DOCSLIB.ORG

Symbolic Interactionism 1

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Symbolic Interactionism 1 Running head: SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 1 Symbolic Interactionism: Advancing Adoption Theory, Research, and Practice Bethany Willis Hepp, Ph.D. ([email protected]) Katie Hrapczynski, Ph.D. ([email protected]) Towson University Cheryl Fortner-Wood, Ph.D. ([email protected]) Winthrop University SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 2 Abstract This paper focuses on Symbolic Interactionism (SI) and its application to adoption-related family issues. First, we argue that a dearth of explicit application of SI in research has resulted in gaps in the interpretation of adoptive family dynamics sufficient to abate the impact of its use in practice. Theoretical concepts of self and generalized other are underutilized and can be particularly relevant to adoption work. A narrative case example describing adoptive parents’ perspectives is used to illustrate the impact of self as response to generalized other in the pre- and post-adoption phases of the transition to parenthood. Second, we advocate for extension of salience, a term often used in conjunction with identity and role development, to generalized other in an effort to better understand and reflect adoptive parent perspectives of and experiences with adoption. Finally, implications of explicit application of these theoretical constructs for research and for practice are discussed. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 3 Symbolic Interactionism: Advancing Adoption Theory, Research, and Practice In the United States, adoption has a long and varied history as a method of family formation. Adoption is generally defined as the legal establishment of an adult as parent to a minor child who is not otherwise related to that adult by blood or marriage. Contemporary adoption policies have ebbed and flowed from expectations of connection with birth families, to secrecy and sealing of birth records, and back to openness. Over time, contemporary adoption practice has expanded dramatically, and now includes the adoption of children from both within the United States (US) and from more than 100 countries around the globe (US Department of State, n.d.). According to the 2010 Census (Kreider & Lofquist, 2014), of the nearly 65 million children under age 18 living in the United States, approximately 7% were adopted. Formation of a family via adoption often challenges expectations of family members being biologically related, of the same race, and from the same nation of origin. Therefore, it is not surprising that the experiences of adoptive family members may be complex and diverse, which resonates in the accounts from adoptive parents. It is of value then to have a theoretical framework through which we can better articulate and understand their experiences. The purpose of this paper is to identify utility in application of Symbolic Interactionism in research and human service work with families formed through adoption. Symbolic Interactionism (SI) is a theoretical perspective that, simply put, addresses the manner in which society is created and maintained through repeated, meaningful human interactions. It provides a micro-level framework for thinking about how exchanges made within and among various social groups are governed by communication of knowledge, attitudes, values, and norms that are constructed and reconstructed over time. SI affords family scientists the opportunity to ask questions related to the hows and whys of family life, including the process by which humans, SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 4 individually and via group membership, interpret, explain, and evaluate lived experiences. Therefore, SI can be an effective tool in examining the complexity of adoptive family life. A dearth of explicit application of SI has resulted in gaps in the interpretation of adoptive family dynamics sufficient to abate the impact of its use in practice. We assert that specific application of SI concepts of self , generalized other, and salience can help researchers better interpret data collected with parents, improving service provision and optimizing outcomes for families formed through adoption. Although SI can be applied to several aspects of adoptive family life, we have chosen to focus on the adoptive parents’ transition to parenthood to articulate its use. Symbolic Interactionism Theory The early writings of Darwin (1880), Cooley (1902), and pragmatists like James (1907) and Dewey (1925) greatly influenced Mead (1934, 1956), whose work is often regarded as the commencement of SI. According to LaRossa and Reitzes (1993), SI presents unique contributions to family studies, particularly in its identification of families as social groups, and its assertion that individuals develop concepts of self through interactions with others. SI’s long and rich history of application is due, in large part, to its broad applicability across time and context. While expansion of SI across disciplines and topics of study has served to broaden its empirical base, it has resulted in theoretical fragmentation (Fine, 1993). Over time, various schools of thought have arisen as scholars interpret and reinterpret early theoretical and methodological applications of SI. White, Klein, and Martin (2015) note that in its contemporary use, symbolic interactionism serves as an umbrella concept that houses a myriad of adjacent theories, like identity theory (see Stryker & Burke, 2000) and enhancement theory (see Marks, 1977); theoretical frameworks, like the structural approach (see Nye, 1976; Stryker, 1964, 1980; SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 5 & Turner, 1990), the interactional approach (see Turner, 1970), and the microinteractional approach (see Goffman, 1959); and