement 223.4 6.4 233.7 6.7 5 Water 15.8 0.4 12.9 0.4 Total 3471.4 100 3471.4 100.0 The comparison of land use land cover map of two years of 1995 and 2005 shows the difference in the distribution of percentage of the classes. The settlement area has increased from 6% in 1995 to 7% in 2005. The barren area has increased from 38% in 1995 to 45% in 2005. The water area has remained more or less same in both the years with 1995 having 0.4% and 2005 having 0.3%. The most considerable change is the forest area, which has drastically reduced from 40% in 1995 to 13% in 2005. The analysis shows that the landscape is in the increasing trend of vegetation cover from 1995 to 2005. The vegetation cover has increased from 16% to 35%. This shows that the area is experiencing increasing economic activity in the decade from 1995 to 2005. Though this could be a good sign, in the mean process the forest cover is taking a toll, which is indeed a negative side effect. This could be due to unchecked and unplanned development in the area.

Fig 4: 1km Buffer zone of CWLS -1995

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Table 2: Area calculation of buffer zone -1995 and 2005 1km buffer Area 1km buffer S.no Class Name 1995 Area 2005 1 Barren 88.54 65.89 2 Forest 92.97 102.21 3 Settlement 18.48 42.65 4 Vegetation 47.76 36.98 5 Water 0.67 0.69

Fig 5: 1km Buffer zone of CWLS -2005 The increased pressure on the forest region due to the economic activity in the area is further studied. A buffer zone of 1km is created around the boundary of the forest region. The buffer zone gives the exact picture of the pressure and impact of the forest region which is experiencing due to the economic activity. The amount of development in the buffer zone is compared for 1995 and 2005. The comparison shows the forest cover has reduced and the barren land has remained more or less the same. On the other hand the settlements and vegetation have increased along the buffer zone. This may be due to the encroachment of the zone by the forest fringe villages for agricultural purposes and recreational purposes like resorts and hotels. Or it could also be due to the settlement of the native tribal population on the buffer zone, who were earlier residing inside the deep forests. Either way the pressure on the forest land has increased 33 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

considerably. Thus the forest area has shrunk and will continue to shrink in the future if this trend goes unchecked. For the better understanding exclusive field study is needed to identify the exact reason for the change in LULC in buffer zone. CONCLUSION: The land use land cover change analysis of Cauvery wildlife sanctuary was performed. The result shows that there is considerable change in the landscape around the sanctuary area. Changes are observed in the forest area as well. The calculated area representation of each classes shows that the percentage of each class distribution has undergone a change in the time frames between 1995 and 2005. The settlement area has increased from 6% to 7% from 1995 to 2005. Barren land cover has increased from 38% in 1995 to 45% in 2005. The most remarkable changes have occurred in the forest cover and vegetation cover distribution. The vegetation cover has increased phenomenally from 16% in 1995 to 35% in 2005. The forest cover has decreased from 40% in 1995 to 13% in 2005. This change is the most alarming,which may be mainly due to the rampant and unchecked development in the region. In contrary to the landscape level changes of the sanctuary, the 1km buffer level changes overall change shows the less negative impact on the forest cover of the boundary. Though all the changes are towards less negative impact, the increase in settlement alone contribute more anthropogenic pressure on the forest cover in near future. To mitigate such circumstances, it is necessary to prepare a proper management strategy for reducing unplanned growth and encroachment by forest fringe villagers. REFERENCES : 1. Can BülentKarakus, OrhanCerit, KaanSevkiKavak (2015), Determination of Land Use/Cover Changes and Land Use Potentials of Sivas City and its Surroundings Using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS), Procedia Earth and Planetary Science, Volume 15, 2015, Pages 454–461 2. Ibrahim RizkHegazya, MosbehRashedKaloop (2015), Monitoring urban growth and land use change detection with GIS and remote sensing techniques in Daqahlia governorate Egypt, International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment, Volume 4, Issue 1, June 2015, Pages 117–124 3. J.S. Rawata, Manish Kumarb (2014), Monitoring land use/cover change using remote sensing and GIS techniques: A case study of Hawalbagh block, district Almora, Uttarakhand, India, The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science, Volume 18, Issue 1, June 2015, Pages 77–84 4. Mahapatra. M, Ramakrishnan. R, Rajawat. A.S (2013), Mapping and monitoring of land use and land cover changes using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques, International Journal Of Geomatics And Geosciences, ISSN 0976 – 4380. 5. Mukesh Singh Boori, VítVoženílek , KomalChoudhary (2014), Land use/cover disturbance due to tourism in Jeseníky Mountain, Czech Republic: A remote sensing and GIS based approach, The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science, Volume 18, Issue 1, June 2015, Pages 17–26. 6. PatríciaAbrantes, InêsFontes , Eduardo Gomes , Jorge Rocha (2015), Compliance of land cover changes with municipal land use planning: Evidence from the Lisbon metropolitan region (1990–2007), Land Use Policy, Volume 51, February 2016, Pages 120–134. 7. Praveen Kumar Mallupattu and Jayarama Reddy Sreenivasula Reddy, “Analysis of Land Use/Land Cover Changes Using Remote Sensing Data and GIS at an Urban Area, Tirupati, India,” The Scientific World Journal, vol. 2013, Article ID 268623, 6 pages, 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/268623.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Flood as An Environmental Blight In Kamla-Balan River Basin :

A Case Study of Madhubani District, Bihar

Mr. Suvradip Halder Research (Ph.D.) Scholar in Geography, University of Calcutta , Kolkata , West Bengal

ABSTRACT : A flood is an unusual high stage of a river due to run off from rainfall and / or melting of snow in quantities too great to be confined in the normal water surface elevations of the river or streams, as the result of unusual meteorological combination. Flood in most of the cases is a quasi-natural hazard which becomes disaster especially in the developing countries like India which is the second most flood affected country in the World. In India Bihar is the most flood-prone state, with 76% of the population in the north Bihar living under the recurring threat of flood devastation by Kosi, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Bagmati, Kamla Balan, Mahananda etc. Among the river basins I have selected Kamla-Balan river basin which comprises parts of Madhubani, Darbhanga, Saharsa and Samastipur district. I have selected the portion of Madhubani district lying in Kamla-Balan river basin as my study area to assess the causes, consequences and control of flood with reference to some spatial and quantitative data. During the last 40 years the Kamla-Balan river basin has experienced flood almost in 20 different years. The most severe flood was in 1987. The study area is affected by devastating flood mainly due to the high discharge, huge silting of the river, heavy rainfall in the study area as well as in Nepal, breaching of embankment, inefficiency of barrage and definitely human interference. There are 17 C.D. blocks in Madhubani district in my study area. The southern portion of the study area is affected most by the Flood. Flood causes regional disparity in development. Insufficient and improper mitigation processes cannot meet the requirements of the massive flood damages as the present defensive and remedial schemes for flood control are not satisfactory. So better, suitable and proper flood management techniques are immediately required to cope with this vulnerable environmental hazard for a holistic and balanced development over the study area. Key Words – Flood, Madhubani, Kamla-Balan, Discharge, Rainfall, Human Interference, Development, Relief Measures, Embankments, Flood Management. INTRODUCTION : A flood is an unusual high stage of a river due to run off from rainfall and / or melting of snow in quantities too great to be confined in the normal water surface elevations of the river or streams, as the result of unusual meteorological combination. Flood is considered as a climatic as well as geo-hydrological hazard but it has anthropogenic origin too. Flood is a result of influence of man on environment. Flood in most of the cases is a quasi-natural hazard which becomes disaster especially in the developing countries like India which is the second most flood affected country in the World. Bihar is India's most flood-prone state, with 76% of the population in the north Bihar living under the recurring threat of flood devastation. 19 out of total of 38 districts have been affected by flood in Bihar. The districts are Supaul, Darbhanga, Bhagalpur, West Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Sitamarhi, Khagaria, Sheohar, Madhubani, East Champaran, Araria, Sharsha, Samastipur, Madhepura, Kisanganj, Katihar, Begusarai, Purnea and Vaishali. Flood is like an environmental demon or peril for the people of Mithilanchal or North Bihar. North Bihar is the poorest and the most hazardous region in the country for its poor socio-economic development due 35 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

to flood. The devastating river basins of North Bihar are Mahananda, Kosi, Kamala-Balan, Bagmati, Budhi Gandak and Gandak from east to the west. I have selected Kamla-Balan basin as it has been researched and discussed less till now with respect to flood hazard but it has vulnerable flood.

STUDY AREA : Among the six river systems of Mithilanchal I have selected Kamla-Balan river basin which covers parts of mainly Madhubani ( 63% of the study area) and Darbhanga ( 31% ), Saharsa(3%) and Samastipur(3%) districts within 25°30’ N to 27°30’ N latitude and 85°30’ E to 86° 30’ E longitude. The river Kamla–Balan drains a total basin area of 7232 sq km. Out of this 4488 sq km lies in Bihar in India and the rest 2744 sq km which is the upper reach lies in Nepal. This river is a tributary of Karhe river which is a tributary of Kosi river. Kamla-Balan meets Karhe at Manarwa Khaira which is at the border area of Darbhanga and Samastipur district. As my Study Area I have selected the part of Kamla-Balan river basin which lies in Madhubani district only comprising 17 C.D. Blocks , viz., Madhwapur, Harlakhi, Basopatti, Jainagar, Ladaniya, Benipatti, Kaluahi, Khajauli, Babubarhi, Bisfi, Madhubani, Rajnagar, Andhrathari, Pandaul, Jhanjharpur, Lakhnaur & Madhepura.

Total area of my study area is 2827 sq km. Kamla river gets its source from Mahabharat range near Sindhuliagarhi at an altitude of 1200m in Nepal. The total length of the river Kamla– Balan is 328 km of which 208 km is in Nepal and the remaining 120 km is in India. River Kamla and Balan entres India at Jainagar and Ladania respectively. Balan meets Kamla at Pipraghat in

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Babubarhi block in Madhubani dist. The Tributaries of Kamla-Balan are Balan, Trishula, Dhori and Soni . Paleo channels Kamla are Pyatghat Kamla, Sakri Kamla, Jiwach Kamla and Old Kamla. The main land uses of the study area are vegetation ( natural vegetation, planted vegetation & agricultural crops together ) , built up area ( settlement & transportation lines) , water bodies ( rivers, lakes & wet lands ) and sand deposits. The only three urban centres in my study area are Jainagar, Madhubani and Jhanjharpur.

FURIOUS SCENARIO OF FLOOD - The study area experienced massive floods in 20 different years (1974, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1982, 1985,1986,1987, 1988, 1989, 1992, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004 ,2007, 2009 & 2011) in the history of last 40 years. Normally flood occurs in July, August and September over here. But in some years it was extended upto November too, e.g., 1987, 2007. Actually the effect of flood becomes most fatal during August and September. As per the vulnerable flood occurred in 2007, block wise average flood damage in Madhubani is less than 50% in area. But the damage of crops and houses in money is so huge. Eastern & south eastern parts of the study area are mostly affected as per

Flood frequency & percentage of area affected by flood as it is near the main river and have very less slope. But Western and north western parts of the study area are more affected as per the no of houses damaged & crops damaged by flood as these parts produce more crops & have more population than the other parts. South-eastern part is mostly affected by blood in all aspects. Maximum vulnerable flood was in 1987 during last 30 years .

