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THE AND THE THIRTY TYRANTS

MÁRK SÓLYOM

The Epitome de Caesaribus is a short, summarizing historical work known as a breviarium or epitomé. This brief summary was written in the late 4th or early 5th century and summarizes the of the from the of to the time of Theodosius the Great in 48 chapters. Between chapters 32 and 35, the Epitome tells the story of the Empire under , Gothicus, , and . This was the most anarchic time of the soldier- ; the imperatores had to face not only the German and Sassanid attacks, but also the economic crisis, the plague and the counter-, as well. The Scriptores Historiae Augustae calls these counter-emperors the “thirty tyrants” and lists 32 usurpers, although there are some fictive imperatores in that list too. The Epitome knows only 9 tyrants, mostly the Gallic and Western usurpers. The goal of my paper is to analyse the Epitome’s chapters about Gallienus’, ’ and Aurelian’s counter-emperors with the help of the ancient sources and modern works.

The Epitome de Caesaribus is a short, summarizing Latin historical work known as a breviarium or epitomé (ἐπιτομή). During the late Roman Empire, long historical works (for example the books of Livy, , , Cassius Dio etc.) fell out of favour, as the imperial court preferred to read shorter summaries. Consequently, the genre of abbreviated history became well-recognised.1 The word epitomé comes from the Greek word epitemnein (ἐπιτέμνειν), which means “to cut short”.2 The most famous late antique abbreviated are Aurelius ’s Liber de Caesaribus (written in the 360s),3 ’ Breviarium ab Urbe condita4 and Festus’ Breviarium rerum gestarum populi Romani.5 Both Eutropius’ and Festus’ works were created during the reign of Emperor between 364 and 378. The Epitome de Caesaribus was

1 JARECSNI (1996: 149). 2 GAUVILLE (2005: 86–92). 3 ROHRBACHER (2002: 42–48); SCHLUMBERGER (1974: 1–2). 4 ROHRBACHER (2002: 49–56); SCHLUMBERGER (1974: 1–2). 5 ROHRBACHER (2002: 57–63); SCHLUMBERGER (1974: 1–2).

Márk Sólyom written in the late 4th or early 5th century by an unknown pagan author, who may have been in contact with the non-Christian senatorial resistance of led by the pagan senator, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus. The composition’s terminus post quem is the cited burial of Emperor Theodosius in 395 and its terminus ante quem is the death of Emperor in 408, who is mentioned in the work as a living person.6 The Epitome begins with the time of Augustus, ends with the death of Theodosius, and contains 48 chapters.7 Jörg Schlumberger conducted a complete analysis of the work in 1974, but he did not pay very close attention to the counter-emperors. He wrote about the rebelling usurpers only in connection with the legitimate emperors. If we read Schlumberger’s analysis about the usurpators of Gallienus, Claudius Gothicus and Aurelian, who were mentioned by the Epitome, we can find several errors. Indeed, the book of the German historian is old, so it does not include the latest modern works and evidence. In 1974, Schlumberger dated ’ rebellion and the murder of to 261,8 although after the founding of Postumus’ “Augsburger Siegesaltar” in 1992, we know that the correct date is 260.9 The German historian mentioned no more dates in connection with the rebelling warlords, so the reader has no help in dating the usurpers found in the Epitome. Another shortcoming is that Schlumberger did not use newer terminologies to differentiate or group the counter-emperors, so his work did not explain that Postumus, , and Tetricus were the rulers of the same separate state, the so called “” (“Gallisches Sonderreich”). The German historian states that the existence of Septimius, the counter-emperor from “Dalmatia” is verified by Zosimos’ work, the Historia Nova.10 This is not exactly true, because the Greek historian mentions only Epitimios,11 although the Epitome’s Septimius and Zósimos’ Epitimios are probably the same person. The goal of my paper is to analyse the Epitome’s chapters about Gallienus’, Claudius Gothicus’ and Aurelian’s counter-emperors with the help of the ancient sources and modern works. I will try to include as many dates as

