Ocean Challenge Aims to Keep Its Readers up to Date ASSOCIATE EDITOR with What Is Happening in Oceanography in the UK and the Rest of Europe

OCEAN

Volume 8, No. 3, 1998 - Volume 8, No. 3, 1998 OCEAN

The Magazine of the Challenger Society for Marine Science

EDITOR SCOPE AND AIMS Angela Colling Ocean Challenge aims to keep its readers up to date ASSOCIATE EDITOR with what is happening in oceanography in the UK and the rest of Europe. By covering the whole range John Wright of marine-related sciences in an accessible style it Angela Colling andjohn Wright are both should be valuable both to specialist oceano- at the Department of Earth Sciences, graphers who wish to broaden their knowledge of The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, marine sciences, and to informed lay persons who Buckinghamshire MK7 6AA, UK are concerned about the oceanic environment.

EDITORIAL BOARD Ocean Challenge is sent automatically to Chair members of the Challenger Society. Rachel Mills For more information about the Society, or for queries concerning individual subscriptions to Southampton Oceanography Centre Ocean Challenge, please contact the Executive Secretary of the Society at the address given on the Martin Angel inside back cover. Southampton Oceanography Centre INDUSTRIAL CORPORATE MEMBERSHIP Mark Brandon British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge For information about this, please contact the Executive Secretary of the Society at the Keith Dyer address given on the inside back cover. Institute of Marine Studies, University of Plymouth ADVERTISING Peter Foxton For information about advertising through Ocean formerly Natural Environment Research Council Challenge, contact the Executive Secretary of the (Marine Sciences) Society at the address given on the inside back Keith Harrison cover. British Mid-Ocean Ridge Initiative Natural Environment Research Council AVAILABILITY OF BACK ISSUES For information about back issues of Ocean Tim Jickells Challenge, please contact the Executive Secretary of School of Environmental Sciences, the Society at the address given on the inside back University of East Anglia cover. John Jones INSTITUTIONAL SUBSCRIPTIONS University College, London Ocean Challenge is published three times a year. Bill Prior-Jones The subscription (including postage by surface mail) Specialist in Applied Marine Science is £70.00 ($133) per year for libraries and other John Scott institutions. New subscriptions, renewals and Defence Research Agency, Winfrith information about changes of address should be sent to Parjon Information Services, PO Box 144, Hjalmar Thiel Haywards Heath, West Sussex, RHI 6 2YX, UK. Alfred- Wegener-lnstitut fur Polar-und- Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany DATA PROTECTION ACT, 1984 (UK) Bill Turrell Scottish Office Under the terms of this Act, you are informed that Agriculture and Fisheries Department this magazine is sent to you through the use of a computer-based mailing list. The views expressed in Ocean Challenge are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Printed in the UK by Halstan & Co. Ltd, Challenger Society or the Editor. Amersham, Bucks

0 Challenger Society for Marine Science, 1999 ISSN 0959-01 61 CONTENTS RRS [email protected] Colin Pelton RRS][email protected] Andrew Brierley and Keith Reid An Expo Experience Old oil and gas rigs: The Great Yarmouth Solution News and Views Now, there's a funny thing ... John Wright UK Oceanography '98 Days of dancing and debates Susanne Rolinski Reflections on U K Oceanography Toby Sherwin A curmudgeon writes ... John Wright Challenger Society honours Bob Fisher Ocean Colour Group Meeting at UK Oceanography '98 Alison Weeks In praise of fieldwork: Report of the Millport Marine Biology Field Teaching Forum John Davenport Changing Oceanographic Conditions in the Post-glacial North Sea - the story preserved in the sediments David S. Brew, Rex Harland, John Ridgway, David Long and Matthew R. Wright Tidal Smooths in the River Blackwater Peter Rainbird Scotia - a Distinguished Line of Scottish Research Ships Tony Ha wkins William Hutchinson - Local Hero Philip Woodworth Book Reviews Multimedia Forthcoming events Advertising in Ocean Challenge

Most of the figures and maps for this issue were drawn by john Taylor of the Cartography Office of the Department of Earth Sciences at the Open University. The cover was designed by Ann Aldred Associates. The cover image top left is reproduced by kind permission of Sonar Research and Development Ltd, Beverley. It shows a sea-bed visualization of Peterhead Harbour, which combines computer graphic techniques with accurate sonar imaging. RRSDiscovery@ Expo. 98 Colin Pelton From May to October, Expo '98, held Chamber of Commerce (see photo). sentatives as part of the EC's Atlantic- in Lisbon, celebrated the International Many of our guests were very im- Mediterranean Cruises Project. Year of the Oceans and provided one pressed with the first class hospitality As for the Expo itself, many of the of the world's top tourist venues, with shown to them courtesy of Captain national pavilions were spectacular. a total of nearly 10 million visitors. Keith Avery and the crew of RRS Particularly memorable was the The Expo '98 theme of 'the ocean: a Discovery, and the excellent RVS contrast between the simplicity of heritage for the future', was inter- catering team. Almost 11 000 visitors Iceland's audio-visual display pro- preted in a wide range of exhi bits and toured the ship whilst it was on site at jected across an expanse of dark still events, national pavilions, a major Expo and that figure could easily have water, and the 'high-tech' German new aquarium, and the reclamation been increased had there been more pavilion with its exciting undersea of a vast waterside area on the banks time and space available. simulator voyage, and Monaco with of the Tagus. A British Council science workshop an excellent 3-D cinema presentation Oceanography is an international was also held during the visit to of plankton in the open ocean. Even science and Expo events included a explore collaborative links in a land-locked countries such as succession of visits by oceanographic number of areas including aqua- Switzerland and Mongolia rose to research vessels from around the culture, physical oceanography, the occasion. My personal experience globe, en route to field sites and coastal zone research, geosciences, of the UK pavilion was disappointing major expeditions. Berthed in a new and technology support for marine however, particularly so as I had been deep-water dock within the Expo research. There was also a training involved in some of its content complex, their presence introduced element: four of the best recent UK preparation. I heard little praise for the visitors to working research ships, graduates in oceanography* sailed on the design concept, despite the their equipment and specialised, RRS Discovery from Southampton to inclusion of some well chosen exam- state-of-the-art survey tools. The Lisbon, to gain first-hand knowledge ples of NERC science, and I would be Natural Environment Research of the major facilities and services interested to hear what others thought. Council (NERC) research vessels, RRS needed to support science at sea. Discovery and RRS James Clark Ross At the end of August, these students In contrast, we heard nothing but (see following item), together at- reconvened in Lisbon for an EC- praise for Discovery and its exhibition tracted over 20000 visitors on their supported conference, sharing their from both the visitors, and the separate visits to Lisbon. In addition sea-going experiences with other Embassy and British Council staff. to the UK, ships from Germany, young scientists and media repre- I'm sure the British Antarctic Survey France, Spain, Canada and Japan were on display for up to a week Ian McCill, each between May and October Chief Engineer, 1998. welcomes visitors to a reception on From 12 to 19 August, I was fortunate Discovery hosted by to be at Expo on board RRS Discovery, the UK/Portuguese where visitors were shown 15 exhib- Chamber of its on deck and within the ship's Commerce laboratories. In addition to the (Photo: Colin Pelton, University of Aberdeen (preparing for soc ,, an EC-funded study of deep-sea biology using bottom-landing devices), organizations represented included: the Southampton Oceano- graphy Centre; the NERC Centre for Coastal and Marine Sciences; the Met. Office; the Environment Agency; the DTI Foresight programme, the Inter-Agency committee on Marine Science and Technology (IACMST); the Challenger Society (naturally); and the UKrs largest commercial oceanographic company, Fugro Geos. The exhibition was arranged jointly *These graduates were: by the NERC Research Vessel Services Sarah Rutt from (RVS) and the IACMST. It was University of Wales, formally opened by Professor John Bangor; Liz Galley, Krebs, NERC Chief Executive, at a University of South- reception co-hosted with the Briti,sh ampton; Claire Ambassador to Portugal, Mr Roger Hughes, Newcastle Westbrook. Associated events for University; and Louise Discovery's visit included a separate Darroch, University of reception for the Portuguese/UK East Anglia.

2 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 received similar positive feedback proved marine science collaboration UK marine science at other venues from their visit. I am also certain that between the two countries. I hope in the future. the research ship visits and accom- that following these successes we can panying meetings will have furthered benefit from using the NERC research Colin Pelton is Head of External Affairs at UK/Portuguese relations and im- vessels as floating ambassadors for the Southampton Oceanography Centre.

Andrew Brierley and Keith Reid

This September, the British Antarctic Diverting from the usual transect Xavier, a Portuguese marine biology Survey took the opportunity to show- course to the Tagus River and Expo's student working at BAS, this resulted case their ice-strengthened research ocean village, AMT scientists were in much high-profile media exposure, and supply vessel, RRS James Clark joined in Lisbon aboard RRS James including a report on prime-time Ross, at Expo '98 in Lisbon. Steaming Clark Ross by marine biologists and Portuguese TV and features in several south through the Atlantic en route to geophysicists from the British Antarc- national newspapers. The BAS Antarctica, the James Clark Ross - tic Survey. Together the scientific Directorate and the British Ambassa- affectionately known as JCR - made party mounted a series of displays on dor to Portugal hosted evening the short detour to Portugal and, the afterdeck describing the use of the receptions for local dignitaries and during one hectic weekend, acted as ship as a platform for marine science. academics on the ship's bridge. an extra floating Expo Pavilion. These displays included details of Numbers were swelled by delegates acoustic surveys for Antarctic krill from the Annual ICES Science Meet- RRS James Clark Ross had departed Euphausia superba and other zoo- the UK on 14 September after her ing being held a short distance up the plankton species, of the foraging coast at Cascais. annual refit on the Tyne, having been behaviour and distributions in the loaded with over 240 tonnes of ocean of krill predators such as Displays of British Antarctic Science supplies and scientific equipment. In penguins, albatrosses and fur seals, were mounted in the British Pavilion addition to her cargo, JCR was also and of deep water geological surveys. ashore at Expo to coincide with the carrying a full complement of scien- A video wall played 'The White visit of RRS James Clark Ross. tists led by JimAiken from Plymouth Laboratory', a film about BAS science, Southampton Oceanography Centre's Marine Laboratory. Capitalizing on to queues of people waiting to come autonomous underwater vehicle the fact that JCR makes the return aboard. Autosub featured prominently in the journey from the UK to Antarctica permanent display there and, on the annually, NERC's Centre for Coastal The display was open to the public eve of the new millennium, it is and Marine Sciences conduct a between 1Oa.m. and 5 p.m. on both gratifying to see that the UK is able to research programme on board to the Saturday and Sunday and, during demonstrate innovative technology collect a time-series of oceanographic that time, almost 11 000 visitors were which shows clearly that our scien- measurement along the Atlantic welcomed aboard. That such a huge tists and engineers remain at the Meridional Transect (AMT). AMT number were able to visit was leading edge of marine research. The cruises also include experiments by testament to the tireless work and next time JCR and Autosub appear NASA to ground-truth the SeaWiFS good humour of the ship's Master, side by side may well be in Antarc- (Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view officers and crew. Staff from the BAS tica: a grant has recently been Sensors) satellite which, among other information section greeted numerous awarded that will allow the AUV to things, gathers data on ocean colour. journalists and, with the help of Jose be deployed under Antarctic sea-ice.

Jose Xavier is interviewed by a reporter from Portuguese radio (far left) close to a press cuttings board and the scientific display on the deck of the James Clark Ross

Andrew Brierley and Keith Reid are in the Marine Life Sciences Division of the British Antarctic Survey.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 3 An txeo tx~er

It served us right for leaving it till late September to see Expo '98 in Lisbon. It was the last month and it seemed that the Portuguese themselves had finally realized the show was about to finish. The place was packed, with locals outnumbering foreign visitors by ten to one or more. The majority of people seemed a little unsure of just why they were there, but it did look as though most of them were enjoying themselves - which was just as well, for the admission price was not trivial. The exhibition was truly enormous, covering an area a couple of kilometres long and about half a kilometre wide, and there was an array of impressive buildings, the pavilions housing the various exhibits. One of The main entrance of Expo (like many Antarctic, intended to give the of the other buildings) has a theme that impression that you were viewing the the largest was the 'Pavilion of the evokes the sea - in this case, waves Future'. The crowds were such, we'd four different oceanic environments. have had to queue for at least an hour let down. That was partly because the The absence of labels and leaflets and a half to get in, but we felt we huge crowds necessitated numerous enhanced the feeling of being on the didn't need to see it. Coming into officials making sure you didn't linger sea-bed -and for many people, this Expo from the Metro, we'd had a too long anywhere, partly because the was probably the closest they will strong sense of being in the future view was all too often restricted by ever get to diving. However, the lack already. The entrance hall made us other peoples' heads. of additional information also meant feel we were on the set of Fritz Lang's that the idea of the different oceans The Oceans Pavilion is built around a 'Metropolis', with moving ramps and didn't really work, especially as the huge aquarium, the second largest in escalators humming away in a vast same fishes seemed to come into the world, the largest in Europe, echoing building that dwarfed the ant- view more or less at each viewing designed by the American architect like trails of people coming to join the point and the mock(?)seaweeds Peter Chermayeff. We got a series of queues. didn't seem to change much either. views of this, some quite panoramic, We didn't get as much out of Expo as others much more restricted. The It turned out, upon subsequent we'd have liked, partly because we species range must have been rather investigation, that the vast central could only afford two days and partly narrow, or as one person put it, tank really did have separate 'satel- because the crowds precluded en- I....you'd have ended up with just one lite' tanks segregating off 'water trance to most of the marine-related big fish'. There was no written infor- masses' of contrasting temperature. exhibits we'd hoped to see. After mation anywhere, simply a set of signs The central tank represented the queueing for an hour and a half to get reading Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, 'open oceans', the four smaller into the Oceans Pavilion, we felt a bit satellite tanks represented four contrasting coastal zones. There were penguins and seals from Antarctica; an Indian Ocean coral reef with tropical fishes; a North Pacific rocky coast with kelp forest and sea otters (inevitably the stars of the show); and an Azores area with fish and sea birds. The crowds and the need for a rapid throughput ensured that this variety and contrast must have escaped most people. However, now that Expo has ended, the Oceans Pavilion is to be called the Oceana- rium, and will be further developed.

The Oceans Pavilion; in the foreground is a Grumman Widgeon that was used for aerial surveys in the '50s and '60s. This pavilion will remain, and is 1 intended to become one of Lisbon's major tourist attractions, wifh computer simulations and interactive videos.

4 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Left: plethora of political statements, the Viking longship - kind that might be true but don't say or a sail in wood? anything. Overfishing was deplored A group of schoolchildren for instance, but causes and remedies walk under the canopy were not addressed, still less the EU's of one of the own policies and subsidies that entrances contribute to it, and how they might be changed. There was an overall tone of aggressive slickness, which had the unfortunate effect of persuad- ing us not to linger. On the ground floor of the tower was an area where you could acquire a variety of interesting and us&ul leaflets - on for example, the Euro- pean Court of Justice or the Treaty of Amsterdam. These were (theoreti- cally) available in a variety of Euro- pean languages but unfortunately the Below right: piles were not kept topped up. It was A Tagus lighter and interesting to speculate why there other small vessels were many copies of certain docu- forming part of the ments in some languages but not Nautical Exhibition. others. Why, for example were large The large three- masters in the numbers of a leaflet on 'The Ocean background include Commons' available in French, but the Sagres, used for not in English? Was it because the many years as a naval English visitors had taken them away training vessel while the French had not? Or had the English shown so little interest that it did not seem worth topping up the It is not quite true that there was no The Portuguese reclaimed a derelict

Other large pavilions with major themes included Knowledge of the Oceans (in essence, an historical such small print as to turn off even overview of discovery and enlighten- people who might have been inter- ment), The Future (ideas about how ested - which included us. Among Eds. the world will look in a hundred the more irritating features was the years), and Utopia (myths and dreams of humanity for a better world). The queues, lack of time, and a sense of weariness precluded visits to any of these. We probably missed all sorts of treats, but we'll never know. How- ever, we do know that we missed out on numerous dramatic night-time entertainments, as there were shows and displays until the wee small hours. A cable car system transported people from one end of Expo to the other, along the water front. Though rather fast, it gave wonderful views of the exhibition and of the Tagus, with its long elegant new bridge a few miles upstream; but the ride was over far too quickly, because they sold only one-way tickets -which at least had

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 News and Views

News of Framework 5 300 pmo~kg-' to less than 200 pmol ever, it is interesting that New Zea- kg-' between the mid-l 970s and mid- land (which now sets fashions instead The EC will launch the 5th Frame- 1990s, and concentrations must by of following them) is reported to be work Programme early in 1999. now be still lower contemplating reversal of its ban on There will be a thematic programme leaded petrol because of the recent Meantime, it is hard not to feel 'Energy, environment and sustain- findings that unleaded may be more able development', to which over a for unfortunates with harmful. Perhaps lead will after all vintage cars must scrap them billion ecu have been allocated and continue to be a useful air mass next year, because c~nversionto which includes the following sub- tracer, at least in the Southern Hemi- unleaded fuel is not possible. How- programmes: sphere. Major natural and technological hazards. Satellite Earth observation tech- Marine Science Education nologies. Improving quality of life and The Report of the Education and Training Working Group of management of living resources. the Inter-Agency Committee on Marine Science and Techno- logy (IACMST) was published recently. In summary the report Creating a user-friendly informa- recommends that the IACMST convene a forum of marine tion society. educators with representatives of learned societies, profes- Promoting competitive and sional institutions, research councils and employers, to con- sustainable growth. sider MST courses in the context of: Improving human research The balance of transferable and core-discipline skills potential and the socio-economic knowledge base. Provision of skills for the global market place For more information, see the Requirements of employers following websites: Continuing professional development http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgl2/ Students as customers fp5. html Risks of excessive modularization http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgl2/fp5/ conference. html Course accreditation Dearing Report recommendations on higher education qualifications. Leaded petrol shock The need for a continuing annual forum of Heads of MST The use of lead as an air mass tracer departments as a focus for future developments in, and public (cf. Lucy Spokes' article, Ocean understanding of, Marine Science and Techology. Challenge, Vol. 8,No.2, p.12) may be Table 2 of the Report summarizes what commercial companies about to end, for next year a total EU look for in their graduate recruits. Unsurprisingly, computer/lT ban on leaded petrol comes into skills come top, but almost as important are - all university force. Once the Brussels bureaucrats teachers please note numeracy and writing skills. make up their minds, the decisions - are irreversible. They have either not University teachers should also note that the reputation of seen, or have ignored, reports that their individual departments features rather low on the list, unleaded petrol is actually more while right at the bottom come departmental Research and environmentally damaging than Teaching Ratings. Cosmopolitan readers will be disappointed leaded petrol because of the toxic that foreign language skills also feature near the bottom of the anti-knock additives it contains. list of company priorities. These seem to run directly counter to Some readers may be concerned that the issue of inter- the careful statistical and medical disciplinarity in marine science is not specifically addressed in studies purporting to demonstrate that the report. With the rapid growth of knowledge in specialist lead caused brain damage in children areas, it seems to us that communication and understanding living near busy roads. between scientists in different disciplines is increasingly Can it really be true, as one paper important. reported, that: 'scientific studies An Open Forum on marine-related education and training, claiming that leaded petrol is harmful organized by IACMST, will be held at the Royal Society, to human health have long been London, on 10 June 1999. exploded'? Most people probably know that those studies led to rapid For more information, please contact Sylvia Allison at the and large-scale conversion of auto- IACMST Office, Southampton Oceanography Centre. mobile engines to the use of unleaded Tel. +44(0)1703-596611; Fax: +44(0)1703-596395; petrol. Indeed, concentrations of d.pugh8soc.soton.ac.uk lead in surface waters of the Mediter- ranean, for example, fell from over