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During last 10 years most devastating flood was in 2007. A significant flood affected part of my study area is almost at the south-eastern part of the study area ( Jhanjharpur, Lakhnaur & Madhepur block ) as this area gets innundated for almost 2 – 3 months after flood. Madhepur suffers from maximum crop damage & Lakhnaur experiences flood in maximum area ( almost 98% of total block area ). As per Central Water Commission , Jhanjharpur Danger Level of Kamla-Balan is 50 m at Jhanjharpur and 67.75 m at Jaynagar. In 2007 maximum water level became 53.3 m at Jhanjharpur and 69.35 m at Jainagar.

The average height of flood water stagnant in the study area is almost 1 – 2 m above the mean height of the land. The road bridge connecting Jhanjharpur town with Darbhanga, Sakri and

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Madhubani on Kamla-Balan river was washed away by heavy discharge of the river during flood almost forty years ago. In many years almost 100% crops are damaged by flood as per the local people. Some dangerous diseases like Malaria, Jaundice, Cholera, Heavy Fever etc. break out as after effects of floods over here. Due to flood the area is covered by a layer of deposit of sand hampering the fertility of soil. Madhubani block is least affected by flood. So Madhubani town has developed in this block.

CAUSES BEHIND THE FLOOD -- • Heavy Rainfall in Nepal as well as in Study Area • Huge Sediment load in the river ( mostly sand & silt ) • Huge Discharge & water level ( gauge ) in the river • Shallow Ground Water level with good recharge • Breaching of embankment ( by river itself & by people also ) • Human encroachment in the river course mainly for agricultural and residential purposes • Extensive flat plain with very less slope ( not more than 5 degree) • Deforestation and Filling of wet lands It must be mentioned that the eastern, south eastern, north western and southern parts of Madhubani district lying in Kamla-Balan river basin are mostly affected by flood as these areas have shallow ground water table with very good recharge. TABLE : HYDROLOGICAL DATA AT JHANJHARPUR STATION

PEAK RAIN TOTAL SUSPENDED MAXIMUM YEAR DISCHARGE FALL SEDIMENT LOAD GAUGE (m) ( cumecs ) (mm) ( Tonnes)

1968 1679 50.28 710.7 7110446

1978 1145 50.97 N.A. 3921341

1987 1480 52.65 1126.3 13733181 2000 2356 51.91 1239 N.A.

2009 4337 51.71 874.7 N.A. Source: F.M.I.S. , Patna and Flood Control Department, Patna & Jhanjharpur – I, Central Water Commission , Patna The above table shows that in 1987 flood was most vulnerable Embankment at both sides of the river is breached due to river itself ( during heavy discharge & rainfall ) and due to man also when local inhabitants cut some portion of it to pass the over flown water of river . Breaching of embankment causes huge and vulnerable flood within a very short notice of time. Human encroachment within River course and huge sand deposit are the significant causes of flood in Kaml-Balan river basin.

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Source of Data – Flood Control Division, Jhanjharpur I & II and Land Sat ETM data RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLOOD AND DEVELOPMENT -- Flood is a big barrier for human and infrastructural development in the Kamla-Balan basin.

Based on the data of Disaster Management Dept, Patna & Census of India ‘ 2011 The above scatter diagrams with trend line by the least square method of Regression equation show the negative relation between flood and development. All the districts in my study area has less than 50% literacy rate on an average ( 42.07% as per 2011 census). It is due to lack of schools and colleges over there due to flood causing low human development.

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EXISTING FLOOD MITIGATION PROCESSES -  Construction of right and left embankment of Kamla-Balan river during 1952-53 (Left Embankment upto 94 km and Right Embankment upto 91.5 km away from Jainagar)  Distribution of relief materials  Merging of road with rail bridge at Jhanjharpur. This is the one and only bridge in the world where train and bus move through the same track, i.e., rail line is located on the road  Construction of barrage at Kamla river at Jainagar during 1952-53  Construction of concrete houses on elevated walls or pillars  River Bank Repairing  There is an N.G.O. named as ‘Sakhi’ ( Head Office is at Jhanjharpur town) which helps the flood affected people a lot in rehabilitation, distribution of relief materials, rescue work etc. HUMAN ADJUSTMENT --  The people of the study area have adjusted with the disproportion of relief measures to the magnitude of flood.  On one hand many of the local people definitely suffer from the flood hazard, but some others specially the poors take the opportunity to grab the relief materials.  Some families have their own boats.  Many poor people till now are unable to make their houses like the former ones which were abolished by the flood 2009.  Affected people take shelter in the school buildings during flood. So then school education ceases for a long time.  Distressed people cultivate within the portion between two embankments near the river course after the rainy season for well availability of river water for irrigation purpose.  In some areas the people with middle to high income have built their concrete houses on elevated walls or pillars.  People have adjusted with the famous & unique wooden bridge for rail & road both at Jhanjharpur on Kamla-Balan river as the main road bridge has already been washed out earlier by the flood. So now Govt has joined Road with this Rail bridge. Though the condition of this bridge is so poor & dangerous people have to adjust with it. FINDINGS --  There is a significant imbalance or disparity in Development in the various blocks of my study area due to Flood .  South Eastern & Western parts are mostly affected by floods in different aspects.  Madhubani block has more development & urbanization due to least flood affect among all the C.D. Blocks.  Not only geo-climatic extremities but also Human interference & encroachment are responsible for Flood.  Efficiency of existing flood mitigation is almost half with respect to the requirement .  Damage of crops in money due to flood is more significant than the damage of any other aspects.  Transport is badly affected due to flood, specially roads & rail lines can not be constructed due to flood.  The nature of the flood is of low intensity but high extent over my study area.  No of schools & health centres can not be increased due to innundation for a long period as the affect of flood over here.  The people have adjusted with flood with respect to its positive as well as adverse effects as the blessing or curse of the God.

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 Poor people want flood as they like to grab the relief materials given to them after the flood.

PROPOSALS FOR BETTER FLOOD MANAGEMENT --  To modify Kamla barrage and to make more new plans associated with this barrage and to extend this project to control floods in the middle and lower Kamla-Balan valley region  To find out whether middle course in Kamla-Balan river is absent or not as it is an important factor to find out more reasons and management of flood in the study area  To follow proper Water Resource Management in Kamla river as well as in its tributaries and distributaries.  To study on paleochannels and water passes of Kamla-Balan river  To construct another barrage at the point of entry of Balan river in India near Ladania in Madhubani dist  To complete the construction of embankment upto 104 km at the left and 96.5 km at the right bank of the Kamla-Balan river  To nourish and repair embankments regularly  To distribute sufficient and adequate relief measures properly  To set up more rainfall, discharge and gauge recording stations in the middle and lower Kamla-Balan basin  To stop human encroachment in the river valley specially within the course  To dredge the main river properly and its old courses and  To dig new few canals from main river as well as from the reservoir at Kamla barrage southward to diverge huge water and to improve drainage system  To arrange full rehabilitation of people before the flood attack as information regarding the amount of water released at Jainagar barrage comes to the Block Office about 7 to 8 hours before to minimize the flood affect  To maintain and not to disturb the natural drainage system  To use Geoinformatics ( Remote Sensing & G.I.S. ) for Flood inundation mapping and Flood plain zoning  To arrange Flood Insurance and International cooperation  To base on Ecological approach more ( Biomatting , Afforestation, building small reservoirs in low lying areas, making wetland park, to stop constructional activities in flood plains etc.)  To forecast the flood before sufficient time and to increase mass consciousness  To build Flood Monitoring System  To keep and store the data regarding flood and relevant all aspects and parameters scientifically to study, research and analyse the causes, consequences and control of flood

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT -- I am grateful to my Supervisor Dr. Nandini Chatterjee, Associate Professor , Dept. of Geography , Taki Govt. College, West Bengal State University, West Bengal ; Officers and clerks of Disaster Management Department, Patna and Darbhanga ; Engineers and clerks of Flood Control Department, Patna , Jhanjharpur I and II , F.M.I.S., Patna, Census of India, Patna , C.W.C. & C.G.W.B. , Patna , I.M.D. , Patna and obviously to the local people of different places of my study area who have helped me in my works in different ways .

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REFERENCES --  Basu,R & Bhaduri,S (2007): Contemporary Issues & Techniques in Geography, Progressive Publishers, Kolkata.  Central Ground Water Board (2009): Ground Water Information Booklet, Madhubani District, Bihar State, CGWB pub.,Patna  Disaster Management Department, Govt. of Bihar(2004): Situation Report:Bihar Floods - 27.7.04,  Mishra, D. Kumar (2008): “Bihar Floods: The Inevitable Has Happened”, Economic & Political Weekly, 6Sept.  Sinha, R and Jain, V. (1998): Flood hazards of north Bihar rivers, Indo-Gangetic plains. In: Kale, V. S. (Ed) Flood Studies in India, Memoir Geological Society of India, 41, pp 27-52.  Ward, R (1978 ): Floods-A Geographical Perspective, MacMillanPress, London  Raghunath, H.M.(2000) : Hydrology : Principles , Analysis & Design, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi  Kale, V.S. (1997):Flood studies in India: A brief review. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 49, pp. 359-370  Mayer, L. and Nash, D.(Ed.) (1987): Catastrophic Flooding, Allen and Unwin, Boston  Verma, Binoy Nath ( Ed. ) ( 1998 ): Flood Devastation and Agricultural Development in Eastern India, B. B. Publishing Corporation, Delhi  Sinha, Dr. V.N.P., Nazim, Dr. M. & Ahmed, Dr. P. Firoz ( 2013) : Bihar- Land, People and Economy , Rajesh Publications, New Delhi , 2013  Ahmed, Enayat (1965) : Bihar- A Physical, Economic and Regional Geography , Ranchi University, Ranchi

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858

“Mango Production in Sindhudurg District: Status and prospects”

Lokhande Anant N. Department of Economics, Sant Rawool Maharaj College, Kudal, District- Sindhudurg

ABSTRACT : The mango is the national fruit of India and the Philippines. It is also the national tree of Bangladesh. The mango is the tropical fruit of the mango tree belonging to the Anacardiaceous family. Native to eastern India and Burma, several hundred varieties of mango exist, but only a few are commercialized. More than 90 countries grow it. The fruit has many nutritional qualities, being rich in minerals, fiber, vitamin C, B and A and pro-vitamins. Kokan region have specific climatic condition for cultivation of Alphanso mango but mango growers in Sindhudurg district are facing many mango cultivation and marketing problems. For more production and productivity Alphanso mango, it is necessary to Cooperative societies should take interest to purchase mango from farmers at favorable price to avoid exploitation of farmers from agents. Mango orchard should be managed professionally and ongoing investments should be made in creating the necessary infrastructure. Keywords: Alphanso Mango, Production, Productivity and Sindhudurg.