6 Epit. de Caes. 48,20. – The burial of Emperor Theodosius; Epit. de Caes. 48,19. – The mentioning of Arcadius as a living person: sicque in pace rebus humanis annum agens quinquagesimum apud excessit utramque rempublicam utrisque filiis, id est Arcadio et Honorio, quietam relinquens. 7 GAUVILLE (2005: 13–14). 8 SCHLUMBERGER (1974: 149). 9 BAKKER (1993: 369–386). 10 SCHLUMBERGER (1974: 161). 11 Zos. 1,49. 180 The Epitome de Caesaribus and the Thirty Tyrants possible, focusing on the as well as the historical events, themselves. Between chapters 32 and 35, the Epitome de Caesaribus tells the story of the Roman Empire under Gallienus, Claudius Gothicus, Quintillus, and Aurelian. This was the most anarchic time of the soldier-emperor’s era; the imperatores faced not only the German and Sassanid attacks, but also the economic crisis, the plague, and the counter-emperors. The Scriptores Historiae Augustae calls these counter-emperors the “thirty tyrants” (tyranni triginta) and lists 32 usurpers (30 men and 2 women), although there are some fictive imperatores in that list, too.12 The Epitome includes only 9 tyrants, mostly the Gallic and Western usurpers. The unknown author of the work was a pagan from the Western part of the Empire, probably from Rome (Schlumberger believed that he was a relative or a close friend of Virius Nicomachus Flavianus),13 so he did not know the Greek historical tradition and the past events of the Empire’s Eastern part. But what was the status of the Empire’s Western provinces in the 260’s and the early 270’s? In the spring of 260, Germanic (Frankish and Alemannian) tribes attacked the ripae of Inferior, , and ; they sacked the three Gallic provinces, , and Northern Italy; and informs us in the Liber de Caesaribus that some soldiers landed in Northern .14 During these heavy barbarian attacks, Illyricum rejected the legitimate emperor and declared its support for and, after his death, for .15 Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus, the praeses () of , usurped the purple too and killed Emperor Gallienus’ son, Saloninus. , the three , Hispania, Raetia, and the German provinces declared their support for Postumus. And although Raetia, in 265, and Hispania, in 270, returned to the loyalty of the legitimate emperor, the “Gallic Empire” and the last Gallic “tyrant” were finally crushed only in 274 by Aurelian.16 The Epitome mentions only two Eastern usurpers, from and Valens from .17 They very likely existed, but the lack of numismatic evidence shows that they never wore the purple. In the summer of 260, the Sassanid , Shapor I, attacked the Eastern

12 SHA Tyranni Triginta. 13 SCHLUMBERGER (1974: 245–246). 14 Eutropius 9,8; Aur. Victor 33,3. 15 Eutropius 9,8; Aur. Victor 33,2; SHA Tyranni Triginta 9–10; FITZ (1966: 1–71). 16 Eutropius 9,9–9,10; 9,13; Aur. Victor 33,8–33,14; 35,3–35,5; SHA Tyranni Triginta 3–8; 14–15; DRINKWATER (1987: 92–108); KÖNIG (1981: 198–205). 17 Epit. de Caes. 32,4. 181 Márk Sólyom provinces of the Roman Empire, defeated the Roman legions, and imprisoned Emperor Valerianus. The author of the Epitome knows and mentions Shapor and his great victory, but does not write about the Palmyrene tyrants and the Eastern counter-emperors.18 What events and usurpers were not mentioned in the Epitome? After the Sassanid victory, two armies were organised in the East. Odenathus (Udaynath), the ruler of ’s oasis city and a Roman senator, had marched against Shapor with his heavy and, after some victorious battles, expelled the Sassanids from the Roman Empire.19 The other army was led by Roman generals, who made Macrianus and his sons (Macrianus Iunior and ) emperors. The Macriani did not attack Shapor. Rather, they marched west and, in 261, were defeated and killed near Serdica by and , who later became usurpers, as well.20 The sole Eastern power remained Palmyra and, after the death of Odenathus, his wife and son, and , became augusta and augustus. The forces of the caravan city had conquered Egypt and Asia Minor between 270 and 272, and only Aurelian was finally able to crush Palmyra in 273.21 The usurpation of Postumus is mentioned in chapter 32 of the Epitome. This work is the only one in antiquity that tells the full name of the first Gallic counter-emperor, “Cassius Latienus Postumus”, although incorrectly. Indeed, the usurper’s real name is Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus, as we know it from the tyrant’s inscriptions.22 The Epitome includes only one detail about the counter-emperor’s uprising and reign: Cassius Latienus Postumus in Gallia Gallieni filio interfecto, Epit. de Caes. 32,3. The murder of the legitimate emperor’s son in Colonia Agrippinensis (in , and not in , as the Epitome indicates)23 meant Postumus’ success and the birth of the Gallic Empire. The work does not mention any other information about Postumus; we must read Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, the , or Zosimos for more details. The usurper ruled for nine years (between 260 and 269) and was