8 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Noah and the Black Sea them. The only way the Black Sea whole lot more real by the recent could have lost its water would be discovery (Nature, 1998, 392, Waterfall by evaporation (as occurred in the pp. 13 1 and 171-3) of no fewer than It's reckoned to have been equiva- Mediterranean in Miocene times). five ancient impact craters, all of lent to two hundred Niagara Falls: If there was seawater in the basin, the same age (c.214 Ma). After 50 cubic kilometres of water a day, what happened to the salts? If we correction for continental drift in cascading over the 'Bosphorus assume that the Black Sea then had the intervening period, the three waterfall' from the Mediterranean, an average salinity similar to what largest impact sites line up just like filling up the Black Sea in less than it is now, i.e. about 20, evaporation the craters left by a stick of bombs 100 years. If the fossil and radio- of the basin would produce a dropped from an aircraft. The other carbon dates from the sediments 10-1 5 m thick layer of evaporites. two are not far off the line, and the are right, it happened as recently For a normal seawater salinity (c. authors of the article suggest that as 7500 years ago, and some 351, the evaporites would be nearly there may well have been other archaeologists suggest it may have twice as thick. Does such an impacts, now lost either because of been responsible for the spread of evaporite layer exist? Perhaps the erosion or because the meteorites farming into central Europe and 'proto-Black Sea' that previously fell in the sea and the evidence has parts of the Middle East. Neolithic occupied the basin was not saline, been subducted. but was instead a huge body of farmers cultivating the fertile The impacts were in fact not little at freshwater isolated from the world's shores of a large freshwater lake all, but rather large: crater diam- seas and oceans. No doubt further on what is now the floor of the eters range from about 10 km to analysis of sediment cores from the Black Sea basin, were driven out about 100 km, which makes nuclear floor of the Black Sea will provide by the rising waters. It must have weapons look like toys. Jupiter is answers to such questions. It would been terrifying: water levels are credited with protecting the inner be good if they could also clear up estimated to have risen several planets from the worst excesses of the origin of ancient tales of an centimetres each day, driving celestial bombardment, because of apocalyptic flood as related both in shorelines back by a kilometre or its huge size and correspondingly the Bible and in the Sumerian epic more. The stories the fleeing strong gravity field - it effectively of Gilgamesh. farmers took with them could have 'sweeps up' meteorite debris, a evolved into the biblical flood famous recent example being the legends. Shoemaker-Levy cometary impacts There are similarities with the of 1994. Our cosmic broom seems controversy that surrounded the to have missed this particular body, 'Gibraltar waterfall' which filled though; let us hope there are not the Mediterranean with Atlantic too many others lining up out there. water at the time of the 'Messinian Incidentally, it has also been salinity crisisf in the Miocene, suggested that large meteorite about 5 million years ago. The impacts in the ocean could result in plausibility of such an idea was serious depletion of the ozone fiercely debated, but in this case layer, because of the vast amounts there seems to be no dispute about of seawater almost literally rapid filling of the Black Sea via Three Little Impacts 'splashed' into the stratosphere as the Bosphorus, only about the aerosols. Hydroxyl radicals formed timing of the event. The Black Sea All in a Row by photolytic dissociation of the is now the largest body of anoxic water could combine with the water in the world, and the ques- The movie premier of Deep Impact coincided rather well with news of abundant chloride ions to destroy tion is whether it could have lost the ozone, with consequent huge virtually all its dissolved oxygen in an impending asteroidal near-miss. It is expected some time during increases in ultraviolet radiation such a relatively short period of reaching the surface. Those who time. 2028, and the presently estimated fly-by distance is about 600 000 survived the impacts would already A couple of other questions also miles, roughly two-and-a-half times be having a pretty thin time of it, arise. First, if the Black Sea flood- further away than the Moon, which and this wouldn't help. ing really did give rise to the seems fairly safe. biblical flood stories, why is there Postscript: More recent analysis of no mention of the waterfall, only However, the asteroid (or comet) inferred 'crater chains' injects a of heavy rain? Was there rain as may not be a single body but an note of scepticism. In brief (Nature, well during this time, or could it aggregate of blocks held together by 394, p.221), if disruption of the be that legend transformed the their mutual gravitational pull. It is parent body occurs too far away giant waterfall into rain? Or was not impossible that such an aggre- from the'target planett, most of the the waterfall not mentioned simply gate could be disrupted by the fragments are likely to miss the because it was at one end of the gravity field of the Earth-Moon target. If disruption is too close, the original lake and, huge though it system, that one or more fragments fragments will not be sufficiently must have been, only a few people could in consequence peel off and dispersed to form separate craters. knew about it? Second, there were head straight for us. To be certain that a crater chain really did form, the crater ages must several glaciations during the The possibility of the Earth being hit be identical - and that is difficult to Pleistocene, and global sea-level by several meteorites within the verify. fell significantly during each of space of a few hours is made a

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 9 Oceanology International 99

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-- @I @ The Ocevnagnphy Wodd ~eteomlogicul Society for Hydm Tmpicrl Marine Science Inrtilute af hlarilhe a Pon Authoricy Society Oigunimtion UndenunerTezhnalogy lnlemalionni the Nrtiond Univemiry 0fSingvpore of singupore A limit to CO, sequestration To clear oil spills ... Whale of a Problem ... We have held forth auite often in Is there no end to ingenious or Storm in a Teacup? these columns about'the role of schemes for clearing oil spills? A tribe of native Americans in the rock weathering in removing We've reported on hair and reconsti- state of Washington (north-western atmospheric CO, from the atmos- tuted fibres (Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8 USA), calling themselves the Makah phere (e.g. Ocean Challenge, Vol. No.2, p.27), and recently we came Nation, want to revive an ancestral 7, No.1, pp.24-5). In brief, if the across yet another innovative method, practice of killing whales using bicarbonate precipitated as carbon- developed by a New York based firm traditional methods. They used to ate and preserved in sediments called Environmental Remediation hunt grey whales until the 1920s comes from weathering of silicate and Technology Research, a division when industrial whaling, fuelled by rocks, there is net removal of of Holistic Programmes (Non-Profit) the demand for whale oil, brought atmospheric CO,; if that bicarbon- Inc. (sic). It's a cryogenic technique, the animals to the brink of extinc- ate comes from limestone weather- using liquid air or nitrogen to freeze tion. But grey whales are now ing, the atmospheric CO, reservoir the oil, enabling it to be lifted as plentiful once more (population is not changed. frozen slabs or pumped up as semi- over 20 OOO), so the Makah want to liquid slush. Sadly, financial backing Weathering large areas of silicate resume whaling - specifically they has not been forthcoming. Not rock should therefore sequester want to take a whale a year for five surprising really, it must be jolly years. significant amounts of atmospheric expensive first to liquify, then to CO, into marine sediments. How- Should they be allowed to do so? transport and finally to spread the ever, nearly all silicate rocks have liquid air over the oil. If it were merely a matter of conser- small amounts of carbonate in vation versus tradition, there might them, as calcite veins and/or thin Still more recently, the last issue of be a solution. You could argue that limestone or marble layers. These the DGM Mitteilungen (3198) conserving the customs and prac- are a lot more soluble than sili- features a scheme to collect flotsam tices of indigenous peoples is as cates, and recent research in part of and jetsam from shorelines, separate important as conserving wild life - the Himalayas (Geology, 26, May out the wood, plastic, etc., then dry especially when, as here, the 1998, pp.62-4) suggests that in this and process the rest (mainly seaweed) survival of a species is not thereby region less than a fifth of the to obtain a hydrophobic oil-absorbent threatened. Admittedly, since the bicarbonate in solution has come product that can be spread over the Makah have hunted no whales for from weathering of the silicates, sea surface to soak up oil spillls. Of 70 years and there's nobody left over four-fifths from the carbonate course you then have to scoop up the who remembers how it was done, component of the rock, which resulting mess and dispose of it the hunt could turn nasty - and not makes up only about Iper cent of somehow, whether by composting, just for the whale, which is consid- the total-rock mass. burning, or simply dumping in landfill erably larger than the Makah's sites. Each disposal method has its Those who suppose that increases whaling canoes. draw-backs, because oil isn't simply in anthropogenic carbon dioxide hydrocarbon, it contains trace metals Nowadays, though, nothing is so can in some measure be offset by too. Research seems to be well simple, because politics gets increased rates of silicate weather- advanced, but this does seem to be a involved. Sceptics in the conserva- ing (helping to draw down excess rather costly process, involving tion movement allege that the CO, into the oceans) may have to considerable energy expenditure. 'cultural tradition' claim is baloney, think again. For if most of the CO, a smokescreen for commercial is going to dissolve limestone, rock All in all, however, it seems likely interests, which would use the hunt weathering may not contribute that none of these ingenious schemes to b,reak the IWO moratorium. In significantly to reversal of the stands much chance of success. particular, the allegation goes, the present global warming trend. Given the strong financial interest of Japanese have negotiated to buy the the chemical industries in 'conven- whale meat and thev will then Readers interested in the role of tional' techniques of oil spill disper- plankton as a carbon sink should claim that commercial whaling has sal, they might well be reluctant to turn to p.57 for news of a website resumed in the north-eastern permit successful competition from that may be of interest. Pacific, so why can't they hunt alternative methods. whales too? This argument may not be easy to sustain, for apparently it will be illegal for any bits of the hunted whale to leave the Makah Special offer for buccaneering reservation. At all events, controversy has been Challenger Society members raging on the north-western American seaboard, with a flotilla of vessels Challenger Society members interested in the exploits prepared to defend the whales of English buccaneers in the 17th century should see (including a mini-sub painted to look pages 52- 53 for information about a Special Offer on like a killer whale, which eats grays), William Dampier's a posse of lawmen to deter trouble- makers, and an abundance of media A New Voyage Round the World persons to report the story. The Journal of an English Buccaneer

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Oceans in Spate by NASA scientists that they have sized reservoir. But there is no found water on the Moon. In this hydrological cycle on the Moon, so It has been known for several years case, of course, delivery by comet lunarnauts (lunatics?)would have to that the water molecule is a com- is the only reasonable explanation, be sparing in their use of it. mon constituent of interstellar especially as the water is in the It seems inevitable that humans will clouds, so it is something of a form of ice (of course), mixed with one day establish bases on the puzzle why scientists were recently lunar regolith ('soil') material. It Moon and Mars (they'll soon find reported to have been 'amazed' that occurs in the polar regions which - martian water too), and perhaps on water vapour has been detected in as on Earth are the coldest parts - planetary satellites like Titan or the the atmospheres of the outer planets of the Moon (because the Sun's rays ice-covered Europa. At least some and some of their satellites. The are at grazing incidence there too). scientists say that 'Space Can Wait', total amounts are vast, but they are In fact, the detectors have recorded that humans should not indulge in very diffuse - space is, after all, a only the presence of hydrogen, but hugely expensive adventures that vacuum. the simplest explanation for large will end in laying waste to other amounts of hydrogen at the surface Media reports repeatedly claim that worlds as we are busily doing to of the Moon is that it is combined this discovery 'confirms the belief Planet Earth. The money would with oxygen as water - after all, that water on Earth was delivered perhaps be better spent cleaning up hydrogen is the most abundant by comets'. How else would it humanity's own terrestrial element in the Universe, oxygen the have got here? The primitive Earth backyard. fourth most abundant, and there are was accreted from meteorites few. if anv. other elements with In any case, scientists can find out (chunks of silicate rock and/or iron- I' which large amounts of hydrogen all they need to know from the nickel alloy and/or iron-rich sul- could plausibly be combined. The increasingly sophisticated phides) and comets (largely com- reason why the ice is still there is unmanned vehicles now being sent posed of ice with some silicate and presumably because the energy of into space. Expensive though they some extra-terrestrial hydrocarbons) the cometary impact wasn't great are, they cost a fraction of what is in the earliest millenia of Solar enough to vaporize the water. needed to send humans there. And System history. This primordial Similar impacts must have occurred Mars has suddenly become much mixture of materials subsequently at lower lunar latitudes too, but as less attractive, now that its fa- differentiated into a metallic core these regions are warmed by the mously spooky 'Face' has been and a rocky mantle and crust, Sun, the water would have vapor- shown to be only a trick of the liberating (degassing) most of the ized and escaped to space. light. Never mind, Spielberg has volatile constituents - water and at been reported as planning that the least some atmospheric components The estimated quanitity of water is Red Planet shall feature centrally in at the same time. between 1 O7 and 3 x 10" m3, his next big movie venture. equivalent to a small to medium- This is surely a more plausible hypothesis than the alternative, viz that Earth's water supply was delivered to the newly differentiated planet by a subsequent cometary bombardment. Data from lunar rocks suggest that both the Moon and the early Earth were subjected to a Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) by truly gigantic meteorites, tens to hun- dreds of kilometres across (the Deep Impact asteroid was a baby by comparison). Available radiometric data suggest the LHB ended about 3.8 billion years ago, which is also the age of rocks containing the first signs of Life on Earth. This may be no coincidence: the LHB was so intense that if any life had appeared before then it would have been instantly obliterated. It seems most unlikely that the LHB could have been almost immediately followed by a series of cometary impacts that provided Earth with the water it needed for life to begin. There is (as yet) no hard evidence for a late- Hadeanlearly-Archean bombard- OCEAN SCIENTIFIC INTERNATIONAL LTD ment by ocean-forming comets. SOUTH DOWN HOUSE STATION ROAD This latest press hype about 'water PETERSFIELD HAMPSHIRE GU32 3ET in space' seems to have stemmed Ocean Scientgc .ELEPHoNE. t44 (0)1730 2650 15 in part from the coincidental claim FAX: +44 (")I730 26501 1 International EMAIL: osi~~oceanscienti~ic,co,~~

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Polar bears are turning herm- more than a tew metres above the aphrodite because of the biochemi- water, leaving only small keel-li ke cal pollutants that are being pro- protrusions submerged. Arrays of gressively concentrated in Arctic laser and sonar sensors will enable food chains, from algae through the vessel to navigate around plankton to fish and seals, thence to obstacles and other shipping in its the bears. path.

The coelacanth was thought to ... and whatever happened to ... be extinct until living specimens were identified in Comoran waters ... the 'yellow submarine' caught in 1938. Until recently it was by a trawler off the coast of Corn- Fishy Stories believed to be unique to the west- wall last summer? Apparently it's a ern Indian Ocean. Now it has been Remote Counter Mine Disposal Here are some stories we read or System (a most inelegant name), heard about in recent months. How found thousands of kilometres to the east, off Sulawesi (formerly which is really just another kind of reliable are they? We would wel- 'autosub'. It belongs to the Navy, come any further information that Celebes). (See also Nature, 395, 24 September 1998, ~p.319~335.) but the trawler skipper hid it readers might have. pending the outome of negotiations Meanwhile, nearer home, the over a 'salvage fee'. Sounds more Torbay beaches had to be cleared long-lost Allis Shad, last recorded like a ransome demand to us! of holiday makers on a hot August in Cornish rivers 12 I years ago ,was day because many bathers had their recently re-discovered in the Tamar, * ... the 'wingsail'? Such a simple feet cut by razor shells protruding when a fishermen caught a five- idea in principle. You replace all from the sand at low tide. Accord- and-a-half pound specimen. the paraphernalia of canvas, ropes, ing to news reports, 'because of the winches, etc. with a rigid aerofoil, hot weather there were extreme Seahorses are believed to mate just like an aircraft wing, only tides which caused the sea to go for life, and males have long been mounted vertically and rotatable to out much further than usual ... and identified as 'politically correct', make best use of the wind. In 1998 people were paddling in areas that for they bear the burden of preg- the company went bust, chiefly are not normally accessible.' nancy and rearing of the young. because there was a dearth of Recent research suggests that interest and a surfeit of scepticism. Anglers along the Trent blamed female seahorses in British waters But it's a most environmentally the Environment Agency for clean- are more promiscuous than their benign way of driving ships. Tony ing up the River Trent so efficiently counterparts in other countries, for Blair was reportedly in favour. Are that the fish are either starving to they deposit their eggs with more those two Ministerial champions of death or being caught by animal than one male ... cheeky things.. Science, Technology and the and bird predators 'because the Environment, Messrs Battle and water is so clear there's nowhere to Claiming that the Thames is now Prescott following his lead and hide'. Europe's cleanest metropolitian supporting this innovative venture? river, the Environment Agency is It would help cut greenhouse gas 0 UK trawlermen have claimed that planning to create artificial emissions and make Britain once the tonnages of fish (mainly herring, reedbeds and saltmarshes along the more a world beater in wind- sprat and flatfish) killed by being lower Thames (Docklands), to powered ships. What's the betting sucked into the cold water intakes of attract more birds to the area. they won't take the financial risk, coastal power stations are so large as they'll just go on emitting hot air to threaten their livelihoods. No The Chancellor of the Exchequer and greenhouse gases? tonnage estimates are given. has been taken to task for allegedly agreeing to spend El 20 millions on ... the skipper of a tourist diving 0 The average size of cod is refitting a nuclear submarine (the vessel who failed to take a roll call decreasing because of selective Spartan) that is apparently due to be before returning to port after a day- pressures caused by overfishing. scrapped in about 2005, under the trip, abandoning a young couple 40 Most large mature cod (8-1 0 years) Government's defence review. miles offshore on Australia's Barrier having been caught, there is a rising Reef. They were not reported proportion of those smaller and Under the combined auspices of missing for another two days, and more precocious individuals capa- DERA and the MOD, a hi-tech were presumed drowned or eaten ble of breeding at a younger age 'frigate of the future' is to be built by sharks. He went on trial accused (4-6 years). This report is given for the millenium, reportedly at of unlawful killing. credence by another one about Southampton. It will have a stream- natural selection leading to greater lined trimaran design, making it numbers of tuskless elephants in both fast and economical on fuel. southern Africa, because animals with tusks are killed by poachers. At the same time, the EU is providing funds for a new-style 0 Norwegian fishermen claimed 'ferry with wings', said to combine recently that the grunts of mating 'the best of aviation and maritime cod are so loud that they interfere technology', giving speeds of up to with their fish-finding sonar equip- 200 km hr-I. Sketches suggest the ment. 'Seabus'will look like a New Age flying boat, except that it won't rise

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 W S. OCEAN SYSTEMS LTD Unit 4 Omni Business Centre Tel: +44 (0) 1420 541 555 Omega Park, ALTON Fax: +44 (0) 1420 541499 Hants GU34 2QD, UK email: [email protected]

14 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Mind you, it couldn't have been a science community in Portugal could mode of oceanic transport much do more to educate the Portuguese used before the Carboniferous Period public in these matters. (about 350 Ma ago), because trees were a bit thin on the ground before Ban shrimps - then. But even if only one new infringe interna tional law There's a species achieved successful migra- Did anyone else catch the news item tion in this way once every few about the Americans banning imports centuries thereafter, that's still getting of shrimps from states like Thailand, on for a million migrations. India, and Malaysia, because they Leaving that aside, however, I think weren't using turtle-friendly fishing the clue to the importance of this nets, thereby threatening the survival story is size. While it is easy enough of an endangered species? That Many a true word ... to get small land invertebrates like would not have been surprising in Alert readers may have spotted the insects and spiders across large tracts itself, the surprise came with the fascinating but fabricated tale of of open ocean by rafting (or even by report that the World Trade Organiza- the correlation between El Niiio and blowing in the wind), relatively large tion told the Americans they couldn't the size of winnings on the Spanish land vertebrates (iguanas can reach do it because it violates a Free Trade lottery (El Gordo), in Ocean Chal- over a metre in length) are a different Agreement. Wow! If ever you needed lenge, Vol. 8, No.1, p.18. matter. This is the first properly evidence that in any conflict between recorded instance of successful long- economics and environment, the We postulated a link between ENS0 distance dispersal of a large land environment loses every time, well, events and weather patterns in the animal species over water - a jolly here it is. Perhaps placing limits on North Atlantic. Were we being less useful mechanism in regions where the sale of exotic shells and corals inventive than we thought? Perhaps. land bridges aren't available. How- (see previous item) would also consti- A recent note in Nature (393, 1 June ever at least one press report of this tute a violation of free trade? 18, p.638) establishes a correlation story quoted a sceptic who prefers between the Gulf Stream index (a land bridges for getting species A tasty dish measure of its annual mean posi- across water. Golly. Don't get me I cannot resist it. In the April Newslet- tion), and the intensity of both the wrong, land connections must have ter from SAMS (Scottish Association North Atlantic Oscillation - as we existed in glacial times when sea- for Marine Science) I read an item on might expect - and the Southern levels were lower, but only where sea urchin culture in Scotland. In the Oscillation index: the Gulf Stream is present water depths are less than course of a mis-spent youth in a displaced further north following El about 150m (at the very most). In foreign land, I was introduced to the Niho events. So our simple-minded general, land bridges won't do for delicate flavour of sea urchin roe, at a spoof wasn't as far-fetched as we'd island hopping - not even in the time when the urchins were a great thought - it seems there really may Caribbean - especially now that sea- deal easier to come by than they are be a tie-up between the tropical floor spreading and plate tectonics now. How encouraging, therefore, to Pacific and the northern Atlantic, rule OK! see that SAMS has a group working on though whether it really does relate the culture of sea urchins, even to 'feel-good factors' in Spain must She sells sea-shells by the though the product is intended for the present remain in doubt. seashore - but she shouldn't! primarily for export to France and There I was, in the land of Expo, perhaps also Japan. 'What about the Dispersal by hurricane - home market?' I cry plaintively. The a saga of surfing iguanas with its great sea-faring tradition, a rapidly growing oceanographic British tradition of shellfish consump- It even made Radio 4's 'News Quiz', research base, and a burgeoning tion is confined to molluscs and the story that in 1995 a small group of concern for the marine environment. crustaceans, although it seems that in iguanas was carried from (probably) I was shocked to see so many street the 19th century urchin roe was used Guadaloupe to Anguilla in the Carib- traders still offering sea shells for sale by some people as a butter substitute. bean, 'surfing' for some 400 km upon as ornaments. Coral branches, Would it really be such a giant step to a natural raft of trees blown into the cowrie shells, dried seahorses, the go from eating raw oysters on the half sea by a hurricane; and more impor- shells of large clams and other shell to scooping out the raw roe from tantly, that they survived to breed. tropical molluscs, many with a high half a sea urchin? polish, sit alongside garish assem- But why is this sufficiently news- I do recall that collecting wild urchins blages of common cockle and mussel worthy to merit publication as a required venturing onto wave-battered shells fashioned into gimcrack short report in Nature (395, 8 rock platforms during low spring tides gewgaws. It wouldn't be so bad if I October, p.556) and hence in the in the winter months (when the roe is could be sure the contents of the public prints? Leaving aside the best developed and tastiest) - a shells had been consumed. Cockles journalistic whimsy that floating on precarious way of earning a crust, and and mussels are all right, but cowries a raft in a current is a form of surfing, no longer a viable occupation, and giant clams? this is surely no more than confir- especially in these safety-conscious mation of what must have been an I could even support an EU directive days. It will be a lot easier to collect almost standard way for terrestrial to limit (or eliminate) the trade in the cultivated urchins, and I wish SAMS animal species to reach new lands, skeletal and shelly remains of exotic every success in this enterprise. especially islands, throughout a and probably endangered species. As large chunk of geological time. a useful first step, though, the marine John Wright