INTRODUCTION : India is the second largest producer of fruits & vegetables in the world, next to China. Planned development in the sector started with the 7th plan and gained structure and momentum during the 10th and 11th five-year plan periods. Though horticulture is not new to us, it has largely been a low investment and low input segment of agriculture in which the nature of plantations varied from large, unattended fruit orchards owned by landlords, to backyard horticulture owned by individual families to cater to their daily needs of fruits & vegetables. Horticulture as a commercial venture in open field and climate controlled conditions is a recent development and has been found to be more remunerative than traditional crops in rain fed and degraded land stretches, providing scope for crop diversification. India has a huge diverse agro-climatic conditions and variety of horticultural produce ranging from temperate, sub-temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical to arid types. However, the three main crops of banana, mango and citrus fruits cover more than 65% of area under fruit crops and share about 68% of annual fruit production of the country. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala put together contribute to about 55% of the total area under fruit and contribute about 62% of total fruit production of the country. West Bengal, U.P., Bihar and Orissa occupy about 46 % of production area of vegetables and contribute 62% of total vegetable production. The increase in production of fruits in recent years is contributed largely by area expansion- the increase in productivity has played only a secondary role , as the Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka and Jammu & Kashmir have contributed to area expansion in a big way. Productivity continues to be low on account of inadequate production of quality planting materials for vegetative propagated fruit crops, lack of validated prescriptions for hi-density plantation, canopy management and inefficient plant protection. The Mughal emperor Akbar (1556-1605 AD) is said to have planted a mango orchard having 100,000 trees in Darbhanga, eastern India. The Jain goddess Ambika is traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree. In Hinduism, the perfectly ripe mango is often held by 44 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

Lord Ganesha as a symbol of attainment, regarding the devotees potential perfection. Mango blossoms are also used in the worship of the goddess Saraswati. No Telugu/Kannada New Year's Day called Ugadi passes without eating ugadi pachadi made with mango pieces as one of the ingredients. In Tamil Brahmin homes mango is an ingredient in making vadai paruppu on Sri Rama Navami day (Lord Ram's Birth Day) and also in preparation of pachadi on Tamil New Year's Day. Dried mango skin and its seeds are also used in Ayurvedic medicines. Mango leaves are used to decorate archways and doors in Indian houses and during weddings and celebrations. Varieties of mango: There are near about 1000 varieties are grown in India but out of these near about 30 varieties of mangoes which are grown commercially in India . Different regions of the country have their own commercial varieties because, as particular variety of mango is not expected to perform equally well under different sets of climatic factors prevailing in various parts of the country. The most well-known varieties throughout the country are 'Langra', 'Alphonso', 'Dashehari' and 'Banganpalli'. Totapuri Ratna , (Neelum X Alphonso) Kesar & Pairi etc. Objectives: 1) To study the multiphase scenario of mango production 2) To Study the mango production in Sindhudurg District. 3) To study the constraints in cultivation of mango in Sindhudurg district and suggest Measures. Methodology: The present study was confined to Sindhudurg district as this is famous for Alphonso mango production in India. The present study was based on primary and secondary data collected by various sources as mango producers, Agricultural officers in Sindhudurg district. Global Horticulture production - Global fruit and vegetable production has experienced a remarkable increase. Output has been growing at an annual rate of about 3 percent over the last decade. In 2011, almost 640 million tones of fruit and more than 1 billion tones of vegetables were gathered throughout the world. World production growth has largely been driven by area expansion in Asia, especially China, which has emerged as the world’s largest fruit and vegetable producer, with global output shares of about 20 percent for fruit, and more than 50 percent for vegetables. However, the familiar tendency for stagnant production growth in other developed regions also prevails in these commodities. Strong growth rates in fruit and vegetable cultivation have also been recorded in food-insecure and low-income regions such as sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. Horticultural crop production generates high economic returns per unit of land, offering promising income prospects, especially for smallholders and in areas where land is scarce. In addition, horticulture can contribute to poverty reduction by providing paid employment opportunities, because it is labour intensive. Table No.1 Major Mango producing countries in the world % age SHARE IN AREA PRODUCTION PRODUCTIVITY COUNTRY WORLD TOTAL (‘000ha) (‘000 tons) (tons/ha) PRODUCTION India 2312.30 15026.70 6.50 40.48 China 465.337 4351.29 9.35 11.72 Thailand 311.048 2550.60 8.20 6.87 Pakistan 173.7 1845.50 10.62 4.97 45 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

Mexico 174.97 1632.65 9.33 4.40 Indonesia 131.674 1287.29 9.78 3.47 Brazil 75.111 1188.91 15.83 3.20 Bangladesh 170.8 1047.85 6.13 2.82 Philippines 189.437 825.68 4.36 2.22 Nigeria 114.9 790.20 6.88 2.13 Other 827.04 6578.07 7.95 17.72 Countries World 4946.314 37124.74 7.51 100 Ref. FAO STATISTICAL YEAR BOOK-2013

The above table No. 1 shows the area, production and productivity of major mango productizing countries in the world. India is highest in share of production of mango (40.48 %) but lagging behind in productivity of mango(6.50%)compare to Brazil, Pakistan, China and Mexico. China has second largest production of mango (11.72%) followed by Thailand and other countries. India has largest area of cultivation of mango (2312.30 thousand hector) that’s why India’s share in production of mango is high. It is not good sign for sustainable development of land. Table No.2 Area, production and productivity of leading mango growing states in India(2009-10) State Area (000’ha) Production (000’tons) Productivity (Tons/Ha) Uttar Pradesh 276.42 3588.00 12.98 Andhra Pradesh 480.41 4058.35 8.45 Karnataka 153.80 1694.00 11.01 Bihar 146.03 995.94 6.82 Gujarat 121.52 856.74 7.05 Tamil Nadu 132.68 636.29 4.80 Orissa 177.63 577.48 3.25 West Bengal 88.14 578.00 6.56 Jharkhand 15.10 154.30 10.21 Kerala 63.75 373.17 5.85 Maharashtra 474.50 597.00 1.26 Others 182.32 817.42 4.48 Total 2312.30 14926.69 (Average)6.89 Source: Indian Horticulture Database, 2010-11 The above table No.2 indicates the area, production and productivity of mangoes during the year 2009-10 in various states in India. The area of cultivation highest in Andhra Pradesh, and following states are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh. The highest production of mango is in the Andhra Pradesh and followed by Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat .But productivity of mango is highest in Uttar Pradesh12.98 and followed by Jharkhand, Karnataka. Major Mango Producing Districts of Maharashtra: The major mango producing belts in Maharashtra are Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg and Raigad. The commercial mango varieties grown here are Alphonso, Kesar and Pairi, which are exportable varieties large areas under old and senile orchards is bringing down the productivity levels. Major mango producing districts in Maharashtra are indicated in Table 3 Ratnagiri district contributes 10 and 18 per cent of the mango area and production, respectively. The yield in 46 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

Ratnagiri is same (3400 kg/ha) with that of the state as a whole. All these major mango producing districts of Maharashtra have more or less similar yield as compared with state average. It lends support to the fact that increase in the area under non-traditional regions of the state may have decreased the average yield of the state. Table No. 3 Area, Production and Yield of Mango in Major Districts of Maharashtra during 2008-09 (Area in thousand hectare and Production in thousand MT) District Area Share % Production Share % Ratnagiri 43.61 10.24 117.35 18.63 Raigad 41.58 9.77 81.82 12.99 Thane 37.28 8.76 70.25 11.16 Sindhudurg 23.26 5.46 53.87 8.55 Pune 16.53 3.88 47.41 7.53 Ahmednagar 20.79 4.88 24.38 3.87 Nanded 17.73 4.16 34.76 5.52 Aurangabad 15.10 3.55 14.74 2.34 Other districts 209.87 49.30 185.19 29.04 Total of Maharashtra 425.8 100 629.8 100 Source: Directorate of Horticulture, Govt. of Maharashtra About the District Sindhudurg: Sindhudurg district is one of the famous districts in the State of Maharashtra in India, well known for its naturally enriched areas. It is the naturally rich district of the renowned Konkan region in Maharashtra. It is a part of South Konkan on the West coast of Maharashtra Mango, Coconut, Supari, Kokum and Cashew are the major cash crops and the soil is fertile and the temperature is favorable for the growth of these crops. There is a wide scope for increasing the production of these crops, considering this the government through the horticulture program is providing economical as well as technical help; due to this the agricultural area has been increased enormously. The Alphanso Mango variety from the Devgad district is famous for its taste and sweetness and there is a big demand for this variety at the national market as well as international market. Through the horticulture program the Social Horticulture Department has planted some other variety of trees on a large scale. They have planted Cashew, Subabul, Acacia, Sag, etc. Table No.4 Production and Cultivation Area of Mango in Sindhudurg District Year Area Production (ooo MT) 1999-00 20.01 52.04 2000-01 22.02 39.35 2001-02 22.73 45.54 2002-03 23.09 49.22 2003-04 23.26 53.87 2004-05 23.42 55.23 2005-06 23.57 59.88 2006-07 23.70 64.68 2007-08 23.85 69.79

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2008-09 23.99 74.36 Max 23.99 74.36 Min. 20.01 39.35 Mean 22.964 56.396 SD 1.1893 10.9010 Variance 1.4144 106.9496 Source: Agriculture Dept. Sindhudurg District. The above table No.4 indicates the area and production of mango in Sindhudurg district from 1991-00 to 2008-09. Which shows mean of area under mango plantation is 22.964and mean of production is 56.396. The standard deviation of area of plantation of mango is 1.1893 and SD of production of mango is 10.9010. It shows large variance in production of mango is 106.9496 due to impact of climatic changes. CONCLUSION : Mango production has great potential in Konkan region in Maharashtra. Mango producer should be careful to take advantage of economies of scale. Mango production has great opportunity to get foreign currency as well as employment creating business. But mango producers in Sindhudurg district are facing many problems like agents’ exploitation, heavy establishment cost, poor marketing infrastructure, high cost of marketing, fluctuations in climatic condition. Mango producer should look at mango orchard as commercial level with proper application of technology. He should be trained in Hi-tech mango cultivation and marketing. Government should provide reasonable compensation to mango producers for natural calamities. Agriculture dept. of govt. and Agriculture Universities make arrangement to aware the farmers about new techniques, hi-density plantation and proper guidance to mango producer from time to time. Cooperative societies should be developed and they should take interest to purchase mango from farmers at favorable price. Mango producer should grow the various varieties of mango with Alphonso which will give continues earning to producer. Mango orchard should be managed professionally and ongoing investments should be made in creating the necessary infrastructure like storage facilities, packing facility grading facility in the farm itself.

REFERENCES : Chadha K.L. (2001): “Handbook of Horticulture”, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan Pusa, New Delhi Bubg Purushottam (2012): “Mango cultivation in India” KLS’s Institute of management Education & Reaearch, Belgaim. Karnataka. Fao Statistical Year Book (2013): World Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome. Lokhande A. N. & Ingawale B.G (2012): “Sindhudurg Jilhyatil Falotpadan Vikas” Article presented in Conference of Marathi Arthshatra Parishad at Baramati. Veerkar P. D (2008): “Economics of pesticide use in Mango in Konkan Region of Maharashtra”, International Journal of Agriculture Science Vol. 4 WEB Report: Agricultural Dept. Kudal Taluka. Agriculture Dept. Sindhudurg District. Directorate of Horticulture, Govt. of Maharashtra Indian Horticulture Database, 2010-11 Socio-economic survey of Maharashtra, 2011-12 Socio-economic survey of Sindhudurg district, 2010-11 48 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Geoinformatics To Estimate The Land Surface Temperature And Its Comparison With Vegetation And Impervious Surface

1 2 3 4 K. Narmada , Dr.G.Bhaskaran , Ektha Singh , Manasi Debnath 1. Research Scholar, University Of Madras, 2. Assistant Professor, University Of Madras, 3. Junior Technical Assistant, Forest Survey Of India, 4. Research Scholar, North-eastern Hill University.