18 Epit. de Caes. 32,5–32,6. 19 Eutropius 9,10–9,11; SHA Tyranni Triginta 15; Zósimos 1,39. 20 Zonar. 12,24; SHA Tyranni Triginta 12–14; 18. 21 Eutropius 9,13; Zos. 1,50–1,61; SHA Tyranni Triginta 30; WATSON (1999: 59– 88). 22 CIL II 4943: Imp(erator) Caes(ar) / M(arcus) Cassiani/us Latinius Pos/tumus Pius Fel(ix) / Invic[tu]s Aug(ustus) / Ger(manicus) max(imus) / pont(ifex) max(imus) / trib(unicia) pot(estate) / co(n)s(ul) III p(ater) p(atriae) / proco(n)s(ul) res/tituit 23 DRINKWATER (1987: 26–27). 182 The Epitome de Caesaribus and the Thirty Tyrants murdered by his own legions in Mogontiacum () for not allowing them to sack the traitor settlement.24 The author of the Epitome wrote only one sentence about in chapter 32, but corrupted the usurper’s name, although at least the place of the revolt, Mogontiacum is correct: pari modo Aelianus apud Mogontiacum (…) dominatum invasere, Epit. de Caes. 32,4. After this event, the work discusses the victory of the Sassanid king of kings, Shapor, who had defeated Emperor Valerianus in 260—nine years before Laelianus’ usurpation, which means that the Epitome’s chronology is wrong in this chapter. The other sources and the numismatic evidence indicate that Laelianus rebelled against Postumus in 269, ruled for five months, and was killed by Postumus’ army.25 The rule of Victorinus is discussed in chapter 34, after the events of Emperor Claudius’ wars and death. The Epitome states that his diebus Victorinus regnum cepit, Epit. de Caes. 34,3, but the exact time and the place of the usurpation are not mentioned. We cannot read about the counter-emperor’s death in the work, but Aurelius Victor wrote that Attitianus killed him because Victorinus had an affair with his wife.26 He ruled the Gallic Empire between 269 and 271.27 Tetricus was the last Gallic usurper between 271 and 274.28 The Epitome mentions Aurelian, the legitimate emperor, in chapter 35: Hic Tetricum, qui ab exercitu in Galliis effectus fuerat, (Aurelianus) correctorem Lucaniae provexit, aspergens hominem eleganti ioco sublimius habendum regere aliquam Italiae partem quam trans Alpes regnare, Epit. de Caes. 35,7. The author does not mention Tetricus Iunior, the son of the Gallic counter-emperor;29 does not mention Faustinus’ uprising against the usurper;30 does not mention the battle apud Catalaunos between Aurelian and Tetricus.31 Only the defeated Gallic tyrant’s fate is clear in the work. Aurelian pardoned him and appointed Lucaniae, who was responsible for the southern part of Italia. According to Eutropius, he died at an advanced age.32

24 DRINKWATER (1987: 27–35). 25 DRINKWATER (1987: 34–35). 26 Aur. Victor 33,13. 27 DRINKWATER (1987: 35–39). 28 DRINKWATER (1987: 39–44). 29 Aur. Victor 33,14; SHA Tyranni Triginta 25. 30 Aur. Victor 35,4. 31 Eutropius 9,13; Paneg. Lat. 8,4,3. 32 Eutropius 9,13. 183 Márk Sólyom