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 15 Postgraduate Research in Marine Earth Science 23 and 24 February, 1999 Burlington House, London Registration and further details are available through the web. Confirmations of registration will also be posted on the website:

Convenors: Anneke Lubben and Alastair Vaan [email protected] [email protected] School of Ocean and Earth Science, Southampton University Southampton Oceanography Centre, European Way, SO14 7ZH John Jones Department of Geological Sciences, University College London WC1 6BT

ODP Leg 187 million years since the separation of Nautile Op ortunities October-December 1 999 the South Tasman Rise from Antarc- tica. On the other hand, it seems for Young Dcientists Next autumn's ODP leg on the likely, perhaps even probable, that Under the European programme loides Resolution will be concerned the isotopic boundary is inherently 'Training and Mobility of with geochemical processes in the linked to the mantle processes that Researchers - Access to Large oceanic crust and mantle. Igneous have maintained the existence of Scale Facilities' (TMR-ALSF), petrologists, experts in physical the AAD for more than 90 million lfremer is offering places on properties and palaeomagnetism are years since Australia and Antarctica three or four different scientific needed (at least two from the UK). first rifted apart. cruises of the manned sub- Anyone interested in working on mersible Nautile in 1999 for The long-term configuration and the cruise should contact Alastair young European scientists who dynamic history of the isotopic Robertson, the UK SClCOM repre- do not normally have access to boundary can be determined by sentative, as soon as possible, by such equipment. Nautile's systematic off-axis sampling, email: specifications can be found on Alastair.~obertson8glg.ed.ac.uk beyond the limit of effective dredg- the lfremer website at: http:// ing (-7 Ma). Leg 1 87 will extend The areas/topics under investigatia www.ifremer.fr/genavir/engins/ the sampling programme to older naut-uk.htm (English version). are (1) the Australian-Antarctic crust, between 10 and 30 Ma. Discordance and (2) mantle reser- The cruises will be biological voirs and migration associated with An array of 19 drill sites has been and geological, investigating Australian-Antarctic rifting. designed to determine the configu- deep-sea hydrothermal vents in ration of the isotopic boundary and the Pacific Ocean. Candidates The Australian-Antarctic Discord- to distinguish among competing will be selected on scientific ance is an anomalously deep region hypotheses concerning the nature merit via an independent peer centred on the South-East lndian and extent of mantle migration review procedure. Access will Ridge between Australia and beneath the South-East lndian be provided free of charge and Antarctica. Among its unique Ridge. Approximately 10-1 2 single- will include all the infra- features is an unusually sharp bit holes will sample 20-100 m structural, logistic, technical and boundary between the upper mantle (ideally about 50 m) into igneous scientific support that is normally isotopic domains of the Pacific and basement. A reactive drilling provided to external users of the Indian Oceans. This boundary has strategy (on the basis of trace facility. Travel and subsistence migrated westward into and across element data obtained from the expenses may be reimbursed. the easternmost segment of the AAD earlier sites) will allow the selection First selections will be made in at a rate of 25-40 mm yr-' during the of later sites within a few hours of late January 1999. last 4 million years, yet the long- core-recovery . term relationship of this important For further details, contact: boundary with the AAD itself Alain Cressard, Ifremer, remains unclear. Further information can be obtained 155, rue Jean-JacquesRousseau from: http://www-odp.tamu.edu/ 921 38 lssy les Moulineaux, There is limited evidence to suggest sched.html France the boundary has been migrating Tel: + 33-1-46 -48-22-02 westward for approximately 40 APPLY SOON IF INTERESTED Fax: + 33-1 -46-48-22 24 Email: acressar8ifremer.fr

16 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 On Friday 11 September, the local David Cartright organizers of the biennial UK receiving his Oceanography Conference (Neil presentation of a leather-bound Wells and his tireless helpers) could copy of the at last begin to relax ... and look Special Issue pityingly upon their colleagues from of Progress in East Anglia, where the next such Oceanography Conference will be. on tides (Photo: Mike In the pages that follow are three Conquer) personal accounts of the week, from widely differing perspectives. First, here is a round up of some of the main events. Challenger Society AGM This was very well attended, and included a useful and upbeat discussion of the role of the Chal- lenger Society in Europe and the new European Federation of Marine Science and Technology Societies. Another important agenda item concerned the 'Challenger 2000' ~olicvdocument. which will set out jdeas'for the futu're role of the Nimmo Smith of the Department of Society in the development of Prizes Oceanography, Southampton (disper- Marine Science in the UK. This is At UK Oceanography, there are two sion by wind and tide in shallow being drafted by the Society's prizes spcifically for young scientists seas). The Cath Allen Prize went to Policy Group and will be circulated -the Norman Heaps Prize for the Sally Thorpe of UEA (variability of the to all members before finalization best presentation and the Cath Allen flow around South Georgia). and publication in Ocean Challenge Prize for the best poster. Because of in the spring. the difficulty of comparing talks in the Alex Nimmo Smith received another round of applause for winning the Mike Whitfield's period of office as two separate auditoria, it was decided prize for the best entry in the 'Presi- President has come to an end and to present two Norman Heaps Prizes, dents' Photographic competition he passed the Challenger gavel to one for each location. These went to (see below). Ernest Naylor. Unfortunately, since Susan Adcock of the Department of then, Professor Naylor has had to Meteorology at Reading (who spoke stand down for health reasons, and on the interaction of ocean eddies The winning photograph: An inquisitive with bottom topography), and to Alex tom-pot blenny peeps out from a his place has been taken by Profes- sponge-encrusted cliff sor Harry Elderfield. Highlights This conference seemed to have more special events than usual. On the Wednesday evening, SOC hosted an evening on 'Science and the Media', with entertaining contributions from representatives-of both 'sides'. Freelance science journalist, Jeremy Cherfas, and BBC News correspondent, David White-house, provided some excellent tips and warnings. These are discussed in more detail in succeeding pages, as are Martin Angel's Buckland lecture and Tony Rice's mysteriously titled talk on 'Abysmal Biology'. David Cartwright gave the Henry Charnock Memorial Lecture, which was preceded by a presentation to the speaker (see photo above).

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 17 Susanne Rolinski

This year's UK Oceanography in This conference was a perfect and inspiring, and not just because Southampton was a pleasurable platform for those giving their first of the wine. Delicious food, served experience, as was the conference scientific talk or poster. Graduates in the medieval Guildhall, bore no two years ago in Bangor and, as I'm and post-graduates gave high relationship to prejudiced overseas sure, will be the one in Norwich in quality presentations and it was ideas of British meals. Much the two years' time. Most attractive easy to follow their arguments, with same holds for the enthusiasm of features of these conferences are very few distractions by unreadable the conference when it came to the mixture of scientific topics and transparencies or other common dancing. Midnight, and with it the the balance of young and estab- mistakes. I had imagined that the time to leave, drew near much too lished researchers, at least as seen encouraging and supportive atmos- soon. from my overseas viewpoint. A phere of the audience was a peculi- One of the bitter drops to swallow month later, the memories that arity of Bangor but happily it was come to mind are related mostly to present in Southampton as well. I was the announcement of the Memorial Lecture for Henry the interesting discussions and hope many others took home with debates that took place both inside them the stimulation that is so Charnock, as we still had in mind and outside the lecture theatres. conducive to one's personal develop- the memorial lecture Henry gave on the life of John Swallow in ment - mentally and scientifically. Bangor Martin Angel raised a topic which two years ago. Henry's excellent touched a chord with the audience Nowadavs. scientific research is talent for drama and the well , r in the Buckland Lecture the very becoming as important to the public measured dramatic finish to his talk first evening: How to deal with, and as the reporting of new findings. were mentioned in Heike Langen- make use of, the deep sea? His Feeling the same, Tony Rice, Angela berg's account of the conference slides showed not only the beauties Colling and others had initiated an two years ago. Now, David of the terrestrial and marine envi- evening dedicated to the ambiguous Cartwright led us back to Henry ronment, but also those areas which relationship between Science and Charnock's early days when the are abused by waste disposal. Very the Media: an evening event at SOC satellites began to encircle the cleverly, he pursued a line of with fish and chips and passionate Earth. In our minds, we could see argument that could only end in debates. Two science journalists, him standing among his colleagues one conclusion: Why not sacrifice a Jeremy Cherfas and David White- on the roof of their institute in the very small area of the deep sea house, tried to convince 'us', the middle of the night, watching the bottom if this enables us to save the scientific community, to put more first Sputnik crossing the sky and rest of our Earth? effort into informing the public. thinking back to the wisdom of Not only did many of the sessions Their credo was: do not hesitate to earlier scientists such as Leibniz. deal with the vast amount of water simplify (at least a bit). Two scientists, Another bitter pill was the announce- in the deep oceans, and its constitu- Graham Shimmield and Tony Rice, ment that Tony Rice is to retire, i.e, to ents, but it seemed to me that there told stories about their contacts give his very last lecture and concen- was a broadening of topics since with the press. Their conclusion trate on more important things than the Bangor meeting. More and sounded different: be aware of the science. A praiseworthy intention to more biological studies are being very simple simplifications that make way for younger ones but, presented. This may be partly my journalists make of your (of course nevertheless, a big loss. personal perception and partly a very complex) results; and if you reflection of the increasing interest give away information, you give At the end of the conference Tony in interactions between physical away control over its deformation. took up Martin Angel's thread of and biological processes in the A most lively discussion followed waste disposal in the deep sea. scientific community. Although the these introductory remarks, charm- Every participant will remember the need for interdisciplinary approaches ingly led between Scylla and abysmal conditions of worms and is in everybody's mind, sometimes Charybdis by Tim Jickells. One of their researchers in the abyss of the researchers are surprised by the the arguments dealt with the intelli- deep sea. Tony presented the dilem- necessity to understand other gence of 'the public'. Is it true and ma that arises from our very meagre disciplines when coming across inevitable that readers can only knowledge of species in the deep new phenomena. Tom Rippeth told follow simple sentences with sea and our need to assess the use us about ADCP measurements on shallow content, or is the 'man in of deep sea territory for humanity's the Hebridean Shelf and unexpect- the street' able to learn at least by problems (e.g. waste disposal), and edly strong diurnal signals at mid- repetition? The catchphrase 'El did so in such a way that everybody depth. Since these signals vanished Niiio' shows that this is possible, could understand without having after a few days, instrument failure but also shows how much time and experience in biology. The same could be excluded as a cause. The simplification are needed. holds for his plea to train biologists only promising hypothesis was that in areas where most of the species the measurements recorded the Dancing after dinner was the are well-known and not in places vertical migration of zooplankton, programme for the next evening's where you discover a new organism and indeed the time of day and the event. Before dinner, there were wherever you step. This was one of velocity values matched values from speeches among the paintings and the talks that listeners from all the literature. But, unfortunately, sculptures of the City Art Gallery: a disciplines will keep in mind be- no biological samples were taken. surrounding which was both festive cause skill met a talent to perform.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 The days of the conference passed Stoneham Hall. Memories will Susanne Rolinski is at the lnstitut fiir with delight and I left with lots of remain of the city near the sea, the Meereskunde, Universitat Hamburg, new friends who are much dearer to dancing and the worms. TroplowitzstraRe 7, 22529 Hamburg, me than the little drawbacks such Germany, Tel. +49-40- 41 23 -5751; as the bus shuttle or living in South Fax: +49-40-5605724. Email: [email protected]

Toby Sherwin Travelling home from Southampton this by continually projecting his on Olympus) from where they can this year it struck me that at UK overheads back to front, no matter look down on the rest of us with Oceanography '98 we had wit- how hard he tried! (It was still a our mortal concerns. Thus Martin nessed the three ages of science. good talk though.) Angel stimulated a debate with his I've attended nearly all the meet- politically incorrect tenet that we For speakers in their middle years, ings since their inception and it should use the deep ocean as a lack of preparation time, habit and seemed to me that I'd enjoyed this dustbin for the next I00 years while perhaps a little casualness has crept one as much as any of the others. the population of the world doubles into their presentations. Their I felt moved to write a short per- in size; and David Cartwright professional skills are well honed sonal account of some of the things painted a touching picture of the but inevitably the infectious fires of that appealed to me. late Henrv Charnock and then their youth are a little dimmed. reminded'us, through a brief history The key to the success of UK That's not to say that they are not of satellite remote sensing, that Oceanography is the emphasis it involved in some fascinating work - what seems modern to us today will places on young up-and-coming for example, Andrew Watson's be considered old hat in 10 years' scientists. Their nervous enthusiasm ambitious programme to measure time; and Tony Rice, in a very and care of presentation, coupled to large-scale horizontal and vertical colourful way; gave a fascinating the fact that they are at the cutting diffusion in the Greenland Sea, or insight into the huge scale, and our edge of science, mean that their's Peter Burkhill's investigations of the almost pathetic lack of knowledge, are often the most rewarding talks biological response to upwelling off of 'abysmal biology'. to listen to. This fact was brought- Oman. Sometimes the hand of home (to me) most keenly on these older ~articiaantscan be The feeling that UK Oceanography Wednesday morning during the detected in bther bays - for exam- '98 engendered in me was that Estuaries session when a number of ple, was it just chance that all the there are a lot of very keen and young speakers gave a series of students from Southampton Institute dedicated people in our scientific excellent talks on topics relating to gave excellent talks? Elsewhere, community. This enthusiasm was water quality and nutrients. For a little cameos suggest that some well encapsulated in the poster non-expert in this field, the time greying heads may have other session where a great many people taken to explain the things that things on their minds - for example gathered in the evening. There was were being discussed was particu- the little grouping of the directors even a queue to get in on the first larly useful. Jian Xiong, for exam- of the three institutes of the Centre night! It seems right to congratulate ple, even took the trouble to for Coastal and Marine Sciences, in not only the local organizers who explain all his acronyms before a courtyard after coffee one day. hosted the meeting, but also the starting his exposition. What were they discussing? A new Council and other Challenger science programme? The overthrow Society members who obviously put By then, though, there had already of N ERC? in a lot of their own time in many been some fascinating talks, for activities peripheral to the meeting, example about the oceanography of Perhaps one of the most important such as producing merchandise and the North Atlantic, in particular by roles that members of the middle trying to raise the profile of the Andreas Thurnherr and Mei-Mei age have is in the husbanding and Society and of oceanography in the Lam who used the outflow from a care of UK Oceanography itself as it UK and now hydrothermal vent to infer the is handed on every second year to in Europe. physical dynamics at the sea-bed on another university - but more of the id-~tlantic ridge. Elsewhere, that later. On a personal note, to me at least UK Penny Halliday and Stephen Dye Oceanography is at the heart of our The thing that gave UK Oceano- were bringing us up to date on community and I hope that, with its graphy '98 a family feeling was the circulation in the upper layers of winning formula, it remains that way way that our elder statesmen were the North East Atlantic, in the latter for many years to come. Roll on UK included, and invited to give major case relating flow in the Faroe- Oceanography 2000 at UEA - who presentations. These people are Shetland Channel to the North can forget the conference dinner the (presumably) no longer anxious to Atlantic Oscillation. last time it was there!? make a name or further their career It's always a good idea to have nor do they have the responsibility Toby Sherwin is at the Unit for some original twist to make the for managing students and projects. Coastal and Estuarine Studies, audience remember you, and one They occupy some higher station Marine Science Laboratories, other young speaker accomplished (almost, but not quite, like the gods University of Wales Bangor.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 19 The days of the conference passed Stoneham Hall. Memories will Susanne Rolinski is at the lnstitut fiir with delight and I left with lots of remain of the city near the sea, the Meereskunde, Universitat Hamburg, new friends who are much dearer to dancing and the worms. TroplowitzstraRe 7, 22529 Hamburg, me than the little drawbacks such Germany, Tel. +49-40- 41 23 -5751; as the bus shuttle or living in South Fax: +49-40-5605724. Email: [email protected]

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 19 I must begin by echoing both phosphate availabilty (Tim Renton); But I digress. My principal question Susanne Rolinski's and Toby into the recognition of biogeo- is: where is all this excellent work Sherwin's his praises for the gener- chemical provinces in the oceans leading? The oceanic environment ally high level of enthusiasm and (several speakers); and last but not is being progressively degraded day quality of delivery displayed by least, into the evidently woeful - by day, but I have the impression virtually all the young scientists nay, abysmal - state of our know- that the scientific community does who presented papers and/or ledge about life in the deep ocean little more than monitor the degra- displayed posters. None of my (Tony Rice). I have to confess, dation and make recommendations curmudgeonly grumbles are di- though, that my favourite was Tom about how it might be ameliorated rected at those young scientists. Rippeth's wonderfully serendip- - recommendations about eliminat- Nor indeed are they directed at the itious tale of the oscillating thermo- ing the causes of the degradation organizers and supporting staff who cline that turned out to be a scatter- are not much in evidence ... is that coped so brilliantly with the various ing layer of vertically migrating right? Tell me I'm wrong, somebody. zooplankton. problems that occurred, not least a Martin Angel's exuberant Buckland paucity of buses and an unfortunate Much excellent research is obvi- Lecture provided an example of excess of rain. Both these factors ously being done. Scientists are what I'm trying to get at. Of course, exacerbated the unavoidable daily finding out more and more we surely all recognize that when it inconvenience of widely separated about the oceans, through the use comes to sewage, it is not easy to accommodation and conference of more and more sophsticated see how humans can cut down on venues - and my heart went out to instruments, increased use of ships their waste production, especially them when their thoughtfully of opportunity, advances in autono- as the population keeps on growing. planned and well-run excursions mous vehicles like Autosub, not to All the same, Martin was not talking ended up with so few takers. mention all the remote sensing data only about sewage sludge, but also While acknowledging the high from satellites and aircraft. Know- about dredging spoils, quarry and quality of most presentations, it ledge of how the oceans work is power station waste and the like. seemed to me that much of what continuously being refined, as What is more, the wastes are was presented was a case of dotting observation and data collection are contaminated with heavy metals i's and crossing t's. To take a supported by models of progres- and manufactured chemicals (PCBs, possibly invidious example, I was sively greater complexity and pesticides, oestrogen-disruptors struck by an earnest presentation resolution. etc.). Dumping them in the deep showing the evolution of increas- sea ensures removal of the solid Indeed, I detected a growing trend ingly refined models of a well- components more or less indefi- in the use of models at UK Oceano- documented storm surge that nitely, but any soluble material graphy 98. Given the rapid spread occurred 20 years ago. Each new must surely find its way back to the of IT this is not surprising, and it version of the model gets closer to surface in a matter of centuries, was good to see many of the models reproducing 'history', with the aim because that it the time-scale of being related to conclusions based of making storm surge prediction oceanic turnover. So this is not 'a on observations, rather than pre- better in future. But could this be a sustainable option' it's a techno- sented as abstract constructs - matter of diminishing returns? After logical fix, an end-of-pipe solution although at times there was rather a all, if an intense depression with that doesn't address the root cause, lot of 'flute music' on the slides and strong onshore winds is imminent i.e. what goes into the pipe. On the overheads. It has to be said that and about to coincide with a high other hand, if you think how far our many of those slides and overheads spring tide, would you not alert technological 'civilization' has were quite beautiful, and I reckon coastal populations to the danger of advanced even in the last hundred that anyone presenting merely black flooding, irrespective of whether your years, advances over the next few and white illustrations at UK model is reliable to 5 cm or 50 cm? centuries are truly unimaginable. Oceanography 2000 will be consid- Perhaps we don't really need to be In his keynote talk, Nick Owen ered rather naff. so concerned. called for some new paradigms in Handsome is as handsome does, marine science to capture the Recollection of Martin's exuberance however. If the data on the slides imagination and stimulate the leads me naturally on to the and overheads can't be read from intellect, and I see what he meant. evening session on Marine Science further back than the front two To be sure, we did learn about and the Media, a truly innovative rows, it won't matter how beautiful refinements of some existing event, an eye-opener for everyone they are. Beware of overload too. paradigms, new insights for exam- present, young and old. All the You shouldn't really have more than ple, into how waves move sediment speakers gave great value, profer- about half a dozen pieces of 'hard' (Tony Butt) and how beach cusps ring much good advice in a highly information (diagrams, maps, form (Ciovanni Coco); into the entertaining way, and Tim Jickells tables) per 15 minutes of presenta- supposed correlation between ran the session quite brilliantly. tion -that's still only 2.5 minutes number of hydrothermal vents and per picture - though that doesn't The key to getting your name in spreading rate -there isn't one preclude a few pretty scene-setting media lights is the 'Cor F.... Me!' (Chris German); into the Redfield photographs. (CFM) factor of your research, a Ratio -the feedback mechanisms novel discovery or synthesis, a new that maintain it may be forced by

