Routine use of judicial THE WEST execution. Treason rede- THE EAST fined as any threat to the imperial family. Julio-Claudians The civil wars following the death of Julius Caesar were won by his grand-nephew Flavians 1 AD
J Gaius Octavius Thurinus. Through a series of brilliant political maneouvres, he guided In 68 AD a series of revolts broke out against Nero, last heir of the Julio-Claudians: "for now ULIO the demands of the old republican families (nobiles), the legions, and the people into Golden Age of Latin had been divulged that secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at the constitutional settlements of 27 BC and 23 BC. He merged all the major republican Augustus literature. Rome" (Tacitus). The victor was Titus Flavius Vespasianus. Imperial defence became reliant on offices – civil, military, religious, and judicial – into one unique power; symbolised by widely-scattered frontier forces. -C his titles of Augustus ("illustrious"), Princeps ("first citizen"), and Imperator ("victorious Antonines
LAUDIANS Ancient Roman legislative general"); and established a hereditary principle of succesion; essentially recreating Immediately after the assassination of the heirless Domitian, the senate enthroned the elderly and electoral assemblies the ancient Roman monarchy. The robust system he established, the Principate, sur- Marcus Cocceius Nerva. Most of the Antonines, lacking male heirs, chose worthy and capable Tiberius dissolved. vived for over 200 years. The Julio-Claudians are his descendants (Julians), or those successors. "If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world during which the of his wife Livia Drusilla (Claudians). condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, The empire adopted a system of forward defence, where incursions were neutralised name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus. The vast before they reached the borders, and client states acted as buffer areas. extent of the Roman empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue
Caligula and wisdom" (Edward Gibbon). Height of empire, but intellectually torpid. First emperor raised to power by the army. Claudius ? Key to the Emperors This work by Garry Stevens is licensed under Creative Commons licence CC-BY-NC-ND, and is available for free from Died in battle. Brilliant administrators www.garryscharts.com. See terms of use there. Vsn 2.0 or reformers. Main source: M. Grant, The Roman Emperors , Weidenfeld & Vitellius Otho Galba Nicholson, London, 1985. Additional material from The History Nero Assassination or Barking mad destructive of Rome podcasts thehistoryofrome.typepad.com. First Roman civil war since the suicide. lunatics. defeat of Marcus Antonius in F Year of the Four Emperors 30 BC. The Julio-Claudians assiduously intermarried with the old republican families, but also had them LAVIANS Vespasian executed when necessary to preserve their power. With the end of the dynasty, the remnants Severans of these ancient families (the nobiles) lost the domination of the political process they had main- Lucius Septimius Severus won the four-year civil war following the death of Marcus Titus tained since the creation of the Republic over 500 years earlier. Aurelius' deranged son Commodus. His ineffective family's reign marks the increasing Domitian derives his legitimacy not from the senate, whom he excludes from all decision- militarisation of the empire at the expense of the civil populace, and the slow decline Domitian making, but from the gods. The imperial court is no longer fixed in Rome, but moves with the of the old Roman legion. emperor. Start of the decline of the city of Rome as the seat of empire. Crisis Nerva
P Collapse of central and senatorial authority. Emperors are made at the whim of the
RINCIPATE legionary armies (Rhine, Danube, Orient). Mass incursions of barbarians. The nadir of 100100100 Roman fortunes occurs when Valerian is captured by the Persions in 260; Britain, Gaul Last substantial influx of new slaves into the empire. and Spain have broken away under Postumus; and much of the east has broken away Trajan First non-Italian emperor. into the Palmyrene empire under Zenobia. Endemic pressure from Sassanid Persians. Empire reaches greatest Classical paganism starts to decline as people embrace the esoteric mystery religions, or A series of brilliant generals starting with Claudius Gothicus and Aurelian restore the extent. philosophical positions, such as Stoicism. However, classical paganism remains as the provider territorial integrity of the empire, but it remains a miltary despotism. In the West, of the rituals supporting and defining the Roman state. empire-wide trade declines and goods production becomes more parochial. Army no longer manned mainly by Italians (let alone Romans), but almost entirely provincial. Tetrarchy and House of Constantine Diocletian reforms decades of military and administrative extemporization into a new Hadrian