COUNTER-EMPERORS OF THE GALLIC EMPIRE Beginning of the reign End of the reign Postumus (Epit. de Caes. 32.) Summer 260 May / June 269 Laelianus (Epit. de Caes. 32.) January 269 May / June 269 Marius (not in the Epitome) May / June 269 / October 269 Domitian II. (not in the Epitome) 270 270 Victorinus (Epit. de Caes. 34.) September / October 269 Beginning of 271 Tetricus (Epit. de Caes. 35.) Beginning of 271 Spring / summer 274

In 260, the Roman legions appointed two military commanders as emperors in Illyricum. Ingenuus was made imperator first in , but he was defeated by the legitimate emperor, Gallienus.33 After the usurpation had ended, the remaining Pannonian armies voted the purple for another general, Regalianus. Only this second tyrant is included in the Epitome, but the source corrupts his name and calls him “Regillianus”.34 There is another error in the work: the author locates the uprising in , although the coins of Regalianus and his wife (or mother), Sulpicia Dryantilla can be found only near Carnuntum, in Pannonia Superior. He likely was killed by German tribes or by his own rebelling army.35 Only one ancient Latin source mentions Septimius: the Epitome, which names the place of his usurpation (Dalmatia)36 and states that he was immediately killed by his own soldiers. Zosimos writes about an “Epitimios”37 in the Historia Nova, and Schlumberger believes that Septimius and Epitimios are the same person. The hypothesis is probably correct, even if the available evidence cannot prove it.

COUNTER-EMPERORS IN ILLYRICUM Beginning of the reign End of the reign Ingenuus (not in the Epitome) 260 260 Regalianus (Epit. de Caes. 32.) 260 260 Septimius (Epit. de Caes. 35.) 270 or 271 270 or 271

33 FPA 162–166. 34 Epit. de Caes. 32,3. 35 FPA 166–168; RIC Vol. V. Part 2. Regalianus 1–8; Sulpicia Dryantilla 1–2. 36 Epit. de Caes. 35,3. 37 Zos. 1,49. 184 The Epitome de Caesaribus and the Thirty Tyrants Aureolus was the cavalry commander of Emperor Gallienus, who defeated the Eastern usurpers (the Macriani) near Serdica.38 In 268, however, he declared for the Gallic tyrant, Postumus. The 32nd chapter of the Epitome mentioned only that Mediolani Aureolus dominatum invasere, Epit. de Caes. 32,4, but the details of his usurpation are in the 33rd chapter. Gallienus immediately marched against his traitor general, destroyed a bridge, and besieged Mediolanum: quem cum apud pontem, qui ex eius nomine Aureolus appellatar, obtentum detrusumque Mediolanum obsedit, Epit. de Caes. 33,2. The story of the “Aureolus bridge” is very strange, but Aurelius Victor gives the answer: he says that there was a battle near the bridge and it was named Aureolus only after the defeat of the usurper.39 During the siege of Mediolanum, Aureolus declared himself emperor, but was defeated a second time and was killed. Ironically, his enemy, Gallienus, was murdered too by his own soldiers.40

COUNTER-EMPERORS IN MEDIOLANUM, EGYPT AND MACEDONIA Beginning of the reign End of the reign Aureolus 268 268 (Epit. de Caes. 32-33.) Aemilianus 260 or 261 or was not usurper 261 or 262 or was not usurper (Epit. de Caes. 32.) Valens 260 or 261 or was not usurper 260 or 261 or was not usurper (Epit. de Caes. 32.)