methodological practices (Blumer, 1969; Kuhn, 1964; Turner, 1991). This paper draws heavily on the original pragmatic framework for thinking that drove early Symbolic Interactionism. Our theoretical return to Mead’s early work is an attempt to shed the diffuse nature of contemporary applications, and to intentionally focus on theoretical concepts that we contend can be useful if applied in their original form. Our theoretical focus lies chiefly in Mead’s (1934, 1956) conceptions of self and others, which are arguably his major contribution to symbolic interactionism. Mead (1934, 1956), and Cooley (1902) before him, conceptualized self as inextricably bound to others, particularly those with whom one has face- to-face, intimate regular contact, as is the case with family. Mead (1934) maintained that self develops via constant, recursive negotiation between the I and Me. I is the active, present component of self that responds in the moment to situations experienced in one’s environment; it interprets gestures and symbols from interactions with others and integrates them with components of Me. Me is the socialized, developed aspect of self that reflects other people’s responses to one’s behaviors, once internalized in the self; in that way, Me is the object of self-reflection. Multiple Mes may exist within a single individual; the Me that is drawn upon in a given situation depends upon the I that is active in that particular moment. Mead (1934, 1956) described another key aspect of the development of self: the generalized other. The generalized other is described as the ability to understand and interpret social cues, such that one can anticipate how others might react to specific gestures or interactions. Taking on the perspective of the generalized other affords people the opportunity to SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 6 anticipate how actions may be interpreted by significant individuals in their immediate environments and by society at large Mead (1934, 1956) asserted that one’s notion of self is further grounded in gestures and consciousness, or the mind. Gestures are acts that communicate something meaningful to another person; they can be can be verbal (like language) and non-verbal (like symbols), as long as they induce responses from others (Mead, 1934, 1956; Blumer, 1969). Consciousness develops from shared meaning of gestures communicated with others; in order for two or more people to interact effectively, the gestures and symbols used among them must have shared meaning, producing a common response (Mead, 1934, 1956). Mead (1934, 1956) believed that self- consciousness develops when one is able to anticipate how other people will respond to his or her gestures; in that way, development of self requires interactions with others in one’s environment. Stryker (1968; 1980; 2002) has extended early work with SI, writing extensively on the process by which shared meaning of social norms and expectations guide role-specific behaviors in different contexts. Stryker (1968; 1980; 2002) asserts that the roles that are most salient for an individual are those that are most likely to define one’s identity. According to Brackett (1982) and Bernard (1974), as cited by LaRossa and LaRossa (1993), social norms associated with the role of parent, for example, include expectations related to “what people should know about parenting; how skillful they should be in their performance as parents; how motivated or excited they should be about being parents; and the extent, direction, and duration of emotional work that people should give to parenting” (p. 147). Moreover, one will be more inclined to expend greater resources on activities that support their most salient characteristics of self. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 7 Application of Symbolic Interactionism in Adoption Research Adoptive family life serves as a distinctive context for application of SI. Its uniqueness stems from the formation of a family
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Role Based Performance
    CAHRS / Cornell University 187 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 USA Tel. 607 255-9358 www.ilr.cornell.edu/CAHRS/ WORKING PAPER SERIES The Role-Based Performance Scale: Validity Analysis of a Theory-Based Measure Theresa M. Welbourne Diane E. Johnson Amir Erez Working Paper 9 7 - 0 5 Advancing the World of Work Role-Based Performance Scale WP 97-05 THE ROLE-BASED PERFORMANCE SCALE: VALIDITY ANALYSIS OF A THEORY-BASED MEASURE Theresa M. Welbourne Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies Cornell University 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 FAX: 607/255-1836 Diane E. Johnson University of Alabama Amir Erez University of Florida This study was funded by both the Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies and the Entrepreneurship and Personal Enterprise Program, both at Cornell University. We want to thank Linda Cyr and the members of the Ohio State University Ph.D. seminar for their feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript. In addition, we wish to thank our three anonymous reviewers, and the editor, Greg Northcraft, for their very helpful comments. All correspondence should be sent to Theresa M. Welbourne 607/255-1139; e-mail: [email protected] http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/CAHRS Page 1 Role-Based Performance Scale WP 97-05 ABSTRACT THE ROLE-BASED PERFORMANCE SCALE: VALIDITY ANALYSIS OF A THEORY-BASED MEASURE This study introduces a theory-based measure of employee performance (Role Based Performance Scale, RBPS) that is supported with results from a validation study using 10 data sets from six companies. In contrast to traditional, job-related measures of employee performance, we propose an alternative measure of performance based on role theory and identity theory.