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 way of looking at the world that excites the reader, listener or viewer. But that's only part of it. Successful communication requires an absence of jargon and pompos- ity, so if you are the sort of person who thinks scientists are a superior life form, you will neither deserve nor receive any media attention. Hugely enjoyable and instructive though this evening was, it left me feeling slightly uneasy. It is my belief that the CFM factor, the simple excittment of scientific discovery, is by itself no longer enough. David Whitehouse told us about the time he reported how a group of physicisits had succeeded in getting within a nano-degree of '... Bob Fisher, who has absolute zero, and how excited been active at sea from everyone (including himself) had 1951 to the present been by this achievement. He (1986), may hold the quoted the reaction of his bosses to record for scientific this news: 'Yes, but what is it for?' exploration, anytime, anywhere.' Plainly they could not comprehend the scientific significance of the The Ocean of Truth: A personal history of experiment and the resulting global tectonics improvement in understanding of by H. W. (Bill) Menard: the behaviour of materials near absolute zero. Over the years, Dr Robert L. Fisher As Chairman of the GEBCO Sub- Maybe it is time for a new paradigm - known worldwide in Marine Earth committee on Undersea Feature of the way scientists interact with Science circles as Bob Fisher - has Names, Bob has for many years the rest of the world. Broadcasting made a huge and unique contribu- brought erudition to that group by your discoveries from the top of the tion to our knowledge of the insisting that names given to newly ivory tower won't do any more. It world's trenches and the crustal discovered seamounts etc. should may be a sad commentary on how structure of the Pacific and lndian be appropriate, suitable and endur- the world works these days, but that Oceans. Bob Fisher was a Life ing. He has also been an outspoken dreaded word 'relevance' comes to Member of the 'old' Challenger opponent of adulatory or trivial mind. Increasingly, people do want Society, reconstituted in 1988 to names. to know 'what it's for'. Is that really form the present Society, and so it As long ago as December 1990, the so bad? As I hinted above, I think is particularly fitting that he has scientists shouldn't be content just now been elected Foreign late Professor Roger Revelle and Dr John Sclater (then Chairman of the to measure, model and monitor the Honourary Life Member. environment and write papers about Ocean Science Board of the US it. I think they should get more Bob Fisher played a seminal role in National Academy of Sciences) forcefullly stuck into politicians and the initiation and execution of the proposed that Bob Fisher should industrialists when they dodge and International Indian Ocean Expedi- receive 'some well merited recogni- fudge and obfuscate in their at- tion (1 959-1 965). When the Scien- tion for [his] work in helping to tempts to justify polcies that are tific Committee on Oceanic Research prepare the latest editions of environmentally damaging but (SCOR) set up a Working Group to GEBCO' which the Board described happen to be profitable. initiate and co-ordinate the llOE as being 'of outstanding quality and Scientific Programmes, he was ... will be of lasting importance'. Enough of these mood swings. Let appointed Co-chairman (with Dr Since then, during the '90s, Bob me end on a more up-beat note by P.L. Bezukov) of the Geology- simply saying that David Cartwright Geophysics and Bathymetry sub- Fisher has continued with his work on GEBCO and is today the most did a great job of delivering the committee. eulogy for Henry Charnock. prolific contributor of high quality He was an active member of the material to the project - he is John Wright SCOR Working Group on Morpho- responsible for recontouring the logical Mapping of the Ocean Floor, greater lndian Ocean from 10" W to which met in 1972 and 1973. The 165" E, and south to Antarctica. recommendations by this group led Also today, as Dr Revelle foresaw, it to the re-generation of the General is becoming increasingly clear that Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans ocean bathymetry is a vital factor in (GEBCO) and the resulting publica- studies of climate, particularly for tion of the GEBCO 5th Edition by projects such as WOCE and GOOS. 1982.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Alison Weeks

The first annual meeting of the Simon Boxall, from Southampton been intercalibrated. The problems Challenger Society for Marine Oceanography Centre, described the of making optical measurements Science Ocean Colour affiliated Colours Programme, which is an EC- from platforms were described, group was held on 11 September at MAST project. The project focusses including: inclination of the sensor UK Oceanography 1998. The on three European areas -the Adri- from the vertical, shading of the Ocean Colour Group provides a atic Sea, the English Channel and the sensors by the instrument or by the forum for ocean colour activities in North Sea - and will obtain bio- platform itself, the rate of descent the UK and operates via the Internet optical data for validation of products of sensors, and effects of bottom (http://www.n~pm.ac.uk/rsdas/ from satellite ocean colour data. As a reflectance from the sea-bed. first step, there has been an extensive csms~ocolour). Other linked John Siddorn (University Colleage inter-calibration phase to ensure groups are the Remote Sensing of North Wales) presented bio- coherence of measurements made at Society Ocean Colour Special optical data from the Zambezi River different sites by different scientific Interest Group and the Institute of plume, where a useful management groups. A database is being devel- Physics Underwater Optics Group. tool would be the ability to map the oped and maintained by the Irish plume from space, using colour as a The meeting was attended by about Marine Data Centre. Models are also 40 people, some of whom were marker. In April 1998, a research being developed to test and simulate cruise was carried out in the plume already at UK Oceanography 1998. the effect of the atmosphere and the to make detailed optical, water There were twelve talks during the seawater on the incoming light. day, several poster presentations quality and salinity measurements. and a discussion session. The Gerald Moore (CCMS, Plymouth) A good empirical negative relation- themes of the presentations ranged presented an analysis of optical data ship was found between the salinity from the processing of ocean colour collected during the spring, along the and the concentration of 'yellow satellite imagery to research in Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT) substance' (represented by the ocean optics. from the English Channel to the North absorption of filtered seawater at Sea in late April 1998. A comparison 440 nm). The high levels of yellow The first talk was given by was made of the in situ data (pig- substance in the river water dis- Samantha Lavender who described ments, suspended particulates and charge colour it to the extent that the work of the Remote Sensing CDOM ('Coloured Dissolved Organic the river discharge appears green Group at the Centre for Coastal and Matter', largely dissolved organic when viewed from the deck of a Marine Sciences (CCMS), Plymouth, carbon) on the one hand, and data ship, and there is a marked front in processing ocean colour imagery obtained from a series of concurrent between this and the blue Indian from the Sea-viewing Wide Field- SeaWiFS images on the other; this Ocean water. Empirical relation- of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) which comparison enabled algorithms for ships between salinity and was launched in August 1997. The chlorophyll to be developed. In Case upwelling radiance ratios were imagery is received by the NERC 1 waters (regions where the optical established to allow visible-band receiving station and transferred signal depends only on remote sensing of the plume. over the Internet to the CCMS for phytoplankton and associated dis- Chlorophyll levels were low every- processing to biological and geo- solved material) the NASA algorithm where, but suspended sediment physical products. The data are also was found to perform well. In Case II loads were enhanced in the plume. used to support research cruises. waters (regions where the suspended Underwater i rradiance measure- sediment concentration is high) the ments combined with water quality Steve Groom, also from CCMS, chlorophyll algorithm was found to measurements were used to estab- Plymouth, described how imagery respond to suspended particulate lish specific absorption and scatter- from the SeaWiFS instrument were matter. Furthermore, the atmospheric ing coefficients. These were used to used to monitor the spatial and correction failed in the region of high calibrate an optical model of the temporal distributions of ocean suspended particulate matter, and an water colour. Good agreement was colour and hence derived iterative procedure was developed to found between this model and the phytoplankton pigment concentra- provide a simple retrieval algorithm observed colour. tion in the north-east Atlantic for regions of high suspended sedi- Alison Weeks (Southampton Institute) between April and August 1998. ment concentrations, and this is now described some initial results from the The data showed the development routinely being used. of the spring bloom in relation to EC-MAST 3 Biocolor project which the continental shelf, slope and Matt Pinkerton (CCMS, Plymouth) aims to use multi-spectral in situ bio- oceanic environments. Colour presented the results from data optical data to determine optically composites of 'water-leaving acquired by the Plymouth Marine active constituents, particularly radiance' observed by SeaWlFS Bio-Optical Databuoy (PlyMBODy) phytoplankton, in the sea. Measure- provided information on the in the western English Channel, ments were made using (among other backscatter charactersitics of the , which uses sensors similar to those sensors) a novel in situ radiometer water, and showed enhanced on the Aqua Alta Tower in the which aims to measure inherent and scattering, believed to be due the Venice Lagoon. The bio-optical apparent optical properties simultane- coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi. sensors from the two platforms have ously at high spectral resolution. This

I 22 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 radiometer, the Southampton Under- slightly different, making it possible profiles of phytoplankton biomass water Multi-parameter Optical-fibre to detect dispersed oil if concentra- very often show a non-homogene- Spectrometer System (SUMOSS), was tions are sufficiently high. The ability ous distribution which can result in used to measure upwelling irradiance of optical sensors to detect surface oil errors in the estimation of the depth (EJ and down-welling irradiance (Ed) and determine its relative thickness is of the euphotic zone and of the - and the beam attenuation coefficient, documented in field experiments and biomass within it. In the past, two at high spectral resolution (<5nm). analysis of images from the Sea approaches have been suggested to Data were presented from a cruise in Empress oil spill. Determination of address this limitation. The first was August 1998, off the south and south- absolute thickness and classification to characterize the ocean by west of Ireland, where a large phyto- of oil type depends on accurate seasonal and regional provinces plankton bloom had been located. estimates of several environmental where the shapes of the vertical Several distinctive water types were parameters, and is still in its early distributions of phytoplankton are observed, characterized either by stages. This also applies to both predictable. The second was to different assemblages of phyto- detection and estimates of dispersed establish statistical relationships plankton, or by open ocean water. oil concentration, which may be between the satellite estimate and difficult without a knowledge of the the vertical distribution phyto- Miroslaw Darecki (Southampton optical properties of the water plankton biomass, so that they lnstitute and Polish Academy of column in a given area. might be used to complement Sciences, Gdansk) presented data satellite observations. A database of from the Biocolor project compar- Sandrine Charrier (Southampton vertical distributions of chlorophyll ing the optical characteristics of Institute) described how fluctua- in the upwelling system of Western Baltic and lrish coastal waters tions of underwater irradiance are Iberia were used for the analysis. where the chlorophyll concentra- caused by the focussing effect of The observed profiles have been tions were similar. The Baltic has surface waves on incoming solar fitted with a Gaussian model and brackish waters, and the optical radiation, which causes high the range of variability of the characteristics of its coastal waters intensities of light in small areas of parameters defining the Gaussian are modified mainly by river inflow, water. The frequency and intensity curve have been derived. The where the presence of yellow of the light 'flashes' so created pigment concentration as it would substances is marked by high depend upon optical properties of be measured by satellite was absorption coefficients in the blue the water, the diffuse quaality of calculated numerically for the range region of the spectrum (cf, the solar illumination and the wind of observed profiles, and a new earlier discussion of John Siddorn's speed (because this affects surface interpretation of the satellite talk). The lrish coast has a tidal roughness). The focussing phenom- estimation was obtained. This new regime, with minor river inflow enon may have significant biologi- approach provides a physical and horizontal mixing with Atlantic cal implications, affecting photo- interpretation of the satellite water. The parameters compared synthesis and primary production. estimation as an increasing function were the diffuse attenuation coeffi- However, little work has been done of the maximum pigment concentra- cient (K,), absorption by yellow in the field, to explore either the tion within the vertical distribution. substances, absorption by pigments extent and magnitude of the effect and detritus. and remotelv sensed or its implications for photosyn- A short presentation by Raul Aguirre reflectance itten wavelehgths, thetic organisms. Measurements of Gomez (University of Mexico) dealt including the SeaWiFS visible downward irradiance and u~ward with the methodology for process- channels. Optical algorithms were radiance have been carried'out in ing SeaWiFS data using the software developed for chlorophyll concen- coastal waters. Results were com- programme SEADAS, and described tration, and the results from these pared with published oceanic data, some of the particular problems showed that the statistics are and the implications for further encountered in acquiring and im~rovedin the Baltic when the research were discussed. processing data from tropical nuherator of the reflectance ratio is regions of the world. Daniel Ballestero (SOC) described shifted to longer wave bands. This the problem of using satellite is thought to be due to the large Finally, there was a discussion about sensors that measure the water- quantities of suspended sediments issues affecting the ocean colour leaving radiance, from which only and yellow substances in the Baltic. community in the UK. Two main the near-surface pigment concen- questions were raised, of which the Val Byfield (Southampton Oceano- tration can be obtained. Such first related to future funding of the graphy Centre, SOC) described how observations can be used to esti- Remote Sensing Group at CCMS, optical remote sensing can provide mate plant biomass and, by means Plymouth, to support a continuing information about surface and of theoretical and empirical models, service. The second question con- dispersed oil, which complements the rate of photosynthetic primary cerned the viability and desirability of that of other remote-sensing instru- production. Satellites can estimate developing a UK bio-optical database ments used in the monitoring of oil the pigment concentration averaged for developing algorithms for UK and pollution. Differences in optical only over the upper few metres of European waters. Further discussion properties (refractive index, absorp- the water column, the penetration of these subjects will continue via the tion coefficient and fluorescence depth, whereas the depth down to web pages and at subsequent meet- properties) allow oils to be classified which photosynthetic activity takes ings, along with other ocean colour into broad groups using spectral ratio place, the euphotic depth, is about issues. analysis. Dispersed oil scatters light four times greater. This limitation, in a similar manner to suspended intrinsic to optical remote sensing, Alison Weeks (Convenor) particulates, but the light absorption can lead to serious misinterpreta- Southampton Institute and SOC properties of oil molecules are tions of satellite data. Vertical

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Challenger Society for Marine Science

ANNUAL REPORT 1997-98

Message from kh e President9Professor Mike Whi@eId: This 95th year of The Cllallenger Society has been an eventful one with a strongly inter~iationalflavour. The Society has co~itributedsigllificantly to the Intenlational Year of tlle Oceans through a very full programme of scielitific meetings illcluding three European meetings held in Hamburg, Paris and Boulogne and jointly sponsored with other organisatioris. The illter~lationalernpliasis has been continued in the publication of a special European issue of Ocean Challenge. The work of the Society was presented at an exhibition of UK marille science in August on board RRS Discovery alongside Expo'98 in Lisbon.

The Challenger Society has been actively pursuing the establishment of a Eziropean Federation of Marine Science and Technology Societies (EFMS), togetller with the Deufiche Gesellschaftfur Meeresforschung (DGM) and the Union des Oce'anographes de France (UOF). The Swedish and the Finnish Societies have now joined the three founding societies in stating forrnally their illtention to establish the EFMS and half a dozen inore countries (Italy, Port~lgal,Iceland, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands) are considering joiliillg the founding group. The signing of tlie Federati011 document will take place in Paris in December 1998 following formal approval by Challenger Society members at the 1998 AGM. This will be the culmination of many years of negotiations by successive Challenger Society Presidents and should have a significant inlpact on the development of marine science in the UM and in Europe at large. This bold international venture will be a fitting activily for us to launch in the 1nter11a"conalYear of the Oceans.

All Societies representing marille science atid marine technology withill the Europeati Unio~land its associated countries will be eligible to beco~rief~ill members. Each COUD~IYwill nornillate one member to tlie governing Council. The Challeilger Society will therefore be li~ikingmore closely with other Societies and Associations within the UK by cotivening meetings to elect and brief the UK Council member and to discuss issues affecting the developrnelll of marine science and technology. This is an excellent opportunity for the development of better communication betweell scientists within the U1< and tliroraghout Europe and for Inore effective lobbying on their behalf.

The Society has also been active in re-organising its own affairs. The Council has introduced a structi~red budgeting approach to the Society's finances and the campaign to increase tlie advertising income for Ocean Challenge has got off to a good start. Two new Affiliated Groups have been initiated (Ocean Colour aiid Biological Oceanography) and they will be organising scientific lneetillgs in 1999. A new Policy Group has been established which has considered die future role of tlie Society in the developlnent of marine science in the UK. Its recommendations will be encapsulated in a policy document Thallenger 2000' which will be published in 1999. We a~iticipatea lively debate of its recommetidations in time for its imple~ne~ltatiollin the first year of the next millennium. I have enjoyed my brief period as President of the Challenger Society. I have been impressed by the e~ithusiasmand conlmitment of its Council meinbers and of those who work with the Council to ensure that the Society relnains a lively and relevant organisation. Tile SocieQ l~asa key role to play in promoting our interdisciplina~yscience and in ensuring its positive development. I am sure it will continue to rise to tlie challenge!

Membership Membership as at Septen~ber1998 is 538, includi~lg343 Full members, 148 Studelzt members, 3 Honorary members, 34 Retired members and 10 Corporate members. The marine science cominu~litygreatly miss tlie contributions of Professor Henry Charnock and Professor Geoffrey Skirrow who died during 1997.

Council rnenzberslj ip aand responsribie"$ies Since the last Alanual General Meeti~igwhich took place on 3 July 1997, the Council of the Society has met 4 times, on 8 July 1997, Wctober 1994, 22 Ja~luary1998 and 8 April 1998, The Council members and their responsibilities were as follows:

Professor M Whitfield President Professor E Waylor President Designate Mr. C P Quartley Honorary Treasurer Dr C Robinson Honorary Secretary Dr H Elderfield Policy Mr T Yrl Guymer A-Fiilialed Groups Mr S Hall WWW page Mr M J Idowadh Meetings Mrs N Lane Membership Development Dr R Lewis Publicity Dr C Shirnmietd Policy Dr C Turley Education Dr. A Weeks Publicity and Marketitlg

Tlie following scrved as ex-officio or co-opted members of Council :

Mrs J Jones Executive Secretary & ~nenibership Ms A M Colling Editor, Ocean Challenge Mr J B Wriglit Associate Editor, Ocean Challenge Dr R Mills Chair, Editorial Board, Ocean Challenge Dr M Presto11 Chairman of the Education Committee Dr .1 O'Mahony Sales

Dr A Weeks and Mr 'r H G~aymer,who retire from Council at the 1998 Annual General Meeting, are sincerely tlsanked for their enthusias~nand com~nitmeiltto Council and the Society.

Dr M Preston has resigned as Chairman of the Education Committee due to other commitments. The Council on bel~alfof the Society warmly thank him for his experienced time and commitment.

The Society is very grateful for the support whish it has continued to receive from the Directors of the Centre for Coastal and Marine Science and Southatnpton Oceanography Centre, Professor Jacquie MCGlade and Professor John Shepherd respectively. The capable and enthusiastic work of Mrs J Jones of SOC as Executive and Metnbership Secretary of the Society is also gratefully appreciated.

European Developments In this the In"Lerationa1 Year of the Oceans, the Society will be deciding upon its participation in the establishment of a Europea~~Federati011 of Marine Science and Technology Societies (EFMS). The priinary aim has been to develop a Europeati forurn for the promotion of marine science and tech~lologywhile maintaining the strength and independence of the individual Societies and Associatio~lswithin each country. Policy The policy group met in April 1998 to coersider the drafting of a new strategy document for the Society to follow on from the Thallenger Strategy for the Nilleties9. The aim of the Challenger 2000 documen~twould be to raise the authoriv and impact of the CSMS as a profes"onal body acting on behalf of marine science, The Challenger Society could work within EFMS to develop a withoztt privzrdcc networlc of expertise within the UM member societies to address both key issues of mmarii~ecnvironmen"r1 or economic innpact and those of the management and directiora of UK marine science. The CSMS could lller~beconae responsihie for drafiing a biennial 'state of rnarirne scie~ace'review lo be publislasd in Ocrarl C,'ljalienl:e and Iinl

Education Dr M Preston and Mr S Hala participated in thc Association of Science Education lneetin~gin January 1998, Prof E Waylor and Dr M P%esion contributed to the Ed~scationand Training Vv'orkirlg Group of the Inter- Agency CommiHee on Mariare Science and Technology (IACMST). 'The Eclprcation~Corninittee continue to have strong links with tlae SUT Educatioxr Col-r~mittee,and are currel~tlyllaising with the Geological Society to organise an information tecl~no%sgyselninar for young scientists in marine st~rclies,The role and funletion of the Education Cornmialee is calrreratly being reviewed as part. cof the overall CSMS strategy.

Ocean Challenge The increased level of co-opcraiion belwcen CSMS and nnarine sciersce societies in the rest of Europe has been marked by a European Issue of Occa~aCllallenge (Vol.8, No,2), with contributions from colleagues in a number of other countries. It Is intended that this will become a regular feature, so the need for good articles. features, meeting reports ctc., is greater than ever. We aim to oontinile the mix of lively and interesting articles on all sorts of subjects including news items, controversial connment and cutting edge researcl~.T17ere is growitig ititerest from advertisers, and tlae wider circulation that will accomparay closer iartegration of European societies should imrpriwe the 'reach' of advertisements, Thanks "i Mark Brandoil, an Clcean Challenge web page is now on Line at ~Ilm7wwqoc wtorr ac ul~/OTFIEI~SlCSMS10CfI.411/sha~~.

