Chapter 1- Sociology and Social Problems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Investigating Sociology and Social Problems: My Story 1.1 Describe how working-class young adults are currently experiencing their lives. 1.2 Define what constitutes a social problem. A. Javier Treviño I took my first sociology course as a high school senior, 1.3 Explain the sociological imagination. and I knew I had found my calling. Although no one in my family had ever gone to college, I took both sociol- 1.4 Discuss how sociological research can ogy courses offered at the local community college in be used to study social problems. Laredo, Texas, one of which was about social problems. 1.5 Explain the three main sociological My appetite whetted, I transferred to a state universi- perspectives of structural ty to get a B.A. degree in sociology. After graduating functionalism, conflict theory, and completing a year of substitute teaching at my for- and symbolic interactionism. mer high school, I decided to get a master’s degree in 1.6 Evaluate how each of the three theoretical applied sociology, with an emphasis in social planning. Thinking this would be the perspectives can be applied to improve end of my academic journey, I planned to work as a probation officer, a marriage our understanding of social problems. counselor, or even a sociology teacher at a community college. But I soon realized I 1.7 Discuss the role of social policy needed to know more about theory to gain a better understanding of the nature and in managing social problems. causes of social problems. I enrolled in the Ph.D. sociology program at Boston Col- lege, concentrating on crime, deviance, and social control. I was fortunate to study 1.8 Explore the role of specialized and work with the preeminent criminologist Richard Quinney, who opened my eyes theories in sociology. to a critical approach to the problem of crime. Since then I have looked at variousdistribute 1.9 Identify ways in which service issues—crime, deviance, legal matters—theoretically. or sociology can make a difference.

What do you think? Questions About Sociology and Socialpost, Problems From the General Social Survey

1. How scientific is sociology? 3. Are people helpful or looking 5. Can people be trusted? out for themselves? Scientific Yes copy, Helpful Not scientific No Looking out for themselves 2. People need not overly Turn to the end of the worry about others.not chapter to view the results for the total Agree 4. People are treated with respect. population. Agree Disagree Do Disagree Neither agree nor disagree

SOURCE: National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 1 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. What is the social problem in the scenario above? Let’s see. SETTLING FOR LESS Due to their difficult situation, these young people experience a whole range of feelings: confusion, bitterness, regret, disappointment, betrayal, hope. In their interviews with Silva 1.1 Describe how working-class young adults about their individual life experiences, they largely blame are currently experiencing their lives. themselves for their inadequate education, unexpected lay- offs, and failed relationships. They believe they are responsible for their own fates. They feel they can’t trust social Jalen is a 24-year-old, single black man who works the institutions—any set of persons cooperating together for the baseball season as a night-time security guard at a purpose of organizing stable patterns of human activity— local stadium. He is living in the basement of his aunt such as the labor market, education, marriage, and govern- and uncle’s house. After graduating high school, with ment to help them attain a sense of dignity and well-being. no clear plans for what to do next, Jalen impulsively But let’s look at the larger picture and consider these joined the Marine Corps. After 5 years of service, young adults not on a case-by-case basis but as a genera- which included three tours of duty in Afghanistan, he tional cohort—a group of individuals of similar age within was honorably discharged. That was a year ago. Since a population who share a particular experience. Now we then, his attempts to go to college and find a stable see that in 2014, 32% of the nation’s 18- to 34-year-olds— job have been thwarted again and again. the so-called millennial generation—were living with their parents (Fry, 2016a), compared to 20% of those in the Wanting a career in firefighting, Jalen took the civil same age group in 1960. They were also delaying marriage service exam. He made the city’s hiring list and or not marrying at all. Consider that in the early 1960s the enrolled at the fire academy. However, on the second median age at first marriage was 20 for women and 22 for day of training Jalen tested positive for marijuana men. By 2016 it had increaseddistribute to almost 28 for women and and was expelled. Although he does not consider 30 for men (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017). himself “book smart,” he knows a college degree will Now, you may say that being single and living with parents is an unfortunateor or undesirable situation for get him a good job, and, because he is a veteran, the those twentysomethings who would rather be married G.I. Bill will pay for his schooling. He recently enrolled and on their own, but these circumstances are not social in a local community college, but 2 weeks into the problems. Fair enough. But let’s also look at a situation in semester, he still doesn’t have his books because he which many of the young people Silva interviewed found has not yet received his G.I. Bill benefits check, which post,themselves, and that most of us would agree generally is he needs to buy them. To make matters worse, he regarded as a social problem: unemployment (the subject owes $18,000 in credit card debt and has no way to of Chapter 10). And let’s consider unemployment on the pay it off. He is now tentatively considering going basis of demographic factors, or social characteristics of a back to the Marine Corps. population—in particular race, age, and gender. When we look at race (the subject of Chapter 3), we Jalen is one of 100 young working-class men find that in 2016, black men like Jalen had the highest and women whom sociologist Jennifer M.copy, Silva unemployment rate of any racial/ethnic group, 9.1%. interviewed for her book Coming Up Short (2013). Compare this to white men, who had a 4.4% unem- Silva found that these young people’s coming-of-age ployment rate (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017c). experiences—with education, work, relationships— As for age, we know there is plenty of discrimination have not measured up to theirnot expectations. Although against older persons in the labor market (as we will see they continue to hold tight to the American Dream of in Chapter 6), but we also know that in 2016, 8.4% of people around Jalen’s age, 20–24, were unemployed, realizing upward social mobility through hard work and well-paying jobs,Do they have achieved less than their parents were able to and feel permanently stuck Social institutions: Any set of persons, such as a family, in an extended adolescence. All the milestones that economy, government, or religion, cooperating for the had previously marked adulthood in U.S. society— purpose of organizing stable patterns of human activity. owning a home, getting married, having children, Cohort: Within a population, a group of individuals of similar finding stable employment—remain hopelessly out of age who share a particular experience. reach for these working-class young people. Demographic factors: Social characteristics of a population, in particular those of race, age, and gender.

2 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. compared to 4.2% of people 25–54 years of age (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017d). Concerning gender (the subject of Chapter 4), we know that in 2015, women LOUISA GOULIAMAKI/AFP/Getty Images working full-time received 81 cents for every dollar earned by male workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016b). But what are we to make of all these statistics? For the moment, simply this: An awful lot of U.S. adults—tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands, even millions—are in the same predicament as those young men and women, like Jalen, whom Silva interviewed. And though they may have felt alone and isolated, these young people were not the only ones experiencing such circumstances. In other words, unemployment is not only a matter of these young people’s personal troubles; it is, in fact, a collective problem. Dimitris Voutsinos, a Greek sound technician, drinks cof- Another important issue to consider briefly now, to fee at his home in Athens. Dimitris was fired from a radio station and has been working since then mainly in call which we will be paying greater attention in the rest of centers. He and his unemployed wife rely on his disabled this textbook, is that some groups of people experience mother’s pension of 750 euros. The unemployment rate in social conditions—like unemployment and its related Greece remains the highest in the European Union, standing issues of discrimination in hiring and wage earning—at at 20.6% in August 2017. higher levels than do other groups. It is for this reason that sociologists look at intersectionality, or the ways in steady jobs and maintain relatively stable lives for them- which several demographic factors combine to affect peo- selves and their families. What has happened since then ple’s experiences. In Jalen’s case, we would consider how to lead thousandsdistribute of working-class men and women in his age (young adult), race (black), gender (male), and their 20s and 30s to increasingly remain unmarried, live at social class (working class) combine to shape his life. home with their parents, have children out of wedlock or So let’s now look at the demographic factor that, in not haveor children at all, divorce, and remain unemployed addition to age, characterized all the 100 young people or stuck in low-paying jobs? We’ll address this important with whom Silva spoke: social class (discussed in more question in due course, but first we turn to the discipline depth in Chapter 2). A social class is a category of people of sociology and its examination of social problems. whose experiences in life are determined by the amount of income and wealth they own and control. Rememberpost, that the young adults Silva interviewed were from a Ask Yourself: Think of a social issue about working-class background. No doubt you have heard which you and your peers have expressed concern. and read about the various social classes that exist in U.S. How do you think this issue affects other people your society. There is no agreement, even among social scien- age but from a social class different from yours? A dif- tists, on how to distinguish among social classes, much ferent race or ethnicity? Think of the ways in which you do or do not identify with the young working-class less on how many there are. But we typically hear about adults Jennifer Silva interviewed. the upper class (think here aboutcopy, such wealthy people as Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos and Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg), the middle classes (usually referred to in the plural because there are several levels within this THE SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY middle rank), and notthe poor (sometimes called the working poor, the homeless, or the indigent). OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS The working class, which we can place between the middle classes and the poor, generally consists of people Do 1.2 who have a basic education (a high school diploma, voca- Define what constitutes a social problem. tional skills training, certification in a service occupation), modest income (earned from hourly wages), and jobs in Intersectionality: The ways in which several demographic manufacturing or the “service economy” (factory workers, factors—especially social class, race, ethnicity, and truck drivers, cooks, waiters and waitresses, nurses, police gender—combine to affect people’s experiences. officers). Thirty or so years ago, when the parents of the Social class: A category of people whose experiences in life young men and women Silva spoke with were coming of are determined by the amount of income and wealth they age, young working-class adults were better able to get own and control.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 3 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. As the study of social behavior and human society, soci- rape, robbery, aggravated assault) at 41.2%, compared ology is the field most likely to examine systematically to the Northeast region, with 14.7% (Federal Bureau of social problems such as poverty, social discrimination (on Investigation, 2015a). the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual identity, age), Patterns and trends can be visually presented in a crime, drug abuse, immigration, climate change, terror- variety of formats, including charts, tables, and graphs. ism, and more. Throughout this textbook you will see data depicted in This textbook consists of 17 chapters on various this way. Back in the 1920s and 1930s the sociologists at social problems. They were written by sociologists who the University of Chicago were interested in studying the are experts in the social problems they discuss. While incidence and prevalence of alcoholism, suicide, mental social problems may sometimes differ in their extent, and illness, and crime and delinquency in the city. Knowing while we may research and analyze them differently, we that these problems tend to be more concentrated in some define asocial problem as a social condition, event, or pat- areas than in others, they wanted to identify their distri- tern of behavior that negatively affects the well-being of bution throughout Chicago. For this they used maps. One a significantnumber of people (or a number of significant of the most common types was the spot map, on which people) who believe that the condition, event, or pattern the researchers plotted the locations where a particular needs to be changed or ameliorated. Let’s consider the social problem was present. For example, Figure 1.1 is various aspects of our definition, and some of their impli- a map in which the spots indicate the home addresses of cations, in turn. 8,591 alleged male juvenile delinquents during 1927.

