What are the reasons behind imperialism and the results of colonialism?

· BERMUDA

ATLANTIC OCEAN AHAMAS

PUERTO RICO "': ' ;~ GUADELOUPE ',- MARTINIQUE BARBADOS

Equator Galapagos Islands

PACIFIC OCEAN

Imperialism circa 1763 D British D Danish D Dutch D French D Portuguese D Ru ss ian o 500 1000 km D Spanish I I I

m ©P ILAND .0• E ~

SPANISH MOROCCO ~ NI SIA °'= d MEDITERRANEAN SEA ASIA

LIBYA ALGERIA

FRENCH WEST AFRICA .. ANGLO­ GAMBIA EGYPTIAN MALILAND • 0 SUDAN

MPIRE OF HIOPIA

Equator

IND/AN OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN

Colonialism circa 1914

D Belgium Q D France D Germany .... D Great Britain □ Ital y D Portugal D Spa in D Independent 0 500 1000 km

©P ©P 25 Women in the Fur Trade I I I

Lady Selkirk and the Fur Trade ,1em4ij:j Portrait of Lady Selkirk Excerpt from article by Sian Bumsted, Manitoba History, Jean Wedderburn-Colvile (Lady Selkirk) po rtrait, date Manitoba Historical Society, 1999. and artists unknown.

For her part, Lady Selkirk was forced to take positive action, since she was on the spot in Montreal, the centre of the fur trade. She corresponded with her husband regularly. She advised him, lectured him, admonished him, and informed him of what others were saying and doing. She dealt with his legal advisors, James Stuart and Samuel Gale, consulting and giving ideas herself. She charmed rough fur traders like Colin Robertson and sophisticated Montreal merchants like Alexander Garden. She provided her brother in London with information on developments in the fur trade, and saw that his instructions were executed in Montreal. She represented Selkirk to colonial officials in Lower Canada. Many of the documents from this period later transcribed were originally copied in Lady Selkirk's hand ...

- - -:,\. 0 Use Sources A and B to answer questions 1 to 3 . 1. What inferences can we make from Sources A and B about Lady Selkirk's characteristics and role in nineteenth-century colonial society? Discuss whether you believe she would be typical of European women at that time, or an exception. Why? 2. What in Source A surprises you? What is the main idea expressed in Source A? 3. If Lady Selkirk was as important as Source A indicated, why do you think w e do not know more about her in history?

26 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism ©P ,1nw,11 Matonabbee on the Role of Women in the Fur Trade

Matonabbee, Chipewyan leader, spoke English and guided Samuel Hearn e's expeditions. Excerpt from A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean, by Samuel Hearne, 1795.

He attributed all our misfortunes to the misconduct of my guides, and the very plan we pursued, by the desire of the Governor, in not taking any women with us on this journey, was, he said, the principal thing that occasioned all our wants: 'for, said he, when all the men are heavy laden, they can neither hunt nor travel to any considerable distance; and in case they meet with success in hunting, who is to carry the produce of their labour? Women, added he, were made for labour; one of them can carry, or haul, as much as two men can do . They also pitch our tents, make and mend our clothing, keep us warm at night; and, in fact, there is no such thing as travelling any considerable distance, or for any length of time, in this country, without their assistance." "Women, said he again, though they do everything, are maintained at a trifling expense; for as they always cook, the very licking of their fingers in scarce times, is sufficient for their subsistence." This, however odd as it may appear, is but too true a description of the situation of women in this country: it is at least so in appearance; for the women always carry the provisions, and it is more than probable they help themselves when the men are not present.

Samuel Hearne, English author, fur trader, and explorer (1745-1792)

Steel engra vi ng of Samuel Hearne, 1796, artist unknown

@ Use Sources C and D to answer questions 4 to 8. 4. Summarize Matonabbee's argument in Source C about the importance of First Nations women to an expedition through the Canadian wilderness. Speculate how this might differ from European views of the role of women at the time. 5. Make a T-chart with men on one side and women on the other, and list all the duties each is responsible for on an expedition. 6. Why do you think the governor would not have wanted to take any women on the journey? 7. Why did Matonabbee consider First Nations women so important on expeditions? 8. What do you think is meant by " ... not taking any women with us on this journey, was, he sa id, the principal thing that occasioned all our wants ... " ?