A Hadrian moves the empire from a Roman-dominated hegemony to an 132-136. system of two emperors and two designated successors (the Tetrarchy), in an international polity. Italians lose their pre-eminent place in imperial Second Jewish NTONINES authoritarian government: the Dominate, where the emperors are near-gods. It administration. revolt. Diaspora. collapses into civil war after his retirement. The winner, Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, himself bequeaths an unstable dynastic inheritance. Society moves Motivated by a shortage of slaves, more humane laws for them are towards a lord–tenant feudal foundation. Defence in depth adopted: central forces passed. Silver Age of Latin literature: Juvenal, Petronius, Pliny, Tacitus. meet incursions within the empire, not pre-emptively. Antoninus Pius House of Valentinian and Theodosius The last great house of Rome, a family of emperors interwoven by marriage and Antoninus is the only emperor for whom we have a single biographical source. descent. During this period, the empire definitively splits into two halves, and both are engaged with continuous barbarian and Sassanid incursions. Army mainly consists of Lucius Verus Marcommanic wars. Germanic raids into Italy: first invasion of Italy since 101 BC. Antonine barbarian recruits, with an emphasis on cavalry. Plague, probably smallpox. Widespread fatalities within empire and adjoining barbarians.
Pertinax is the first emperor born the 100-400. Mithraism a major religion and rival to an son of a freedman. Marcus Aurelius emergent Christianity. Senate and old political elite decline into Pertinax Didius Julianus Commodus irrelevance. Worst purges since Tiberius Pescennius Niger and Domitian. 197. Battle of Lugdunum (Severus vs Albinus), possibly the largest Roman civil war battle ever fought, involving Clodius Albinus 75% of the entire army. Rival emperor in the east. 200 S Septimius Severus 200
EVERANS Army expanded. Beginnings of a military state. Rival emperor in Britain. Sassanids overthrow Parthians in Persia. They First emperor from the equestrian class, and Geta Caracalla become the most important standing threat to the first never to visit Rome while emperor. Macrinus Elagabalus the empire, requiring constant vigilance, and diverting military manpower from European First emperor to rise from the ranks, and first from the Danubian The Gordians barbarian threats. provinces. Concentration on the welfare of the army above all else. Severus Alexander Maximinus I Thrax Last flowering of classical thought. M Neoplatonism: Plotinus, Porphyry. ILITARY Balbinus & Pupienus Gordian I & Gordian II First formal division of Gordian III Decius conducts the first organised power on terri- First emperor to die in battle against a Trajanus Decius Philip the Arab persecutions of Christians. torial grounds. foreign foe. Significant German incursions. C R Aemilian RISIS Trebonianus Gallus Plague of Cyprian,
ULE Gallienus probably smallpox. Valerian Central cavalry Inflation and failure of 259. Battle of Edessa vs Persians. Entire Claudius II Gothicus government revenues. Postumus Gallienus force created. army destroyed. Nadir of Roman fortunes.
City of Rome In a short reign, Aurelian ( Restitutor Orbis ) brilliantly defeats numerous internal and external Breakaway em- now a mere pro- Quintillus pire in Gaul, Aurelian threats, saving the empire from disintegration. He founds the cult of Sol Invictus, moving vincial centre. Tacitus society to monotheism away from classical paganism; and carries out economic reforms. First Spain and and Florian substantial use of Germanic soldiers drawn from outside the empire to man the army. Britain. Probus Carus Tacitus is the last emperor raised by the Roman Senate. Carinus & Numerian T Massive economic and administrative re-organisation of the empire, restoring civil
ETRACHY Carausius government. Civil governors now trained professionals, not members of the senatorial class. Western capital Military commanders made seperate roles. Proto-feudalism: rural inhabitants tied to their moved to Milan. Breakaway empire Maximian Diocletian locations, trades made hereditary. Italy loses its ancient tax concessions. in Gaul and Britain. 300 303-311. Diocletian conducts the Great Persecution of Christians.