Meetings Since the last AGM in July 19997, the Society laas sr~ppartedliac orgai~isatisraof meetings on the usual wide variety of subjects refleetirag the raragc of interests involved in ocearlograpi~yand oC the rnenabers of the Society. These were : V71eRole of6ron in tkacr Mnri~aeEnvirotament" AA.Watson, December 199'7; '&'VOCEt, T. Cuymer, January 1998, jointly witla the Royal 1%2leteorologiealSociety; 'T11c. dIiL~ioqiof Marifle Meteorology', M. Walker, March 19998, jointly wit11 tl~eI-iistoay Group of the Royal Meteoroiogical Society; 'Underwater Optics Ilf, M. Wall, March 1998, joiiatly with the Institute of Physics; Yxtreftze Envirorln?er.ilst, P. Herring and P. Tyler, March 1998, jointly with /he MRA;arid 'Re~ltB?icProcesses in the Arabian LCc.~/J Biogeochen~i~vtry,Biodiver*slty, Eco1ojy', J. Gage, July 1998, jointly witla the S~ottis1-iAssociation for Marine Scie~iceand the Royal. Society crf Ldia~burgla,Overseas the Society has pal-ticipated in meetings wit11 its German equivalent, BGM, at Harnblarg, in October 1997;at the First Syn~~posl~arnof European Marine Societies, at Wimereux, Francc in1 April 1998; and at the Paris meeting of 'The Ocea~aographySociety on 'Coastal and Marginal Seas' in J111ae 1998.

Publicig and mar/tslitzg A. Weelis, J. Jones amad J, O'Mahony cor~tinsuedto raise public awareness of CSMSby ellslrri~agthat CSMS was well represented at all CSMS spoalsored meetings as wel! as events stlzla as Oceanology lnleraaatio~~kil98 at Brighton in March; the Marine TCC~IBIOIO~~Forum, a"cootlaanspton ixa April 988; Expo 998,ora board I

A lively and successful meetitlg of the OCEANMODELLING GROUP was held in Liverpool on the 3rd-4th September, 1994. As usual, lnucl~of tlae ocean modelling coriimuni@ attended (54 people), and 34 talks were given, mostly by less experienced worlters in the field. After a co~isiderablenumber of years of hard work, Steve Maskell bas resigned as secretaty of the Group, and George Nurser has taken over. This year's meeting is being held on Thursday September 10th as part of UK Oceanograpl?y '98, in Soutliampton.(Contact: oto~i.ac.uk)

The MARINECHEMISTRY DISCUSSION GROUI) meeting on 18/19 Septennber 1997 was dedicated to Professor 9. Dennis Ei~lrtonto comlnemorate over 30 years of input to the field of Chemical Oceanography, and his retiremel-rt froln the Department of Oceanography at the University of Southampton. There was a very good turn out, with 86 aHendees representing all tlie major Deparl-ments and Institutes in tlie UIC plus visitors from the USA,Ireland, India and China. An important and pleasing aspect was that more than 40 % of the attendees were PhD studerlts or young researcl-r assistants. The meeting had 6 sessions ranging from air-sea interactions to hydrothermal inputs; an overview of the scientific material presented at tlie meeting was pmvided in an artisle prepared for Ocean Challenge. The Bepafirnetit of Oceanograpliy and many individuals provided superb support before and during the meeting, and the co-convenors of the meeting, Peter Sta"c1arn and Washael Mills are very grateicul to them for lielping to make this a very successful meeting. (Gor-ntact: P-,soc.soton.ac.uk)

Following a successful CSMS meeting on Ocean Colour at Imperial College on 3 July 1997, which had an interesting and wide-ranging programme, includi~igspeakers from outside the UK, the OCEANCOLOUR GROUPis seeking to act as a UK focus for ocean colour research and to enable easy exchange of relevant information. There will be a meeting of the Group on Friday 11 September as part of UK Ocea~zograpt?y '98. This will cover all aspects of ocean colour and optical oceanography. The Group has its own pages linl, Finance 1997 saw an excess of expenditure over incolne [before depreciation] of g5901; a reversal of over £7100 from the previous year. This reversal was due mainly to the absence of a surplus from UK Oceanography, a special one-of"bmatio~ito Ocean Challenge, and also to an increase in Travel and Subsistence related to our active involvement in establisliing the Europeanl Federation. During tliis year we have carried out a well defined annual "sdgeting exercise, and we expect tlie deficit for tlie year 1998 to be in the region of £5000 before any surplus from UK Oceanography '98. These deficits can be covered in the sliort term by the capital reserves of the society, but itis a~iticipatedthat future budgeti~igwill involve increased incolne to Ocean Challenge from advedising which should significaiitly improve the situation. Changing oceanographic conditions in the post-glacial North Sea - the story preserved in the sediments

David S. Brew, Rex Harland, John Ridgeway, David Long and Matthew R. Wright

At the end of the last glacial period (i.e. the end of the Pleistocene), global sea-level The morphology of the began to rise. About 12000 years ago, sea-level in the North Sea was 90m below waves indicates that present and much of the area between the UK and continental Europe was still land. they were f~rmed Sea-level rise was rapid at first (-20 m every 1000 years), then slowed after 6 000 years under a mean flow before present (BP), by which time much of the present North Sea was under water. As of I-1.5ms-' a consequence of the early rapid rise in 55'20' sea-level, the shorelines of the North Sea migrated landward, and environments affected by the marine transgression would typically have progressed from freshwater (e.g. fluvial, bog etc.) to intertidal (mud flat, saltmarsh) to marine. Detailed studies of the sedimentary response to changes in sea-level have been conducted mainly in marginal marine environments, such as estuaries, intertidal flats and saltmarshes. However, sedimentary deposits preserved offshore also offer excellent opportunities for this North Sea type of study, providing information on 55"N changing oceanographic and hydrodynamic conditions.

This article describes the geometry and composition of post-glacial sediments (deposited between 11 000 years BP and the present), located about 20 km off the coast of Northumbria, north-east England, and their interpretation in terms of the sedimentary, geochemical and hydrodynamic development of the area. The sediments comprise a well preserved 25 km2 sand-wave field buried beneath an extensive (850 kmz) sequence of marine mud up to 10 m thick. The geometry and internal structure of the deposits were studied using high-resolution seismic profiles collected by the British Geological Survey 54'40' Figure 1 Map of the study area off the coast of Northumbria, showing the limits of the buried sand 1'20' 1'OO'W waves, the buried sand lens, and the overlying mud deposit; under the sediments shown are glaciomarine muds, glacial tills or bedrock. Also buried 1 buried ...... sand I mud shown are the locations of cores and seismic ...... waves I sand lens profiles (A-A'and 6-6') referred to in this article.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 north south A se(-bed ~ost-glacialmud sand waves A'

two-way travel time The buried sand (ms) waves are asymmetric, Figure 2 Seismic profile along section A-A' in composed of fine to medium grained sand; indicating strong Figure 1, showing the buried sand waves and over- they range in height from 2.0 m to 5.5 m and flow to the south lying mud. 'Pleistocene' refers to sediments laid have an average spacing (wavelength) of down towards the end of the last glacial period. The vertical scale is two-way travel time in milli- 340m (Figure 2). To the south, there is a seconds (ms). 1 ms corresponds to 0.8 rn depth. lateral equivalent of the sand waves (i.e. sediment deaosited over the same aeriod). in the form Af a large lens of fine tb very" (BGS) in 1977, 1981 and 1993. The 1993 fine grained sand (Figure 1). Sand deposits profiles were recorded as part of the NERC characterize environments with fairly fast Land-Ocean Interaction Study (LOIS). currents, where any finer grained clay and Sediments were obtained from LOIS cores silt would have been winnowed away. The recovered by the BGS in 1994, using a 6 m sand waves are thought to have been depos- vibrocorer, and vibrocores collected in 1981 ited about 10 700-9 700 years ago, in a tidal (see Figure 1 for core locations). embayment, oriented north-south and open The buried sand waves to the north, which formed during the initial stages of the post-glacial marine transgression The buried sand waves occur beneath the over the area (Figure 3). northern extremity of the mud deposits, and form part of an elongate sediment body The amphidromic system in the northern aligned north-south, about 10 km long and up North Sea probably resembled that of the to 3 km wide (Figure 1). The sand waves are present day, with the tidal wave moving anticlockwise around the basin. The sand wave morphology thus indicates that the Where did the Figure 3 Palaeogeographic reconstructions of the southerly component of the tidal flow (the sand come from? study area at 12 000 years BP, 10 700 years BP and 9 And what happened 700 years BP. The pale grey area represents the flood tide) was dominant. As sea-level to the sand supply region covered by the sea. The dark toned areas continued to rise, the embayment widened after mud represent the area of sand waves and the sand lens. deposition began?

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 2 7 west post-glacial mud east (prograding from west) 1 B / sea-bed

two-way travel time (ms) Figure 4 Seismic profile along section 13-6' on those further north. Alternatively, a pre- Figure 1, showing a depression infilled with mud. existing sand-wave structure may have been Mud has advanced The vertical scale is two-way travel time in removed during the reworking phase. With milliseconds (ms). 1 ms corresponds to 0.8 m. into the depressions further increase in water depth and expansion from the west of the body of water, a lower energy environ- and deepened, leading to a reduction in tidal ment permitted the deposition of mud. current velocity. The tidal dynamics of the area changed, and a period of sand-wave Important questions regarding the buried lowering by erosion and modification sand waves, that remain unanswered by the (reworking) began under slower flow condi- present study, include: Where did the sand tions. The finer composition of the sand lens come from? And what happened to the sand and the lack of a sand-wave structure indi- once it had been replaced by mud deposi- cate that depositional conditions in the tion? The answers to these questions must southern part of ernbayment differed from await further study. The mud deposit Figure 5 Palaeoenvironmental interpretation of core 287 down to the top of the sand waves, on Geometry and internal structure the basis of sediment type, the relative abundance The mud deposit is elongated north-south of the diatom Paralia sulcata at selected depths, (Figure 1) in present-day water depths of and magnetic susceptibility (indicating the concentration of magnetic minerals). Depth is in about 30 m in the south, increasing to about metres below sea-bed. magnetic The sandy mud was lithology diatoms susceptibility, X interpretation deposited in open marine conditions, % Paralia sulcata (XI~-~rn~k~-') although a change in sediment source is apparent n

open marine

S- ? diatoms absent reworked shell lag TE

sandy mud mud TE =tidal embayrnent fine sand S = change in sediment source

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 90m at the northern tip. It is narrower in the concentration in sediment of north (maximum east-west dimension about 14cage water copper, lead and boron 13 km) than in the south (about 30 km wide) (yrs BP) mass (normalized to lithium) and has a surface area of about 850 km2. The 0 1 2 3 deposit is generally thicker in the north (up to 1Om) than the south (up to 5 m) but reaches 20m in isolated depressions (cf. Figure 4). The volume of sediment preserved has been calculated to be about 3.2 x 109m3. Two areas of infilled depressions have been identified in the deposit, one to the east of the River Wear and the other further south towards the River Tees. The bases of the infilled depressions reach a maximum depth of 20 m below the sea-bed. These depressions follow those in both the underlying Pleistocene sequence and the underlying Permo-Triassic bedrock (Figure 4). They may have initially formed by subsidence, possibly controlled by bedrock faulting (?perhaps small grabens) or by collapse of solution cavities in a bedrock (Upper Permian) limestone. A sub-glacial scour origin is not inferred because it is likely that the depression would have been filled, not draped, by Pleistocene sediments prior to the onset of the post-glacial transgression. The internal structure of the mud shows that sediment has prograded (i.e. advanced) into the depres- Post-glacial marine sions from the west. Subsidence had ceased conditions in the prior to mud deposition, allowing the depres- northern North sion to fill up with sediment. Also, seismic Figure 6 Hydrodynamic interpretation of Sea have been reflection profiles indicate that layers laid dinoflagellate cyst assemblages, and sediment dominated by down in the Pleistocene are truncated on the geochemistry, in core 97, south of the sand lens. water masses On the basis of characteristic dinoflagellate similar to English eastern side of the depression (Figure 4) assemblages (zones I-V), the water masses from Coastal Water and indicating a period of erosion there (possibly which deposition occurred have been interpreted as Scottish Coastal tidal scour), before deposition of the mud. being similar to English Coastal Water (ECW) and Water Scottish Coastal Water (SCW). Changes in concen- Palaeoenvironmental interpretation tration of copper, lead and boron with depth The environmental conditions in which the correlate with changes in the overlying water mass (concentrations are normalized to lithium to correct mud was deposited were investigated using for variations in grain size). diatoms, mineral magnetics and dino- The abrupt increase in lead near the top of the core flagellate cyst analysis, the latter combined is attributed to 19th century lead mining (see with radiocarbon dating of in situ shell overleaf). Depth is in metres below sea-bed. material. Dinoflagellate cysts, like pollen, are resistant to decay, and being preserved in the fossil record they can be used in inter- low concentrations of magnetic minerals, pretation of palaeoenvironmental change. whereas below 3.25 m, in the basal mud, the concentration of magnetic minerals is signifi- Diatoms and mineral magnetic properties cantly greater. This change in magnetic were analysed from two LOIS cores in the properties may relate to a change in sediment vicinity of the buried sand waves (284 and source - different rocks being eroded or 287, see Figure I), and these both contained sediment-bearing currents coming from a sequence of sandy mud (>3 m thick) over- elsewhere - possibly controlled by circula- lying a thin layer of mud and a layer of tion changes in the area during the initial reworked shells. Both the cores exhibit rapid post-glacial rise in sea-level. similar diatom assemblages, dominated by Dinoflagellate cysts were analysed from core Paralia sulcata which suggests open marine 97, drilled further south (Figures 1 and 6). environments similar to those at present The assemblages can be related to two hydro- (Figure 5). Diatoms have not been recovered graphically distinct water masses along the in core 287 below 3.25 m. east coast of the UK at present, namely Both cores also exhibit similar mineral English Coastal Water (ECW) and Scottish magnetic properties. Core 287 shows an Coastal Water (SCW), the latter being influ- abrupt change in magnetic characteristics at enced by the influx into the North Sea of 3.25 m; the change is most noticeable in the North Atlantic water. SCW is characterized parameters related to concentration of by salinities of 34-35, temperatures ranging magnetic minerals, for example magnetic from 5.5 OC in February to 14OC in August, susceptibility (x)(Figure 5). Above 3.25 m, and medium to high turbidity. ECW is the sandy mud is characterized by relatively characterized by salinities of 34-34.5,

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 temperatures ranging from <5 "C in February to between 2.7 m and 2.3 m, the concentrations 15 "C in August, high turbidity and nutrient- of both boron and lead increase. These richness. changes suggest that the influence of a different water mass may have caused the The dinoflagellate cyst assemblages define introduction of sediments from different five informal zones (in ascending order, V-I) source areas into the depositional site. within the mud (Figure 6). A shell from a basal shelly gravel lag at about 4.2 m has a Mud sedimentation rates date of 9335+105 14C years BP. This is at a and modern metal contamination depth of about 59 m below present sea-level The Holocene sequence in core 97 is inter- and represents the onset of post-glacial preted as continuous with no hiatuses. Using marine conditions at this locality, a little later the radiocarbon dates, average sedimentation than deposition of the sand waves further rates have been calculated for the post- north. The dinoflagellate cysts of Zone V glacial sediments in this area. suggest a cool phase before a warming trend caused by penetration into the sea of Atlantic Between 9335 and 5845 14C years BP the waters from the north. The main water mass average sedimentation rate was 0.52 m per of Zones IV and Ill is interpreted to have 1000 years, between 5845 and 2765 14C years been SCW. Shell dates of 5845 + 90 14C BP it was 0.39 m per 1000 years and between years BP and 2765 + 75 14C years BP occur 2765 and 295 14C years BP, 0.36 m per 1000 towards the base and top of Zone 111, respec- years. Using a sea-bed value of zero, the tively (Figure 6). Zones II and I mark a average sedimentation rate for the last 295 period of lowered salinity, with the main years was 0.85 m per 1000 years. Sedimenta- water mass interpreted to be ECW. The tion rates have generally decreased through lowering of seawater salinity and an increase post-glacial times after the initial marine in nutrients associated with ECW is attributed incursion, with a modern increase attributed to increased runoff from the rivers Tyne, to anthropogenic sediment dumping, which is Wear and Tees during the wetter climatic common in this area. However, the modern period since 2600 years BP. A shell date of increase may also be explained by increased 295 + 70 14C years BP from a depth of sediment consolidation at depth. 0.2-0.3 m in the core indicates that the top To identify the reasons for increased sedimen- of the deposit is very young. tation rates towards the top of the Holocene A geochemical study of the same core reveals sequence a further geoche-mical study was changes in elemental concentration (particu- conducted. Composite samples from lengths larly copper, lead and boron) at depths which of LOIS cores 152, 286 and 287 (Figure 1) lie close to the zone boundaries of the dino- were used. Samples 1 and 2 from each core flagellate cyst assemblages (Figure 6). For (i.e. the two uppermost samples, 15211, 15212 example, above 0.3 m, the concentration of etc.) were taken from 0-0.1 m and 0.1 2-0.25 m lead increases significantly. Above 0.9 m, the respectively. Other samples came from concentration of copper decreases, and deeper levels in the cores, with the sampling interval varying from approximately 0.2m to Figure 7 Geochemical 'spider diagrams' for 0.9m depending on physical (drilling) and elements in cores 152, 286 and 287. The standard sedimentological features. for comparison is the upper crustal average (UCA) for the element concerned. The upper diagram Multi-element spider diagrams (Figure 7) shows element concentrations from the core tops, show that all the samples have a similar and the lower diagram shows concentrations from geochemical signature. However, the top the remaining mud samples.

High metal levels in core tops are derived from debris transported offshore from mining activities in the north Penine ore field

SZaY 0CQF~$bQcO~3&~~$ >fifg?8 element

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 0.25 m of all the cores, with the exception of Further reading 15212, show relatively high zinc and lead Brew, D.S. (1996) Late Weichselian to early concentrations. Sample 15211 is distinct in Holocene subaqueous dune formation and showing the highest levels of copper, zinc, burial off the North Sea Northumberland yttrium, zirconium, lead, thorium, lanthanum coast. Marine Geology, 134, 203-1 1. and cerium. Sample 15212 also contains Harland, R. and Long, D. (1 996) A Holocene relatively high levels of zirconium and dinoflagellate cyst record from offshore slightly enhanced lead. Core 152 is from a Tyneside, North Sea. Proceedings of the site near the coast (Figure 1) and the high Yorkshire Geological Society, 51, 65-74. element levels probably derive from mining Harrison, D.J. (1 988) Farne, Sheet 55"N debris related to lead-zinc mining in the OZOW,Quaternary Geology. British Geologi- north Pennine ore field, which is known to cal Survey, 1 : 250 000 series. contain enhanced concentrations of rare Pantin, H.M. (1 986) Tyne-Tees, Sheet 54"N earths in addition to the main ore-forming 02"W, Sea bed Sediments and Quaternary elements. The relativelv, high" lead and zinc Geology. British Geological Survey, values from the tops of other cores are also 1 : 250 000 series. considered to be a result of mining or other industrial activities. However, the relatively high levels of zirconium in the top 0.25 m of core 152 do not seem to be directly related to anthropogenic contamination, remaining high in sample 15212 whereas other enhanced metal levels are lower (Figure 7). This could David S. Brew* and John Ridgway* are, respec- indicate a change in source for the uppermost tively, a coastal geologist and geochemist at the sediment in core 152, but the relationship to British Geological Survey. They are both similar changes postulated in core 97 is not participants in N ERCrs Land-Ocean l nteractive clear. Study to investigate material fluxes between UK river catchments and the North Sea. Conclusions Rex Harlandt is a consultant micropalaeont- As the northen North Sea filled with water ologist interested in the use of dinoflagellate at the end of the last glaciation, strong tidal cysts in environmental reconstruction. currents reworked sandy sediments in a growing embayment offshore Northumbria. David Long** is a marine geologist at the British In the north, these sands were sculpted into Geological Survey. He works mainly on sea-bed sand waves. As the embayment widened and geohazards in deep water but is also interested deepened, tidal currents became weaker, in environmental studies. allowing the deposition of mud that now Matthew R. Wrighttt is a geomorphologist with overlies the sand. The mud deposit is gener- interests in coastal environmental change. UD allvI I to lOm thick but reaches 20m in several depressions, possibly formed by bedrock subsidence. The oldest muds (c. 9335 *Coastal and Engineering Geology Group, years BP)were deposited in relatively cool British Geological Survey, Keyworth, water. Cool conditions ended with the arrival Nottingham, NG12 5GG of warmer Scottish Coastal Water, which was Email: [email protected] and followed by lower salinity English Coastal j.ridgway8bgs.ac.uk Water a little after 2765 years BP. tcentre for Palynological Studies, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD Mud sedimentation has been continuous and DinoData Services, 50 Long Acre, throughout post-glacial times, although Bingham, Nottingham, NG13 8AH changes in sediment sources, related to Email: rexharland8msn.com changes in water mass, are apparent. Con- tamination of the uppermost sediments has **Marine Geology and Operations Group, occurred as a result of debris transported British Geological Survey, West Mains Road, from onshore mining and other anthropogenic Edinburgh, EH9 3LA activities. However, it is not clear whether Email: d.long8bgs.ac.uk deposition of mining debris has affected ttDepartment of Geography, University of sedimentation rates. Liverpool, PO Box 147, Liverpool, L69 3BX Email: m.r.wright8durham.ac.uk Acknowledgements Thanks are due to the staff of Marine Opera- tions Group, British Geological Survey, and the crew and officers of the RRS Challenger and MV Kommandor Ther&se for collection of the LOlS seismic profiles and cores. This is LOlS Publication Number 314 of the LOlS Community Research Programme. Published with the permission of the Director, British Geological Survey (NERC).