INTRODUCTION : Land covers as the biophysical state of the earth’s surface and immediate subsurface, are sources and sinks for most of the material and energy movements and interactions between the geosphere and biosphere. Changes in land cover include changes in biotic diversity, actual and potential primary productivity, soil quality, runoff and sedimentation rates (Stefen et al., 1992), and cannot be well understood without the knowledge of land use change that drives them. Due to the interrelated nature of the elements of the natural environment, the direct effects on one element may cause indirect effects on others. Urban Climate Studies have long been concerned about the magnitude of the difference in observed ambient air temperature between cities and their surrounding rural regions, which collectively describe the urban heat island (UHI) effect. (Landsberg, 1981). Pertinent to the methods of temperature measurement, two types of UHI can be distinguished: the canopy layer (UCL) heat island, and the Upper boundary layer (UBL) heat island (Oke, 1979). The former consists of air between the roughness elements like the buildings and tree canopies, with an upper boundary just below the roof level. The boundary layer (UBL) is situated above the canopy layer, with a lower boundary subject to the influence of urban surface. UHI studies have been traditionally conducted for isolated locations and with in situ measurements of air temperatures. The advent of satellite remote sensing technology has made it possible to study UHI both remotely and on continental or global scales. (Gill et al, 2007, Parry et al, 2007). Studies on the UHI phenomenon using satellite derived land surface temperature (LST) measurements have been conducted primarily using the NOAA AVHRR data (Balling and Brazell, 1988). The 1.1 km resolution of these data is found suitable only for small-scale urban temperature mapping. The 120 m spatial resolution Landsat Thematic Mapper ™ thermal infrared (TIR) data have also been utilised to derive surface temperatures. 2.0 OBJECTIVE - The main objectives of the study is as follows:  The study the general relationship between LST and NDVI in the study area.  The study the relationship between LST and LULC in the study area.  To study the relationship between the emissivity and NDVI. 3.0 STUDY AREA: CHENNAI Chennai, the capital City of Tamil Nadu is the fourth largest Metropolitan City in India. The Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA) comprises the city of Chennai and its outlying urban and rural areas. The outlying area consists of one cantonment, 4 Townships, 16 Municipalities, 20 Special Village Panchayats and 213 Village Panchayats in 10 Panchayat Unions. The extent of CMA including St. Thomas Mount cantonment is 1172 Sq.km. The Chennai City area now covers 181.06 Sq.km. The northeast monsoon during the month of October, November and December chiefly contributes the rainfall for the district. Most of the precipitation occurs in

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the form of one or two cyclones caused due to depressions in Bay of Bengal. The southwest monsoon rainfall is highly erratic and summer rains are negligible. The average annual rainfall of the district is 1200 mm (1978-2008). Chennai district enjoys a tropical climate with mean annual temperature of 24.3 to 32.9° C. The temperature is usually in the range of 13.9 to 45° C. The humidity is usually in the range of 65 to 84% and sea breeze in the evening hours is a blessing to combat the high temperature and humidity during summer months.

Fig 1: Study Area, Chennai

4.0 Data and Methods This chapter describes the data used in the analysis and outlines all data pre-processing, preparation and processing methods performed in the study. 4.1 Data The images were taken from the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Data was taken for two years, i.e, Landsat ETM+ data acquired on May 14th 2002 and May 25th 2006. (Resolution 60m) 5.0 Methodology The Band 3, Band 4 and Band 5 of Landsat Image was layer stacked, subsetted with a boundary image and further taken forward for Land cover map preparation. 5.1 LULC Data Preparation The pre-processed Landsat ETM+ data was a geometrically and radiometrically corrected image. In order to identify changes to LULC within the study area, False Colour Composites (FCC) were created for the Landsat ETM+ data acquired on May 26th 2009 and 16 th May 2011. The FCCs were produced through the merging of bands 2, 3 and 4 of the ETM+ data. 5.2 LULC Of Chennai The study area were divided into 6 LULC Classes as follows. 1. Tree outside forest 2. Shrub and Marsh 3. Built-up (High Dense) 4. Built-up (Low Dense) 5. Water 6. Bare land 5.3 NDVI Preparation The NDVI was finally calculated using the reflectance values from the red (R) and Near Infrared (IR) channels. NDVI = (IR-R)/ (IR + R) (1)

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5.4 Estimation Of Land Surface Temperature: 5.4.1 Conversion of the digital number to spectral radiance The first step when calculating NDVI from Landsat ETM+ data is to convert the Digital Numbers (DN) of bands 3 and 4 to spectral radiance using the following equation by using the Band 6L image. Lλ = ((LMAXλ - LMINλ)/ (QCALMAX-QCALMIN)) * (QCAL-QCALMIN) + LMINλ (2) -2 -1 -1 Where: Lλ = spectral radiance at the sensor’s aperture in Wm sr μm ; -2 -1 -1 - LMINλ = spectral radiance that is scaled to QCALMIN (-5.0 Wm sr μm for band 3 and -5.1 Wm 2sr1μm-1 for band 4); 2 -1 -1 LMAXλ = spectral radiance that is scaled to QCALMAX (234.4 Wm sr μm for band 3 and 241.1 Wm-2sr-1μm-1 for band 4); QCAL is the DN; QCALMIN = minimum quantized calibrated pixel value (corresponding to LMINλ) in DN (0); and QCALMAX = maximum quantized calibrated pixel value (corresponding to LMAXλ) in DN (255). 5.4.2 Derivation of LST The thermal band (10.4-12.5 μm) of the Landsat ETM+ sensor was used to derive LSTs over the study area. For the Landsat ETM+ sensor, images in the thermal band are captured twice: once in the low-gain mode (band 6L) and once in the high-gain mode (band 6H). Band 6L is used to image surfaces with high brightness, whereas band 6H is used to image surfaces with low brightness. (Carson, 1994) 5.4.3 Conversion of spectral radiance to radiant surface temperature Spectral radiance values for band 6H were then converted to radiant surface temperature under an assumption of uniform emissivity using pre-launch calibration constants for the Landsat ETM+ sensor implemented into the following equation. TB = K2/ (ln(K1/ Lλ + 1)) (3) Where TB = radiant surface temperature (in Kelvin); K2 is calibration constant 2 (1282.71 K); K1 is calibration constant 1 (666.09 Wm-2sr-1μm-1); Lλ is the spectral radiance at sensor in Wm-2sr-1μm-1. All pre-launch calibration constants used in Equation (3) were supplied by the Landsat Project Science Office (2001). 5.4.4 Emissivity Estimation Pixels with NDVI values greater than or equal to 0.2 or less than or equal to 0.5 are considered to be a mixture of man-made materials and vegetation. In this case, the emissivity of a surface is expressed as (Santana, 2007): ε = εvPv + εm(1 - Pv) + dε (6) ε = emissivity; εv is the emissivity of vegetation (a typical value of 0.98 is assumed); εm is the emissivity of man-made materials (a typical value of 0.92 is assumed); Pv is the vegetation proportion; dε is the fraction of emissivity caused by internal reflections/cavity effect 2 2 Pv = (NDVI – NDVImin) / (NDVImax – NDVImin) dε = (1 - εm)εvF(1 - Pv) F = shape factor regarding the geometrical structure of vegetation (a value of 0.55 is assumed).

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5.4.5 Conversion of radiant surface temperature to LST The calculated radiant surface temperatures were subsequently corrected for emissivity using the following equation: LST = TB/ (1 + (λ TB/ ρ) lnε (Where LST = land surface temperature (in Kelvin); TB = radiant surface temperature (in Kelvin); λ = the wavelength of emitted radiance (11.5 μm); ρ = h × c / σ (1.438×10−2 m K); h = Planck’s constant (6.26×10-34J s); c = The velocity of light (2.998×108 m/sec); σ = Stefan Boltzmann’s constant (1.38×10- 23J K-1); ε = emissivity.)

6.0 RESULTS 6.1 LAND COVER AND LANDUSE MAP

Landsat ETM+ 2002 and 2006 data were classified from unsupervised classification using ERDAS Imagine 10.1. Five landcover and landuse classes were identified. The area of each landuse classes were identified as follows: Area Landuse class 2002 2006 Tree Outside Forest 3578.53 2704.55 Marsh and Scrub 7042.29 1028.8 Built up – HD 14457.3 17577.5 Built up – LD 8349.61 11484.8 Water 2016.09 3462.87 Barren 660.68 660.68

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The areas with the lowest vegetation levels were concentrated within the central and eastern portions of the study area and corresponded to the LULC types built –up high dense and built – up low dense. The classified image was checked for accuracy by doing accuracy assessment for the two years.Overall accuracy for Chennai 2002 was about 91.67% and Kappa Statistics about 0.8963 and for the year 2006 the classification accuracy was about 84.4% and Kappa statistics was about 0.7969. 6.2 NORMALIZED DIFFERENCE VEGETATION INDEX

NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) was calculated for the two time periods. The NDVI values range between -0.578 to 0.337 in the year 2002 and the values range between - 0.428 to 0.666 in the year 2006. NDVI was found to be more in the highly vegetated areas and less in the built up areas. Low NDVI values also appeared over the water bodies spread over the city. Conversely, high levels of NDVI indicating the presence of green vegetation were observed, primarily over the outer regions of the study area, and corresponded to the LULC types “built – up low dense”, “urban green spaces” which are the suburban areas. Some pockets of high NDVI were also noticeable within the central portion of the study area and corresponded to “green urban areas” and “scrubs”.

6.3 ESTIMATION OF LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE 6.3.1 INTERPRETATION OF EMISSIVITY MAPS The emissivity values were found to range between0.92 to 0.98. The emissivity values were found to be high in areas of high vegetation which can be identified from the regression graphs. This is due to the high amounts of infrared energy released in the vegetation area.

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6.3.2 LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE ESTIMATION Land Surface Temperature was found to range between 29.44 to 39.22 deg Celsius in the 2002 and 37.32 to 40.52 in the year 2006. In general, the visual pattern of LST was opposite to that of NDVI (with the exception of the land cover type “water bodies”). Low LST readings were found mostly in the outer regions of the study area and corresponded to “built-up low dense”, “green urban areas”. Pockets of low LSTs could also be observed within the north western, western and southern part of the study area and corresponded to “green urban areas”. Low LSTs were also observed over the Adyar River and Buckingham Canal. A prominent feature of the LST image was the sharp contrast between high and low LSTs within the eastern part of the study area where the LULC type “built-up high dense” registered very high LSTs and the LULC types “urban low dense”, “green urban areas”.

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9.0 Discussion This study has demonstrated that LULC types and their land surface characteristics are highly related to LSTs and will affect the general pattern of the UHI (Yuan et al, Yue et al, 2007). Different types of LULC have been shown to vary greatly in their effects on LST and NDVI. Inverse relationships between LST and vegetation abundance were observed for the study area as a whole, and within all LULC types. This implies that a decrease in urban temperatures could be achieved more effectively if vegetation was increased in this LULC type, as it is most conducive to lowering surface temperatures. The results obtained provided further insight into the manner in which vegetation components of LULC types might impact urban thermal environments as it was found that with increasing degrees of soil sealing (and thus decreasing amounts of vegetation abundance), mean LST values increased. As mentioned above, Chennai has been experiencing considerable population growth and it is likely that additional residential areas will be developed in the near future. Moreover, as built-up LULC already occupies large portions of the city the thermal characteristics of such LULC will most likely have a considerable impact on Chennai urban thermal environment. For these reasons, analysis into which types of built-up LULC are most conducive to decreasing urban surface temperatures through increased vegetation becomes meaningful.