©P ©P Women in the Fu r Trade 27 ,111m(i•• Thanadelthur, Chipewyan Diplomat

Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur-Trade Society, 1670-1870, by Sylvia Van Kirk, 1983.

Thanadelthur was a young Chipewyan woman who was one of the most outstanding female diplomats of the fur trade and acted as guide, interpreter and peace negotiator for Governor Knight of the Hudson's Bay Company at York Factory. .. She and another Chipewyan woman had been captured by the Cree in the spring of 1713. Over a year later they were able to make their escape, hoping to reach their people before the winter set in. Cold and hunger drove them back, their only remaining hope being the traders, whose goods they had seen in the Cree camps while captive. Shortly after her companion perished, Thanadelthur stumbled across tracks which led her to the tent of the Company's goose hunters on Ten Shilling Creek. From here she was escorted back to the post at York Factory. Knight was immediately impressed with the young woman and the knowledge she brought of the Chipewyan people and of the abundant fur resources of her people. However, before successful trade could be established, the warring between the Cree and the Chipewyan had to be ended. To accomplish this, in late June 1715 Knight sent out William Stuart, Thanadelthur and some bands of Upland Cree to travel to the Chipewyan. Thanadelthur was to act as interpreter and diplomat. Knight gave Thanadelthur a quantity of presents to give to her people, along with a message that the English would build a fort on the Churchill River in the autumn of 1716. Thanadelthur appreciated the importance of her position, and soon became the dominating spirit of the expedition. Stuart was amazed by her ability to awe the Cree. The expedition was slowed by illness and lack of food . Most of the Cree turned back, leaving only Stuart, Thanadelthur, a Cree Chief and a dozen of his followers to proceed to the Chipewyan. When the remaining party found the bodies of nine Chipewyan, recently slain by another band of the Cree, failure seemed certain. The remaining Cree in the expedition, fearing the revenge of the Chipewyan, now wanted to abandon the mission. Thanadelthur took the initiative to preserve the mission. She persuaded the Cree to wait ten days while she searched for her people. Within in a few days of setting out, she came across a large band of Chipewyan. It required all of her powers of persuasion to convince them to return with her. She made herself hoarse "with perpetuall talking" before her people would believe the peaceful intent of the Cree . ..

28 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism ©P Thanadelthur Mediating

"Ambassadress of Peace" shows Thanadelthur mediating between the Dene (left) and Cree (right), while William Stewart watches from the sidelines. Franklin Arbuckle 's 1952 painting, commissioned by the Hudson's Bay Company for its annual calendar in 1953, remains the most popular image of this 18th century Dene woman.

@ Use Sources A, C, and F to answer questions 9 to 13. 9. Compare and contrast the descriptions of women from Sources A and C with Sources E and F. 10. Based on Source F, how would you best describe Thanadelthur's strengths, her character, and the like? How might those characteristics have been necessary traits for both men and women at that time? Refer to details from the source. 11 . Why do you think Thanadelthur was so determined to make her expedition a success? 12. Make a list of the roles Thanadelthur held on the expedition . 13. Would the description of Thanadelthur and her status be more like the role of Lady Selkirk as described in Source A, or like the role of First Nations women described in Sources C and E? Explain your answer using evidence from the sources.

14. To what extent did First Nations women have a more important role in their society compared to European women in colonial society? Consider and weigh the strength of the evidence in your textbook and these sources when supporting your answers.

15. Do an Internet search for other images of women in the fur trade. Notice how they are portrayed. Construct a list of all the roles and duties that women are portrayed as undertaking in the images.

16. Compare and contrast the roles of Lady Selkirk and Thanadelthur in the fur trade from Sources A to F. How do the roles of First Nations women compare to those of Europeans?

17. Use the sources provided to create a journal entry from the perspective of a European fur trader recounting some discussions with First Nations women on a trade expedition.