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Peter Rainbird

Tidal smooths (Figure 1) are relatively narrow sinuous regions of smooth unrippled water and are characteristic features of many estuaries. They show a marked alignment with the flow of the tide and, in the vast majority of cases, are associated with changes in the bottom topography of the channel. Smooths are basically frontal zones dividing water masses with differing temperature and/or salinity; they are also convergence zones where surface water descends before diverging again lower down in the water column Their smooth appearance is a result of the accumulation of oily organic material, some of which is dragged down through the water column. The formation of many tidal smooths can be shown to result from a transverse density gradient due to cross-channel variations in the speed of the tidal wave.

The distinguishing feature of a tidal smooth is buoyant material brought into the smooth by a lack of small ripples, or capillary waves, of the action of converging surface currents wavelength 0.1 m, or less, on the water accumulates on the water surface. Any light surface. Longer wavelength waves seem organic fractions will produce a thin oily unaffected by these zones of surface conver- layer, which serves to reduce the water gence and are able to pass through the surface tension, possibly by up to as much as Tidalsmooths are smooth with no apparent degradation. Any 20% in extreme cases. The restoring force easily recognized for capillary waves is surface tension: if the surface tension is reduced, then capillary waves cannot exist. Some of the material brought into the smooth (especially the heavier organic fractions) is taken below the surface as a result of downwelling (and of being mixed down by longer wavelength surface wave action), and it can be detected as a line or band of increased acoustic density on an echo-sounder trace (Figure 2). The concentration of material (shown by the density of the black line) decreases with depth below the surface due to dispersive effects. As this downwelling produces a zone of increased organic matter concentrations, it would seem reasonable to assume that overall biomass concentrations would be elevated in the vicinity of tidal smooths. In 1862, it was reported to the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society that, 'shoals of herring were much more abun- dantly met with under smooths than anywhere else'. Additionally, observers of

Figure 1 A tidal smooth on along the northern edge of the River Blackwater.

32 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Figure 2 Echo-sounder trace through a smooth in the River Blackwater; the vertical line extending from the surface above the change of slope at the bed is due to the material carried down into the convergence zone of the smooth. (The scales are approximate.)

basking sharks on the west coast of Britain have noted that in many case, the sharks follow the lines of smooths whilst feeding on plankton. The physical appearance of tidal smooths changes with the seasons. During the winter, when organic productivity is at its lowest, tidal smooths are much more difficult to distinguish from the surrounding water than during the spring/summer. Sometimes in extreme weather they are only marked by ice floes or (especially in more recent times) by the congregation of non-organic material, such as cans, bottles, plastic bags, etc. This implies that the circulatory system is still functioning normally, but that there is insufficient accumulation of organic material to reduce the water surface tension significantly and damp the capillary waves to any great degree.

Historical background The existence of tidal smooths has been known to the fishing and barging communi- ties of the Thames Estuary for centuries. There was no great desire to investigate the nature of this phenomenon: if asked why smooths formed, people tended to reply: 'Because they do.' However, tidal smooths The position of were useful because it was known that they convergences often marked sharp changes in depth, and Unlike the surface slicks described by seems to be could thus be used as navigational aids. Langmuir in 1938, which are generated bv, related to andUalign with, thk wind, tidarsmooths wLre sharp changes The late Michael Frost (owner of Boadicea, always seen to occur in the same place and in the depth built in 1808 and perhaps the oldest commer- with the same orientation regardless of the of the bed cial boat still sailing in western Europe) tells wind direction. The only factor which of the time he was working on a Thames appeared to affect them was the motion of spritsail barge. He learned that it was impor- water in the channel: if the motion ceased tant to be in the correct 'tide lane' in order to (for example, at the turn of the tide) the gain the best advantage from the tide, espe- smooth disappeared. cially when the wind was light. If in the wrong tide lane, a barge may be forced to the In 1929, Jeffries had found that in a straight wrong side of a sand bank or may not be able channel there are downwelling areas near the to sail against a hard-running tide. These 'tide centre and upwelling areas near the shores, lanes' are separated by tidal smooths. If it is but he was unable to explain the resulting known which smooth is being followed, it is transverse circulation on the basis of hydro- possible to navigate with a great deal of dynamic theory. The spiral flow concept of accuracy, employing both sail and tide. Langmuir circulation was developed further Inevitably, since the advent of the internal in 1968 by Houbolt who observed that in the combustion engine and electronic naviga- southern North Sea, tidal currents were tional equipment, the importance of these slower over the crests of sand banks than in features for navigation has decreased. the deeper water between them; he concluded that velocity shears between water Tidal smooths were first brought to the flowing over sand banks and water flowing in attention of the academic community in 1882 the channels are responsible for a spiralling in a paper by James Thompson, who believed secondary circulation. that the 'lines of glassy water, usually long and sinuous, which are often to be seen In 1985, Richard Nunes and John Simpson extending over the surface of a sea darkened observed transverse secondary circulation elsewhere by a ripple,' were due to surface involving surface convergence in the Conwy currents flowing together acting as dampers (a well-mixed estuary in North Wales), made for the small 'ripple undulations'. visible by the collection of surface material

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 along a central axial line which extends River Blackwater. The only significant fresh- continuously for 10 km up the estuary, but water input is from the River Chelmer whose only during the flood tide. They concluded confluence with the Blackwater at Maldon that this convergent system is associated with marks the approximate tidal limit. small steady density gradients, leading to The estuary is classed as well mixed, but has slopes in sea-surface, and hence to horizon- a small salt-wedge feature in the upper tal pressure gradients, towards the middle of reaches. Despite the salt wedge, tidal the estuary. smooths are observable along the whole Smooths also form at the confluence between length of the River Blackwater. They are two streams or rivers. I have personally located at the edges of the shallow mud flat observed a clearly defined boundary areas, one at each side of the deep water between two differing water masses at the channel, and are visible at all states of the junction of the rivers Sava and Danube in tide, apart from slack water. (The only effect Belgrade, Yugoslavia. There is a sinuous of a salt wedge might be to alter the vertical accumulation of weed along the centre line structure of a smooth.) of the channel in a region &f smooth unrippled water, persisting several kilometres Formation of the Blackwater Tidal Smooths downstream of the convergence of the two John Simpson and Bill Turrell suggested in rivers. The underlying mechanism of forma- 1986 that when a horizontal pressure gradi- tion of this kind of frontal system is likely to ent force due to a sloping sea-surface caused be different from that of the smooths de- by lateral density variations exceeds any scribed here, although both result from retarding frictional forces, then a circulatory surface convergence, and their visible system will be produced. This situation can manifestations are similar. be expressed mathematically as follows: Study area The River Blackwater is a tidal estuary on the east coast of England draining into the where g is the acceleration due to gravity southern North Sea some 35 km north of the 6p is the cross-smooth density difference mouth of the River Thames (Figure 3). The h is the depth of water under the smooth River Blackwater has several smaller adjoin- y is the smooth width , ing creeks which are also tidal, but which v is the eddy viscosity have no appreciable freshwater input other rbis the boundary shear stress; and than drainage from adjacent farmland to the u is the flow velocity. saltmarshes along the lower reaches of the

Figure 3 The south-western North Sea in the vicinity of the Tharnes Estuary. The toned areas represent The oosition of sand/rnud flats. The box shows the position of the study area. the &udy area in relation to the Thames Estuary

3 4 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 On the basis of profiles of velocity and of temperature and salinity (to obtain density) at various points in the River Blackwater, a mean value for the expression in equation (1) was found to be in excess of three, indicating that a circulatory system will exist. Observa- tional evidence (Figure 2) indicates that the circulatory pattern consists of surface convergence with, presumably, a divergence at depth. Another prominent feature of a tidal smooth is a velocity shear across the slick, with lower tidal velocities on the shallow-water side. The late Michael Frost suggested that a smooth becomes visible on the surface (i.e. the convergence will be strong enough to cause significant organic accumulation and hence surface tension reduction) when the -0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 square of the surface tidal velocity on the (velocity on shallow side)2, vl (m2s-2) deep-water side of the smooth, v , is twice the square of the surface tidal ve[bcity on the Figure 4 Relationship between tidal velocities on Velocity shear shallow-water side of the smooth, vS. either side of a smooth. The diamonds represent and smooth- Figure 4, a plot of vd2 against vs2for data data from the River Blackwater. formation are collected in this study, has a gradient related approximately equal to two, suggesting that In a real estuary or creek, this mixing process this relationship between tidal velocities has occurs constantly and a smooth will probably to be satisfied before the smooth can form. form only when the difference between If the limits on tidal wave speed are consid- shallow and deep water tidal velocities is at a ered, this speed difference can be equated to critical value (cf. Figure 4). This may serve to a density difference. The tide is a shallow- explain why smooths are more clearly de- water wave and, as such, the speed of the fined during spring tides, when the tide runs tide, vt is governed by the shallow water faster than during neap tides and the absolute wave equation: difference between the shallow and deep water velocities is greater. In the River Blackwater, a distinguishing where g is the acceleration due to gravity and feature of a smooth marking the edge of the h is the depth of water. Thus, water flowing in mud flats is the difference in the appearance deeper parts of the estuary (e.g. in a channel) of its edges on flood and ebb tides. On the will have a higher tidal velocity than water in flood tide, the smooth has a sharp, distinct a shallower parts, such as mud flats. In other edge on the deep-water side, but an indis- words, interaction with the bottom has a tinct edge on the shallow (mud-flat) side of greater retarding effect on the shallower flow. the smooth, giving the impression that the Consider an idealized situation with an estuary smooth is merging with the rippled water. containing a deep channel and shallow This situation is reversed on the ebb tide. region, separated by a barrier to prevent These differences are probably due to the mixing, and with the water initially at rest relationship between flow velocity and water with a horizontal surface. As the tide starts to depth. As the tidal wave propagates faster in flood, higher tidal velocity in the deeper parts the deeper water of the channel, water will cause the water surface to rise more 'spilling off' the higher level of the deep quickly than in the shallower parts. Also, water flow (on the flood tide) to adjust the water with higher salinity will intrude further level difference, will produce a zone of up the estuary when the tide floods. Due to increased convergence and hence increased the difference in water level and hence hydro- definition of the boundary of the smooth. static pressure, a horizontal pressure gradient During the ebb tide, by contrast, the deeper will be set up, amplified by the increased channel will drain faster than the shallower density gradient caused by the salinity water over the mud flats on each side, so difference between river water and seawater. there will be increased cross-channel flows Removal of the hypothetical barrier will allow from the mud flats to the deep channel. the two water masses to come into contact. Thus, the sharper edge on one side of the High salinity water will 'spill over' on to the smooth results from strong convergence, lower salinity water and, being denser, will whilst on the other side, where the edge of sink, and a secondary circulation system will the smooth can spread out over the water evolve because of the requirements of conti- surface, the convergence is weaker. This nuity. The reverse will occur on the ebb tide, cross-estuary transfer of momentum allows when there is relatively low salinity water in the shallow sections over the mud flats the channel (which can drain faster); and the (which are less efficient at transporting water pressure gradient force is directed towards the in the along-channel direction) to drain and centre of the estuary. fill at roughly the same rate as in deeper

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 sections of the channel. If this were not the only take place at these boundaries. Smooths case, the cross-channel difference in surface associated with this process do not necessar- elevation would be significantly greater. ily have an obvious connection with estuarine bathymetry, although their origins can be It has been observed that smooths can traced back to the channel edges of their change position over a period of time. source creeks. Perhaps the best example of this in the River Blackwater is the smooth which runs from the Such 'mixing' smooths allow water to be point of Old Hall Marsh (see Figure 5). As transferred from one tide lane to another at a soon as the tide starts to ebb, this smooth rate,determined by the density difference forms and runs from Old Hall Marsh, crossing across the smooth. To a large extent, this Mersea Quarters and meeting the smooth density difference will be determined by such which runs to the south of Cobmarsh. factors as freshwater run-off from adjacent Approximately one hour after high water, the land and suspended sediment concentrations, smooth weakens, breaks down and dissipates, in addition to salinity differences due to the and then re-forms so that it joins the smooth progress of the tidal wave. Once the density along the northern edge of the Nass. difference between the two water masses on either side of the smooth is reduced below For the first hour of ebb, all the water from the critical value for smooth formation (see the creeks surrounding Mersea Island runs equation I), then the smooth will disappear. out of Besom Fleet, whilst there is still slack This may serve to explain why smooths water, or very little tidal flow, in the other which are visible for some distance down- creeks of Mersea. Tide flowing out of stream of a creek mouth, disappear over a Tollesbury forms the first smooth as it meets short distance (1 00-200m), gradually spread- the water in the south-east end of Mersea ing so that there is less distinction between Quarters. After one hour of ebb, the mud 'smootht water and the more normal rippled flats have dried sufficiently to effectively water surface. block the route through Besom Fleet, so that the tide runs out mostly through Mersea For large creeks, these 'mixing' smooths may Quarters. This breaks down the original persist for up to 8 km downstream from the smooth which then realigns itself, separating creek mouth if the wind stress is insufficient the flows from Tollesbury and Mersea. to destroy the surface layer. This was ob- Although the smooth breaks down at the served after a week of very calm weather south-east end of Mersea Quarters, it still (July 1991) when, one morning, instead of exists within Tollesbury Creek both before the usual three smooths, eight were visible in breakdown and after re-formation. Thus, it is the Blackwater Estuary downstream of the effectively still the same smooth. Nass Beacon (Figure 5). Each of these smooths was traceable to its source creek or It is apparent that driftwood and other channel: the main estuary, Besom Fleet, buoyant debris remain in approximately the Mersea Quarters and Tollesbury Creek all had same area in the same tide lane for some a pair of smooths, one smooth from each three to four days, before disappearing. This side. Water was flowing out of these channels observation led to the idea that water leaving and creeks and, because of the very calm a creek does not randomly mix with the main conditions with little surface mixing by the estuarine flow as it meets it, but follows a wind, the smooths persisted for a greater well defined path whose boundaries are distance. marked by tidal smooths, and mixing will

Figure 5 Chart showing a part of the River Blackwater. The toned lines are the edges of the mudflats/sand flats.

Smooths appear to coincide with features of bottom topography

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 The largest and most prominent smooth in the Furthermore, the greater variation in the River Blackwater runs down the centre of the topography of the Blackwater may have an estuary, eastward from the Nass during the effect on the generation of smooths by provid- ebb tide, and originating from the conver- ing more potential for transverse pressure gence of the two smooths marking the edges gradients to develop. Again, there are no data of the Nass during the ebb. Beyond the Nass with which to test this hypothesis. Beacon, this smooth has no association with Water movements along the axial front in the any marked change in the bottom topography. Conwy have been both measured and mod- There were many cases during this study elled in some detail, but this has not yet been when high winds obliterated all traces of the done for the Blackwater smooths, so far as I smooths in the estuary, apart from this one, am aware. In the Conwy, the effects of fric- which must imply that it is associated with tional resistance to the flow would be ex- the most vigorous secondary circulation. pected to show significant variations across This is the only incidence I have observed in the channel, with relatively high resistance at the River Blackwater of a smooth occurring in the channel edges, mainly due to bank effects, the centre of the channel. Generally, the and reduced friction in the mid- channel usual two channel-edge smooths are visible region As a result of this, the main determin- in addition to this extra smooth, making a ing factor for the circulation in the Conwy total of three. The Conwy estuary has only a may be the cross-channel variation in fric- single smooth, which is aligned along the tional resistance, producing variations in the central axis of the channel and disappears water surface elevation due to retardation of during the ebb tide - whereas the smooths in the tidal wave, with a possible minor contri- the Blackwater are seen on both flood and bution from the relatively high density of an ebb tides. It is likely that this difference in the advancing saline intrusion. Conversely, the observed number of smooths is related to the Blackwater would be expected to show a aspect ratio of the channel cross-section. The more uniform distribution of frictional resist- Conwy is relatively deep compared to its ance across the channel, so here the circula- width, whilst the River Blackwater is essen- tory system may be determined mainly by tially a very wide, shallow expanse of water. cross-channel density variations, with only a Tidal range may also be a factor: at spring small contribution from frictional influences. tides it is about 7m in the Conwy, about 4m in the River Blackwater. Concluding comments This article is only a general description of Additionally, the increased variation of the the flows in the Blackwater estuary. Its scope topography of the Blackwater may have an was limited by funding available at the time, effect on the generation of smooths by pro- which has now unfortunately ceased. There viding the potential for transverse pressure are several outstanding areas of research gradients to form. However, no data exist to which I feel require investigation. More support this hypothesis. detailed profiles should be made of tempera- If it is assumed that the scale of the circula- ture, salinity and flow velocity in order to tion is a function of the hydrodynamic prop- understand fully the hydraulics of the flow erties of the fluid, then it can be inferred that and the movement of water masses. The the size of the circulatory cell produced as a critical factors for smooth-formation require result of mixing processes would be of a quantification in order that smooth generation similar size in both estuaries. If this is the can be predicted, ideally in a numerical model. case, it may be that the narrow deep channel Mixing rates between water masses should also of the Conwy can only support a single be studied in order that a residence time for circulatory system of two counter-rotating water can be determined for individual tide cells, whilst the wider River Blackwater is lanes. This has particular importance in the able to support a greater number of such River Blackwater as there are at least two cells. However, it should be noted that this is sewage outfalls in the estuary, and we have little pure conjecture which cannot be substanti- idea about how long sewage remains in the ated without further detailed measurements of shoremost tide lane before being either mixed the two estuaries. Additionally, this hypothesis out into the main river or washed ashore. does not explain why smooths in the Conwy are only visible on the flood tide whilst in the River Apart from the mixing smooths, the tidal Blackwater they are visible on both the flood smooths observed in this study are analogous and ebb tide. What is clear is that both phe- to the axial fronts of Nunes and Simpson, nomena are variations on the same theme. dividing the estuary into distinct water masses; but they occur in different locations The main difference between the two situa- with respect to the geometry of the estuary tions appears to be that the central smooth in and are visible at all states of the tide, except the Conwy results from a transverse pressure slack water. The fact that the convergences gradient force directed towards the centre of generated by density gradients lead to increased the channel, whilst the channel-edge smooths amounts of organic material in these sinuous in the Blackwater imply pressure gradients in regions is of importance to biologists studying the opposite direction. This difference could plankton concentrations and fish stocks. in part be related to the aspect ratio of the channel cross-section, as noted above.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 The study of secondary circulation in tidal Acknowledgements estuaries thus has considerable practical I would like to thank the following people for potential. From my own research and per- their help: sonal experience, the flow of the tide is not the late Michael Frost for his enthusiasm in only extremely complex, but an incredibly attracting my interest in the subject initially, fascinating study. and his widow, Martha, for allowing access to some of his unpublished .papers; . William Baker, William Reid and the late John Frost, fishermen and oystermen of West Mersea for their assistance during field work, their discussion of ideas and for pointing out when my theories did not seem to work in the 'real world'; Drs John Green (UEA), Karen Heywood (UEA) and Alec James (UMIST), for supervision of my work in this project while I was an undergraduate, and for their willingness to discuss any problems or new hypotheses.

Further Reading Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1862, Proceedings, May 7. Jeffries, H. (1 929) Proceedings of the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society, 25, 20. Langmuir, I., (1938) Surface motion of water induced by wind, Science, 87, 11 9-23. Nunes, R. A. and Simpson, J. H. (1 985) Axial convergence in a well mixed estuary, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 20, 637-49. Simpson, J. H. and Turrell, W. R. (1986) in Physics of Shallow Estuaries and Bays, Volume 16 (Ed. Van de Kreeke, 1.). Thompson, J. (1 862) On the calm lines often seen on a rippled sea, Philosophical Magazine, 4th Series, 24, 247-48.

