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The Water-Food- Energy Nexus in the Mekong Region

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The Water-Food- Energy Nexus in the Mekong Region Alexander Smajgl John Ward The Water-Food- Energy Nexus in the Mekong Region Assessing Development Strategies Considering Cross-Sectoral and Transboundary Impacts The Water-Food-Energy Nexus in the Mekong Region Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> Alexander Smajgl • John Ward The Water-Food-Energy Nexus in the Mekong Region Assessing Development Strategies Considering Cross-Sectoral and Transboundary Impacts Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> Alexander Smajgl John Ward CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences Townsville, QLD, Australia Townsville, QLD, Australia ISBN 978-1-4614-6119-7 ISBN 978-1-4614-6120-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-6120-3 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012953575 © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifi cally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> Acknowledgments The AusAID CSIRO Research for Development Alliance provided the funding for the Exploring Mekong Region Futures research project. This volume documents the deliberations and reviews of an expert panel conducted as an important aspect of the project’s overall research methodology. We are grateful for the valuable time and resources the experts enthusiastically contributed during the expert panel assessment. We especially thank the workshop participants for their efforts in cohering their individual Mekong region experiences and judgements into the col- lective wisdom articulated in this volume. The staff of the AusAID mission in Vientiane provided crucial and sustained support, particularly the enthusiasm, impartiality and sagacity of John Dore. We also acknowledge the leadership of the CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship and the Division of Ecosystem Sciences for their foresight and commitment. Finally, we acknowledge the substantial manu- script improvements due to the critical appraisal, corrections and insights sug- gested by several reviewers. v Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> Contents 1 Mekong Region Connectivity .................................................................. 1 Alex Smajgl and John Ward 2 Water Sector Analysis .............................................................................. 19 Sokhem Pech 3 Food Security in the Wider Mekong Region ......................................... 61 David Fullbrook 4 Impacts of Natural Resource-Led Development on the Mekong Energy System ............................................................... 105 Tira Foran 5 Livelihoods and Migration ...................................................................... 143 Lilao Bouapao 6 Land-Use Change in the Mekong Region .............................................. 179 Lu Xing 7 Mining in the Mekong Region ................................................................ 191 Kate Lazarus 8 Cross-Sectoral Assessment ...................................................................... 209 Alex Smajgl and John Ward Annex A: System Diagram Illustrating the Connectivity Arising from Hydropower Development ...................................... 223 Annex B: System Diagram Illustrating the Connectivity Arising from Water Diversions ..................................................... 224 Annex C: System Diagram Illustrating the Connectivity Arising from Industrial Rubber Plantations .................................. 225 Annex D: System Diagram Illustrating the Connectivity Arising from Sea Level Rise ......................................................... 226 vii Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> viii Contents Annex E: System Diagram Illustrating the Connectivity Arising from the Kunming to Phnom Penh Railway Connection ...................................................................... 227 Annex F: System Diagram Illustrating the Connectivity Arising from Bauxite Mining ........................................................ 228 Author Biographies ......................................................................................... 229 Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> Glossary and Abbreviations ADB Asian development bank Alumina Aluminium oxide re fi ned from bauxite ore feedstock for the smelting of aluminium metal Aluminium re fi ning Bauxite ore is fi nely crushed and dissolved in a solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, or lye) under high tem- perature and pressure. Insoluble iron oxide, titanium, sodium, silica and other oxides are fi ltered out as sludge called ‘red mud’. The solution is then clari fi ed and sent to a precipitation tank where a small amount of aluminium hydroxide is added as a ‘seed’ that facilitates the crystalli- zation of aluminium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide. The crystals are then washed, vacuum dewatered and sent to a rotating kiln. The result is a fi ne white powder called alu- mina (aluminium oxide). Aluminium smelting The strong bonds between aluminium and oxygen in alu- mina makes its re fi ning into aluminium possible only by using enormous amounts of energy, more than that required in the production of any other metal, or in fact in any other industrial process. Primary aluminium processing is the most polluting phase of the aluminium production chain, resulting in air emissions and solid wastes. ARWR Annual renewable water resource BAU Business-as-usual (referring to incremental changes that occur in a system) Bauxite Aluminium ore, found principally in tropical and sub-tropi- cal areas Bayer process Procedure used to re fi ne bauxite ore into alumina BDP Basin development plan BS Baseline scenario DF De fi nite future ix Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> x Glossary and Abbreviations Dutch disease Term for the negative relationship between resource abun- dancy and GDP growth also often referred to as resource curse. The underlying mechanism assumes that increasing income from resource exports can lead to a decline in the relative prices (terms-of trade) between trade and non-trade sectors, affecting investments and therefore growth. EE Energy ef fi ciency EMRF Exploring Mekong Region futures ERWR External renewable water resource Final energy Includes primary energy minus inputs for (electricity, heat, re fi neries and other energy) plus (energy value of electricity). Examples: Petroleum, electricity, fuel wood. GMS Greater Mekong subregion GOL Government of Lao PDR GWh Gigawatt-hour (equals one million kilowatt hours) Industrial metals gypsum, limestone, silica sand and kaolin IPCC Intergovernmental panel on climate change IRWR Internal renewable water resource LECS Lao expenditure and consumption survey LMB Lower Mekong basin LMD Lower Mekong mainstream dam MCM Million cubic metres MD Mainstream dam MRB Mekong river basin MRC Mekong river commission MWh Megawatt-hour (equals 1,000 KWh) MWyr Megawatt-year (equals 8.76 GWh) N Nitrogen NTFP Non-timber forest product P Phosphorus PJ Petajoule (10 15 Joule, equivalent to 277.78 GWh, and 23.88 kiloton oil equivalent) POE Panel of experts PRC People’s Republic of China Primary aluminium Aluminium ingots produced from bauxite and other alumin- ium ores via a smelting process Primary energy Energy embodied in natural resources prior to human con- version or transformation. Examples: Coal, crude oil, ura- nium, solar, wind. RE Renewable energy Red mud Bauxite residue from re fi ning to alumina via the Bayer pro- cess. For every ton of alumina produced, between 2 and 3 t of bauxite ore must be processed. The waste remaining after the process is disposed of is red mud. Licensed to Phaporn Sirimongkol<[email protected]> Glossary and Abbreviations
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