    [Show full text]
  • Changing Roles in Is: a Role Theory Perspective R
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by AIS Electronic Library (AISeL) Association for Information Systems AIS Electronic Library (AISeL) International Conference on Information Systems ICIS 1988 Proceedings (ICIS) 1988 CHANGING ROLES IN IS: A ROLE THEORY PERSPECTIVE R. L. Heckman Jr. University of Pittsburgh Dennis F. Galletta University of Pittsburgh Follow this and additional works at: http://aisel.aisnet.org/icis1988 Recommended Citation Heckman, R. L. Jr. and Galletta, Dennis F., "CHANGING ROLES IN IS: A ROLE THEORY PERSPECTIVE" (1988). ICIS 1988 Proceedings. 34. http://aisel.aisnet.org/icis1988/34 This material is brought to you by the International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS) at AIS Electronic Library (AISeL). It has been accepted for inclusion in ICIS 1988 Proceedings by an authorized administrator of AIS Electronic Library (AISeL). For more information, please contact [email protected]. CHANGING ROLES IN IS: A ROLE THEORY PERSPECTIVEl It. L. Heckman, Jr. Dennis F. Galletta Joseph M. Katz Graduate School of Business University of Pittsburgh ABSTRACT The recent dramatic and interesting advances in computer technology have significantly altered the roles of both users and developers. Role theory might be applied to more fully understand and more effectively investigate organizational, behavioral, and social issues related to these changes. A frame- work for categorizing information systems roles is built from a matrix of information system and organizational activities. The information system activity dimension is composed of indirect user, direct user, autonomous developer, traditional developer, and facilitator categories. The organizational activity dimension contains clerical, professional, and managerial categories.
    [Show full text]
  • Symbolic Interactionism from Theoretical Origin to the Role of Social Interaction and International Integration
    British Journal of English Linguistics Vol.7, No.5, pp.18-24, November 2019 Published by ECRTD-UK Print ISSN: 2055-6063(Print), Online ISSN: 2055-6071(Online) SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM FROM THEORETICAL ORIGIN TO THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION AND INTERNATIONAL INTEGRATION Nhac Phan Linh1 1 Ph.D, Vietnam Institute of Workers and Trade Unions, [email protected] ABSTRACTS: Weighting scale symbolizes justice. Heart symbolizes love. Pigeons symbolize peace. All these ideas are formed through the common symbolic system of humankind, transcending barriers of language, culture, ethnicity, competence and qualifications. They become tools for the formation of social interactions between individuals, communities, within a country or internationally. KEY WORDS: symbolic interactionism, theoretical origin, social interaction, international integration. INTRODUCTION History of formation and development process of Symbolic Interactionism in the world Symbol is an ancient form of “sign”, considered as a tool of thought in the cognitive process of humanity. Therefore, the theoretical premise of Symbolic interactionism also has an ancient origin, directly linked to the development of human cognitive thinking and value system, both in the East and West. So far, the majors of symbolism such as Semiotics, Icon Anthropology have been recognized as an independent science subject with specific training contents at many major universities in the world such as Columbia, Indiana, MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Stanford, Hawaii in the US, Toronto, McGill, Western Ontario in Canada, Tartu in Estonia, Helsinki in Finland, etc.1 An outstanding feature of the symbolic scientific research is that the interdiciplinary approach has become a mandatory path.2 Therefore, this paper focuses on the theoretical interactionism focusing on three angles (1) Cultural studies, (2) Semiotics associated with Linguistics; and (3) Sociology.