Patterns and Trends The Objective and Subjective To begin with, in discussing social problems we are talk- Aspects of Social Problems ing about conditions, events, or behaviors that occur We will come back to the waydistribute sociologists use and produce locally, nationally, or globally and cause or threaten to information about social problems when they do research, cause harm to all or some segment of the population. but for now notice that in measuring the rate of crime— Consider the failure of U.S. schools to teach children or, for that matter,or of divorce, population growth, or sex basic literacy skills as a social condition that means many students (particularly poor and minority children) will not be well prepared to enter the job market, and that the United States will be less competitive in the world Table 1.1 A Ranking of Social Problems economy. Or consider a series of events like Hurricanes Rank Problem Percentage Harvey, Irma, and Maria, which, when they made landfall post, in Texas, Florida, and Puerto Rico during the summer of 1 Dissatisfaction with 23 2017, flooded hundreds of thousands of homes, caused government/Poor leadership hundreds of billions of dollars in property damage, and killed over 100 people. Finally, consider as a social prob- 2 Race relations/Racism 10 lem a pattern of behavior like the increased abuse of 3 Health care 9 prescription opioid pain relievers, ADHD copy,stimulants, and anti-anxiety drugs by young adults, which in 2014 led 4 Unifying the country 7 to more than 1,700 deaths (National Institute on Drug 5 Immigration/Illegal aliens 6 Abuse, 2017a). Because social problems affectnot large numbers of peo- In a Gallup public opinion poll conducted in November 2017, a random national sample of 1,000 adults was asked, ple, sociologists typically discuss them in terms of patterns “What do you think is the most important problem facing the and trends, and use measures of rates to describe how country today?” Above are the top five results. frequent and pervasive their occurrence is. For example, SOURCE: http://www.gallup.com/poll/1675/most-important-problem.aspx we’ve all heard aboutDo how politicians, civic leaders, religious leaders, and average citizens are concerned about the crime rates in their cities and communities. In stud- Sociology: The study of social behavior and human society. ying rates of crime, sociologists and criminologists rely Social problem: A social condition, event, or pattern on certain data sources, or collections of information, like of behavior that negatively affects the well-being of a the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports (UCR; to be discussed significant number of people (or a number of significant in Chapter 11). When we look at the UCR’s percentage people) who believe that the condition, event, or pattern of violent crime by U.S. region, we see that in 2015, needs to be changed or ameliorated. the South had the highest rate of violent crime (murder, Data sources: Collections of information.

4 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. Figure 1.1 Example of a Spot Map More complicated, however, is the subjective aspect of social problems. Here we are talking about what people define as a social problem. There is often a close link between the objective and subjective aspects of a problem. For example, people are made objectively aware (usually through official data) that the murder rate in their community has doubled over the past 5 years, and, as a con- sequence, they become subjectively concerned about their safety and that of their community. But even without a direct interaction between the objective and the subjective, people can be troubled about a particular social condition, event, or pattern of behavior. Consider that, on average, over twice as many people in the United States die from injuries sus- tained in motor vehicle crashes as die from HIV infection: In 2014, fatalities from these two causes were 32,744 and 12,333, respectively (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016c; National Traffic Safety Administration, 2015). Yet there are far more organizations and campaigns for AIDS awareness in the United States and worldwide—such as Acting on AIDS, ACT UP, the Stop AIDS Project, and the Elton John AIDS Foundation—thandistribute there are for car crashes. No doubt there are many justifiable reasons for this dispropor- tionate focus, but while objectively the problem of auto fatalitiesor causes twice as much harm to people and society, subjectively people are much more concerned about the problem of AIDS. In other words, if one troubling condition is more pervasive or more detrimental than another (and even if there’s factual information indicat- post,ing this), that doesn’t necessarily mean people will perceive the condition as more problematic. Another subjective aspect of social problems is the relativity with which people identify them. First, what is viewed as a social problem in one time and place may not be viewed as a social problem in another time and SOURCE: Originally published in Delinquency Areas, by Clifford R. Shaw, with the collaboration of Frederick M. Zorbaugh, Henry D. McKay, & Leonard S. Cottrell, place. As we will see in Chapter 6, public attitudes toward 1929. Reprinted with permission from the Universitycopy, of Chicago Press. the aged have fluctuated between positive and negative over the past 200 years. Currently, politicians and policy makers worry that the rapidly growing segment of the U.S. population aged 65 and older will strain government not programs like Social Security and Medicare; contrast this trafficking—we are able to call attention to the objective attitude with the past, when elderly people were more aspect of social problems. In other words, data allow us respected and were valued for their wisdom and insight. to show,Do concretely, how much crime is really out there. Second, relativity ensures that some segments of the Again, in looking at the UCR we can see that in 2015, population experience the social problem and others 352 murders were reported in New York City compared do not, or they experience it to a different extent. For to 333 the year before, and that there were 478 murders in Chicago in 2015, compared to 411 in 2014 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2015b). These statistics tell us two Objective aspect of social problems: Those empirical things in straightforward terms: First, Chicago—with one- conditions or facts that point to the concreteness of social third the population of New York—had 126 more murders problems “out there.” than New York, and second, the murder rate in Chicago Subjective aspect of social problems: The process by which went up from one year to the next. people define social problems.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 5 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. store thefts, and drug use. Conversely, there will be fewer laws to prohibit behaviors like profiting from cam- paign financing, insider trading, and price-fixing. According to Quinney, definitions of crime align with the interests of those segments of society with the power to shape social policy. We will discuss the relationship between social problems and social policy shortly. But first let’s consider why, once people perceive a social situation as detrimental to their well- being or that of others, they believe some sort of action must be taken to change or improve the situation.