©P ©P Women in the Fur Trade 29 The Legacy of the Seven Years War

Territorial Boundaries Before and After the Seven Years War

LOUISIANA LOUISIANA - ~'-\ ceded by \.__,,, France' to Spain, 1763 , \ ATLA N TI C ATLANTI C OCEAN OCEAN

TEXAS

D British Territory Gu lf of D French Territory Gulf of Mexico D Spanish Territory Mexico D Disp uted between Great Britain and France 0 250 500- km·· - Proclamatio n Line Prewar Boundaries 1754 of 1763

,,mijij:■ Treaty of Paris

Excerpt from the Treaty of Paris between Britain and France, ending the Seven Years War and signed on February 10, 1763.

His Most Christian Majesty renounces all pretensions which he has hertofore formed or might have formed to Nova Scotia or Acadia in all its parts, and guaranties the whole of it... to the King of Great Britain: Moreover, his Most Christian Majesty cedes and guaranties to his Britannick Majesty, in full right, Canada, with all its dependencies, as well as the island of Cape Breton, and all the other islands and coasts in the gulph and river os St. Lawrence ... His Britannic Majesty, on his side, agrees to grant the liberty of the Catholic religion to inhabitants of Canada ... that his new Roman Catholic subjects may profess the worship of their religion according to the rites of the Romish church, as far as the laws of Great Britain permit.

30 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism ©P @ Use Sources A and B to answer questions 1 to 6. 1. Use Source A to identify how the outcome of the Seven Years War changed the political and economic boundaries of North America after 1763. 2. Explain why the French loss of territories in North America was so historically significant. How might the new situation in North America change the expectations of the American colonists? How might the new situation affect the Indigenous people? 3. How would the situation affect French Canadians? What about the Indigenous peoples? 4. How does Source A support the information in Source B? Use specific words and phrases from Source B to support your explanation. 5. What evidence shows that Source B was written during a different historical period than our own? Explain, giving specific quotes or examples to support your thinking. 6. What is the significance of the last four lines of Source B? To whom would these lines in the Treaty of Paris be important? Explain.

New Borders Drawn in North America by the Royal Proclamation of 1763

wYork r elphia e ATLANTIC OCEAN

D British before 1763 D British gains, 1763 D Spanish before 1762 TEXAS D Spa ni sh gains, 1762 D Lost by Spain and ga in ed by Britain, 1763 - to Quebec, 1 77 4 ,---- Rio Cuff of Mexico D Indian Reserve \ Grande D unexplored 0 225 450 km

The Legacy of the Seven Years War 31 ©P © P Indigenous Land Rights­ Royal Proclamation, 1763 ... the Royal Proclamation explicitly states that Aboriginal title has existed and Excerpt from the Indigenous Foundations of continues to exist, and that all land would be considered Aboriginal land until UBC, 2009 . ceded by treaty. The Proclamation forbade settlers from claiming land from the Aboriginal occupants, unless it has been first bought by the Crown and then sold to the settlers. The Royal Proclamation further sets out that only the Crown can buy land from First Nations.

0 Use Sources A, C, and D to answer questions 7 to 9. 7. Using the map in Source C, identify two ways it is different from the Postwar Boundaries of 1763 map in Source A. Point out specific differences. 8. How would the western land reserved for Indigenous people in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 be a problem for the settlers of the Thirteen Colonies? 9. For what reasons might the British have made these territorial concessions to the French Canadians and First Nations, as shown in these sources?

10. If someone wanted to have a better understanding of the aftermath of the Seven Years War, which map would be better for them to use: Source A or Source C? Explain by using specifics from each map that would help their understanding.

11. Even though the words in Source B are difficult to read and understand in places, it is important that we leave documents such as the Treaty of Paris as they were written at the time. Do you agree or disagree with this statement, and why?

12. Why is the Royal Proclamation of 1763 in Source D so important to Canada as a nation but not to the United States? You may need to conduct some research to support your answer. (Hint:) Think about how this still applies to Canada, and how it would be seen as unacceptable in the United States.

13. Had the Royal Proclamation of 1763 been enforced by the British, it would have set aside a large area of North America for the sole use of the First Nations, as shown in Source C. How might this have affected the development of North America? Speculate whether it would have had an impact on the history of the world.