    [Show full text]
  • Symbolic Interactionism Mark V
    English Technical Reports and White Papers English 2015 Symbolic Interactionism Mark V. Redmond Iowa State University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/engl_reports Part of the Interpersonal and Small Group Communication Commons Recommended Citation Redmond, Mark V., "Symbolic Interactionism" (2015). English Technical Reports and White Papers. 4. http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/engl_reports/4 This Book Chapter is brought to you for free and open access by the English at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in English Technical Reports and White Papers by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Symbolic Interactionism Communication Context Interpersonal, Small Group, Cultural. Questions It Addresses in Our Every Day Lives: 1. How our interactions with others affect our sense of self. 2. The importance of symbols/language to society. 3. Where our mind and humanness comes from. Theory in a Nutshell ● We acquire symbols from interactions with society/other people. ● Acquiring symbols allows us to develop a sense of self and a mind (we think by way of symbols). ● Societies exist because people are able to interact with each another through symbols. Visualization of Symbolic Interaction Theory Mind Symbol Self Society “Symbols include words and many objects, and almost all acts around others contain a symbolic element. Words are the most important symbols, making human thinking possible.” Joel M. Charon (2007, p. 58). Introduction and Overview Let’s start with a simple definition of what a symbol is. A symbol is a stimuli that is abstract and arbitrary to which meaning is applied.
    [Show full text]
  • Equality As a Social Construction
    1 Equality as a Social Construction The goal of this book is to conceptualize a “radical” way of studying equality in social life: an interactionist, interpretive approach. The book is not “radical” in the sense of espousing an explicit political position, but because it attempts to go to the “root” of equality, to understand how and why equality and inequality are experienced features of the world. My thesis is that equality is not an independent, objective, or self- evident characteristic but is a socially constructed phenomenon. By (1) synthesizing the theoretical perspectives of Herbert Blumer, Alfred Schutz, Harold Garfinkel, and John Dewey, (2) critically reviewing and analyzing a portion of the literature on equality, and (3) conducting a focused inquiry on the issue of equality, my book challenges conven- tional understandings of equality and attempts to demonstrate the utility of an interactionist approach to the subject. TRADITIONAL AND INTERACTIONIST APPROACHES TO STUDYING EQUALITY Generally, sociological treatment of the concept “equality” has taken four forms. First, sociologists have attempted to conceptualize and opera- tionalize equality in a clear, logical, and rational manner. Such efforts are based on the reasonable belief that the quality of their work on equality depends upon whether the concept is carefully defined and measured. Second, sociologists have attempted to determine whether (or to what degree) equality exists in a situation, and to identify those factors that 1 © 2006 State University of New York Press, Albany 2THE MEANINGS OF MARITAL EQUALITY promote or inhibit equality. The central goal here has been to discover what variables are requisite to equal or unequal states of affairs.
    [Show full text]
  • The Worker/Client Relationship: Relevant Role Theory
    The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare Volume 5 Issue 3 May Article 9 May 1978 The Worker/Client Relationship: Relevant Role Theory Carlton E. Munson University of Houston Pallassana Balgopal University of Houston Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw Part of the Social Work Commons Recommended Citation Munson, Carlton E. and Balgopal, Pallassana (1978) "The Worker/Client Relationship: Relevant Role Theory," The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare: Vol. 5 : Iss. 3 , Article 9. Available at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw/vol5/iss3/9 This Article is brought to you by the Western Michigan University School of Social Work. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE WORKER/CLIENT RELATIONSHIP: RELEVANT ROLE THEORY Carlton E. Munson, Chairperson Social Treatment Concentration and Pallassana Balgopal, Associate Professor Graduate School of Social Work University of Houston ABSTRACT The historic concept of "friendly visitor" has blurred the dis- tinction of professional and personal in worker/client relationships. Current social trends and social problems as well as recent theory applications in practice have made these distinctions harder to identify and maintain. Role theory can be used to analyze behavioral indicators of objective and subjective components of relationship. Relationship Revisited In social work no term has been used more frequently, l but less defined, 2 than relationship. Mary Richmond, in Social Diagnosis, did not deal directly with the concept and only hinted at it in arguing that the purpose of the sqcial worker is to influence and to know the client in order to serve. More recently, Halmos has described this as the worker using his "personality to find out, to understand, and to learn."" Prior to and during the period of Richmond's work, the concept "friendly visitor" was used instead of relationship.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Psychology - J
    HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND THEORETICAL APPROACHES IN SOCIOLOGY – Vol. I - Social Psychology - J. David Knottnerus SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY J. David Knottnerus Department of Sociology, Oklahoma State University, USA Keywords: Behaviorism, Cognitive consistency, Emotions, Ethnomethodology, Everyday Life, Expectation States Theory (EST), Identity, Interaction Order, Pragmatism (American), Presentation of Self, Symbolic interaction, Social dilemmas, Social exchange, Total Institution Contents 1. Introduction 2. History of Social Psychology 3. Symbolic Interaction 4. Theories of Everyday Life 5. Social Exchange Theory 6. Expectation States Theory 7. Other Research and Theoretical Approaches 8. Other Areas of Interest 9. Prospects for the 21st Century Acknowledgements Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketch Summary The historical and professional development of Sociological Social Psychology is described, with attention given to particular accomplishments from mid-century to the present. Then several of the more recent perspectives that contribute to the growth of social psychology are discussed such as symbolic interaction, social exchange theory, expectation states theory, and theories of everyday life. Additional research, theoretical approaches, and issues are also identified. Finally, prospects for the future of Social Psychology are forecast. 1. IntroductionUNESCO – EOLSS While social psychology has played a vital role in sociology during the twentieth century the natureSAMPLE of this role has changed throughCHAPTERS the years. Earlier in the century social psychology was viewed by many as a separate body of research distinct from other more accepted parts of sociology. Today, however, this field occupies a much more central role in the discipline increasingly interconnected with other areas of sociological research. In this article the nature and history of social psychology will be addressed with special attention to key developments within this area especially in recent decades.
    [Show full text]
  • The Line Between Roles As Design and Socialization in Everquest Kelly Boudreau Concordia University 1455 De Maisonneuve Blvd
    Role Theory: The Line Between Roles as Design and Socialization in EverQuest Kelly Boudreau Concordia University 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd. West Montréal, QC H3G 1M8 [email protected] ABSTRACT For a player to enter the game-world of EverQuest, they must choose a character. Each character fulfills a particular, functional role within the game that defines the game-play experience for the player. A character’s role defines the basis of identity formation within the game-space. Using sociological role theory as a point of departure, this paper will explore how class roles are designed into the game of EverQuest and how players redefine these roles through social interaction, role expectations and individualization, altering the structured roles designed into the game. Keywords EverQuest, Role Theory, Identity INTRODUCTION When this research began, it was my belief that sociological role theory would define the structural foundation found within the game but that the structure would be deconstructed through socialization and appropriation of the played role. Interestingly, this was not entirely the case. In turn, the scope of this research has been broadened to consider how the reciprocal relationship between structure and socialization affects the predetermined roles within the game of EverQuest. In the game of EverQuest, each playable class serves a functional role within the overall structure of the goal oriented play. Indeed, complimentary class combinations are necessary for successful character advancement within the game, but once individual player personality and social interaction is introduced, the definitional boundaries of these functional roles are altered. To further explore the socialization of roles within the game, we turn to Turner [3] as he defines the function of roles within an interactive group environment, stating that: Every position that continues to be recognized by the members of a group contributes in some way to the purposes of the group; this contribution represents its function.
    [Show full text]
  • Anomie: Concept, Theory, Research Promise
    Anomie: Concept, Theory, Research Promise Max Coleman Oberlin College Sociology Department Senior Honors Thesis April 2014 Table of Contents Dedication and Acknowledgements 3 Abstract 4 I. What Is Anomie? Introduction 6 Anomie in The Division of Labor 9 Anomie in Suicide 13 Debate: The Causes of Desire 23 A Sidenote on Dualism and Neuroplasticity 27 Merton vs. Durkheim 29 Critiques of Anomie Theory 33 Functionalist? 34 Totalitarian? 38 Subjective? 44 Teleological? 50 Positivist? 54 Inconsistent? 59 Methodologically Unsound? 61 Sexist? 68 Overly Biological? 71 Identical to Egoism? 73 In Conclusion 78 The Decline of Anomie Theory 79 II. Why Anomie Still Matters The Anomic Nation 90 Anomie in American History 90 Anomie in Contemporary American Society 102 Mental Health 120 Anxiety 126 Conclusions 129 Soldier Suicide 131 School Shootings 135 III. Looking Forward: The Solution to Anomie 142 Sociology as a Guiding Force 142 Gemeinschaft Within Gesellschaft 145 The Religion of Humanity 151 Final Thoughts 155 Bibliography 158 2 To those who suffer in silence from the pain they cannot reveal. Acknowledgements: I would like to thank Professor Vejlko Vujačić for his unwavering support, and for sharing with me his incomparable sociological imagination. If I succeed as a professor of sociology, it will be because of him. I am also deeply indebted to Émile Durkheim, who first exposed the anomic crisis, and without whom no one would be writing a sociology thesis. 3 Abstract: The term anomie has declined in the sociology literature. Apart from brief mentions, it has not featured in the American Sociological Review for sixteen years. Moreover, the term has narrowed and is now used almost exclusively to discuss deviance.