Steve Exum/FilmMagic/Getty Images Steve Exum/FilmMagic/Getty Types of Action Demonstrators attend the Women’s March on January 21, 2017, in Washington, D.C. The march took place the day after Donald Trump’s inauguration as president of The type of action needed to bring the United States due largely to statements he had made and positions he had taken about large-scale social change is that many regarded as antiwomen or otherwise offensive. Do you think these types usually aimed at transforming the of protests are effective in bringing about social change? socialdistribute structure, the pattern of interrelated social institutions. Such action example, the pervasiveness of assault rifles in U.S. society typically includes organizing and mobilizing large num- is a social problem to advocates of stricter gun laws, but bers of people intoor social movements, which are collective not to supporters of gun ownership rights. efforts to realize social change in order to solve social The subjective element of social problems is framed problems. Think about how the Black Lives Matter move- by a theoretical approach called social constructionism, ment, the 2017 Women’s March on Washington, and the which describes the social process by which people define Occupy Wall Street movement, mainly through various a social problem into existence. Simply put, “social prob- forms of demonstration, brought attention to the issues post,of racial, gender, and income inequality, respectively. lems are what people think they are” (Spector & Kitsuse, In order to bring about greater justice and equality for 1987, p. 73). Throughout the chapters in this textbook people of color, women, and the 99%, these social move- you will find many of the authors taking a constructionist ments sought to change, among other things, immigration approach in their analyses of various social phenomena. policy, women’s rights, financial institutions, the police, Returning to our definition of a social problem, we’ve and the political system. said that a sufficient orsignificant number of people Actions meant to ameliorate (from the Latin melior, must conceptualize the condition as problematic.copy, This to improve) a problematic condition are usually aimed means enough people—a critical mass, in fact—must be at helping those in need. This means providing, in some concerned about the troubling or objectionable situation cases, the material relief necessary for physical survival to call attention to it (in the chapters to follow they are not (money, food, clothes); in most cases, however, it means generally called claims-makers). Because social problems providing nonmaterial services, such as counseling are collective in nature, large collections of people are (employment, parenting), dispute resolution (peace talks, required to define them as such. mediation), education (instruction and encouragement), Sociologists alsoDo acknowledge that, when it comes to and professional consultation (on specific troublesome deciding which conditions are problematic, some people and groups are more significant or have greater influence than others. This speaks to the issue of political power. Social constructionism: The social process by which people For example, as criminologist Richard Quinney (1970) define a social problem into existence. notes, the more the powerful segments of society—such as Social structure: The pattern of interrelated social politicians, bankers, and corporate executives—are con- institutions. cerned about crime, the greater the probability that laws Social movements: The collective efforts of people to realize will be created to prohibit such behaviors as muggings, social change in order to solve social problems.

6 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. issues). People hoping to take or support these kinds of actions typically engage in community service, civic engagement, and advocacy. Think about organized forms of volunteerism and activism like AmeriCorps, the Red Cross, Big Brothers/Big Sisters, Do Something, Save the Children, Oxfam, and the United Way.

Ask Yourself: What troubling situations do you see in your community (neighborhood, campus)? How do these fit, or not fit, the definition of social problems given above? Do they have both objective and subjective aspects? Explain. Fritz Goro / Life Pictures/GettyTime Images THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION

1.3 Explain the sociological imagination.

We now return to the question of what social structural changes have occurred during the past three decades to distribute lead millions of working-class young adults like Jalen to join the military because they can’t find jobs, to move back C. Wrightor Mills was a leading critic of U.S. society in the in with their parents, or to struggle to get through college, 1950s and made contributions to the sociological perspective known as conflict theory. Mills taught at Columbia Uni- pay back their loans, and make their monthly car pay- versity and wrote about the power arrangements in U.S. ments. Remember that these millennials—though they try society in such books as White Collar and The Power Elite. hard to achieve the American Dream of finding stable jobs, His most famous book, The Sociological Imagination, was getting married, and owning their own homes—largely published in 1959. blame themselves for having stopped “growing up.”post, They feel insecure, powerless, and isolated. They feel trapped. that allows us to go beyond our immediate environments More than half a century ago, the American sociol- (of family, neighborhood, work) and understand the major ogist C. Wright Mills (1916–1962) wrote the following structural transformations that have occurred and are lines, which could easily be describing the lives of young occurring. For working-class young men and women, some working-class men and women today: of these transformations have to do with family patterns, copy, increased inequality of income and wealth, the rise of the Nowadays men [and women] often feel that their service economy, declining social mobility, and depressed private lives are a series of traps. They sense that wages. These are some of the structural changes that have within their everyday worlds, they cannot over- occurred during the past 30 years that in many ways oper- come their troubles.not . . . Underlying this sense of ate against the working-class millennials’ attempts to cre- being trapped are seemingly impersonal changes in ate stable and predictable adult lives. the very structure of continent-wide societies. . . . The sociological imagination provides us with insight Neither the life of an individual nor the history of into the social conditions of our lives. It helps us under- a societyDo can be understood without understand- stand why we feel trapped and insecure, isolated and ing both. (Mills, 1959, p. 3; emphases added) powerless. The sociological imagination helps us make the connection between history and biography, between our own society and our private lives, and become aware Mills is saying that in order to understand our personal hardships and our own individual feelings, we must be aware of the larger forces of history and of social struc- Sociological imagination: A form of self-consciousness that ture. To gain this awareness, he proposes, we should use a allows us to go beyond our immediate environments of family, way of thinking that he calls the sociological imagination. neighborhood, and work and understand the major structural The sociological imagination is a form of self-consciousness transformations that have occurred and are occurring.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 7 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. of all individuals in similar circumstances. In short, the (GSS). One of the largest sources for social scientific sociological imagination allows us to see our personal data in the United States, the GSS includes data on social troubles as social problems. In this way we are not only trends, demographics, behaviors, opinions, and attitudes. able to confront social problems, but we are also aware of GSS data are feely available over the Internet (http:// the social problems’ origins. We come to understand that www.gss.norc.org) to policy makers, researchers, gov- what we see and feel as personal misfortunes (for exam- ernment officials, students, and the general public. Other ple, our inability to achieve the milestones of adulthood) data sources from which sociologists draw numerical are predicaments shared by many others and difficult for facts for conducting social problems research include the any one individual to solve. ones listed in Table 1.2. Often, however, sociologists need But Mills (1959, p. 150) also asserts that the “prob- to collect their own original data firsthand. In either case, lems of [our] societies are almost inevitably problems of we refer to these types of data collection as quantitative the world.” In other words, the sociological imagination research because they rely on the empirical investigation requires that we take a global perspective, comparing our of social problems through statistical analysis. own society to other societies in all the world’s regions. When it comes to the subjective aspects of social When we can understand the social problems of U.S. problems, sociologists tend to be less interested in facts society in relationship to social problems in other coun- and figures and more interested in the ways people define, tries, we are using the sociological imagination even more experience, or understand problematic situations. In broadly. You will see that, in discussing social problems, order to achieve this understanding, they engage in quali- the authors of the following chapters take a global per- tative research, much as Jennifer Silva did when she talked spective. In addition, each chapter contains a “Beyond with 100 young men and women of the working class Our Borders” box featuring discussion of the problem in to learn about their lives and feelings. When sociologists a global context. conduct studies of social problems, they can employ sev- Also be aware that the expert authors writing on eral research methods or techniquesdistribute for obtaining informa- various social problems in these chapters have all been tion. Let’s look at three of these research methods. trained in sociology. And regardless of the fact that they or specialize in one or a few social problems in their research Survey Research and writing, as sociologists they have several things in common. First, they employ the sociological imagination, For quantitative research, the method most commonly frequently from a global perspective. Second, they rely on used is the survey, a technique in which respondents are sociological research. Third, they make use of sociological asked to answer questions on a written questionnaire. A theory. questionnaire is a set of questions a researcher presents post,to respondents for their answers. Questionnaires typically ask questions that measure variables, such as attitudes Ask Yourself: Do people you know feel trapped (say, political affiliation), behaviors (religious services in their daily lives? How or why? Explain the socio- attendance), and marriage statuses. Researchers may logical imagination in your own words. Explain how a administer questionnaires in person or by telephone, or social problem in the United States affects other areas they can send them through the mail or use the Internet. of the world. copy, Because it is often impractical to survey every subject in a population of interest—for example, every homeless person in a large city—the researcher selects a sample SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH of subjects that represents that population. In this way not the researcher tries to reach conclusions about all the

1.4 Discuss how sociological research can be used toDo study social problems. Global perspective: A viewpoint from which we compare our own society to other societies around the world.

In discussing the objective aspect of social problems, we Quantitative research: Research that studies social problems through statistical analysis. noted that sociologists look at patterns and trends in regard to police brutality, poverty, the opioid epidemic, Qualitative research: Research that studies how people auto fatalities, and so on. In order to identify these pat- define, experience, or understand problematic situations. terns and trends they require numerical facts, like rates, Research methods: Techniques for obtaining information. percentages, and ratios. Sometimes these facts are avail- Survey: A research method that asks respondents to answer able in data sources such as the General Social Survey questions on a written questionnaire.