14. In what ways did the Seven Years War change the lives of the French in Canada, and how did they remain the same?

32 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism ©P Maritime Trade at Nootka Sound

,1enhJiil Maquinna and Callicum

Maquinna (left) was a Mowachaht and chiefofthe Nuu-chah-nulth people. Callicum was his brother. Illustration from Voyages Made in the Years 1788 and 1789 from China to the Northwest Coast of America, by John Meares, London, 1791.

"Chief of the Whale Hunters"

100 Great Canadians , by George Woodcock, 1980, p. 15 .

On March 29, 1778, Captain James Cook sailed into Nootka Sound on the west coast ofVancouver Island and was greeted by three canoes. In the bow of each canoe stood a masked dancer who scattered eagles' down on the water as a gesture of welcome and shook a bird-shaped rattle as he made an oration. The leading member of this welcoming group was Maquinna, who enters history at this moment... His People, the Moachat, were a loose confederation of village bands inhabiting Nootka Sound ... Maquinna himself was often described as a "king" by the whites who encountered him in the eighteenth century and who had no idea of the structure of Moachat society. In fact each of the big houses of Nootka Sound had its own chief, but Maquinna was held in the greatest respect because of the hereditary titles he held; indeed the name we know him by-Maquinna-was really an inherited title.

Maritime Trade at Nootka Sound 33 ©P ©P I[

Meeting Maquinna and On the 16th, a number of war canoes entered Callicum at Nootka Sound th~ cove, With Maquilla and Callicum; they moved Excerpt from Voyages Made in the Years 1788 with gr_eat parade round the ship, singing at the and l 789 from China to the Northwest Coast of same time a song of a pleasing though sonorous America, by John Meares, London 1791, p. 112. John Meares (1756-1809) was an author mel_ody-the~e were twelve of these canoes, each of maritime fur trader, explorer, and naviga~or. which contained about eighteen men, the greater Note: Words such as "savage" used in the past part of whom were clothed in dresses of the most are now considered outdated and offensive. beautiful skins ofotter which covered them from their necks to their ankles. Their hair was powdered with th~ white down of birds, and their faces bedaubed 7:1zth red and black ochre, in the form of a shark's ;aw, and a kind of spiral line, which rendered their appearance extremely savage.

,iern«il•I Meeting Between Maquinna and John Jewitt, 1803

Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R Jewitt O I S . Years Among the Savages of Nootka Sound; With An Accoun; of:{ irv,vor of the Crew of the Ship Boston, During a Captivity of Nearly Three e anners, Mode ofl1v,ng, and Religious Opinions of the Natives, 1849.

On the morning of the next day, the thirteenth, several of the natives came on board in a canoe from the village of Nootka, with their king, called Maquina, who appeared much pleased on seeing us, and with great seeming cordiality, welcomed Capt. Salter and his officers to his country. As I had never before beheld a savage of any nation, it may readily be supposed that the novelty of their appearance, so different from any people that I had hitherto seen, excited in me strong feelings of surprise and curiosity. I was, however, particularly struck with the looks of their king, who was a man of a dignified aspect, about six feet in height and extremely strait and well proportioned; his features were in general good and his face was rendered remarkable by a large Roman nose, a very uncommon form offeature among these people; his complexion was of a dark copper hue, though his face, legs, and arms were on this occasion, so covered with red paint, that their natural colour could scarcely be perceived, his eye-brows were painted black.in two broad stripes like a new moon, and his long black hair, which shone with oil, was fastened in a bunch on the top of his head and strewed or powdered all over with white down, which gave him a most curious and extraordinary appearance. He was dressed in a large mantle or cloak of the black sea otter skin, which reached to his knees, and was fastened around his middle by a broad belt of the cloth of the country, wrought, or .painted with figures of several colours; this dress was by no means un becoming, b·ut on the contrary had an air of savage magnificence.