7.0 CONCLUSION : Within the context of climate change and accelerating rates of global urbanization, an understanding of the manner in which urban design strategies might offset consequential negative environmental and social impacts of the UHI becomes imperative. This study focused on the functionality provided by urban vegetation as a means of reducing UHI intensity and moderating the heightened summer temperatures within urban areas which are predicted to occur due to climate change. Recognition and awareness of this functionality is critical as it can serve as a tool for adapting cities to climate change and reducing some of the negative impacts of urban development through improved urban planning and management strategies. This study found that within the city of Chennai, LST and NDVI shared a significant inverse relationship, implying that increasing vegetation abundance will generally reduce surface temperatures and thus UHI intensity. However, this relationship has distinct differences depending on LULC type. Increasing the amount of vegetation in some LULC types will not be as effective at lowering temperatures as in others.

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8.0 REFERENCE : Bailing. R.C & Brazell. S.W (1988) High Resolution Surface temperature patterns in a complex Urban Terrain. Photogrametric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 54, 1289 – 1293 Carson. T.N, GillIes. R.R and Perry. E.M (1994). A method to make use of Thermal Infrared Temperature and NDVI measurements to infer surface soil water content and fractional vegetation cover. Remote Sensing Reviews, 9, 161 – 173. Gill, S.E., Handley, J.F., Ennos, A.R., and Pauleit, S., 2007. Adapting Cities for Climate Change: The Role of the Green Infrastructure. Built Environment, 33, 115-113. Landsberg.,H.E 1981., The Urban Climate., Academic Press Oke. T.R., (1979)., Technical Note No 169., Review Of Urban Climatology., World Meteorlogical Organization, Geneva, Switzerland., 43 pp. Oke. T.R. (1982), The Energitic basis of urban heat island. Quartely Journal Of the royal meteorological society, 108, 1 – 24. Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., and Hanson, C.E., 2007. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (Cambridge University Press). http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch19s19-3-6.html Santana, L.M., 2007. Landsat ETM+ image applications to extract information for environmental planning in a Colombian city. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28, 4225-4242. Steffen, W. L., Walker, B. H., Ingram, J. S., and Koch, G. W., 1992, Global change and terrestrial ecosystems: the operational plan. IGBP Report No. 21, International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme, Stockholm. Yuan, F., and Bauer, M.E., 2007. Comparison of impervious surface area and normalized difference vegetation index as indicators of surface urban heat island effects in Landsat imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment, 106, 375-386. Yue, W., Xu, J., Tan, W., and Xu, L, 2007. The relationship between land surface temperature and NDVI with remote sensing: application to Shanghai Landsat 7 ETM+ data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28, 3205-3226. Zhidong, L., and Bengtsson, L., eds., Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sustainable Water Resources Management and Oasis-hydrosphere-desert Interaction in Arid Regions. 279-295.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Geographical Analysis of Female Social Aggressive Behaviour in Solapur District

Dr. V. K. Pukale Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Sou Suvarnlata Gandhi Mahavidyalaya, Vairag, Solapur

Introduction : Now a day the role of women in our society become more and more aggressive in different sector. Due to literacy they know very well their responsibility towards their children, family and society. They also accepted different economic challenges through getting job opportunities in different sector even in politics also. Due to the development of educational facilities they became literate. They are getting jobs, and playing a more prominent role in society. She shares a school playground with boys. With this regard we wanted to explore how Indian girls today see their futures -- how they choose a path through a shifting cultural landscape. A generation ago, this would have been impossible here: Until recently, girls in the villages didn’t go to school at all. That has changed thanks to efforts by the government and non-profits to promote girls' education. Key Words: Literacy, Aggressive, Behaviour Due to the development of government efforts and non-profits to promote girls education and development of education facilities the female attitude towards their children, family and society also changed. Education, in its broadest, general sense, is the means throuth which individual and society sustain. In its narrow, technical sense, education is the formal process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skill, customs and values from one generation to another Dewey John (1944). In this way education is considered as one of the mechanism of developing component human resource for social and economic development of a nation.. They accept new challenges through different opportunities. Therefore here attention is made how female attitude have been changed during the period. With this regard we wanted to explore how Indian girls today see their futures -- how they choose a path through a shifting cultural landscape. Changing attitude of female is a versatile input in the economic development of the rural area. Therefore in present paper the attention is made to study the spatial distribution of changing female aggressive behaviour in Solapur district. Study Region: The below map 1.1 reveals the location of study region in Maharashtra state. The Solapur District area under Study lies entirely in the Bhima basin of Krishna river system. The district is bounded by 170 10’ North to 180 32’ North latitudes and 740 42’ East to 760 15’ East longitudes. The North South stretch of the district is 150 km and east-west extension is 200 km. The adjoining districts are Sangli to its South-West, Satara to its West, Pune to its North-West, Ahmednagar to its North and Osmanabad to its East and Bijapur district in Karnataka to the South. The district has a total geographical area of 14878 sq km. It constitutes 20 percent of the total area of Pune division, 5 percent of the state Maharashtra. For administrative purpose, the district is divided into eleven talukas, which constitute 1150 villages and 10 urban areas. These talukas are North Solapur, Barshi, Akkalkot, South Solapur, Mohol, Mangalvedha, Pandharpur, Sangola, Malshiras, Madha and

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Karmala. The climate of district is hot and dry with 577 MM average annual rainfall and mean monthly maximum temperature ranging in between 32.8oc and 41.28oc while mean monthly minimum temperature ranging in between 13.94oc and 24.2oc.the district is drained by Bhima River. Objectives of the Studies The present research paper incorporates following objectives: 1) To examine the indicator of female aggressive attitude in Study region. 2) To analyze the spatial distribution of female aggressive behavior in study region. Data collection and Methodology In order to meet these objectives the relevant information and data regarding the indicators of female behaviour are collected for the year of 2011 from Secondary Sources. The data is collected from Socio-economic review and District Statistical Abstract of Solapur District 2011. Ten indicators are taken into considered as female aggressive behaviour. To analyse the study of spatial distribution, Kendall’s Ranking Coefficient technique have been utilized. With the help of ranking composite index the level of spatial distribution of female aggressive behaviour have been analysed and on the basis of this result and conclusion are drown. Indicators of Female Aggressive Behaviour: Following indicators are taken into consideration as female aggressive behaviour in study region. 1. Density of Female Population: The quantity of female population in a given area or space is known as female density. High female density is positively related to female aggressive behaviour in society because it indicates high concentration of female population. The below table No 1.1 indicates that, district as a whole has 125.45 female population density per 100 hectare land. But the spatial distribution is varies from tahsil to tahsil. High female population density i.e. > 122.60 female per 100 hectare land is found in North Solapur, Pandharpur and Malsiras tahsil. Pandharpur and Malshiras it is high due to the development of surface irrigation of Bhima and Nira leads high agriculture and nutritional density. While in North Solapur due to the location of district head quarter leads high urbanization and urban attraction. Moderate female density ranging from 96.43 to 122.60 is found in Barshi and Akkalkot tahsil. It is low in Karmala, Madha, Mohol, Sangola, Mangalwedha and South Solapur tahsil i.e. < 96.43 female density. 2. School Teachers per 1000 female Population: The active participation of females in basic education system is one of the important indicators which is positively related to their aggressive behaviour in Society. Therefore school female teachers behind per 1000 female population is one of the important indicator. The table 1.1 reveals that district as a whole has 5.23 female school teacher per 1000 female population. But the spatial distribution is different from tahsil to tahsil. High female teachers i.e. > 6.51 per 1000 female population is found only in North Solapur tahsil. It is high in North Solapur due to the location of district head quarter in North Solapur leads high urbanization, high concentration of health and education facilities which resulted high concentration of population. It is moderate in Barshi tahsil ranging from 5.02 to 6.51 female teachers. While it is low i.e. < 5.02 is found in Karmala, Mohol, Mangalwedha, South Solapur, Akkalkot, Sangola and Madha tahsil. It is low in Mangalwedha, South Solapur, Akkalkot and Sangola due to the lower development of surface irrigation leads low agriculture production which adversely affect on female teachers.

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3. Primary Female Enrolment: Female primary education is major propriety of Indian government. It indicates the changing attitude of females towards their female child education. Government also try to reduce the disparities between male and female education. Therefore high female primary enrolment is one of the major indicators of female aggressive behaviour in education. The table 1.1 also reveals that, the district as a whole has 27.07 percent female primary enrolment in Study region. But it is varies from tahsil to tahsil. High primary enrolment in Akkalkot tahsil i.e. > 32.33 percent is the result of its periphery location leads in migration. It is moderate ranging from 24.03 to 32.33 percent is recorded in Karmala, Madha, Mohol, Pandharpur, Malshiras, South Solapur, Sangola and Mangalwedha tahsil. While it is low < 24.03 percent recorded in Barshi and North Solapur tahsil. Due to the development of urbanization in Barshi and Solapur city. 4. Middle Female Enrolment: Growth in middle female enrolment is the changing attitude of our society in case of female education. It indicates changing behaviour of females in society. District as a whole has 16.81 percent middle female enrolment. But the spatial distribution is varies from tahsil to tahsil. High middle enrolment i.e. > 19.61 percent is found in Barshi and North Solapur tahsil. It is high in Barshi tahsil due to the location of Barshi city leads high concentration of education facilities. While in North Solapur it is high due to the location of district head quarter leads high urbanization which resulted high middle enrolment. This female enrolment is moderate ranging from 12.79 to 19.61 percent is recorded in Karmala, Madha, Mohol, Pandharpur, Malshiras, Sangola, South Solapur and Mangalwedha tahsil. While it is low in Akkalkot tahsil i.e. < 12.79 percent. Due to its periphery location, lower development of surface irrigation leads drought prone condition which adversely affect on middle enrolment. 5. Female Higher Education Enrolment: Now a day due to the changing nature of society, small family size push the society towards soft attitude towards female, therefore women’s higher education enrolment is increased. It is positive aggressive behaviour of our society towards females. The table 1.1 also indicates district as a whole has 2.10 percent female higher education enrolment. But the spatial distribution is ranging in between 0.31 to 5.40 percent. High percentage of higher education enrolment i.e. > 3.69 is found in North Solapur tahsil. It is high in North Solapur tahsil due to the location of district head quarter, transport facilities leads high concentration of collages in city region. It is moderate ranging from 2.0 to 3.69 percent is found in Madha and Mangalwedha tahsil. While it is low i.e.< 2.00 percent in Karmala, Barshi, Mohol, Pandharpur, Malshiras, Sangola, South Solapur and Akkalkot tahsil. 6. Total Female Enrolment in Education: The below table 1.1 reveals that, district as a whole has 45.99 percent enrolment. But the spatial distribution is varies from tahsil to tahsil. High total enrolment i.e. > 47.70 percent is recorded in North Solapur and Mohol tahsil. It is high in North Solapur due to the location of district head quarter lead high urbanization and high development of education facilities. While it is high in Mohol due to the development of surface irrigation of Sina joint cannel leads agriculture development. It is moderate ranging from 45.96 to 47.70 percent in Barshi and Akkalkot tahsil. While low total female enrolment i.e. < 45.96 percent is found in Karmala, Madha, Pandharpur, Malsiras, Sangola and Mangalwedha tahsil. 7. Female Birth Rate: Now a day the decrease of female child fertility is an serious problem of our society. Therefore increase of female fertility is an aggressive behaviour of society. High female fertility i.e.