8 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. Table 1.2 Some Data Sources for Social of art, and will protest them, when they feel their life- Problems Research styles and values are being threatened. In other words, people will want to ban certain films, books, paintings, Data Source Description sculptures, clothing styles, popular music, and television programs when they have a fear or anxiety about social National Center Government agency (part for Education of the U.S. Department of change. To test this hypothesis, Tepper consulted data Statistics Education) that collects data from three national surveys that ask thousands of U.S. (http://nces on a variety of issues related to adults about their attitudes toward art, culture, and enter- .ed.gov) education, including academic tainment. He found that those most concerned about the achievement and performance, rate of immigration into the country (an issue that relates illiteracy, dropout rates, home schooling, adult learning, teacher to concerns about social change) were most likely to qualifications, and public and want to prohibit an unpopular speaker and remove an private school comparisons unpopular book from the library. And those who thought National Center Government agency (part of that “everything is changing too fast” were more likely for Health the Centers for Disease Control to favor restrictions on television programming. These Statistics and Prevention) responsible for findings from large sample populations could have been (http://www.cdc collecting data from birth and obtained only from such large-scale surveys as the ones .gov/nchs/index death records, medical records, used by Tepper. .htm) nutrition records, and interview surveys, as well as through direct physical exams and laboratory testing, in order to provide Participant Observation information to help identify and Because qualitative researchers seek to understand the address critical health problems social world fromdistribute the subject’s point of view, they fre- in the United States quently employ participant observation, a method in which The Pew Nonpartisan “fact tank” that the researcher observes and studies people in their every- Research Center provides information on social day settings.or The researcher collects data through direct (http://www issues, public opinion, and observation and in this way gains a deep understand- .pewresearch demographic trends shaping the .org) United States and the world ing of and familiarity with the workings of a particular group, community, or social event. Groups and settings U.S. Bureau of Government agency (branch of that sociologists observe include impoverished neigh- Labor Statistics the U.S. Department of Labor) borhoods, emergency rooms, homeless shelters, religious (http://www.bls responsible for collecting post, .gov) data about employment, groups, secret societies, gangs, welfare mothers, taxi driv- unemployment, pay and benefits, ers, and pregnant teens. consumer spending, work A good example of participant observation research productivity, workplace injuries is a study in which sociologist Nicole Gonzalez Van and fatalities, and employment productivity Cleve (2016) examined how the criminal courts in Cook County–Chicago dispensed racialized punishments to U.S. Census Governmentcopy, agency (a branch African American and Latino defendants before, dur- Bureau of the U.S. Department of ing, and after they were found guilty. Van Cleve spent 9 (http://www Commerce) responsible for .census.gov) conducting the decennial U.S. months working as a law clerk in order to incorporate Census; serves as a leading both participant and observer roles. During that time notsource of data about the she observed open-court interactions and private plea- American people and economy bargaining exchanges. She interacted with court officials and defendants—in attorney’s offices, courtrooms, hallways, jails, and judge’s chambers. Van Cleve learned homelessDo people in a city by studying a smaller number of how racial meanings become ingrained within the court- them. In other words, by measuring relationships between house culture despite the procedural protections available variables, survey research quantifies data and generalizes to the defendants—most of whom were people of color. findings from the sample group to some larger population. She found that the race-neutral or “colorblind” ideology Although he employs several research methods, soci- espoused by the white attorneys and judges masked the ologist Steven J. Tepper (2011) relied extensively on survey research in his study examining controversies over cultural expressions. One of Tepper’s hypotheses is that Participant observation: A research method that includes citizens are most likely to feel offended by certain forms observing and studying people in their everyday settings.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 9 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. racial divides and unequal treatment that were endemic in by audio recording. Once recorded, the responses can be the criminal courts she studied. Van Cleve could not have treated quantitatively when researchers assign numeri- revealed the culture of racialized justice that exists in the cal values to them, enter the values into a data analysis Cook County court system had she not spent long periods program, and then run various statistical commands to of time observing the everyday nature of the courthouse. identify patterns across responses. Researchers can use the patterns to make comparisons between different sam- Interviewing ple groups. Interviews can also be treated qualitatively, as guided conversations that let respondents talk at length Quantitative research has the advantages of providing pre- and in detail. In this case the researcher listens carefully cise numerical data and of generalizing research findings. and may ask follow-up questions. Once the responses Qualitative research, on the other hand, has the advan- have been recorded, the researcher can identify categories tage of providing in-depth information that describes or themes across them. This helps the researcher deter- complex phenomena in rich detail. One research method mine which issues from the interviews are significant. that may include both quantitative and qualitative ele- One study that relied heavily on interviews was done ments is interviewing, the form of data collection in which by sociologist Sharmila Rudrappa (2015). Wanting to find the researcher asks respondents a series of questions. out how the phenomenon of surrogacy—when women Interviews can be conducted face to face or on the phone, are paid to carry and deliver babies for people who can- on a number of issues (sexual harassment, texting while not conceive them biologically—was experienced and driving, cutbacks to social welfare programs), and in a transacted, Rudrappa conducted in-depth interviews with variety of settings (at home, on the street, on the Internet). women from India, who served as surrogate mothers. Researchers record the subjects’ responses in writing or These Indian women were hired to have babies mostly by white parents in the United States and Australia. She dis- covered that many of thedistribute surrogate mothers experienced a great deal of ambivalence in the process of sharing children. In the interviews, some women spoke candidly about how gratefulor they were to become surrogates, while others told about how they had to emotionally dis- tance themselves from the babies they were bearing. As she listened carefully to what these women had to say, Rudrappa realized they were giving new meanings to the post,value of babies and motherhood. Mixed Methods Because each method offers its own advantages, sociologists often combine quantitative and qualitative methods of research to achieve a fuller picture of the social copy, problems they are studying. One example is Carla Shedd’s (2015) research exploring how the views that inner-city youth have of themselves and the larger social world are shaped by their experiences as they go from home to not school and back. Shedd relied on a University of Chicago data source that documents thousands of Chicago public school students’ perceptions of social injustice, on in-depth interviews that she conducted with students in Do high schools with different racial compositions, and on her participant observation research of schools and local communities. By employing these various techniques, Shedd was able to show how these young people’s beliefs Carlos Chavez/Los Angeles Times/Getty Images Times/Getty Angeles Carlos Chavez/Los about their economic and educational opportunities are Andrea Neal, a sociology student at Pierce College, inter- determined by their race and place of residence. views Nathan Jaffe, a retired engineer. She is attempting to find out what it means to be a senior citizen in the community. What do you think are some of the merits of conducting Interviewing: A method of data collection in which the interviews in doing research? researcher asks respondents a series of questions.

10 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. Understanding Social Problems

Interview With Sociologist Joel Best

You have written many important books of collective definition. If people don’t and why? Statistics may be accurate, but that focus on understanding how and define something as a social problem, sometimes we discover that a figure is why people become concerned with then it isn’t one. little more than a guess. particular social problems. These include You have also written several books on In the conference talk that you gave as The Stupidity Epidemic: Worrying About how questionable statistics influence president of the Society for the Study of Students, Schools, and America’s Future; how we think about social problems. Social Problems, you ended by saying How Claims Spread: Cross-National These include Damned Lies and that you believe in the value of the Diffusion of Social Problems; and Images Statistics; More Damned Lies and sociological perspective. What value of Issues: Typifying Contemporary Statistics; and Stat-Spotting: A Field does sociology have for understanding Social Problems. How, in brief, do social Guide to Identifying Dubious Data. How social problems? problems emerge? can we deal with statistics and other Sociology is like a pair of glasses: data intended to influence how we think We start thinking that something is a Put them on and you’ll see the world about social problems? social problem after someone makes differently. Our common-sense a claim and other folks start to pay Social problems can be big and messy. reasoning tells us that of course the attention. Imagine a guy standing on We need statistics to understand them. world is the way it is, while everyday the sidewalk warning about invading At the same time, we need to realize distributeexplanations for people’s behavior extraterrestrials–that’s a claim, but if no statistics about social problems may tend to emphasize personality traits. one responds to it, then the alien invasion come from people who worry more about In contrast, sociology teaches us to doesn’t become a social problem. All the problem than the accuracyor of their look for the ways people affect one sorts of people can make claims: people numbers. “This is a big problem,” they another, for the patterns in social life. It who have been victimized, activists, reason, “and here’s a big number, so it encourages us to stop taking things for experts, journalists, and so on. Typically, must be about right.” This doesn’t mean granted, to question why our lives take there is a social problems process: the they’re trying to spread false numbers, the forms they do. Psychologists tend original claim attracts attention, which just that they may not be thinking to focus on the behavior of individuals, leads to media coverage that brings carefully aboutpost, the statistics they use. just as economists try to understand the topic to a wider audience, which Therefore, it is important that we think life in terms of rational choices. in turn affects public opinion, and that critically about the social problems Each of these perspectives can be leads to policy makers trying to establish statistics we hear. In particular, when illuminating when we ask some sorts some way of dealing with the troubling you encounter a statistic that seems of questions. Sociology offers another, condition. In my view, it is not the particularly alarming, it’s a good idea to distinctive perspective. I find the nature of a social condition that makescopy, take a deep breath and start asking some questions it can answer particularly something a social problem; rather, social questions. Who did the counting? What interesting, and that’s why I became a problems emerge through this process did they count? How did they count it, sociologist. SOURCE: Author interview notconducted April 7, 2017.