    [Show full text]
  • Suicidal Ideation in Police Officers
    Suicidology Online 2017; 8: 27 ISSN 2078-5488 Essay An Insight to the Sociological Explanation of Suicide: A Perspective Based Article Nasar Khan 1,, Arab Naz 2 , Waseem Khan 3 1 Lecturer in Sociology, University of Chitral, Pakistan 2 Associate Professor in Sociology, University of Malakand, Pakistan 3 Lecturer in Sociology, University of Malakand, Pakistan Submitted to SOL: July 12th, 2017; accepted: November 22nd, 2017; published: November 29th, 2017 Abstract: This article provides an insight to the sociological explanations of suicide and related behaviours. There are three pre-dominant sociological perspectives e.g. functionalism (also known as structural functionalism), conflict perspective and symbolic interactionism. Each of the mentioned perspective examines and explains society from its unique point of view. Suicide being a social phenomenon can be examined and explained through sociological perspectives. For this purpose, literature has been studied and cited where a short introduction to sociological perspectives have been given along with a brief discussion over explanation of suicide with reference to each sociological perspective. The citations and discussion reveals that each of the sociological perspectives explains suicide successfully, for instance, structural functionalism asserts that various social structures are responsible for suicide; conflict perspective asserts that inequalities and tensions leads to suicide while symbolic interactionism explains that suicide and related behaviours are the outcome of observing others, social interaction, defective socialization, imitation and labelling. Keywords: sociological, suicide, structural functionalism, conflict perspective, symbolic interactionism Copyrights belong to the Author(s). Suicidology Online (SOL) is a peer-reviewed open-access journal publishing under the Creative Commons Licence 3.0. Among the classical sociological thinkers, Emile be used to understand the problem of suicide as a Durkheim has been the first one who dealt with product of destabilized social and cultural milieu.
    [Show full text]
  • Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders
    Psychological Review Copyright 2002 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 2002, Vol. 109, No. 3, 573–598 0033-295X/02/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//0033-295X.109.3.573 Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders Alice H. Eagly Steven J. Karau Northwestern University Southern Illinois University at Carbondale A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles. Leadership has been predominantly a male prerogative in cor- advanced degrees (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000). In contrast, porate, political, military, and other sectors of society. Although statistics pertaining to major leadership roles consistently show women have gained increased access to supervisory and middle inequality: Women constitute 4% of the five highest earning management positions, they remain quite
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Introducing Social Psychology and Symbolic Interactionism
    CHAPTER Introducing Social Psychology 1 and Symbolic Interactionism What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet. hese lines—spoken from Juliet’s balcony in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet—encapsulate the great power that names have in social life. Taken at face Tvalue, the names that we use to categorize people, objects, and beliefs appear to be mere labels of convenience. Thinking more deeply, however, it is easy to see that names have profound consequences for what people can, must, or must not do. Because Juliet, a member of the Capulet family, and Romeo, a Montague, are members of feud- ing families, they are forbidden from loving one another. Juliet urges Romeo, “O be some other name,” knowing that if only Romeo were not a Montague, and she not a Capulet, they would be the same individuals but they could now marry. Juliet’s melancholic words speak to the power inherent in the names that surround us, from the traditional importance placed on “continuing the family name” to the stickiness of nicknames. This book analyzes the wide range and impact of such psychological, social, and sym- bolic influences in our everyday lives. Two distinct names—social psychology and symbolic interactionism—categorize both this book’s subject matter and our scholarly orientations. Social psychology positions this book’s content within a diverse body of research and theory that spans the disciplines of sociology and psychology. Symbolic interactionism situates the authors within a partic- ular tradition of sociological theory and research.
    [Show full text]