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> 7.4 percent to district total fertility is found in North Solapur, Pandharpur and Malsiras tahsil. Due to the development of surface irrigation leads high agriculture development in Pandharpur and Malsiras tahsil which resulted high fertility. While it high North Solapur due to the location of Solapur city as a district head quarter. It is moderate ranging from 5.1 to 7.4 percent in Barshi and Sangola. While it is low i.e. < 5.1 percent is found in Karmala, Madha, Mohal, Mangalwedha, South Solapur and Akkalkot tahsil. In Mangalwedha, South Solapur and Akkalkot it is low due to lower development of surface irrigation lead low agriculture development and low income leads low literacy, male dominant society resulted low female literacy. 8. Female Infant Mortality: This indicator is negatively related to female aggressive behaviour. The table 1.1 shows that, high female infant mortality i.e. > 3.31 percent to district total is found in Barshi, North Solapur, Pandharpur, Malsiras and Akkalkot tahsil. Due to high urbanization it is high in Barshi and North Solapur tahsil. In Pandharpur and Akkalkot tahsil it is high due to low literacy and lower development of medical facilities. It is moderate in Madha and South Solapur ranging from 2.33 to 3.31 percent. While it is low in Sangola, Karmala, Mohol and Mangalwedha tahsil i.e. < 2.33 percent. 9. Sex Ratio: The sex ratio is calculated in terms of number of females per thousand male. The sex composition or the relative proportion of males and females in population at a given instant is the result of preceding hundred years of births, deaths and migration Thompson and Lewis, (1965). Sex ratio is influenced by the birth rate, death rate and migration. It is an index of socio-economic condition of an area. It determines the reproductive potential, marital status, work force and socio- economic relationship L.R.Singh. (2003). A more balanced sex ratio is desirable for the achievement and healthy community life. A Knowledge of the pattern of Sex Ratio* helps to explain the employment and consumption pattern, social needs of the people and perhaps the psychological characteristics of a community”. Franklin. (1956). Therefore sex ratio is an important indicator of female aggressive behaviour. District as a whole has 935 sex ratio. But the sex ratio is varies from tahsil to tahsil. High sex ratio i.e. > 945 is found in North Solapur and Akkalkot tahsil. In North Solapur it is high due to the location of district head quarter and high urbanization. While it is high in Akkalkot tahsil due to the lower development of agriculture resulted high male migration in surrounding region. It is moderate ranging from 930 to 945 is found in Sangola and South Solapur tahsil. While low sex ratio i.e. < 930 is recorded in Karmala, Madha, Barshi, Mohol, Pandharpur, Malshiras and Mangalwedha tahsil. Karmala and Mangalwedha tahsil it is low due to low female literacy. While it is low in Mohol, Pandharpur, Malshiras due to male dominant society. 10. Female Literacy: Female literacy has been recognized as a basic tool for bringing out socio-economic and cultural changes in any region. In fact it is a vehicle of socio-economic transformation. On the other hand, female literacy in society is creating peaceful and friendly relation. Hassan M. I. (2004). Therefore this indicator is taken into consideration as aggressive behavior of female. The table 1.1 indicates that, the district as a whole has 59.67 percent female literacy. But the spatial distribution is varies from tahsil to tahsil. The below table 1.1 shows that, high female literacy is found in Barshi, North Solapur and Malshiras tahsil i.e. > 60.63 percent. It is high in Barshi due to the development of medium irrigation project. It is also high in North Solapur due to the location of district head quarter lead high development of education facilities. While it is high in Malsiras due to Bhima-Sina joint cannel leads high development of surface irrigation. It is moderate ranging from 57.53 to 60.63 percent is recorded in Madha, Mohol and Pandharpur tahsil. While it is low i.e. 60 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

< 57.53 percent is found in Karmala, Sangola, Mangalwedha, South Solapur and Akkalkot tahsil. It is low in Akkalkot, South Solapur and Mangalwedha tahsil due to lower development of surface irrigation leads low agriculture production. Spatial Pattern of Female Aggressive Behaviour in Solapur District. The below Table 1.2 indicates Ranking and Composite Index of female aggressive behaviour indicators. Composite index is calculated as per Kenddle’s Ranking Co-efficient Method. On the basis of Mean and Standard Deviation all the tahsils in Solapur district are divided into following five categories. The table 1.2 indicates the district has whole as 6.00 average composite index during 2011. But the tahsil level composite index is ranging from 3.1 to 8.25 which are lies within the range of mean minus two standard deviation to mean plus one standard deviation. Therefore all the tahsils are divided into Very High, High, Moderate, low and Very female aggressive behaviour. Very High Female Aggressive Behaviour: The tahsils which have below mean minus two standard deviation i.e. < 3.2 composite index are included in this category. Very high female aggressive behaviour is found in North Solapur tahsil due to the location of district head quarter leads high urbanization which resulted the concentration of health and education facilities. High Female Aggressive Behaviour: The below table 1.2 reveals that, tahsil which have mean minus two standard deviation to mean minus one standard deviation composite index ranging from 3.2 to 4.6 are included in this group. High female aggressive behaviour is recorded in Barshi tahsil. Due to the development of medium irrigation project lead high agriculture production which resulted the development of medical and health facilities. Medium Female Aggressive Behaviour: The tahsil which have mean minus one SD to mean composite index ranging from 4.60 to 6.00 are included in this category and it is recorded in Mohol and Malshiras tashil. Low Female Aggressive Behaviour: Tahsil which have mean to mean plus one SD i.e. 6.00 to 7.4 composite index is included in this category and it is found in Karmala, Madha, Pandharpur, Sangola, South Solapur and Akkalkot tahsil. In Karmala it is low due to undulating surface in North western part, Sangola due to steep slope and undulating surface in South western part, South Solapur and Akkalkot tahsils due to lower development of irrigation resulted low female aggressive behaviour. Very Low Female Aggressive Behavior: The table 1.2 reveals that, tahsil which have above mean plus one SD composite index i.e. < 7.4 are included in this group. Very low female aggressive behavior is found in Mangalwedha tahsil. It is very low in Mangalwedha due to lower development of surface irrigation, deficiency of water leads low agriculture development which resulted low literacy and traditional society.

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Map No.1.1 Location of Study Region:

Table No.1.1 Indicators of Female Aggressive Behaviour :

Densi Percent Density ty of % of % of % of % of Percent age of of Fema Primary Middle College Total age of Female Litera Female le female female female female Female Infant Sex cy Sr. Populat Teac Enrollm Enrollm Enrollm Enrollm Fertilit Mortali Rat Fema No Tahsil ion her ent ent ent ent y ty io le 1 Karmala 70.26 4.25 27.24 16.78 0.78 44.79 3.53 1.62 925 57.13 2 Madha 91.97 4.28 25.11 16.61 2.50 44.22 4.92 3.23 922 59.11 3 Barshi 107.80 5.18 21.99 21.14 1.81 44.94 6.88 3.77 929 63.04 4 N.Solapur 688.38 8.01 15.73 26.45 5.40 47.58 48.86 70.62 958 65.78 5 Mohal 91.91 3.62 29.25 19.59 0.62 49.46 3.83 1.35 920 58.23 6 P Pur 148.79 3.79 25.64 17.10 1.90 44.65 7.07 4.31 917 58.36 7 Malshiras 126.14 4.38 27.55 16.28 1.31 45.14 9.70 4.04 923 60.63 8 Sangola 82.50 4.43 24.20 18.79 1.79 44.78 5.12 1.35 936 53.41 9 Mwedha 71.21 3.53 27.13 14.30 3.05 44.48 3.51 1.89 917 53.68 10 S.Solapur 91.26 4.96 30.75 13.75 0.31 44.80 2.80 3.50 933 54.21 11 Akkalkot 100.98 4.28 40.65 5.97 0.89 47.52 3.78 4.31 953 54.71 District 125.45 5.23 27.07 16.81 2.10 45.99 100.00 100.00 935 59.84 Source: Socio-economic Review and District Statistical Abstract of Solapur-2011

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Table No.1.2 Spatial Pattern of Female Aggressive Behaviour in Solapur District-2011 Average Sr.No Tahsil DOFP DOFT PFE MFE HFE TFE FF IFM SR FL Rank 1 Karmala 11 8 5 6 9 7 9 3 6 7 7.1 2 Madha 6 6.5 8 7 3 11 6 7 8 4 6.65 3 Barshi 4 2 10 2 5 5 4 5 5 2 4.4 4 N.Solapur 1 1 11 1 1 2 1 11 1 1 3.1 5 Mohal 7 10 3 3 10 1 7 1.5 9 6 5.75 6 P Pur 2 9 7 5 4 9 3 9.5 10 5 6.35 7 Malshiras 3 5 4 8 7 4 2 8 7 3 5.1 8 Sangola 9 4 9 4 6 8 5 1.5 3 11 6.05 9 Mwedha 10 11 6 9 2 10 10 4 11 10 8.25 10 S.Solapur 8 3 2 10 11 6 11 6 4 9 7 11 Akkalkot 5 6.5 1 11 8 3 8 9.5 2 8 6.2 Mean 6.00 SD 1.40 Complied by Researcher on the basis of table 1.1 Map No-1.2 Spatial Pattern of Female Aggressive Behaviour in Solapur District:

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Notes The data regarding to the indicators of female aggressive behaviour are collected from Socio-Economic Review and District Statistical Abstract 2011 from District Statistical Department, Solapur. In table 1.2 indicators are given with short form which is DOFP-Density of Female Population, DOFT-Density of Female Teacher, PFE-Primary Female Enrolment, MFE-Middle Female Enrollment,HFE-Higher Female Enrolment, TFE-Total Female Enrolment, FF-Female Fertility, IFM-Infant Female Mortality, SR-Sex Ratio, FL-Femala Literacy]

CONCLUSION: High female density is found in Pandharpur and Malsiras tahsil due to the development of surface irrigation of Bhima and Nira leads high agriculture and nutritional density. While in North Solapur due to the location of district head quarter leads high urbanization and urban attraction. High female teachers in North Solapur due to the location of district head quarter leads high health and education facilities which resulted high concentration of population in city region. The middle female enrolment is low in Akkalkot tahsil due to its periphery location, lower development of surface irrigation leads drought prone condition which adversely affect on middle enrolment. High total enrolment in North Solapur due to the location of district head quarter lead high urbanization and high development of education facilities. Increase of female fertility is an aggressive behaviour of society. High female fertility is found in North Solapur, Pandharpur and Malsiras tahsil. Due to the development of surface irrigation and the location of Solapur city as a district head quarter. Low sex ratio Karmala and Mangalwedha tahsil due to low female literacy. While it is low in Mohol, Pandharpur, Malshiras due to male dominant society. High female aggressive behavior in North Solapur and Barshi tahsil due to high urbanization lead the concentration of middle and higher education facilities in city region. Due to high female literacy resulted low female infant mortality and high female fertility.

REFERENCES : Dewey, John. 1944. Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the philosophy of Education. New York: The free Press. Thompson and Lewis. 1965 ‘Population Problems’Tata Mc. Graw Hill, New Delhi, pp 73. Singh. 2003. ‘Fundamentals Of Human Geography’. Allahbad: Sharda Pustak Bhawan,. Pp 259. Franklin. 1956. ‘The Pattern of Sex Ratios in New Zealand’ Economic Geography, vol.32, pp.162 Hassan. 2008. “PopulatioGeography”. Jaipur Rajasthan: Rawat Publication. Pp 152. Dr. Pukale V.K. 2014. “Rural Development-A Geographical Perspective of Solapur District” Ph.D. Thesis. Socio-economic Review and District Statistical Abstract of Solapur District. 2011

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016

ISSN 2277 – 4858

Socio – Economic status of schedule casts in Sindhudurg District

Mahendra A. Thakur, Research student Ph.D. JJTU, Rajasthan.