In eachDo of the chapters to follow you will find a “Researching” box feature that discusses a study or two THREE SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES done on a particular social problem, including information on methods and results. 1.5 Explain the three main sociological perspectives of structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Ask Yourself: Think of a social problem you would like to research. Which of the three research methods discussed above do you think is best suited for your purposes? Why? Once researchers have collected the information they need—whether through data sources, surveys, participant

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 11 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. observation, interviewing, or other research methods— levels of poverty? How does our political system prevent us they must then make sociological sense of that informa- from providing adequate health care to everyone? Why do tion. In other words, they need to manage the data in a some communities have higher rates of violent crime than way that tells them something new or different about the others? Or sociologists may want to analyze the relation- social issue under consideration. In order to do this, they ship between social problems and certain behaviors and use theory, a collection of related concepts. attitudes. In that case they might ask questions like these: Concepts are ideas sociologists have about some aspect How might sexist attitudes prevent the country from maxi- of the social world. They tend to be articulated as terms— mizing the numbers of scientists and engineers it produces? words or phrases that make up the vocabulary of sociol- Why do students in some countries have uniformly high ogy. So far in this chapter, we have used and defined several scores on math, science, and literacy exams, while in the sociological concepts, including “social institution,” United States there are large gaps in performance between “social class,” “social problem,” “social constructionism,” the highest-scoring and the lowest-scoring students? and “social structure.” Throughout this textbook you will While sociology encompasses many theories, there are meet many concepts, introduced in boldface green type. three main theories with which all sociologists, regardless These terms are defined at the bottom of the page, and the of their specialty areas, are familiar: structural functional- Glossary at the end of the book provides a comprehensive ism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Because listing of these concepts and their definitions. they are very broad theories they are sometimes called Concepts are also the building blocks of theory, and paradigms, or theoretical perspectives. Let’s get familiar in this sense a theory is an attempt to articulate the rela- with each of these in turn before we look at how policy tionship between concepts. Sociologists, for example, may makers can apply them to addressing social problems. want to examine the connection between certain types of social structure and certain types of social problems. Thus, Structural Functionalism they may pose such questions as the following: Does the distribute kind of economic institution we have contribute to high Structural functionalism (or functionalism) is the sociological theory that considers how various social phenomena function, or workor in a positive way, to maintain unity and order in society. The theory of structural functionalism dates back to the beginnings of sociology, and some of its ideas can be traced to several 19th-century sociologists, including Herbert Spencer. Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) viewed society as an post,organism, which is to say as an integrated system made up of different social institutions, all working together to keep it going. Just as the human body (a biological organism) has many organs (the heart, brain, liver, kidneys, and so on), all of which are necessary for its survival, so too does society need the various institutions of the copy, economy, the government, the family, religion, and so on to keep it orderly and cohesive. Each institution works in different ways to benefit society. For example, some of the functions—that is, positive consequences—of the fam- not ily are that it provides an expedient way for humans to

Theory: A collection of related concepts. Do Concepts: Ideas that sociologists have about some aspect of the social world.

The Granger Collection Paradigms: Theoretical perspectives. Talcott Parsons was the leading American sociological Structural functionalism (or functionalism): The sociological theorist during the middle decades of the 20th century and theory that considers how various social phenomena did much to advance the theoretical perspective known as function, or work in a positive way, to maintain unity and structural functionalism. Parsons, who taught at Harvard order in society. University, was most interested in knowing what contributes to order in society. His books include The Social System and Functions: Positive consequences of social structures or Toward a General Theory of Action. social institutions.

12 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. reproduce themselves biologically; it provides emotional support to family members; and it teaches, or socializes, children in the rules of society. Some of the functions of religion are that it gives answers to the larger questions of existence (What existed before the Big Bang? What happens after death?); it presents us with ideas about what is right and wrong; and it brings members of a particular religious group closer together in their shared beliefs. In short, social institutions have functions for society. Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) was the most famous theorist of structural functionalism. His theory of the functions of social systems is very complex, but here we are concerned only with what he called “the problem of order.” Simply put, Parsons believed that for society as a social system to keep functioning smoothly, it needs to maintain social order. And because the social institutions already provide functions for society, social order is common. However, sometimes strains and tensions threaten to disrupt social integration and stability. Think of wars, revolutions, political polarization, racial tensions, and terrorist attacks. Parsons believed that one way societies can prevent such The Granger Collection disruptions is by encouraging people to conform to society’s expectations. This is best achieved by having them abide by distribute the same shared norms, or rules, and values, or beliefs. Thus, for Parsons, consensus produces social order. Sociologist Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) agreed or that social institutions and social structures can have Karl Marx was a 19th-century revolutionary and critic of functions. But he saw that they can also have dysfunctions, the economic institution known as capitalism. He believed or negative consequences. Consider how the family can that capitalist societies like England and the United States would eventually become communist societies. His best- be a refuge from the larger world, where family members known work, which he coauthored with Friedrich Engels, is can get nurturance, love, and acceptance in ways thatpost, are The Communist Manifesto, first published in 1848. not available to them in other institutional settings. But also consider how the family can be the setting where Karl Marx (1818–1883) was first and foremost engaged domestic violence, contentious divorce, and the sexual in critiquing capitalism, the economic system that includes and emotional abuse of children may occur. the ownership of private property, the making of finan- Merton would have us examine both the functions cial profit, and the hiring of workers. Marx saw two main and the dysfunctions of social phenomena, and he would antagonistic social classes in capitalist society. The first, also have us ask about our socialcopy, structures, “Functional the capitalists (or bourgeoisie), make up the economically for whom?” In other words, we must be aware that dominant class that privately owns and controls human while a social phenomenon like income inequality in the social structure of U.S. society is dysfunctional for one group (the poor), itnot may be quite functional for another Norms: Social rules. (the wealthy). This may be one reason why the rich, as Values: Social beliefs. stakeholders in the economic institution, may not define income inequality as a social problem or may not want to Dysfunctions: Negative consequences of social structures or Do social institutions. change the social structure that creates it. Conflict theory: The sociological theory that focuses on dissent, coercion, and antagonism in society. Conflict Theory Capitalism: An economic system that includes the ownership Conflict theory is the sociological theory that focuses on of private property, the making of financial profit, and the dissent, coercion, and antagonism in society. In this sense hiring of workers. we may see conflict theory as the opposite of structural Capitalists: The economically dominant class that privately functionalism. It too has its roots in the 19th century, par- owns and controls human labor, raw materials, land, tools, ticularly in the ideas of Karl Marx. machinery, technologies, and factories.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 13 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. labor, raw materials, land, tools, machinery, technologies, Power relationships lead to the tensions between interest and factories. The second social class consists of the work- groups (also called advocacy groups, or lobbying groups). ers (or proletariat), who own no property and must work Thus, for Dahrendorf, social conflict in relationship to for the capitalists in order to support themselves and their social problems occurs among interest groups—such as families financially. In their effort to maximize their profits, Americans for Prosperity, Heritage Action for America, capitalists exploit workers by not paying them the full value the Southern Poverty Law Center, and People for the of their work. Because their labor is bought and sold by American Way—some of which are politically progressive the capitalists who hire and fire them, workers are treated while others are politically conservative. as machines, not as human beings. Many sociologists have Those groups with sufficient political power use it, been influenced by Marx’s conflict theory and examine the usually by influencing legislation, to protect their inter- frictions that exist between the powerful social classes (the ests. Consider the politically powerful interest groups on rich, the 1%, the wealthy) and the powerless social classes opposite sides of the issue of gun control, such as those (the working class, the 99%, the poor), and that give rise to that support required background checks for all gun a variety of social problems related to the unequal distribu- purchases (Everytown for Gun Safety) and those that tion of wealth. oppose such checks (National Rifle Association). Or con- Ralf Dahrendorf departed from Marx’s focus on the sider interest groups that favor abortion rights (Planned conflict between social classes and looked instead to the Parenthood and the National Organization for Women) conflict between interest groups, organized associations of and those that do not (Americans United for Life and the people mobilized into action because of their member- National Right to Life Committee). ship in those associations. For Dahrendorf (1959), social In short, conflict theory looks at how one group or inequalities have their basis not only in economic differ- social class tries to dominate another in situations it per- ences but also in political power. Simply put, those with ceives as threatening to its interests and well-being. In this power give orders and those without power take orders. sense, what one group considersdistribute to be a social problem (say, the sale of assaultor rifles), another group may not. Symbolic Interactionism As mentioned above, in the discussion of the subjective element of social problems, the social constructionist approach says that certain social conditions, events, or patterns of behavior are social problems because people post,define them as such. The third major sociological theory, symbolic interactionism, also takes a definitional approach to understanding social problems, but rather than looking at the social structure it tends to focus on social interaction, or the communication that occurs between two or more people. Symbolic interactionism is the sociological perspective copy, that sees society as the product of symbols (words, gestures, objects) that are given meaning by people in their interactions with each other. Symbolic interactionism has its ori- not gins in the ideas of George Herbert Mead. Workers: Those who own no property and must work for the capitalists in order to support themselves and their families Do financially. Interest groups: Organized associations of people mobilized into action because of their membership in those associations. The Granger Collection Social interaction: The communication that occurs between George Herbert Mead, who taught at the University of two or more people. Chicago in the early 20th century, was one of the first schol- ars to take seriously the study of the social self. His most Symbolic interactionism: The sociological perspective that famous book, which was published by his students after he sees society as the product of symbols (words, gestures, died, is Mind, Self, and Society. This book is regarded by objects) given meaning by people in their interactions with many as the “bible” of symbolic interactionism. each other.