Peter Rainbird initially developed an interest the author has spent two years modelling in tidal smooths whilst studying for his first statistical distributions of wind speeds and degree at the School of Environmental turbulent flow for a wind farm development Sciences, University of East Anglia, where the company. He is currently working as a data for this paper were collected as part of a software engineer and analyst programmer final year project. The study was, unfortu- for the scientific software consultancy of nately, not pursued during study for a Ph.D. Tessella Support Services based in Abingdon, in applied fluvial dynamics, working on the Oxon. development of a numerical model to simulate erosion and sediment transport processes Peter may be contacted via Email on in river channels, again at UEA. Since then, peter8drsrainbird.demon.co.uk

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Tony Hawkins

In May of this year, at a cold and blustery quayside in Aberdeen, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother named the new Scottish Fisheries Research Vessel, Scotia. Scotia is a multi-purpose, 70 metre, diesel-electric vessel designed by Skipsteknisk of Alesund Norway and built on the Clyde by Ferguson Shipbuilders of Port Glasgow. Her design combines the essential features of a modern hydrographic research ship with those of a top-line pelagic and demersal trawler. The fourth ship to bear the name Scotia, she is the latest in a distinguished line of research vessels.

The steam yacht, Scotia Company of Troon under the direction of The first Scotia was a wooden sailing ship which C.L.Watson, who gave his services entirely free. took part in the Scottish National Antarctic A barque-rigged auxiliary screw steamer of 400 Expedition of 1902-04, to the Southern Ocean. tons and 140 feet long, she was built of wood The venture was funded by public subscription throughout and sheathed in greenheart to with much of the money coming from the Coats protect her from the damaging effects of pack family of Paisley, manufacturers of sewing ice. She was equipped with a laboratory, good threads. accommodation for scientists and crew, and the latest engines and winches for dredging and From the start the project was controversial. The trawling. end of the 19th century was a time when many expeditions to the Antarctic were being planned. The voyage of the Scotia, 1902-04 The Scottish expedition was conceived and led Captained by Thomas Robertson, an experi- by William Speirs Bruce, an experienced polar enced ice navigator from Peterhead, Scotia left explorer and fervent Scottish nationalist. The Troon in November 1902. The ship reached the voyage was a distinctly Scottish venture which Falkland Islands in January 1903 and then was opposed by Sir Clements Markham, Presi- pressed south across what is now known as the dent of the Royal Geographical Society. He Scotia Sea, aiming to reach the unexplored referred to /mischievous rivalry' between the waters of the Weddell Sea before the southern Scottish expedition and the much better funded winter set in. After passing the South Orkney and publicised Discovery expedition led by Islands, Scotia encountered tightly packed ice at Robert Falcon Scott, which left for the Antarctic 70" 25's and, to avoid wintering in open pack one year earlier. The purpose of the Scottish ice, where scientific work would be very expedition, however, was not to race for the limited, the ship retreated north early in March Pole, or to compete with others, but to carry out to winter in the South Orkneys. She anchored systematic oceanographic and meteorological off Laurie Island in a large bay, later named observations in the Antarctic Ocean, and to do Scotia Bay, just before ice jammed the entrance. so in the name of Scotland. In Bruce's own Within days of arrival, the Scotia was locked in, words: and remained so until November. "'Science' was the talisman of the Expedition, The South Orkney Islands were almost unknown 'Scotland' was emblazoned on its flag." to scientists until the visit of Scotia. However, The Scotia was a strikingly beautiful Norwegian they provided an ideal location in which to whaler, formerly known as Hekla. Purchased on spend the winter and make meteorological the advice of Colin Archer, the builder of Fridtjof observations. The islands are situated on the Nansen's Fram which had earlier drifted across edge of the ice-bound sea, far to the south of the Arctic Ocean locked into the ice, Hekla had Cape Horn and its storms. Scotia was able to sailed on a Danish expedition to the coast of stay with safety within the polar ice, yet in an Greenland in 1891-92. She was in poor condi- area rich in seals, birds and marine life. tion when she arrived in Scotland and was Throughout the winter in the South Orkneys the almost entirely rebuilt by the Ailsa Shipbuilding expedition members made a series of scientific

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3

expected, and to the great relief of those left on Scotia carried a greater range of oceano- the islands, bringing with her three Argentinian graphic equipment than any previous replacements for the Scottish shore party. Antarctic ship. Together with Robert Mossman, the expedition's meteorologist, the Argentinian party remained in Scotia's scientific achievements the South Orkneys for a further winter, the By the late 19th century exploration of the station being ceded to the Government of seas had entered a new phase - it was no Argentina with the approval of the British longer confined to surface waters, with occa- Foreign Office and the Admiralty. sional sounding and dredging in deeper water. Skilled designers had invented new instruments Scotia sailed south from Laurie Island on 22 for oceanographic work notably reversing February 1904, carrying the first mail ever to - thermometers. water bottles that could be leave Antarctica, with franked Argentinian closed at predetermined depths, and more postage stamps (to which Falkland Islands or accurate depth-sounding techniques. Cape of Good Hope stamps were later added). She sailed farther south across difficult and A sounding machine on Scotia had been dangerous waters to encounter a new ice-bound developed by Francis Lucas, who had served on part of the Antarctic continent, named 'Coats Great Eastern in the first attempt to lay a trans- Land' by Bruce after the expedition's sponsors. Atlantic cable in 1856. His machine paid out New depth soundings were made in the wire and applied a friction brake when the Weddell Sea, allowing the eastern part of this sounding weight reached the sea-bed. The poorly explored sea to be delineated for the first Scotia machine carried 6000 fathoms [I0973 m] time. For a while, Scotia became trapped in of specially-made, treble-strand wire. The wire pack ice at 74' OI'S, and wintering within the terminated in a Buchanan sounding tube, and ice became a distinct possibility. However, the immediately above it was clamped a weather improved, enabling Scotia to break free Buchanan-Richard water bottle and a Knudsen and sail north, where Bruce was able to explore modification of the Negretti and Zambra further the bathymetry and marine biology of reversing thermometer. the Weddell Sea. The suspected 'Ross Deep' was shown to be an error in the soundings taken by New fishing nets and other contrivances for Captain James Clark Ross on an earlier expedi- securing samples of marine life had also been tion by HMS Erebus. Then, having completed a devised. Scotia took plankton hauls at the full programme of scientific observations, Scotia surface, or at depth, using closing nets. The moved out of the Weddell Sea in early April and deep-sea trawl was designed in Monaco and made for Gough Island, some 200 miles due constructed so that it was immaterial which side south of Tristan da Cunha; her route took her to was in contact with the sea-bed. It was at- Cape Town, St Helena, Ascension Island and the tached to the ship by a single steel cable, let Azores, finally anchoring in the Clyde off out at a rate of 1 000 fathoms an hour Millport in July 1904. (1 829 m hrl). It was hauled by a steam winch, but the cable was stored on a drum which had The voyage of Scotia lasted 20 months and to be wound by six men, three at each handle - covered over 23 600 miles (37000 km). It was an exhausting activity. one of the last Antarctic expeditions in a wooden ship, without the benefit of radio Some 150 trawl hauls were taken by Scotia at communication or acoustic sounding equip- depths down to 293 m, and 48 deeper hauls ment. And there was no provision for a relief were obtained at 1830 to 4575 m, resulting in ship should the Scotia come to grief. 'We'll a collection of Antarctic marine invertebrates have to get out ourselves or stay there for good,' which for many years was unmatched by any was Bruce's philosophy. However, the voyage other expedition. Sea-bed deposits were was one of extraordinary achievement. The extensively charted, and pioneering reports meteorological station established in the South produced on Antarctic birds and mammals. The Orkneys was renamed Orcadas and is still there Scotia expedition achieved all its objectives and today, operated by the government of Argentina. added substantially to knowledge of the outline It is the oldest scientific base with continuous of the Antarctic continent, and to the bathy- records in the whole of Antarctica, and plays an metry of the Weddell and Scotia Seas. Many of important role in monitoring weather conditions the specimens collected by Scotia are now far to the south of Cape Horn. retained by the National Museums of Scotland, in Edinburgh, and include species of Antarctic The success of the expedition owed much to the fish which were then new to science. character of Bruce himself. He was a friend of the two greatest polar explorers, Nansen and Back home, Bruce was not forgiven by Sir Amundsen, and had previously visited the Clements Markham for mounting a separate Antarctic as naturalist on board the whaler Scottish expedition and he never received the Balaena. He had carried out earlier work in the rewards due to him. The coveted Polar Medal Arctic, much of it in the company of Prince of the Royal Geographical Society was not Albert of Monaco, founder of the world's first awarded to the crew of Scotia, as it had been in major oceanographic laboratory. He realized the case of earlier expeditions. Bruce instead that new work in the uncharted Southern Ocean designed his own medal, which was presented required the application of new techniques and to the scientists and a number of the crew. new equipment, and he had ensured that

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 In selecting his scientific companions, Bruce to both ends of the Earth. But the name of the had looked for specific skills, youth and first Scotia is commemorated on the bows of enthusiasm. In choosing his crew he had the ships which have succeeded her. sought out those with experience in polar waters. There were no brass-bound officers The steam trawler, Scotia strictly adhering to naval etiquette and The next Scotia was a 150 foot ex-Admiralty routine. The majority of the sailors were Shakespearian class trawler, launched in experienced Arctic whalers, many of them 1940 by Cochrane and Sons Ltd of Selby. from Dundee. He paid particular attention Originally named Fluellen, she was a coal- to the welfare of the scientists and sailors burner (later converted to oil), powered by a involved in the expedition and wrote: 'I three-cylinder, triple expansion, steam would like them to regard the ship as their engine. The vessel served initially as a university, as their alma mater in the highest minesweeper off the south coast of England possible sense. Not an institution given in and then in the Mediterranean. The Scottish any way to getting through examinations, but Home Department acquired her in 1948, as a as one in which they will be able to study 'hydrographic-plankton research vessel' and the various phenomena of Nature, without renamed her Scotia. Remarkably, the first bias from Nature itself.' Bruce's memory is commander of the ship was Captain Eillium honoured to this day: the Bruce Memorial Alastair Bruce, the son of William Bruce, Prize is awarded by the Royal Society of leader of the Scottish National Antarctic Edinburgh to scientists at the outset of their Expedition. careers for their notable contribution to research in polar regions. The narrow, naval lines of the ship, together with her high superstructure (which was later Scotia's final years reduced), made her lively in rough weather, and she was prone to drift in high winds, After the expedition, Bruce hoped that Scotia making trawling and plankton hauls difficult would continue to be engaged in oceano- to perform. Even when 'dodging' in bad graphic work and especially in the training of students from Scottish universities; but this was weather her movements were quite violent, and heavy following seas were feared. The not to be. The ship was sold in 1905 to a crew believed that at least one of her sister Dundee whaling syndicate and subsequently ships had turned turtle in a storm. Scotia was sailed for several years to the Greenland not a comfortable ship to sail on. However, whaling fishery. Following the tragic loss of despite this and her limited fuel capacity and Titanic in 1912, Scotia, fitted with an early wireless, was used on Atlantic Ice Patrol, again restricted cruising range, she sailed throughout the North Atlantic on Marine Laboratory under the command of Thomas Robertson, and business conducting (with an older, pre-war during this period returned briefly to scientific ship, Explorer) a wide-ranging programme of work. Extensive meteorological, hydrographic and biological observations were carried out in hydrographic research which had been interrupted by the war. the iceberg area of the North Atlantic. Early in the First World War Scotia was sold Scotia's survey work once more and had a short career as a cargo Scotland is located at one end of the sub- vessel before she finally caught fire and was marine ridge running through the Faroe Islands run ashore in 1916 at Sully, Glamorgan, as a and Iceland to Greenland. The ridge separates wreck. This was an undignified end for so fine the deep waters of the Norwegian Sea from a ship, which had carried scientific expeditions those of the Atlantic, and across it water is

The steam trawler Scotia leaving Aberdeen harbour

42 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 exchanged between these two major basins, temperature, salinity, oxygen and nutrient levels influencing the climate and productivity of the at a range of depths, using water samplers and whole North Atlantic. Surveys along the ridge thermometers tethered to a weighted wire. for the Fishery Board for Scotland had first Samples of plankton would be obtained using begun in 1893, when H.N. Dickson had vertically towed Hensen and Standard nets, and measured the temperature and salinity of the by towing silk nets horizontally and obliquely. very variable quantities of Atlantic and Arctic Scientists monitored surface water currents by water flowing through the Faroe-Shetland casting overboard sealed drift bottles, to be Channel. These surveys were later resumed picked up days, months and even years later. after the First World War and then again after Completely new measuring devices were also the Second World War, when Scotia continued used, however, which would have gone un- and expanded an earlier programme of plankton recognized by William Bruce and the earlier and hydrographic surveys across the ridge along oceanographers. In particular, depth was now a series of lines: from the Butt of Lewis to Faroe obtained using the echometer or echo-sounder, Bank, from Fair Isle to Munken in Faroe, and rather than by the earlier sounding wires. In the from Nolser to Muckle Flugga. Today, these 1920s simple devices had been constructed to survey results form one of the longest time- make a sharp sound with an electric hammer, series of hydrographic observations in the and then measure the time taken for sound to world, and have been invaluable for investiga- travel to the sea-bed and back, thus registering tion of long-term oceanographic and climatic the depth. By the time of the Second World War, changes in the North Atlantic. efficient high frequency electronic echo- From Scotia the Marine Laboratory also carried sounders were available, capable of registering out pioneering studies of the drifting plants and the depth of the sea-bed beneath the ship on a animals (including fish larvae) that populate the continuous paper record. By the 1950s, Scotia seas around Scotland. Results revealed that was able not only to measure depth with the water masses of different origin are populated echo-sounder, but also to register the depth and by 'indicator' organisms, which can be used to shape of herring shoals beneath the ship, and to

follow the movements of these water masses of investigatec, the vertical movements of sound differing fertility, temperature and salinity as scattering layers of planktonic organisms. New they move around Scotland from the North high speed plankton nets had been developed Atlantic and into the North Sea. too, allowing samples to be taken while the ship was underway. A new generation of fishery Scotia later began a series of cruises to Denmark scientists learned their trade on Scotia and Strait between Iceland and East Greenland. The pioneered many of the sampling methods we waters beyond Iceland are dangerous. On one now take for granted. research cruise in 1954, when Scotia was line fishing for halibut east of Greenland, a violent Scotia served the Marine Laboratory until 1971, storm hit the area and the ship endured moun- operating under the name Scarba for the latter tainous seas. A continuous watch had to be part of that year. Her last cruise as a research kept for ice, which bore down on the ship from vessel ended on 12 November 1971, when she different directions as the wind changed direc- transferred to fishery protection duties. Scarba tion. Bruce was an experienced seaman and was withdrawn from service in May 1973 and navigator, however. Under his command, broken up in November of the same year. Scotia also sailed regularly to Rockall Bank and the west of Ireland, as well as across the north- The diesel-electric trawler, Scotia ern North Sea. From 1957 to 1958 the ship The third Scotia - a purpose-built, diesel- took part in the North Atlantic Polar Front electric trawler, 224 foot long - was launched Survey, an integral part of the world-wide in March 1971 from the yard of Ferguson programme of the International Geophysical Brothers, Port Glasgow, and commissioned in Year, sponsored by the International Council for November that year. Scotia carried out her Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the Inter- first trawling trials for the Marine Laboratory national Commission for the Northwest Atlantic in March 1972. She was one of three similar Fisheries (ICNAF). ships; the other two were Cirolana, operated by the Lowestoft Laboratory, and Africana, Development of oceanographic instruments, built in Durban in 1981 for the South African At the beginning of the steamship Scotia's life Fisheries Ministry. William Bruce could have recognized much of her oceanographic equipment, although devel- Early cruises of the third Scotia opments had resulted in greater reliability and One of Scotia's first cruises in 1972 was to West precision. The founding of ICES in 1902 and Greenland to investigate the new and growing the establishment of an international programme sea fishery for Atlantic salmon. In the 1960s of fisheries work gave great impetus to the scientists from the Freshwater Fisheries Labora- further development of oceanographic instru- tory had shown from tagging experiments that ments. Scientists working with the ICES Central salmon originating in Scottish rivers migrated Laboratory at Kristiania (now Oslo), under the in the ocean as far as the Faroe Islands and direction of Fridtjof Nansen, had improved the Greenland before returning 'home' to spawn. design of water bottles and reversing thermom- The rise of a large-scale fishery at West eters considerably. Typically, on a cruise in the Greenland had therefore caused concern for Faroe-Shetland Channel, Scotia would monitor the survival of the fish. Now, as a result of the

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 pioneering work done at Greenland from Scotia seawater chemistry, by continuously measuring and other vessels, the fishery is regulated by the characteristics of water pumped into the quota and, in most years, those quotas are laboratories from an aperture in the ship's hull. bought out by angling interests and not taken Scotia was also the first Marine Laboratory ship regularly to take female scientists to sea. Today, Later in her first year of operation, from Septem- this is taken for granted. ber to November 1972, Scotia took on a new During her successful 26-year working life but temporary role serving as a support ship off Scotia continued the research into water circula- Iceland during the 'Second Cod War'. Iceland tion patterns around Scotland, pioneered by her had taken unilateral action in extending her predecessor. Results showed significant fishery limits, but British trawlers continued to changes in the quantities of deep bottom water fish there under the protection of the Royal flowing from the Norwegian Sea into the North Navy, harassed by Icelandic gunboats. Scotia Atlantic. Fluxes of water from one area to provided medical and technical back-up for another were measured using mechanical, those fishing under these difficult conditions. electromagnetic and acoustic current meters New developments moored to the sea-bed. Large oceanic eddies were followed by the satellite tracking of Scotia was one of the first ships to use a hydrau- drogues as they spun off to the north, this lic crane to tow plankton nets and other sam- technique replacing the earlier method of the pling systems. Previously, such cranes had ship following a single drogue. The techniques been used to lift equipment over the side, but employed in these studies would have seemed not directly for towing. Progressively, during quite miraculous to William Bruce and his the life of the ship these cranes were upgraded contemporaries. The diesel-electric three times, each time getting larger and more Scotia leaving powerful. Scotia also adopted on-board moni- In her later years, the position of Scotia was Aberdeen toring of surface temperature, salinity and routinely determined with great accuracy Photo: T.G. Mclnnes using a global positioning system (CPS), the speed and direction of currents beneath the ship were measured with an acoustic doppler current profiler (ADCP). CTD probes for measuring conductivity (for salinity), temperature, and depth were used in conjunction with electronically triggered rosette water samplers, and replaced the water sampling bottle and reversing thermometer of earlier ships. Scotia carried computers routinely, and much of the analysis formerly carried out by exercise of hand and brain was completed on board, rather than months or even years after completion of the cruise. The combination of electronic instruments with fast, powerful computers enabled much more information to be collected. In the 1950s, up to 12 readings of temperature and salinity were obtained at each isolated station. By the 1990s a CTD operating 25 times per second in l000m of water would give about 90000 measurements of pressure, temperature and salinity. An on- board computer could convert these measurements into values of temperature, density, speed of sound, geostrophic velocities and other parameters. A section across the Faroe- Shetland Channel could produce almost nine million values to process and plot, with the results available within a few hours of the ship completing the section.