34 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism ©P @ Use Sources A to D to answer questions 1 to 4. 1. Sources A though Care all European depictions of Ch ief Maquinna. Cook, Meares, and Jewitt all record events involving Maquina. Why might it be difficult to obtain an Indigenous account of Maquinna's life? 2. Source Dis from the accounts of John Jewitt, an American armourer aboard a trading ship. After a trade went badly, his crew was killed and Jewitt was held captive for more than two years by Maquinna. Does this description of Maquinna differ greatly from what you gather from Sources A through C? 3. How would you describe the tone of Jewitt's description when he uses phrases like "dignified aspect" and "savage magnificence"? He cou ld have changed his wording after being Maquinna's captive for two years, but why do you think he left it the way it was? 4. Jewitt's description took place 25 years after Captain James Cook first met Maquinna at Nootka Sound. What evidence from Source B would support the theory that the chief who captured Jewitt is not the same one who greeted Cook? If that is so, who was the Maquinna that Jewitt describes?

,111ijijjjj House in Nootka Sound

Watercolour of interior of house in Nootka Sound, by John Webber, 1778.

- -- ..._....,;.,.,_..... _,,_.;..._-_·-_~:: .-~~ -~:~~-~:;;:~~ - :.~►~~~~;~=s~;~

©P ©P Maritime Trade at Nootka Sound 35 '411'htill Village in Nootka Sound

Painting of a village in Nootka Sound, possibly Yu quot, by John Webber, 1778.

0 Use Sources E and F t~ answer questions 5 to 8 . 5. Sources E and Fare paintings made by the artist John Webber, who accompanied Captain James Cook on his third Pacific expedition (1776-1780). Why do you think explorers brought artists with them? 6. What do you think Webber was trying to show in his paintings? How might the people in his paintings have reacted to these works? 7. Who do you think was the audience for his artwork? Why might a painting be a more useful way to express ideas to an audience than, say, a photograph? 8. Artwork and written accounts form some of the best records we have of the north west fur trade. Each format can shed light on what really happened, but can also change the meaning of an event, depending on the artist's or writer's point of view. For example, John Meares's journals are often singled out for exaggerating and stretching the truth. a) How accurate do you think Webber's artwork (Sources E and F) is in portraying the way of life of the Nuu-chah-nulth people at Nootka Sound? Look up some of his other artwork to develop your opinion. b) Are there any biases that you can detect, such as strong opinions or perspectives that influence the way the art is interpreted?

36 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism ©P Letter from Captain George Vancouver

Letter from Captain George Vancouver to James Sykes (a Navy Agent in London , England) from his ship, the Discovery, at Nootka Sound, 1794.

We arrived here this day month all in high health and spirits havingfinally determined the nonexistence of any water communication between this & the opposite side ofAmerica within the bounds of our investigations beyond all doubt or disputation hence I expect no farther detention in this hemisphere not doubting but the business respecting these territories must have been settled a sufficient length of time for a vessel to have arrived by whome we might be relieved and proceed on our route towards Old England in hopes to partake of some shair in the glorious and honorable cause her fleets and armies are at present engaged in, [Revolutionary France had declared war against Britain in February of1793] but in these expectations we were disappointed no vessel having arrived from England to that effect nor have I received any information in answer to my despatches sent home ... Thus you see my good friend I am once more entrap'd in this infernal Ocean, and am totally at a loss to say when I shall be able to quit it, and not having it in my power to communicate any particular information respecting our voyage I shall only farther add that your Son [John Sykes, serving on Vancouver's ship the Discovery] and all your friends in these Vessels are in perfect health though greatly mortified at our present detention from a more active station, which would be more congenial to our wishes than remaining here in a state of unpleasant inactivity.

,i•i'Mil; ■ Sea Routes of Fur Traders

The trade routes of the eighteenth century circled the globe. The dotted line indicates the direct route from Britain to the east coast of North America .

0 Use Source 'H to .'. .. answer question 9. 9. Look at the trade network in Source H. See if you can find out what items might have been sold, what items bought or traded for, or what the purpose was at putting in at each stop: Boston, Nootka, Hawaiian Islands, and Macao . How does this network differ from modern trade networks?

©P ©P Maritime Trade at Nootka Sound 37 10. Looking back at Sources A though D, think about how Chief Maquinna and his people are described by Europeans. Search Maquinna on the Internet and read a bit more about his role in history and accounts of his growing prestige I and influence during the northwest coast fur trade. Make a character card I' I for Maquinna that highlights his appearance, characteristics, and accomplishments. Think about how the sources you use to do this influence what you include and what you don't include.