14 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) was interested in her hand to ask questions like the other students, and does not understanding the relationship between mind, self, and interact with playmates on the playground. After a while the society (Mead, 1934). For Mead, mind refers to the internal teacher—and other teachers and students—may label Marisol conversations we have within ourselves. In other words, we as shy, introverted, a slow learner, asocial, and so on. Now, continuously think about ourselves and about what is going Marisol is actually none of these things, but she eventually on around us, and all this requires the use of language. starts to see herself that way and then becomes timid and Language is nothing more than a system of symbols (objects unsure of herself. A couple of years later, Marisol is placed in a that represent something else) that we interpret. For exam- classroom for slow learners with interpersonal issues. ple, you are reading the words on this page because you have learned to interpret the symbols (the written words) of the English language. But unless you can read Russian, Ask Yourself: Think of a social problem you the following words are not meaningful to you: Эти слова would like to research. Which of the three theoreti- для вас не имеют никакого значения. In the same way you cal perspectives discussed above do you think is best learned to read words, you learned to read or “define” a suited for your purposes? Why? clock (symbolic of time), a map (symbolic of a particular physical place), a smile (symbolic of an emotion), and so on. Just as important as our ability to define symbols is our ability to define ourself. The social self is a process APPLYING THE THREE THEORIES by which we are able to see ourselves in relationship to others. We are not born with a social self, which is why TO SOCIAL PROBLEMS newborns do not have a sense of who they are. They have no self-consciousness. We can acquire the social self only 1.6 after we have learned to consider who we are in relation- Evaluatedistribute how each of the three theoretical ship to the attitudes and expectations of others, of society. perspectives can be applied to improve Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) went further and our understanding of social problems. proposed the concept of the looking-glass self, or the idea or that we see ourselves as we think others see us (Cooley, Let us now consider how we can apply each of the three 1902a). For example, if our friends, family, and teachers main theoretical perspectives in sociology to gain a better continually tell us we are clever, then we are likely to see understanding of social problems. ourselves as clever. If, on the other hand, teachers, police, and judges define, or “label,” us as delinquent, we are likely to take on the identity of delinquent. post,Structural Functionalism and Suicide In addition to defining symbols (words, gestures, To illustrate how functionalism has been applied to objects) and our social self (who we are), we define social the real world, we turn to the French sociologist Émile situations. Long ago, sociologist W. I. Thomas noted that Durkheim (1858–1917) and his classic study on the social if people define a social situation as real, it will be real in problem of suicide. Durkheim understood that all soci- its consequences (Thomas & Thomas, 1928). This means, eties, in order to continue as they are, need two things. for example, that if you and other students define what is The first, social integration, describes a certain degree of going on in the classroom as a lecture,copy, you will then listen unity. In order words, people need to come together and closely to the speaker and take lecture notes. But if you stay together. The opposite of social integration is social define it as a funeral or a religious revival (admittedly disintegration, which leads to the collapse of society. The harder to do), then it is that situation instead, and you will act appropriately.not And if you define it as a party, then the consequences are that you stop taking notes and stop Mind: The internal conversations we have within ourselves. raising your hand to ask questions and instead mingle, Symbols: Words, gestures, and objects to which people give talk to your friends, and have a good time. meaning. As anDo extension of these ideas we may also propose a con- Social self: A process by which people are able to see cept originated by Merton: the self-fulfilling prophecy, or the themselves in relationship to others. social process whereby a false definition of a situation brings about behavior that makes the false definition “come true.” Looking-glass self: The idea that we see ourselves as we think others see us. Let’s combine and apply the self-fulfilling prophecy and the looking-glass self. Imagine a 5-year-old child, Marisol, who is Self-fulfilling prophecy: The social process whereby a false a recent immigrant from Mexico and speaks only Spanish. Her definition of a situation brings about behavior that makes the parents enroll her in an English-only school, and her teacher false definition “come true.” notices that Marisol does not say much in class, does not raise Social integration: The unity or cohesiveness of society.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 15 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. second necessary condition, social regulation, means that When a group has too much social integration, when to maintain social order, societies need to have a certain it is overly cohesive, conditions lead to altruistic suicide. degree of control over the behavior of their members. Here, group members sacrifice their lives for the group. This is typically achieved by having people follow social For example, although many complex reasons motivate norms. The opposite of social regulation is social disor- suicide bombers, suicide bombing is a type of altruistic der, which may lead to what Durkheim called anomie, or suicide because it requires that the bombers place less a state of normlessness. Both social integration and social value on their own lives than on the group’s honor, reli- regulation are functional for society, but they can become gion, or some other collective interest (Hassan, 2011). dysfunctional and lead to social problems when there is By contrast, when a society has too little social integra- too much or too little of them. tion, when its social bonds are weak, egoistic suicide may Turning to the differences in suicide rates among var- result. In this case, persons in certain populations kill ious groups, Durkheim (1979/1897) found, for example, themselves due to extreme isolation. For example, several that suicide rates are higher among men than among studies indicate that while a number of risk factors cause women, higher for those who are single than for those older adults to commit suicide, one of the leading ones is who are married, and higher among Protestants than social disconnectedness, which stems from living alone, among Catholics or Jews. He explained these and other losing a spouse, experiencing loneliness, or having low group differences by looking at the degree of social inte- social support (Van Orden & Conwell, 2011). gration and social regulation and identified four types of Too much social regulation, or excessive social con- social suicide. trol over people’s behavior, can cause fatalistic suicide. Members of certain groups end their lives because they see no escape from their oppressive situation. For example, among women in Iranian society, fatalistic is the dominant type of suicidedistribute due to a traditional male- dominated social structure that, among other things, forces women into marriage at an early age and prohibits divorce, even in theor case of domestic violence (Aliverdinia & Pridemore, 2009). On the other hand, too little social regulation, which leads to the absence of norms, causes an increase in anomic suicide. This means that people kill themselves because they lack rules to give them social post,direction for meeting their needs. For example, a long- term causal relationship exists between the unemployment rate and men’s suicide rate. One study explains that when men lose their jobs, society’s regulating influence on their need to work is disrupted, causing an increase in their suicides (Riley, 2010). In sum, Durkheim demonstrates how an unbalanced copy, degree of social integration and social regulation can be dysfunctional for society, thus resulting in high rates of not suicide. Social regulation: The control society has over the behavior of its members. Do Anomie: A state of normlessness in society. Altruistic suicide: Suicide that occurs as a result of too much social integration.

Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo Ltd/Alamy Stock Pictorial Press Egoistic suicide: Suicide that occurs as a result of too little social integration. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim is regarded as one of the early founders of sociology. Working in the late Fatalistic suicide: Suicide that occurs as a result of too much 19th and early 20th centuries, he made many contributions social regulation. to the topics of social solidarity, suicide, and religion. His most famous books include The Division of Labor in Society, Anomic suicide: Suicide that occurs as a result of too little Suicide, and The Rules of Sociological Method. social regulation.