Shivram A.Thakur, S.P.K.Mahavidyalaya, Sawantwadi.

INTRODUCTION : Socio-economic condition means an economic and social combined total measure of a person’s work experience and of an individual’s or family’s economic and social position in relation to others; based on income, education and occupation (Bhattacharya 2014, 1). The poor socio-economic condition of schedule casts in Sindhudurg is caused by its physiographic condition and lack of knowledge about development programmes of the government. This paper attempts to provide the data structure and reasons of poor socio-economic condition of Sindhudurg schedule casts and some suggestions to overcome these persistent problems. Objectives of the Study : The main objectives of this study are as follows: i. To understand the Social and economic condition of the schedule cast. ii. To evaluate their livelihood patterns; iii. To highlight their demographic structure, settlement features, economic activities; Study Area : Sindhudurg is the Konkan area of Maharashtra having stretch of land on the west coast of India, endowed with the beautiful seashore, picturesque Mountains and scenic natural beauty. Map No.01 shows that geographical location of the Sindhudurg district is lies from 15037`N to 16040`North latitudes & 730 19` E to 740 18` East longitude the district is surrounded by the Arabian sea on the west, the Belgaum district & Goa on the south, & the Ratnagiri district on the North &sahyadri hill ranges to the East. Sindhudurg district is spread over an area of 5207 sq.km. 743 villages are situated in 8 tahsils of the district. Sindhudurg District having 86, 88, 25 total Population according to 2011 census out of them 38356 Scheduled Cast Population. Methodology – In the present study various quantitative methods have been used to study the Socio – Economic Status of scheduled cast in Sindhudurg District. The diagrams will be prepared from various data and their interpretation support to the present study. The present study is based upon secondary data. The secondary data has been collected from the various following sources. 1) District census Hand book Sindhudurg. 2) Socio-economic review and district statistical abstract of Sindhudurg.

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Besides that information regarding the proposed study has been taken from various reports and journals. Sex Structure - Sex structure is one of the key parameters by which socioeconomic status of villagers can be measure (Chandana 1996). The composition of population according to sex is formally known as sex structure. It is one of the most commonly method for analysing age composition. It varies from place to place depending upon the state of demographic transition. In sindhudurg district nearly 47.60 % Male S.C. population leaved in Rural area and 50.64%Male S.C. population leaved in urban area. Female S.C. population ratio is also nearly same 52.40%femal leaved in rural and 49.36% in arban area.ther are 48% male and 52% female sc population in sindhudurg district.in sindhudurg district nearlay 91.76% sc population leaved in rural area and only 8.24% leaved in urban area. It means that the S.C. population is mainly depend upon the rural area and rural services so its Socio-economic status is low. Table No. 1 Sex Structure of SC population in Sindhudurg District Category Male Percentage % Female Percentage % Total Rural 16756 47.60 18443 52.40 35199 Urban 1690 50.64 1647 49.36 3337 Sindhudurg 18446 48.00 20090 52.00 38356

Fig. No. 1

Educational Structure - A person who can read and write with understanding of any language is taken as literate while a person who can merely read but can’t write is illiterate. It is not necessary that a person who is literate should have received any formal education or should have passed any minimum educational standard. In Sindhudurg, 63% peoples are literate where as 37% peoples are illiterate. Table No.2 Shows the clear cut idea about Rural Urban Male-Female literacy ratio. In rural area the Literate male female ratio is change in rural area there is 55.73% male literate and only 44.27% female ratio. Above table shows the idea about illiterates picture. In rural area nearly 34.34% male

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are illiterates and 65.66% female illiterates. In urban area the ratio is also same but the variation of illiterate ratio in male female is very high. It means that the educational status of sc female in very low in sindhudurg district. Table No. 2 Educational Structure of SC in Sindhudurg District Category Male Percentage Female Percentage Total Literates 12161 55.73 9660 44.27 21821 Rural Literates 1396 56.20 1088 43.80 2484 Urban Illiterates 4595 34.34 8783 65.66 13378 Rural Illiterates 294 34.47 559 65.53 853 Urban

Fig. No. 2-A

Fig No. 2-B

Occupational Structure Occupation is a medium through which one family spends their livelihood. In the study region 53.24% people are non-workers whereas main-workers and marginal-workers accounts for 24.93% and 21.81% respectively. So, this figure indicates higher rate of dependency which reflect a negative socio-economic aspect of the District. Table no. 3 And Fig. No. 3 A, B Shows clear-cut idea about the occupational structure especially rural urban and Male-Female occupational structure of Sindhudurg district. From this table it is found that the 91.34% workers are in rural area and only 8.66% workers are in Urban area. In rural area there 52% peoples are non-workers, 24.85% Main workers and 23.11% marginal workers and in urban area there are only 8.15% people marginal worker and 25.83% people main worker and 66% people Non worker. This statistical data is give the clearcut picture about the occupational structure of study region. Nearly more than 50% SC population is Non worker and only 47% SC population engaged in main and marginal workers. It means that the SC population occupational status is low in study region.

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Table No. 3 Occupational Structure of SC Population in Sindhudurg

Total SC Main Workers Marginal Workers Non Worker Popu. Category Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 8748 8136 18315 35199 Rural 5774 2974 3209 4927 7773 10542 (24.85%) (23.11%) (52.03%) (91.34%) 2203 862 272 3337 Urban 709 153 136 136 845 1358 (66.01%) (25.83%) (8.15%) (8.66%)

9610 8408 20518 38536

(24.93%) (21.81%) (53.24%) (100%)

Fig No. 3-A Fig No. 3-B

Main Workers Structure – Table No. 4 and Fig. No. 4 shows the main workers structure of SC population. In Sindhudurg district there are 9610 total Main workers out of them 24.04% are cultivators, 27.99% Agricultural Labour only 8.81% engaged in Household industry worker and nearly 39.14% peoples are other workers. Table No. 4 Main Workers Structure of SC Population InSindhudurg Household Agricultural Cultivators Industry Other Worker Total Category Labour Worker Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Rural 1321 984 1743 942 357 472 2353 576 8748 Urban 06 - 03 02 09 09 691 142 862 9610

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Fig No 4

Structure of Tenure status – Table No. 5 Fig. No. 5 show the clear-cut idea about structure of Tenure status of schedule cast household in Sindhudurg district. If we observed the above table there is 87% people have owned room or house. Out of them 31.09% people have one room and only 13.54% people have above three rooms houses. 9.96% SC. Peoples are live in rented room and only 2.93% peoples are live in other facility. Table No. 5 shows that the nearly 61.78% peoples have one and two rooms tenure it means that the SC populations economical condition is not better and hence they live in small tenure houses SC peoples economical condition is not better and hence they live in small tenure houses SC peoples economical condition is not sound, so their status of living standard is low. Table No. 5 Structure of Tenure status of SC household in Sindhudurg Category No One Two Room Three Above Total Exclusive Room Room Three Room Room Owner Rural 1417 4169 4030 1877 1725 13847 Urban 41 137 175 125 151 (87.03%)) Rented Rural 91 363 377 166 53 1585 Urban 28 152 169 160 26 (9.96%) Other Rural 102 156 72 26 47 466 Urban 06 16 07 27 07 (2.93%) Total 1685 4993 4830 2381 2009 15898 (10.59%) (31.40%) (30.38%) (14.97%) (12.63%) (100%)

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Fig No. 5

CONCLUSION – The entire discussion in this study helps to give almost complete idea about the demographic, social and economic structure of this Scheduled Caste population in Sindhudurg District. In sindhudurg district nearlay 91.76% sc population leaved in rural area and only 8.24% leaved in urban area. It means that the S.C. population is mainly depend upon the rural area and rural services so its Socio-economic status is low. In rural area nearly 34.34% male are illiterates and 65.66% female illiterates.In urban area the ratio is also same but the vaeiation of illiterate ratio in male famel is very high.It means thet the educationl status of sc female in very low in sindhudurg district. Nearly more than 50% SC population is Non worker and only 47% SC population engaged in main and marginal workers. It means that the SC population occupational status is low in study region. Nearly 61.78% peoples have one and two rooms tenure it means that the SC populations economical condition is not better and hence they live in small tenure houses SC peoples economical condition is not better and hence they live in small tenure houses SC peoples economical condition is not sound, so their status of living standard is low.

REFERENCES : 1. Bhattacharya, D. 2014. “Status and Socio-Economic Problems of Nunakunri Villagers: A Case Study of Nunakunri Village, PurbaMedinipur District.” Radix International Journal of Research in Social Science, Volume 3 (7), pp. 1-14. 2. Chandana, R. C. 1996. Geography of population. New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers. 3. Debjani Roy 2012. Socioeconomic status of schedule tribes in Jharkand. Indian journal of spatial science. Vol.3,No.2Pp.26-34. 4. Deshpande C.D. 1980. Impact of A Metropolitan City on the surrounding region. Concept publishing company. New Delhi. 5. District census Hand book Sindhudurg. 6. Murthy C.S. and M.Krishna Mohan. 2000. The impact of development of disparities between SC/ST and others. Rawat publications, Jaipur. 70 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 14, Jan./Feb. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Swacha Bharath And Managing The Waste: An Environmental Study

Dr. Basavaraj R. Bagade, Assistant Professor, Department of studies in Geography Rani Channamma University, Belagavi, Karnataka

ABSTRACT : Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (English: Clean India Mission and abbreviated as SBA or SBM for Swachh Bharat Mission) is a national campaign by the Government of India, covering 4041 statutory towns, to clean the streets, roads and infrastructure of the country. The campaign was officially launched on 2 October 2014 at Rajghat, New Delhi, where Prime Minister Narendra Modi himself cleaned the road. It was a remembrance to Gandhi's words. It is India's biggest ever cleanliness drive and 3 million government employees and school and college students of India participated in this event. The mission was started by Prime Minister Modi, who nominated nine famous personalities for the campaign, and they took up the challenge and nominated nine more people and so on. It has been carried forward since then with people from all walks of life joining it. Construction of toilets is one aspect of the Swachh Bharat programme. The programme aims to make India "open defecation free" by 2019. A village is declared "open defecation free" if each household in the village has a fly-proof toilet and safe septage disposal system and every member of the household has access to a toilet and 100% usage of the toilet, according to the guideline issued by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS)The village should also have no openly visible faeces, have properly used toilets in its schools and Anganwadi centres with safe confinement of the excreta. The management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is the biggest challenge faced by municipal authorities throughout India. The three most popular options for processing and disposing of MSW are: Converting it into Compost, Converting it to Energy, Sanitary landfill. Solid waste management is a public service critical for protecting human health and the environment. That's why we focus on an integrated approach of safe and economical systems that rely upon proven environmentally sound technologies that support beneficial re‐use and add value to customers. Eco Pro’s full‐service solid waste management consulting services include strategic planning, designing, monitoring, and financial advisory services. We are the only organization from Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh empaneled under “Swachh Bharat Mission” with Ministry of Urban Development Govt. of India as Solid Waste Consultants. Our 20+ years of experience in field of waste management covers all types consulting solutions including materials recycling facilities, transfer stations, landfills, composting facilities, and waste‐to‐energy facilities. INTRODUCTION : Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (English: Clean India Mission and abbreviated as SBA or SBM for Swachh Bharat Mission) is a national campaign by the Government of India, covering 4041 statutory towns, to clean the streets, roads and infrastructure of the country. The campaign was officially launched on 2 October 2014 at Rajghat, New Delhi, where Prime Minister Narendra Modi himself cleaned the road. It was a remembrance to Gandhi's words. It is India's biggest ever cleanliness drive and 3 million government employees and school and college students of India participated in this event. The mission was started by Prime Minister Modi, who nominated nine famous personalities for the campaign, and they took up the challenge and nominated nine more people and so on. It has been carried forward since then with people from all walks of life joining it. With effect from 1 April 1999, the Government of India restructured the Comprehensive Rural Sanitation Programme and launched the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) which was later (on 1 April 2012) renamed to Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA).To give a fillip to the Total Sanitation Campaign, effective June 2003 the government launched an incentive scheme in the form of an award for total sanitation coverage, maintenance of a clean environment and open defecation-free 71 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 14