11. The letter from Captain Vancouver to James Sykes in England (Source G) would have taken a long time to get to England. Research how letters moved from the Pacific Northwest to England in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

a) How long would it take? Start by guessing and then search for some evidence to back up or challenge your estimates.

b) What advancements helped to speed up the delivery of mail during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries?

12. Find out more about First Peoples' oral traditions and histories about first contact and the fur trade on the Pacific Coast. How far do they corroborate with available European written sources? Explain.

13. The northwest coast fur trade is a broad topic that involves many more local episodes, international conflicts, and dramatic encounters between the competing European groups, and between the Europeans and the First Peoples of the West Coast. With additional research, create a timeline that highlights the major events of the northwest coast fur trade.

38 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism ©P Consequences of the Indian Act

,in'htiitl ,n'hJi•:■ Aspects of the Indian Act Macdonald and Assimilation

Excerpt from the Indigenous Foundations of Uni versity of Excerpt from a speech by Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, 1887 . British Columbia, 2009. Note: The term "Indian" was commonly used historically and remains part of the Indian Act (originating in 1876), The great aim ofour legislation has been to do away but today the term First Nations is used . with the tribal system and assimilate the Indian people in all respects with the other inhabitants ofthe Dominion The Indian Act is a Canadian as speedily as they are fit to change. federal law that governs in matters pertaining to Indian status, bands, and Indian reserves. Throughout ,imhHII history it has been highly invasive and paternalistic, as it authorizes Macdonald t o Dewdney the Canadian federal government to Prime Minister John A. Macdonald to Edgar Dewdney, Indian Commissi oner, October 28 , 1885. regulate and administer in the affairs and day-to-day lives of registered Indians and reserve communities. . .. ifthe pass system could be generally introduced with safety This authority has ranged from it would be in the highest degree desirable to adopt it .. . should overarching political control, such resistance be offered on the ground of Treaty rights the obtaining of as imposing governing structures on a pass should not be insisted upon as regards loyal Indians [sic]. Aboriginal communities in the form The Mounted Police or Municipal Officers should be instructed of band councils, to control over the rights of Indians to practice their to insist upon all Indians camping within the limits of Town sites culture and traditions. The Indian or Villages producing permits from the Indian Agents showing Act has also enabled the government what their purpose in camping in the vicinity its and for what to determine the land base of these length of time the permits have been granted them. Should they groups in the form of reserves, and fail to produce such permits, they should be compelled to leave even to define who qualifies as Indian the precincts of said Towns or Villages. in the form of Indian status.

,in'htiil•I Indian Affairs Pass System

Two-week pass for Edward Yahyahkeekoot of Beardy's and Okemasis First Nation , November 1, 1932. Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, E19 , File 36:50. Photo by Alex Williams. In 1885, following the Northwest Resistance , Hayter Reed, Assistant Commissioner ofindian Affairs , recommended to Prime Minister John A. Macdonald that a pass system be da)'s from dat [. Business. implemented to control the movement of many First Nations people, although both knew that the pass system was not legal. · · J •· •••• ,...... • .. .. ••••• • and i This system of segregation remained in place officially for at least 56 years. Individuals wanting to leave the reserve had to ----~~.,~~r7--=:::==- ask permission from the Indian Agent and get a pass to do so.

©P Consequences of the Indian Act 39 @ Use Sources A to O to answer questions 1 to 5 . 1. Source A provides an introduction to the Indian Act-laws first passed in 1876 that govern the relationship between the Canadian government and First Nations. Why do you think the government of the day thought it was necessary? What were they trying to accomplish? 2. Does your answer to question 1 change when you read Source B? What other purposes might the Indian Act have had (positive or negative) than the ones mentioned by Macdonald? 3. Looking at Source B, do you think the Indian Act was successful in its aims, and if not, how and why has it been unsuccessful? Note: "assimilate" means to absorb one culture into another. 4. How does the quote from Macdonald in Source C support the aims he expresses in Source B? How does Source C work against those aims? 5. Starting in 1884 and in use for at least 56 years, the pass system (see Source D) limited, controlled, and monitored First Nations peoples' mobility. It segregated First Nations people by preventing their access to territory and resources promised under treaty, controlling mobility to other communities, and limiting parents' visits to children in residential schools. Why do you think the Department of Indian Affairs developed the use of the pass system? Why do you think it was never actually enacted as a law? How does its legacy affect us today?