16 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. Conflict Theory and Alcohol Consumption The use of conflict theory is demonstrated by Joseph R. Gusfield’s (1986) examination of how a particular group— rural, middle-class evangelical Protestants—tried to pre- serve its own culture, or style of life, in U.S. society during the 19th and early 20th centuries. This cultural group, which Gusfield calls “the Dry forces,” were reformers who wanted to correct what they saw as a major social problem: the drinking habits of ethnic immigrants. The ethnic immigrants who threatened the moral way of life of the Dry forces, and who therefore needed to be reformed and controlled, were mainly urban, lower-class Irish and Italian Catholics and German Lutherans whose cultures did not prohibit the consumption of alcohol. These ethnic groups were also generally ranked at the bottom of the U.S. social ullstein bild/Granger, NYC—All rights reserved. and economic ladder and thus had limited political power. In order to retain the dominance of their way of life, the middle-class Protestants attempted to reform the ethnic drinkers. They did this, first, by trying to persuade them to stop their “immoral” drinking voluntarily and by inviting them to membership in the middle class. distribute However, by the last quarter of the 19th century, as the United States was becoming more urban, secular, and Catholic, the Dry forces changed their tactics, substituting or for persuasion a method that was more hostile and antagonistic: They tried to coerce reform through legislation. This coercive strategy culminated in a national policy Inspired by Marx’s writings, Vladimir Lenin became the of prohibition in 1919, when Congress ratified the 18th chief architect of the first successful socialist revolution, the Russian Revolution of 1917. In this painting he is shown Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibitedpost, delivering a speech to workers on May Day, 1920. Now that the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating the Soviet Union has collapsed and communism is waning, liquors. This application of conflict theory clearly shows do you think that Marx’s ideas are still relevant today? that the interest group with the most political power can prohibit behaviors it considers problematic. mainstream, outsiders saw the neighborhood as disordered, and community routine activities appeared to them as Symbolic Interactionism senseless and chaotic. For the residents, however, it was the and Precarious Living copy, opposite. The interaction order allowed them to accurately interpret and appropriately respond to the social situations Waverly Duck (2015) takes a symbolic interactionist per- in which they daily found themselves. It helped them to spective to explain how the residents of a poor African define what was meant by a particular gaze, a way of walk- American neighborhood where drug dealing was prevalent not ing, or a way of dressing. It made it possible for residents were able to survive their precarious existence. He found to move safely through their community’s organized drug that they lacked decent jobs and schools, were likely to get trade, to educate themselves and their children, and to make in trouble with the criminal justice system, had little public money. Indeed, it gave everyone—law-abiding citizens and assistance,Do and so on. Duck also found that the young black drug dealers—a sense of order, predictability, and solidarity. male residents who sold cocaine to white suburbanites were The interaction order provided residents with a shared well integrated into the community. Duck’s most important understanding of reciprocity and respect. For example, finding, however, was that the community possessed an it ensured that no one broke into the homes of elderly interaction order. This was a lifestyle that shaped residents’ everyday interactions with each other in order to help them cope with their poverty and racial isolation. Culture: A style of life. Because this interaction order involved personal inter- Interaction order: A culture that shapes everyday social actions that differed sharply with those of the American interactions.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 17 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. people or mugged them on the street. In taking a symbolic interactionist approach, Waverly Duck shows how neigh- SPECIALIZED THEORIES borhood residents navigated challenges by defining their everyday interactions as involving relationships of trust, 1.8 Explore the role of specialized mutual understanding, and cohesiveness. theories in sociology.

Ask Yourself: Think of three different social prob- Structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic lems. What are the strengths of each of the theoretical interactionism are the three most general theoretical perspectives in helping you to understand each of the frameworks in sociology. But given that the study of soci- social problems? What are the weaknesses? ety and social behavior is a complicated business, and that there is a wide variety of social problems to consider, sociologists have constructed specialized theories to deal with SOCIAL POLICY this complexity and variety. Specialized concepts and theories examine narrower features of society (say, the institution of the economy) or specific social problems (the rising 1.7 Discuss the role of social policy in rates of unemployment). There are many such specialized managing social problems. concepts and theories within sociology—hundreds, in fact. We will not examine them all in this book, however. All the chapter authors have expertise in particular We’ve noted above that one possible way to deal with per- areas of social problems research, and they employ spe- vasive social problems like poverty is to change the social cialized concepts and theories intended to address their structure radically. However, short of a social revolution—a concerns. You will see thatdistribute some of these concepts and total and complete transformation in the social structure theories are interrelated across chapters, whereas others of society (such as the French Revolution of 1789, the are more narrowly focused. In either event, the idea is to Russian Revolution of 1917, the Chinese Revolution of go beyond—deeperor and further—what the three theoreti- 1948)—most social change is achieved piecemeal, and cal perspectives can offer. frequently reforms are begun through social policy, a more or less clearly articulated and usually written set of strategies for addressing a social problem. Ask Yourself: Think of a social problem you Governmental implementation of social policy takes the would like to research. In what ways are the three form of legislation that makes some condition or pattern post,sociological theories discussed above too broad to of behavior legal or illegal. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, provide a specific understanding of that social prob- a piece of legislation passed by Congress and signed by lem? Imagine some characteristics of a specialized President Lyndon B. Johnson, made racial segregation in theory that might give you less breadth but more depth public accommodations illegal in the United States. Another on the issue. What types of questions about your type of social policy consists of an organization’s guidelines research area would it help you answer? about what ought to happen or not happencopy, between members in regard to a particular issue, such as sexual harassment, bullying, smoking, infection control, and conflicts of interest. These guidelines are usually disseminated through SERVICE SOCIOLOGY handbooks, manuals, and officialnot websites. Although social policy has many goals, our concern AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS here is with its role in managing social problems. Each chapter includes a section proposing policy recommen- 1.9 Identify ways in which service dations for social Dochange that arise from the three main theoretical perspectives. sociology can make a difference.

Social revolution: A total and complete transformation in the Think of some policies (rules Ask Yourself: social structure of society. and regulations) of a workplace where you have been employed. Do you think these policies may have pre- Social policy: A more or less clearly articulated and usually vented unacceptable or harmful behaviors in that written set of strategies for addressing a social problem. workplace? How? Legislation: Enacted laws that make some condition or pattern of behavior legal or illegal.

18 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. This is a textbook about social problems, which means we will be dealing with many issues that are troubling, harmful, or just plain distressing. It is understandable that you may feel “it’s all bad news,” that something needs to be done, that things need to change. But how? If sociology is the discipline that studies social problems, you may want to know what solutions it has to offer. Indeed, you may be interested in finding out whatyou can do to make a difference. Concerns about the problems of urban life and ways to alleviate them go back to the early days of U.S. sociology, at the beginning of the 20th century. As sociology became a more popular subject of study in colleges