Monitoring the seas around Scotland Crowing national and international concern about marine pollution, and the possible effects of contaminants on marine life, caused the third Scotia to play an increasingly important role in monitoring the chemistry of the seas around Scotland. From the 1970s Scotia conducted regular surveys of nutrients and contaminants, including metals, petroleum hydrocarbons, and artificial substances such as pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons. The

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 demand for precise and accurate measure- from the coast of Norway down to the Bay of ments of trace quantities of such substances Biscay, and acoustic surveys for pelagic species saw the development of ever more complex of fish. As fish stocks became more heavily methods of analysis. Scotia took part in the exploited, with some nearing the point of monitoring following a series of major pollu- collapse, these independent surveys performed tion incidents, including the Piper Alpha fire in by Scotia became increasingly important to July 1988, the Braer stranding in 1993 and fisheries management. other major oil spills. The exploration and development of oil and gas reserves in the Final years North Sea, and the construction of oil receiving Management of Scotia moved forward too, in terminals at Sullom Voe, Flotta, Nigg and the line with the spirit of the age. In 1991, she Firth of Forth increased the potential for was transferred, after public tendering, to be accidental spills and the risk of chronic operated by a private company, Marr Vessel environmental pollution. An increasing Management Ltd, which took over from the proportion of Scotia's time was devoted to Fleet Support Unit of the Scottish Fishery pollution surveys around the Scottish coast. Protection Agency. The Marr family, with Dundee whaling connections, and a long Young fish surveys tradition of fishing in North Atlantic waters, The third Scotia not only replaced the earlier continued the practical sea-going traditions of ship of the same name but, particularly from the ship. 1984, she also took on the many routine trawling and sampling cruises formerly performed The new research ship, Scotia by Explorer, an Arctic trawler which had In a new blue and white livery, and with the replaced an earlier ship of the same name in saltire of Scotland (the cross of St Andrew) on 1956. Her work included surveying the west the bow, the latest Scotia will also be operated coast and North Sea for young fish, the trien- for the Marine Laboratory Aberdeen by Marr nial mackerel surveys, which took the ship Vessel Management. She will participate in a

Design features of the new Scotia

The new Scotia is powered by damage to the net. The trawl-deck to be locked to the crane tips close three diesel engines, coupled to is visible both from the bridge and to the sea- surface, greatly reduc- electrical generators supplying from a trawl control cabin at the ing the potential for damage. power to two electric propulsion aft end of the trawl-deck. To A drop keel can be lowered three motors which are arranged in enable the vessel to move quickly metres beneath the hull of the tandem on a common drive shaft. from one fishing gear to another a ship, carrying acoustic transducers With all three diesels running there series of small hydraulic winches for echo-sounding and measuring is sufficient power to tow a large are fitted, so that trawl doors can ocean currents. The drop keel pelagic trawl for mackerel in be changed easily and safely. The allows the systems to operate well winter conditions. But the vessel two main trawl winches are is also able to travel between away from the turbulence and situated below decks and are entrained air close to the hull. The survey positions at 11 knots using supplemented by two net drums ship itself is very quiet, as much of only one diesel generator for above deck, and an auxiliary drum economy. the machinery is placed on below deck - allowing net repairs resilient mounts, while the hydrau- to be carried out under cover. The ship has to operate close to lic systems operate under low fixed sea-bed positions and around Although the ship is fitted with a pressure with large diameter structures like oil platforms. Her stern ramp for trawling, hydrauli- pipework and bends of large station-keeping abilities are cally operated ramp covers can be radius. maintained by a combination of put in place, enabling hydro- the single screw main power drive, Perhaps the most radical feature of graphic work to be carried out the new Scotia is a system for an articulated rudder, an omni- from a floor directly over the stern. directional bow thruster, and a locating container laboratories A gamma frame allows equipment within the main body of the ship. tunnel stern thruster, steered by a to be picked up from the deck and dynamic global satellite position- Up to nine containers, five full- lowered over the stern, and fixing system. size and four half-size, can be replaces the less versatile A-frame loaded below decks and coupled The bridge of the ship allows all- or simple davit of earlier ships. to an umbilical carrying a full round visibility. A fully instrum- Scotia also has several large cranes range of services. The laboratories ented autotrawl system facilitates and tension-compensated low can be adapted and fitted out on fishing operations, locating the pressure hydraulic winches to shore, at the Marine Laboratory, position of the trawl relative to the deploy, tow and recover scientific ship and measuring its dimensions, equipment. These specialized so reducing the potential for cranes allow instrument packages

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 4 5 varied programme of fish stock assessment Further Reading and environmental monitoring in the north- Bruce, W. S. (1903) The Scotia's Voyage to the ern North Sea and north Atlantic waters, Falkland Islands. By the leader and staff of the carrying a crew of 17 and up to 12 scientists. Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Scottish Geographical Magazine, April 1903, 169-83. The new Scotia maintains all the features of Rice, A.L. (1986) British oceanographic vessels her predecessors. Although she would be 7800-7950. London: The Ray Society (Natural unrecognizable to William Bruce and his History Museum). scientists she has essentially the same char- Rudmose Brown, R. N. (1905) The voyage of the acteristics as the first Scotia. She is able to Scotia. Transactions of the Perthshire Society of operate in cold and inhospitable seas, carry- Natural Science, IV(II): 63-70. ing the most advanced scientific sampling Rudmose Brown, R. N. (1923) A naturalist at the Poles. systems of her day. She is set to maintain a The life, work and voyages of Dr W. S. Bruce, the proud tradition of service. polar explorer. London: Seeley, Service & Co. Rudmose Brown, R. N., Mossman, R. C. and Harvey Pirie, J. H. (1906) The Voyage of the 'Scotia'. Being the record of a voyage of exploration in Antarctic Seas - by three of the staff. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons. Somner, C.1983. Scottish fishery protection. The Tony Hawkins is a fish physiologist and story of the vessels that have served the Depart- Director of the Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen. ment of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland since 7882. Kendal: The World Ship Society. If you would like further information on the new research ship Scotia, please contact the Speak, P. (Editor). (1 992) The log of the Scotia author using email: hawkinsad8marlab.ac.uk expedition, 7902-04. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

The latest Scotia undergoing sea trials off Aberdeen Photo: T.G. Mclnnes

Acknowledgements Dr Peter Speak, of the Scott Polar Research Institute provided much information on William Bruce and the first Scotia, while Dr David Munro of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society and Geoff Swinney of the Royal Scottish Museums provided additional details. Sir Cyril Lucas, Jimmy Adams, Dr John Hislop, John Dunn, Norman Nicol and Rodney Payne gave me their recollections of the later Scotias, some of them having now sailed on all three most recent ships. John Morrison has been responsible for the specification and building of the new Scotia, and has tackled the enormous task of commissioning the ship.

4 6 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 iam Hutchinson - Loca

lip \

In the early summer of 1759, a Liverpool seaman called Murphy from the New Anson privateer decided to murder Captain William Hutchinson, the former commander of the Liverpool privateer and recently appointed Dockmaster and Water Bailiff. Murphy was heard to yell 'D,,, you, you are a villain!' as his pistol mis-fired. He was led away to be sentenced to spend the rest of his life in the Navy. Hutchinson, on the other hand, was to live on to 1801, becoming an important resident of the town and a figure of some importance in the history of UK marine science and oceanography.

William Hutchinson was a remarkable man Some of Hutchinson's many accomplish- who was to prove as successful a Dockmaster ments are listed in the box overleaf. Two as he had been a privateer. He was born in aspects of his life are of particular interest 171 5, the same year that the Old Dock at to us here at Bidston Observatory (now the Liverpool opened (the first commercial 'wet Centre for Coastal and Marine Sciences dock' in the world). He rose from being a Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory). common sailor to become a privateer captain First, Hutchinson is known to have had an alongside Fortunatus Wright, the most famous interest in mirrors and illumination mecha- of the Liverpool privateers. He was also at nisms for lighthouses. He experimented various times a ship-owner, boat-builder, with the construction of large one-piece commercial trader, inventor, author and mirrors up to 12 feet in diameter, and large ~hilanthro~ist. mirrors made from smaller sections of looking-glass fixed to a wooden backing The only surviving picture of him (an old frame. He also developed oil-fired light photograph of a portrait at Liverpool Central apparatus, lighthouses at this time usually Library, now lost) is shown above. This being lit by 'firebaskets' containing wood or portrait, presumably painted late in his life, coal. The Liverpool Council Minutes record suggests a genial sort of fellow. However, his that in 1763 he experimented with his earlier character is said to have been more reflectors at the Bidston Hill Signal Station, like that of the Puritan seventeenth century which became Bidston Observatory and at than the eighteenth, combining the aggres- which the first Bidston lighthouse was sion of privateering with strict religious constructed in 1771. One can imagine that adherence. He was described at the time as Hutchinson - a canny businessman as well being 'a kindly though firm commander'. as an inventor - saw the possibility of However, he must have been something of a providing the Bidston lighthouse, and disciplinarian, which may have been behind others along the Wirral coast (established Murphy's grievance. For example, he ab- by the 1761 Dock Act), with lights and horred swearing, which must have made life mirrors. difficult aboard ship.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 Some Aspects of the Life of William Hutchinson (171 5-1 801)

171 5 Born Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Spent his early years as cook's cabin boy and 'beer drawer' through to forecastleman in small colliers in east coast coastal trade.

1738-39 Sailed as forecastleman in East lndiaman to India and China.

1743 or thereabouts Served as mate of bomb's tender in Hy6res Bay during the Mediterranean war and by 1747 was in command of a privateer alongside Fortunatus Wright, the most famous of the Liverpool privateers 'whom he adored'. Sailed with FW in the Leostaff (or Lowestoft) to West lndies in 1750. The Leostaff, as Hutchinson referred to her himself, was an old 20-gun frigate sold by the Navy to FW. FW was born in Wallasey and was lost at sea in 1757 in command of the St George privateer. Observed a particular day each year in devotion for deliverance after loss of vessel. He and crew being without food on a barren coast had drawn lots to be put to death to feed remainder. Hutchinson lost the draw but was saved when another vessel appeared.

1755 Freeman of Liverpool gratis 'in consideration of his efforts for the better supplying the town with sea fish by fitting out well boats (or cod smacks)'.

1756-58 Captain and part-owner of the Liverpool privateer during the first part of the Seven Years War (1 756-63). The Liverpool was launched soon after the start of the war. She was a 22-gun frigate (1 8 of which were 12 pounders) with 160-200 men. She was sold in April 1759 and used for the New York-Liverpool trade.

1757-58 Two years of successful cruises in the Liverpool in the Mediterranean and home waters. He was described as 'The ablest and boldest of the Liverpool privateers'. Developed special method for making tea (quart bottle boiled in ship's kettle with the salt beef).

1758 Attempted to 'curb the insolence' of the notable French privateer Franqois Thurot in the Irish Sea by regaining command of the Liverpool from Captain Ward, who had just replaced him. The attempt got nowhere. This was the last privateering adventure by Hutchinson. Thurot was killed in a ba-ttle between three British and three ~renchfrigates, which he commanded, off the Isle of Man in 1760. 1759 Appointed Dock Master and Water Bailiff on 7 February.

1764 On 1 April, observed the solar eclipse at Liverpool, in company with James Ferguson. For accurate timing a meridian line was drawn on the lead roof of Hutchinson's house. Hutchinson and Ferguson also constructed a tide clock, now lost.

1763 Testing at Bidston Signal Station of his invention of reflecting mirrors and oil-burning apparatus for lighthouses.

1764 Began to measure heights and times of high waters and meteorological parameters at Old Dock, continuing until 1793 (data survive for the years 1768-93).

1777 Publication of the Treatise on Practical Seamanship (second version, 1787).

1778 In April, commanded the 'Queens Battery' in defence of the town against the American corsair John Paul Jones (who did not appear). The Bidston light was extinguished in this period.

1789 Founded Liverpool Marine Society for the benefit of masters of vessels, widows and children. 'Contributor to all the benevolent institutions of the town'. Also proposed, unsuccessfully, Maritime Academies at Liverpool, North Shields and Limehouse, London, for students of seamanship. 1791 Publication of a Treatise on Naval Architecture. This publication also contains a number of sections reprinted from the 1777 Treatise. Hutchinson was the inventor of marine equipment (e.g, types of rudder) and commentator on ship design (ships at this time were being built too high, with extra decks). A ridge of rock and gravel near Fort Perch Rock, New Brighton named after him. Hutchinson had cut away the rock and deepened the channel. 1801 Died 7 February, aged 85, and interred in St Thomas's churchyard. His will records that his estate was left to his sister and nephew. No reference has been found to a wife or children except in an 1835 letter in the Royal Society archives which suggests he had a daughter living at that time. However, this is an incorrect reference to his niece, Nancy.

4 8 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3

I Hutchinson's measurements of High Waters However, the work was not entirely his own The second reason for our interest in idea: Hutchinson relates to his unstinting efforts in '... For these reasons, and being requested by measuring the heights and times of high my friend Mr. Ferguson [James Ferguson, waters, and meteorological parameters, for elected FRS 17631, the astronomer, who with almost 30 years (1 764-93) at the Old Dock great labour and pains furnished me with large gates. High waters were measured at all times schemes, tables, plans etc. relating to the tides of day and night, and in all weathers with in the year 1764, when I began, and have very few gaps. These can be claimed to be continued to make observations on the time the UK's first systematic tidal measurements, and height of the tides flowing at the old dock John Flamsteed's famous research in the gates ...I Thames a hundred years earlier, for example, The apparently good relationships between being based on an extremely small dataset by astronomers. mathematicians (Richard Hutchinson's standards. For this reason, Holden, for example), and maiiners such as Hutchinson deserves to be better known to Hutchinson were aided by these being times the oceanographic community. of cultural renaissance in the town. Liverpool At the start of the first bound book of surviv- had always had a tradition of support for ing records covering 1768 to 1772, one reads mathematics and related subjects. However, the following, presumably added in 1790: many new societies were being formed, including a 'Ship Club' to which Holden and 'Hutchinson's MSS Journal from 1st January 1768 to the 31 st of December 1772. Hutchinson belonged. The Liverpool (later These five years observations upon the tides Lyceum) Library, 'the first gentlemen's sub- were made from solar time, and the winds from scription library in England', was established the true meridian, and their velocity judged in 1758. More comprehensive tidal studies according to Mr. Smeaton's rules, our great would, therefore, have been of philosophical storms going at the rate of 60 miles an hour, the as well as practical interest. thermometer kept in doors, at the head of a As for there being no routine measurements staircase four stories high, by Wm. Hutchinson, of low tides in the surviving records for at the Old Dock gates, Liverpool. The first 1768-93, two factors would have conspired: sheets cut out to give Mr. Richard Holden to make out the 3000 observations mentioned in the fact that the heights and times of low the preface of his tide table, by which he found waters would have been less important for theory from natural causes to agree with them, dock operations (the sill of the Old Dock was and his brother George Holden continues the so high that no ship could have entered the author of our tide tables to August 23 1790.' dock on any low water, so there would have been less interest in measuring and predict- Some obvious questions arise: Why did he ing them); and the fact that to measure low make the high waters measurements? And waters would have required extra resources why did he not measure low waters as well? in the form of a second tide pole on a pier or His Treatise on Practical Seamanship (1 777) other structure at a point in the river that did provides the answers. not dry out. The answer to the first question is that he had Hutchinson was, however, very interested in an interest in understanding more about tidal the possibility of recording low tides, if the elevations and currents, as the common measurements could be performed easily. In methods then used for tidal prediction often the Treatise, one reads: proved inadequate, especially at neaps. He I... I have reason to conclude in moderate had had personal experience of the conse- weather, that in proportion as the tides com- quences of these defective methods: monly rise above the nine feet mark at the

I... At Leverpool I have observed ships coming gates, they fall the same below the sill of the in at neap tides about the quarters of the moon, gates, and that the four feet and a half mark is when instead of meeting with high water, as near the half flood mark let the rise be what it expected by the common way of reckoning, they will [i.e. Mean Sea Level was 4.5 feet above have found it about a quarter ebb, that for want Old Dock Sill datum], though it does not agree of water enough they have often struck or come with half the time of flowing nor ebbing of the aground and laid upon the bar, when lots of tides. But to observe more exactly the whole great damage has often been the consequence rise of our middling tides, I had a board fixed upright at low water in the river, marked with six inch marks each foot, high enough to Moreover, he was ideally placed to make observe by, till the tide reached the dock gates, such measurements: and remarked the time it flowed to each foot the rise of the whole tide ...I I... And as I live fronting, and but 14 yards from the dock gates aforementioned, which opens In 1793, he was forced to abandon his with the flood and shuts on high water, whilst I measurements with the following note: am able and willing would be glad of any directions, rules, or hints, that might improve 'Having resigned my place as Dockmaster, this observations on the tides, to make them more journal ceases by me, William Hutchinson ... I useful to seamen, pilots, mathematicians, could not continue any longer to make observa- astronomers or philosophers ...' tions, for want of the command of our dock gate men and gauge rod to take the night tides.'

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 To anyone familiar with present day requests and he computed approximate relationships for resources for research, Hutchinson's between wind speed and direction and water exasperation has a familiar ring. Several years level. However, he missed entirely the of his high water data had already been 'inverse barometer' relationship whereby sea- employed by the Holdens in the development level is depressed by approximately 1 cm of the first Liverpool tide prediction tables, given an increase of 1 mbar in air pressure: and it is clear from the Treatise that he was '... I cannot perceive, as has been imagined, proud that his measurements had been used that the tides are affected ... by the different in this way. It became an offence (£5 fine) for weight of our atmosphere, as shewn by the a Mersey pilot to be without the tables and a barometer ...' watch. Hutchinson must have known that extensions to his dataset would be valuable. The study of the 'inverse barometer effect' in He resented his records to the Liver~ool Hutchinson's data had to wait until Lubbock's (~~deum)Library. At some point the): have investigations in the 1 830s, which predated been carefully bound, thereby preserving by 20 years those of Sir James Clark Ross who them in good condition. A manuscript copy is usually credited with the discovery of the of the records made in 1814 by J. Lang is effect. preserved in the Liverpool Athenaeum Library, and a second copy for 1774-92 The resulting Liverpool High Water Record only is kept at the Royal Society. In summer 1997, Luke Rees, a Geography student from Liverpool University, and I Possibly the only disappointing aspect of started the mammoth job of typing Hutchin- Hutchinson's work, given his enormous son's high water data into laptops. The data efforts in collecting his dataset, is the rela- were found to be of good quality and are tively little scientific use he was able to make more complete than any other subset of data of it. For example, the nodal variation of from Liverpool. We have not so far computer- Mean High Water (see later) would have been ized any of the meteorological data, except straightforward to identify if he had been able to note the barometer and wind information to manipulate the information. He observed when exceptionally high tides were recorded. correctly: Hutchinson's data, together with similar high I... Notwithstanding gales of winds affect the water information for 1827-35 archived at tides, I observe it is more in the height than in the Royal Society, and also computerized by the time ...' Luke, have been combined with conventional tide-gauge data from the 1850s onwards to construct what is arguably the second longest The value of Figure 1 Values of Adjusted MHW at Liverpool (if a bit gappy) sea-level-related time-series in hi^^^^,^ data for compared with the longer mean sea-level records the world. The series is not as old as Amster- the *djusted MHW from the region and from Stockholm. (An arbitrary dam's (begun in 1682, although the data we series can be clearly offset has been added to each time-series for seen presentation purposes.)

Amsterdam

Brest 580 r Sheerness 0 540 V

Stockh0,m 2 520 (detrended)

Liverpool (adusted MHW)

Liverpool 460 I-

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5 0 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3 hold are from 1700 only) but is comparable Privateers by Gomer Williams (1897). Histori- with Stockholm's (1 774). cal and technical details associated with the Hutchinson and later tidal datasets are The data have been used to study how the contained in a report available from the tides have changed at Liverpool during the author which includes as many references to last 230 years: the incoming tide now arrives Hutchinson as I have been able to find. significantly earlier (approximately 17 However, you can also read about his inter- minutes) than it did during Hutchinson's era ests - including the weather, tides, naviga- and is larger in amplitude (approximately 6 tion, naval architecture, seamanship and per cent), primarily owing to engineering maintenance of health at sea - in his own changes to the river. In addition, the Mean words in the Treatises. If ever you want to High Water (MHW) record, after adjustment position your frigate alongsidi the enemy to for the local tidal changes, has been used to best advantage, these are the books to have construct a proxy Mean Sea Level (MSL) with you. They are surprisingly readable record which can be compared with the very considering they were written so long ago, few other long records from the region. and by an elderly man with little formal Figure 1 shows the Adjusted MHW series education, which may explain why they were together with true MSL from Liverpool and considered sufficiently interesting to reprint data from other European sites with long in 1979. records. Note that MHW time-series, unlike MSL, contain an oscillation with a period of In the 1777 Treatise, Hutchinson described 18.6 years and an amplitude at Liverpool of himself as 'a former cook of a collier .... approximately 10 cm, which arises from the and a seaman who had done his best' which 'nodal cycle' of the plane of the Moon's orbit provides an understated obituary. Williams about the Equator. This oscillation accounts writes that Bryan Blundell (mariner, ship for the greater 'noise' of the Adjusted MHW owner, mayor 1721 and 1728 and founder of record compared with the others. the Blue Coat Hospital) considered Hutchin- son's life to be 'one unwearied scene of For each of the records of Figure 1, the industrious usefulness'. 'accelerations' (i.e. rates of change in the secular trend of sea-level) are comparable at Most towns with such an historically impor- 0.82, 0.42, 0.44, 0.84 and 0.45 mm/year per tant citizen would have erected a statue, century for Liverpool, Amsterdam, Brest, fixed a blue plaque to a wall, or named a Sheerness and Stockholm MSL respectively, street after him - or, better still in this case, a and 0.33 mm/year per century for Liverpool dock. However, Hutchinson has been ignored Adjusted MHW. When combined with geo- by Liverpool, a city with more than its fair logical data available from Durham Univer- share of interesting characters. Or at least he sity, the records can be taken as evidence has been ignored so far; maybe with the help that most of the true acceleration in sea-level of the oceanographic community we can -the subject of much debate in climate change that? circles - began during the second half of the last century. This would have resulted in the If you intend to visit the city, don't bother 1 mm/year or more trends in MSL observed at trying to pay your respects at St Thomas's in Park Lane, where Hutchinson was interred in many locations. Hutchinson's contribution to the greater length of the Liverpool Adjusted 1801. The church was demolished in 1885 as it was considered unsafe, and the churchyard MHW record. com~aredwith the MSL time- is now a car park. series from the saAe location, can be seen to have been of great importance towards reaching this conclusion.

Final remarks In this article I have only had space to cover the main reason why I find Hutchinson to have been such an interesting character. I am full of admiration for his efforts: measuring high waters sounds easy but try it yourself once (it is extremely tedious waiting for the tide to 'turn over'), then imagine repeating Philip Woodworth is at the Centre for Coastal the task twice a day for 30 years, not forget- and Marine Sciences, Proudman Oceanographic ting the meteorological measurements. If you Laboratory, Bidston Observatory, Birkenhead, want to read more about the first part of Merseyside L43 7RA, UK. Hutchinson's life, including tales of his and Fortunatus Wright's privateering (which read Tel. i44-(0)151- 653-8633; better than any novel), then I recommend the Fax: i44-(0)151-653-6269. excellent book History of the Liverpool Email: [email protected]

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 8, No.3