Only two Eastern usurpers are mentioned by the Epitome, but neither Aemilianus nor Valens struck coins, so the lack of numismatic evidence indicates that they were not counter-emperors. Another possible solution for the problem is that they were unable to strike coins because they did not have a coin mint. The Epitome briefly mentions Aemilianus and Valens: in Aegypto Aemilianus, apud Macedonas Valens (…) dominatum invasere, Epit. de Caes. 32,4. The Epitome is one of the last pagan historical works written in the Latin language. It includes mostly the Western historical traditions of the Roman Empire and gives only a brief summary of the Roman emperors’ and counter-emperors’ lives. The work mentions nine of the “thirty tyrants” and contains three unique pieces of information about the rebelling usurpers. The first is the full name of Postumus, although it is not exactly correct (Cassius Latienus Postumus rather than Marcus Cassianius

38 Zonar. 12,24; SHA Tyranni Triginta 11–13; Gallieni Duo 2. 39 Aur. Victor 33,17–33,20. 40 Zos. 1,41; Zonar. 12,25–12,26; Aur. Victor 33,19–33,22. 185 Márk Sólyom Latinius Postumus).41 The second is the mention of the usurper Septimius as Septimius and not as Epitimios.42 The third is the place of Septimius’ uprising, which is Dalmatia.43 Beside these positive aspects, the Epitome made several mistakes too. Postumus’, Laelianus’ and Regalianus’ names, the place where Postumus killed Gallienus’ son (Gallia instead of Colonia Agrippinensis), the chronology of Laelianus’ rule and the area of Regalianus’ uprising (Moesia instead of Pannonia Superior) are wrong. With all of these errors and weaknesses, the Epitome fits well in the late 4th century’s historiographical tradition. Although it is not the most important source from , it deserves some attention, despite the open questions it presents.

Sources Aurelius Victor: Liber de Caesaribus Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius: Breviarium Festus: Breviarium rerum gestarum populi Romani Panegyrici Latini VIII. Scriptores Historiae Augustae (SHA) Zonaras: Annales, PINDER M. (ed.) Bonn 1844. Zosimos: Historia Nova, BEKKER I. (ed.) Bonn 1837.

References

BAKKER 1993 = L. BAKKER: Raetien unter Postumus – Das Siegesdenkmal einer Juthungenschlacht im Jahre 260 n. Chr. aus Augsburg. Germania 71 (1993) 369–386. BARNES 1976 = T. D. BARNES: The Epitome de Caesaribus and its sources. CPh 71 (1976) 258–268. DRINKWATER 1987 = J. F. DRINKWATER: The Gallic Empire, Separatism and continuity in the north-western provinces of the Roman Empire A.D. 260–274. Stuttgart 1987. FITZ 1966 = FITZ J.: Ingenuus et Régalien. Bruxelles 1966. FPA = KOVÁCS P. (ed.): Fontes Pannoniae Antiquae In Aetate Ab A.D. CCXXXV Usque A.D. CCLXXXIV. Budapest 2008.

41 Epit. de Caes. 32,3. 42 Epit. de Caes. 35,3. 43 Epit. de Caes. 35,3. 186 The Epitome de Caesaribus and the Thirty Tyrants

GAUVILLE 2005 = J.-L. GAUVILLE: Abbreviated Histories: The case of the Epitome de Caesaribus (AD c. 395). Montreal 2005. JARECSNI 1996 = JARECSNI J.: Az Epitome de Caesaribus első 11 fejezete. AntTan 40 (1996) 149–158. JONES A. H. M. – J. R. MARTINDALE – J. MORRIS (ed.): The Prosopography of the later Roman Empire. Volume 1 A.D. 260–395. Cambridge 1971. KÖNIG 1981 = I. KÖNIG: Die gallischen Usurpatoren von Postumus bis Tetricus. München 1981. MATTINGLY, H. – E. SYDENHAM (ed.): The Roman Imperial Coinage. Vol. V. London 1968. ROHRBACHER 2002 = D. ROHRBACHER: The Historians of Late Antiquity. London 2002. SCHLUMBERGER 1974 = J. A. SCHLUMBERGER: Die Epitome de Caesaribus. Untersuchungen zur heidnischen Geschichtsschreibung des 4. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. München 1974. WATSON 1999 = A. WATSON: Aurelian and the Third Century. London 1999.

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