Constantius I Chlorus AND Galerius Maxentius 280-400 and beyond. Manichaeism a major religion. Founded by the Persian Mani c. 250, it fused elements of Christianity, Buddhism and Severus Licinius H Son of Maximian. Maximinus II Daia Zoroastrianism into a major world religion, and remained a rival to Breakaway empire Christianity until its suppression by Theodosius I.
OUSE in Italy, Spain and Africa. Constantine I the Constantine, greatest general of his age, ends the persecution of Christians
by ordering toleration of all religions. He converts to Christianity and starts OF Great the institutionalisation of the Church. Praetorian guard abolished. Sound gold
C coinage established. Increasing use of Germanic soldiers to man the army.
ONSTANTINE Breakaway empire Constantine II Decline of imperial trade. Cities revert to self-sufficiency. in Gaul. Constantius Constans II Magnentius
Valentinian is the last Julian the Apostate Final stand of classical paganism under Julian. great emperor of the Jovian
H Valentinian I West. 376: First wave of Germanic refugees are admitted to OUSE Breakaway empire the Eastern empire, fleeing from the Huns. 378. Battle of Valens Gratian discards the title of in Gaul, Spain and Adrianople vs Visigoth refugees. Much of the eastern Gratian army destroyed. End of the old Roman infantry legion. Pontifex Maximus. First use and Britain. of state power to execute a Visigoths settle within the empire armed and with tribal
OF Theodosius bans all D heretic, Priscillian. structures intact. Magnus Maximus religions except Theodosius I the Great OMINATE
V Val- entinian II Christianity. First emperor raised by a Unable to find cavalry manpower from within ALENTINIAN Eugenius barbarian general, the empire, the emperors hire foederati or Arbogast the Frank. Huns to fight. Rise of barbarian generals to political dominance. 400 Capital moved to Ravenna for defensive Stilicho Arcadius
reasons, an admission of the West's failure. Breakaway empire Visigothic foederati under Alaric rebel, Honorius 405-408: Second wave of Germanic refugees Constantine III fleeing from the Huns. Alans, Vandals and in Gaul, Spain and rampaging through the East then Italy. In 410 Suevi cross the Rhine in mass. They pillage Constantius III and Britain. they sack Rome, traumatising the empire's elites
& T & Gaul and move to Spain. and intellectuals. They eventually settle in Gaul. After Theodosius I leaves the empire to his two incompetent young sons, Arcadius and Honorius, most The Theodosian walls are constructed to protect Western (and some Eastern) emperors are mere HEODOSIUS Joannes Constantinople, a service they faithfully figureheads, with the real powers being their senior generals (shown in brown), usually barbarians. perform for more than a thousand years. Petronius Further measures against rural inhabitants. Re- Valentinian III Maximus Flavius Aetius Huns under Attila raid both parts of the pressive taxation. empire. Vandals under Gaiseric leave Spain and capture North Africa, Theodosius II Avitus breadbasket and richest province of the Hunnic empire collapses. Western empire. Marcian F
ALL Majorian 468. Naval battle of Cape Bon. A massive W military expedition from both halves of the
Aspar
OF Libius Severus EST Ricimer empire to regain the rich provinces of Leo I the Great
Anthemius
THE Africa is defeated by the Vandals, sealing the economic fate of the West. Leo II
Julius Nepos Last major military effort by the West. Eastern treasury drained. Basiliscus Olybrius B 476: Odoacer, leader of the Germanic foed- With his evocative name, the teenage Romulus is YZANTINE
E erati in Italy, proclaimed King of Italy. He de- Romulus traditionally reckoned last of the Western emperors. Zeno the Isaurian MPIRE poses Romulus, executes his father Orestes; Zeno persuades the Ostrogoths under But since he was elevated by the machinations of his Theodoric Strabo to leave for Italy. Eastern and ignores Nepos, the disgraced and exiled Augustulus Germanic generalissimo father Orestes – who had candidate of the Eastern empire. Nepos rules a Glycerius rebelled against the East's candidate Julius Nepos – empire permanently freed from the domination rump state in Dalmatia until 480. Romulus is perhaps better regarded as a usurper. of barbarians and their generals. Anastasius I 500