and universities around the country, it took two basic George Rinhart/Corbis Historical/Getty Images forms: the study of sociological theory and the practice of ameliorative reform and service. At that time, most people thought of sociology as a form of philanthropy (Ward, 1902), and courses with titles such as Methods of Social Amelioration, Charities and Corrections, and Preventive Philanthropy were common (Breslau, 2007). Undergraduate sociology programs were even more focused on training in charity and social service work. After its founding in 1892, the University of Chicago established the first full-fledged department of sociology distribute in the country. At least initially, sociologists there were diligently engaged with applied social reform and philan- In 1889, Jane Addams cofounded Hull House, a settlement thropy (Calhoun, 2007). Indeed, the founder of the depart- houseor in a poor neighborhood in Chicago. Hull House provided a wide variety of community services for poor immi- ment, Albion W. Small (1903, p. 477), pointed out that grants, especially women and children. Addams received the sociology “is good for nothing unless it can enrich average Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of her work in 1931. life; our primary task is to work out correct statements of social problems and valid methods of solving them.” Along with the development of sociology at Chicago,post, Treviño, 2018). Motivated by care and compassion, ser- between 1885 and 1930 a unique, active, and engaged vice sociology is concerned with helping people meet sociology was being implemented in many of the settle- their pressing social needs. Its practitioners believe the ment houses—neighborhood centers providing services to personal needs of one individual are not so different from poor immigrants—that had been founded in major cities the collective needs of others in similar life circumstances. throughout the United States. Settlement sociologists con- This belief is the reason why service sociology treats indi- sidered the settlement an experimental effort in the solution viduals as people in community with each other. Its main of the social problems of the moderncopy, city. Jane Addams goal is to help people by meeting their essential needs and (1860–1935), who in 1889 cofounded the most famous of concerns through service, including community coun- the settlement houses, Hull House, in one Chicago’s poorest seling, coaching, mentoring, tutoring, conflict resolu- neighborhoods, was among them. Addams, and others like tion, community gardening, friendly visiting, community her, sought to compilenot empirical data on various social prob- cleanup, block activities, giving circles, crime prevention, lems by gathering detailed descriptions of the conditions of community organizing, advocacy, voter registration, par- groups living in poverty. In addition, Hull House provided ticipatory action research, service learning, and mediation. a wide Dovariety of community services, including securing Today, more than ever, we need service sociology, and support for deserted women, conducting a kindergarten and student involvement in it. Consider that, during the Barack day nursery, implementing various enterprises for neighbor- Obama presidency, there had been a renewed interest in hood improvement, and establishing a relief station. volunteering and social service—a so-called compassion A new type of sociology, devoted to the practical amelioration of social problems and with the early U.S. sociology of relief and reform as its heritage, has emerged. Settlement houses: Neighborhood centers that provide Service sociology is a socially responsible and mission- services to poor immigrants. oriented sociology of action and alleviation (Treviño, Service sociology: A socially responsible and mission- 2011, 2012, 2013; Treviño & McCormack, 2014; oriented sociology of action and alleviation.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 19 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. boom—particularly among the millennial generation. about 80,000 people in intensive public service work, and Today, about one-quarter of all U.S. adults take part in Senior Corps, with about 400,000 volunteers over the some form of community service, with more than 62 mil- age of 55 who provide aid to senior citizens. This service lion volunteers serving. In 2015, these volunteers dedicated work is being done by many ordinary people who are nearly 8 billion hours to volunteer service, and the economic picking up the slack for a city, a state, a nation unwilling value of this service was about $184 billion (Corporation or unable to attend to many critical matters that directly for National and Community Service, 2017a). Across the affect thousands, even millions, of people (Coles, 1993). country, millions of volunteers are engaged in a range of On his travels through the United States during the early critical areas, including tutoring and teaching; participating 19th century, the French sociologist Alexis de Tocqueville in fund-raising activities or selling items to raise money for famously remarked on the American spirit of voluntary charitable or religious organizations; collecting, preparing, cooperation. In Democracy in America, Tocqueville (1899) distributing, or serving food; and contributing general labor observed that Americans, “if they do not proffer services (Corporation for National and Community Service, 2017a). eagerly, yet they do not refuse to render them” (p. 185). What is more, no less than 25.7% of college students Proffering helpful services to others in the context of civil volunteered in 2015, and about 3 million of them ded- society has been a core American value since the beginning icated more than 286 million hours of service to com- of the republic. That value is practiced today as a culture munities across the country, primarily in activities like of service—including various forms of civic engagement, youth mentoring, fund-raising, and teaching and tutor- community service, and volunteerism—that allows citi- ing (Corporation for National and Community Service, zens to work together to ease or mitigate the predicaments 2017b). In addition to community service, many citizens and uncertainties created by poverty, hunger, racism, sex- across the country are engaged civically. Indeed, in 2013, ism, epidemics, calamities, and so on. It is in this culture 36% of U.S. adults participated in groups or organiza- of service, with its numerous pressing needs and concerns, tions, and nearly 63% engaged in “informal volunteer- that we can consider the emergencedistribute of a sociology of social ing” such as doing favors for neighbors (Corporation for problems based on service. At the ends of the chapters to National and Community Service, 2017a). follow, the authors suggest ways in which you can get per- There are also high-profile national service initiatives, sonally engaged inor helping to alleviate social problems. such as the annual Martin Luther King Jr. National Day of Service and the 9/11 National Day of Service and Culture of service: A style of life that includes various forms Remembrance. In addition, Americans participate in civil of civic engagement, community service, and volunteerism society programs such as AmeriCorps, which engages post,intended to help alleviate social problems. What Does America Think? Questions About Sociology copy,and Social Problems From the General Social Survey*

Turn to the beginning of the chapter to compare 3. Are people helpful or looking out for themselves? your answers to those of the total population. Helpful: 50.6% not Looking out for themselves: 49.4% 1. How scientific is sociology? Scientific: 55.4% 4. People are treated with respect. Not scientific:Do 44.6% Agree: 90.8% Disagree: 9.2% 2. People need not overly worry about others. 5. Can people be trusted? Agree: 31.6% Yes: 33.4% Disagree: 44.4% No: 66.6% Neither agree nor disagree: 24%

*Since 1972, the General Social Survey (GSS) has been monitoring the characteristics, behaviors, and attitudes of Americans on an annual basis. Along with data collected in the U.S. Census, GSS data play a vital role in helping researchers, journalists, policy makers, and educators understand our complex society.

20 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. CHAPTER SUMMARY

1.1 Describe how working-class young adults 1.5 Explain the three main sociological are currently experiencing their lives. perspectives of structural functionalism, conflict theory, When we look at young adults as a generational cohort and symbolic interactionism. and consider demographic factors, we get a larger picture of their life situation. Many people’s personal trou- Functionalism is the sociological theory that consid- bles are, in fact, also collective problems. Because some ers how various social phenomena function, or work in groups of people experience social conditions differently a positive way, to maintain unity and order in society. than other groups, sociologists examine the intersection- Conflict theory is the sociological theory that focuses on ality of several demographic factors. dissent, coercion, and antagonism among groups in society. Symbolic interactionism sees society as the product of 1.2 Define what constitutes a social problem. symbols (words, gestures, objects) that are given meaning by people in their interactions with each other.

The objective aspect of social problems relies on statistical data and other empirical facts to identify patterns, 1.6 Evaluate how each of the three theoretical trends, and rates of occurrence. The subjective aspect of perspectives can be applied to improve social problems considers how people define a certain our understanding of social problems. condition, event, or pattern of behavior as a social prob- distribute lem. Social constructionism states that social problems are social problems for no other reason than that people Durkheim’s functionalism demonstrates how the degree say they are. The type of action needed to bring about of socialor integration and social regulation can result in large-scale social change is usually aimed at transforming high rates of suicide. Conflict theory shows how the inter- the social structure. The type of action needed to amelio- est group that has the most political power can prohibit rate a problematic condition is usually aimed at helping behaviors it considers to be problematic. The symbolic people in need. interactionist perspective can help us explain how people post,with clinical depression make sense of their identity and illness. 1.3 Explain the sociological imagination.

1.7 The sociological imagination allows us to see personal Discuss the role of social policy troubles as social problems. When we take a global per- in managing social problems. spective, we compare our own society to other societies in all the world’s regions. In thiscopy, way we understand the Most social change happens piecemeal, and frequently social problems of U.S. society in relationship to social the transformations are begun through social policy. problems in other countries. Governmental implementation of social policy takes the not form of legislation. Other forms are the delivery of ser- 1.4 Discuss how sociological research can vices, the regulation of certain practices (such as drug be used to study social problems. Do use), and the establishment of welfare programs. Quantitative research investigates social problems 1.8 Explore the role of specialized through statistical analysis. Qualitative research explains theories in sociology. how people define, experience, or understand problematic situations. Three common research methods are survey, participant observation, and interviewing. Using multiple Specialized concepts and theories examine particular methods gives sociologists a fuller picture of the social aspects of society or specific social problems. They go problems they are studying. beyond what the three theoretical perspectives can offer.

Chapter 1: Sociology and Social Problems 21 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. of service—including various forms of civic engagement, 1.9 Identify ways in which service community service, and volunteerism—allows citizens, sociology can make a difference. including students, to work together to alleviate social problems.

Service sociology is a socially responsible and mission- oriented sociology of action and alleviation. A culture

KEY TERMS altruistic suicide 16 fatalistic suicide 16 qualitative research 8 social regulation 16

anomic suicide 16 functions 12 quantitative research 8 social revolution 18

anomie 16 global perspective 8 research methods 8 social self 15 social structure 6 capitalism 13 interaction order 17 self-fulfilling prophecy 15 sociological imagination 7 capitalists 13 interest groups 14 service sociology 19 sociology 4 cohort 2 intersectionality 3 settlement houses 19 structural functionalism interviewing 10 concepts 12 social class 3 distribute(or functionalism) 12 legislation 18 conflict theory 13 social constructionism 6 subjective aspect of looking-glass self 15 or social problems 5 culture 17 social institutions 2 mind 15 survey 8 culture of service 20 social integration 15 norms 13 symbolic interactionism 14 data sources 4 social interaction 14 symbols 15 objective aspect of social demographic factors 2 problems 5 post,social movements 6 theory 12

dysfunctions 13 paradigms 12 social policy 18 values 13

egoistic suicide 16 participant observation 9 social problem 4 workers 14 copy, not Want a better grade? Get the tools you need to sharpen your study skills. Access practice quizzes, eFlashcards, video, and multimedia at http://edge.sagepub.com/trevino2e Do

22 Part I: The Sociological Study of Social Problems Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. distribute or

post,

copy, not Do