Indian and Northern Affaires indiennes CERTIFICATE OF INDIAN STATUS l+I Affairs Canada et du Nord Canada CERTIFICAT DE STATUT INDIEN

Registration no ./Numero d'inscription · •• ,, o .!..!.., 18 9997001801 °1lOIJJSEJo~~sm, ,,• . Familv Name/Norn de fami lle '1mU•li JOHNSON Given Names/Prenoms Sample Certificate LOUISE of Indian Status Alias/Norn d'emprunt ANNE Certificate oflndian Status ID cards are issued by the federal Sex/Sexe Department of Indian and F • Northern Affairs . Date of Issue/Date de delivrance 2015/02/03 ~; ·z·~~~ 202;;0~713eravant Registry Group no . and Name/N° du groupe de reg istre et nom 999 · BAND NAME

'4mUAII --~

Trudeau White Paper, 1969

Excerpt from "Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy," from Indigenous Foundations of University of British Columbia. ,amjij•#I Unjust Society Excerpt from Harold Cardinal, The Unjust Society: The Tragedy In 1969, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and his Minister of Canada's Indians (Vancouver, 1969}. Cardinal was an Alberta Cree activist who opposed the federal White Paper. of Indian Affairs, Jean Chretien, unveiled a policy paper that proposed ending the special legal relationship between Aboriginal Peoples and the Canadian state and In spite of all government attempts to convince Indians to accept the dismantling the Indian Act. This White Paper was met white paper, their efforts will fail, because Indians understand that with forceful opposition from Aboriginal leaders across the path outlined by the Department of Indian Affairs through its the country and sparked a new era of Indigenous mouthpiece, the Honourable Mr. Chretien, leads directly to cultural political organizing in Canada. genocide. We will not walk this path.

40 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism ©P Q Use Sources E to G to answer questions 6 to 9 . 6. One of the long-lasting consequences of the Indian Act was the Indian Register system, granting "status" to First Nations people, as shown by the status card in Source E. "Status" entitles "Registered Indians" to receive access to government services and programs. What other consequences of the Indian Act do you know about? Make a short list. 7. The department respons_ible for enacting the Indian Act has gone through some name changes over the yea rs , including Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Canada (DIANO), Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC), and Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC). a) Which title does this department use on the status card in Source E? b) Why do you think they would still use this term? c) What are your thoughts on each of the department's names and what they could mean for First Nations people in Canada? 8. Source F mentions the 1969 White Paper, proposals that would have removed protections and privileges that First Nations people had under the Indian Act. Considering your responses to Sources A and B, why do you think First Nations people and leaders might not agree with the White Paper? Why do you think the government withdrew the proposals (didn't turn them into laws)? 9. Read Source G. Harold Cardinal thought the White Paper was an attempt to exterminate First Nations people through assimilation. He also wrote a response that became known as the Red Paper, which argued for continued First Nations rights over their land and the need to respect treaties and safeguard the well-being of future generations. What results of the Red Paper do you see today in Canadian society?

For over 100 years, Aboriginal children were removed from their families and sent to institutions called residential schools. The government-funded, church-run schools were located across Canada and established with the purpose to eliminate parental involvement in the spiritual, cultural and intellectual ,•m@1=1 development of Aboriginal children. The last residential schools closed in the mid-1990s. Residential Schools During this chapter in Canadian history, more than 150,000 First Nations, Metis, and Inuit children were forced to attend these schools some of which were hundreds of miles from their home. The cumulative Excerpt from Truth impact of residential schools is a legacy of unresolved trauma passed from generation to generation and and Reconciliation Commission, Final has had a profound effect on the relationship between Aboriginal peoples and other Canadians. Report, 2015, published Collective efforts from all peoples are necessary to revitalize the relationship between Aboriginal by James Lorimer & Company. peoples and Canadian society-reconciliation is the goal. It is a goal that will take the commitment of multiple generations but when it is achieved, when we have reconciliation-it will make for a better, stronger Canada.