panchayat villages, blocks and districts called Nirmal Gram Puraskar On 2 October 2014 the campaign was relaunched as Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. Objectives: 1. To study the Elimination of open defecation Conversion of unsanitary toilets to pour flush toilets 2. To create the awareness Intensive campaign for awareness generation and health education to create a felt need for personal, household and environmental sanitation facilities. 3. To analyze the Solid waste management is a public service critical for protecting human health and the environment. Swachh Bharat Mission components The Mission has the following components:  Household toilets  Community toilets  Public toilets  Solid waste management  IEC & Public Awareness  Capacity building SBM (Urban) Component II: Community toilets Under SBM (Urban), it is estimated that about 20% of the urban households in cities, who are currently practicing open defecation are likely to use community toilets as a solution due to land and space constraints in constructing individual household latrine. Community toilet blocks will consist of a given number of toilet seats, as per requirements, toilet superstructure including the pan and water closet, and a substructure (either an on-site treatment system, or a connection to underground sewerage/septage system) shared by all the toilet seats and facilities for hand wash.For this component, beneficiaries shall be groups of households (“beneficiary household group”) in urban areas whose members practice open defecation and who do not have access to household toilet, and for whom the construction of individual household toilets is not feasible. Beneficiary household groups will be targeted under this scheme irrespective of whether they live in authorized/unauthorized colonies or notified / non-notified slums. Under SBM (Urban), tenure security issues are to be de-linked with benefits.Once a sufficient number of households are identified as a group, the ULB shall identify suitable piece of land adjoining their houses/dwelling and design the toilet block. Efforts should be made to look into all possible sources of revenue generation by leveraging land, use of rooftop or any other means.Central government incentive for the construction of community toilets will be in the form of 40% Grant/VGF, for each community toilet block constructed. States will contribute a minimum of 25% funds towards community toilet projects to match 75% Central Share. (10% in the case of North East States and special category states). SBM (Urban) Component -III: Public Toilets Under SBM (Urban), States and ULBs will ensure that a sufficient number of public toilets are constructed in each city. All prominent places within the city attracting floating population should be covered. Care should be taken to ensure that these facilities have adequate provision for men, women and facilities for the disabled (e.g. ramp provision, braille signage, etc.) wherever necessary. There will be no Central Government incentive support for the construction of public toilets under SBM (Urban). States and ULBs are encouraged to identify land for public toilets, and

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leverage this land and advertisements to encourage the private sector to construct and manage public toilets through a PPP agreement. All Public Toilets constructed under SBM must have a minimum 5 year maintenance contract. Municipal Waste Management The management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is the biggest challenge faced by municipal authorities throughout India. The three most popular options for processing and disposing of MSW are:  Converting it into Compost  Converting it to Energy  Sanitary landfill. Solid waste management is a public service critical for protecting human health and the environment. That's why we focus on an integrated approach of safe and economical systems that rely upon proven environmentally sound technologies that support beneficial re‐use and add value to customers. Eco Pro’s full‐service solid waste management consulting services include strategic planning, designing, monitoring, and financial advisory services. We are the only organization from Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh empaneled under “Swachh Bharat Mission” with Ministry of Urban Development Govt. of India as Solid Waste Consultants. Our 20+ years of experience in field of waste management covers all types consulting solutions including materials recycling facilities, transfer stations, landfills, composting facilities, and waste‐to‐energy facilities. As per Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) rules 2000, including all administrative, financial, legal planning and engineering functions involved in the whole spectrum of solutions to problems of solid wastes thrust upon the community by its inhabitants. The major components of solid waste management are;  Segregation at the source  Primary (Door to Door) Collection  Secondary Storage  Transportation  Processing  Disposal Eco Pro has the experience and the expertise to:  Preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR)  Waste Characterization, Quantification and Composition Studies  Designing of the system of collection, transportation & disposal of MSW.  Collection System Optimization and Technology Upgrade  Transfer Station Designing  Recycling & Composting Plant Consulting  GIS & Computer‐Optimized Routing of vehicles  Designing of Mobile App based Door to Door Collection and Transportation System  Collection, Transfer, Disposal and Processing Procurement Assistance  Developed Procedures for Monitoring, Design, Construction and Quality control  Preparation of Bid‐documents.  Public Awareness program.  Design of Sanitary Landfill and design of composting plant.  Environmental Impact Assessment of Landfill sites.  Reuse & Recycle technology options.  Preparation of drawings, design, estimate and Tender document.

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Medical Waste Management - The Biomedical Waste Management & Handling Rules 1998, has come into force. These rules apply to all Hospitals, Nursing homes, Municipal Corporations, Clinics, Pathological Labs, Blood Banks etc who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat, dispose or handle bio- medical waste in any form. It shall be the duty of every occupier of an institution generating bio- medical waste to ensure that such waste is handled without any adverse effect to human health and environment. We are pioneers and leaders in the field of Bio-Medical Waste Management. We have provided consultancy and turnkey services to establish various individual and centrallised Bio- Medical Waste Management Facilities throughout India. To set up a Common Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF ) to its maximum perfection, care shall be taken in choosing the right technology, development of CBWTF area, proper designing of transportation system to achieve optimum results etc. These key features of CBWTF designing are addressed by Eco Pro while designing a CBWTF. Our designs satisfy all norms set by MoEF and CPCB for setting up of CBWTF including infrastructure, plant and machinery. Common Bio-medical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF) A Common Bio-medical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF) is set up where bio-medical waste, generated from a number of healthcare units, is imparted necessary treatment to reduce adverse effects that this waste may pose. Installation of individual treatment facilities by small healthcare units requires comparatively high capital investment. In addition, it requires separate manpower and infrastructure development for proper operation and maintenance of treatment systems. The concept of CBWTF not only addresses such problems but also prevents proliferation of treatment equipment in a city. In turn it reduces the monitoring pressure on regulatory agencies. By running the treatment equipment at CBWTF to its full capacity, the cost of treatment of per bed of waste gets significantly reduced. CBWTF as an option has also been legally introduced in India. The Bio-medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1998, gives an option to the bio-medical waste generator that such waste can also be treated at the common bio-medical waste treatment facility. The Second Amendment of the Rules in June, 2000, further eased the bottleneck in upbringing the CBWTF by making Local Authority responsible for providing suitable site within its jurisdiction. The concept of CBWTF is also being widely accepted in India among the healthcare units, medical associations and entrepreneurs. We provide following services in the field of Biomedical Waste Management  Prefeasibility and Feasibility report preparation  Detail Project Report (DPR) preparation  Development of Common Biomedical Waste Treatment and Disposal facility (CBWTF)  Technological tie ups for CBWTF City Sanitation Plan City Sanitation Plan as indicated in National Urban Sanitation Policy, comprehensive planning cannot be achieved to attain the objectives of Swachh Bharat Mission. Many states and cities have prepared these plans and strategy but many have not done so. The City Sanitation Plan is a comprehensive document which describes the short, medium and long term measures for the issues related to governance, technical, financial, capacity enhancement, awareness raising and pro-poor interventions to achieve the goal of NUSP to create community driven, totally sanitised, healthy and liveable cities and towns. City Sanitation Plans are the outputs of strategic planning processes for citywide sanitation sector development. Addressing

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technical and non-technical aspects of sanitation services, City Sanitation Plans include the vision, missions, and goals of sanitation development as well as strategies to meet these goals The City Sanitation Plan’s purpose is to support Urban Local Bodies (ULB) and NGOs, CBOs, citizens and private sector agencies to take concrete steps to achieve 100% sanitation in their respective cities. A citywide sanitation plan includes the vision, missions, and goals of sanitation development as well as strategies to meet these goals. Each strategy can be found translated into indicative programs (and projects). The City Sanitation Plan shall contain an assessment of the current situation and a immediate, short, medium and long term plan for improvement of the following services and aspects: Technical Aspects, including strategies and programs for the development of  Domestic waste water services,  Solid waste management services,  Micro drainage services. Non-Technical Aspects, including strategies for the development of non-physical aspects such as -  Community awareness and participation  Policy and regulation  Institutional capacity  Private sector engagement  NGO engagement  Financing and tariffs  Monitoring and evaluation.

CONCLUSION : Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is a national campaign by the Government of India, covering 4041 statutory towns, to clean the streets, roads and infrastructure of the country. The mission was started by Prime Minister Modi, who nominated nine famous personalities for the campaign, and they took up the challenge and nominated nine more people and so on. It has been carried forward since then with people from all walks of life joining it. With effect from 1 April 1999, the Government of India restructured the Comprehensive Rural Sanitation Programme and launched the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) which was later (on 1 April 2012) renamed to Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA). The City Sanitation Plan is a comprehensive document which describes the short, medium and long term measures for the issues related to governance, technical, financial, capacity enhancement, awareness raising and pro-poor interventions to achieve the goal of NUSP to create community driven, totally sanitised, healthy and liveable cities and towns. City Sanitation Plans are the outputs of strategic planning processes for citywide sanitation sector development. Addressing technical and non-technical aspects of sanitation services, City Sanitation Plans include the vision, missions, and goals of sanitation development as well as strategies to meet these goals. Construction of toilets is one aspect of the Swachh Bharat programme. The programme aims to make India "open defecation free" by 2019. A village is declared "open defecation free" if each household in the village has a fly-proof toilet and safe septage disposal system and every member of the household has access to a toilet and 100% usage of the toilet, according to the guideline issued by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation .The village should also have no openly visible faces, have properly used toilets in its schools and Anganwadi centres with safe confinement of the excreta. The City Sanitation Plan’s purpose is to support Urban Local Bodies (ULB) and NGOs, CBOs, citizens and private sector agencies to take concrete steps to achieve 100% sanitation

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in their respective cities. A citywide sanitation plan includes the vision, missions, and goals of sanitation development as well as strategies to meet these goals.

REFERENCES : 1. "Swachh Bharat campaign should become mass movement: Narendra Modi". The Economic Times. Retrieved 2 October 2014. 2. "PM reviews preparations for launch of Mission Swachh Bharat". Retrieved 7 October 2014. 3. "Swachh Bharat: PM Narendra Modi launches 'Clean India' mission". Zee News. Retrieved 2 October 2014. 4. "Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: PM Narendra Modi to wield broom to give India a new image". The Times of India. Retrieved 2 October 2014. 5. "As it happened: PM Narendra Modi's 'Swachh Bharat Abhiyan'". Retrieved 2 October 2014. 6. "Time to clean up your act", Hindustan Times 7. http://www.deccanherald.com/content/499474/centre-sets-rules-open-defecation.html 8. "Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan: Government builds 7.1 lakh toilets in January". timesofindia- economictimes. 9. "Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan: PM Modi govt builds 7.1 lakh toilets in January". Firstpost.

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