,Mu;AII Residential School Classroom

Namgis House, formerly St. Michael's Residential School, was built in 1929 in Alert Bay, BC. Itis now the site of the U'mista Cultural Centre.

©P ©P Consequences of the Indian Act 41 '1"''*'''Kent Monkman, "The Scream," 2017

"The Scream" was painted for an art exhibit in Toronto called "Shame and Prejudice: AStory of Resilience." This symbolic painting by Cree artist Kent Monkman represents Canada's dark history showing Canadian Mounties, nuns, and priests taking children away from their families while some children run to escape apprehension .

@ Use Sources H to J to answer questions 10 and 11. 10. Examine Sources H to I. Residential schools, one of the outcomes of the Indian Act, have had long-lasting impacts on the Indigenous children who attended them, their families, and their communities. What do you already know about this topic? Make a list of some of the impacts of residential schools, and think of some ways in which today's society could help address those impacts.

11. Describe the emotions being depicted by the people in the painting (Source J) . Describe the overall mood of the painting. Write a descriptive caption you would use to explain this painting to others.

, 111 W•l~I Reconciliation Defined

Excerpt from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was convened between June 2008 and December UN Declaration on the 2015 to study the effects of the residential school system Rights of Indigenous and propose remedies. Peoples

James Anaya, United Nations Special The Commission defines reconciliation as an Rapporteur on the rights ofindigenous ongoing process of establishing and maintaining peoples, at the National Press Theatre respectful relationships, a critical component in Ottawa on October 15, 2013, to announce a new United Nations report of which involves repairing damaged trust by stating that while there had been some making apologies, providing individual and positive steps in Canada's relationships collective reparations, and following through with its Indigenous people, much more with concrete actions that demonstrate real needs to be done. Anaya is Native American (Apache) and is Dean of the societal change; it also involves a revitalization Faculty of La w, University of Colorado of Indigenous law and legal traditions. Boulder. Photo by Sean Kilpatrick.

42 Chapter 2 Imperialism and Colonialism 0 Use Sources J to M to answer questions 12 and 13. '"""''~'Calls to Action 12 . Consider Sources J to L. What does reconciliation look li ke? What The Truth and Reconciliation Commi ssion (TRC ) was developed to investigate and have you seen being done toward document the multigenerational impacts of the 150-year-lo ng residential school system . The resulting documents include 94 calls to action to redress the legacy reconciliation, and w hat can you of residential schools and advance the process of Canadian reconciliation. do to further efforts toward ,, reconciliation? 13. Looking at sources J to M , if you TRC Call to Action No. 43: We call upon federal, provincial, territorial, were to w rite you r own Declaration and municipal governments to fully adopt and implement the United of Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as the w hat rights do you think Indigenous framework for reconciliation. peoples should have, and why? Who would be responsible for en suring those rights are provided and enforced? k rn

14. Learn more about the Indian Act. Create a brief timeline that shows major changes to the Indian Act over time. Add any notes you can about how the Indian Act has affected the lives of First Nations and non-First Nations populations in Canada.

15. The Indian Act places the federal government in the role of guardian of the First Nations population in Canada. What are or could be some benefits and disadvantages of such a relationship for each party?

16. Note your thoughts and responses to Source C. Find out more about the pass system in Canada, in particular how it started, and the role that Indian Agents played in the lives of First Nations peoples. Why was the pass system implemented?

17. Oral reports suggest that the pass system was used beyond the official documentation of 56-60 years (into the 1940s}, perhaps well into the 1950s and 1960s in some communities. How would the use of passes up to the 1940s and possibly beyond have contributed to the impact of residential schools on First Nations communities? What impact might this history of segregation have on the present day?

18. How are people's identities formed and maintained? What information, experiences, and beliefs help establish one's personal identity? Does this topic or any of the sources influence your response?

19. Access to information on the residential school system has only increased since the work of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Learn what you can from online sources, including interviews and testimonials, and build a profile of a residential school that existed near where you live-the timeline and history of the school, the experience of those who attended it, and the impact on the survivors and their communities. This profile could be a poster, report, presentation, or artistic reaction.

Consequences of the Indian Act 43