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Ecology of Mangroves

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Ecology of Mangroves Australian Ecology Series ECOLOGY General Editor: Harold Heatwole Other titles in this series Reptile Ecology, by Harold Heatwole OF MANGROVES Insect Ecology, by E.G. Matthews and R.L. Kitching Ecology of Marine Parasites, by Klaus Rohde Seastiore Ecology, by Thomas Carefoot and Rodney Simpson Ecology of Reptiles, by Harold Heatwole and Janet Taylor Patricia Hatchings Peter Saenger University of Queensland Press ST LUCIA • LONDON • NEW YORK First published 1987 by University of Queensland Press Box 42, Sl Lucia, Queensland, Australia Contents © P. Hatchings and P. Saenger 1987 This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for ihe purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as List of Figures ix permitted under the Copyright Act, no pan may be reproduced List of Plates xiii by any process without written permission. Enquiries should List of Tables xv be made to the publisher. Foreword xix Preface xxi Typeset by University of Queensland Press Printed in Australia by The Book Printer, Melbourne Inlroduction 1 Distributed in the UK and Europe by University of Queensland Press 1 Mangrove Biogeography 6 Dunhams Lane, Letchworth, Hens. SG6 ILF England 2 Adaptations of Mangroves 14 Coping with High Salt Concentrations 14 Distributed in the USA and Canada by University of Queensland Press 250 Commercial Street, Manchester, NH 03)01 USA Salt Secretion 15 Salt Exclusion 17 Salt Accumulation 18 Conserving Desalinated Water 20 Cataloguing in Publication Data Xeromorphic Features 20 Mai ional Library of Australia Transpiration 24 Hutchings, Patricia, 1946— . Root Specializations 25 Ecology of mangroves. Responses to Light 31 Bibhography. Light and Form 31 Includes index. Photosynthesis 32 I. Mangrove swamp ecology. 2. Mangrove swamps — Light and Other Physical Factors 33 Australia. 1. Saenger, Peter, 1943- . II. Title. Living with Wind, Waves and Frosts 34 (Series: Australian ecology series). Reproductive Adaptations 36 574.5-26325 Flowering and Pollination 36 Propagule Production 38 British Library (data available) Vivipary and Cryptovivipary 39 Propagule Dispersal and Establishment 41 Library of Congress 3 Mangroves and Their Environment 45 Hutchings, P. A. Physico-Chemical Environment-Plant Interactions Ecology of mangroves. Temperature 45 (Australian ecology series) Insolation 53 Bibliography: p. Wind and Evaporation 55 Includes index. 1. Mangrove swamp ecology —Australia. 2. Mangrove Drainage/Aeration 60 swamp ecology. .1. Saenger, P. II. Title. III. Series. Salinity of the Soil Water 66 QH197.H87 1987 574.5'26325 86-1723 Height of the Watertable 73 Nature of the Soil 77 ISBN 0 7022 2015 9 Proximity of Freshwater Source 84 •-' VI c:oNTEK-rS" CONTENTS VII Plant-Plant Interactions 92 Parasitism 92 Behavioural Adaptations 221 Antagonism (Ammensalism) 94 Reproductive Adaptations 230 Mutualism 93 Physiological Adaptations 234 7 I'roductivity of Mangrove Ecosyslems 245 Competition 97 Definition of Primary Production 245 Plant-Animal Inicraciions 104 Methods of Measurement and Results 246 Sediment Turnover 105 Biomass 246 Grazing and Trampling 106 Litter Production 249 Iiueractions Expressed as Structure 108 Gas Exchange of Leaves 249 Parallel Shoreline Zonaiion 108 Chlorophyll; Light Attenuation 252 Longitudinal Upriver Zonation 113 Utilization of All Components 253 Unifying Both Zonaiion Types 115 Factors Influencing Primary Production 253 Classification of Mangrove Communities J19 Seasonal Variation in Primary Production 256 Classificalion Using Structural Attributes 119 Tidal Control of Primary Production 259 Classification Using Physiographic and Structural Role of Nutrient Supply of Primary Production 261 Attributes 122 Leaf Production 261 Classificalion Using Geomorphological Settings 124 Wood Production 262 4 Associated Flora 129 Mathematical Models 262 Bacteria 129 Primary Production Budgets 263 Fungi 130 ' Biomass Available for Export or Reuse 266 Algae 136 8 The Role of Mangroves and Other Wetlands in Estuarine Lichens J40 Ecosystems 268 Mangrove Epiphytes 144 [ Primary Productivity 268 Mistletoes 146 Types of Food Chains 277 Salt Marshes 150 Fate of Primary Production 273 Fringing Species 154 5 The Fauna of Mangroves 155 Mangroves 276 Composition of the Fauna 163 Salt Marshes 279 Terrestrial Fauna 165 Seagrasses 279 Vertebrates 165 Detrital Export 285 Feeding Strategies in an Estuarine Community 286 Invertebrates 171 Estuarine Fish Communities ^.S^Z Freshwater F'auna 17S Exit Links 289 Vertebrates 178 Generalized Detrital Cycle 292 Marine Fauna 179 Exploitation at Higher Trophic levels 293 Vertebrates 179 9 Conservation and Management of Mangrove Aquatic Invertebrates 182 Communities 296 Distribution of Marine Fauna 203 Are Mangroves Endangered? 297 6 Adaptations of the Mangrove Fauna 205 Are Mangroves Worth Managing? 298 Terrestrially Derived Fauna 206 Management — Whose Responsibility? 299 Mammals 206 Management - On What Basis? 302 Birds 207 Some Specific Management Problems 303 Airiphibians 207 Discharges of Wastes 304 Reptiles 207 Foreshore Development 305 Insects 210 Flood Mitigation and Swamp Draining Works 306 Marine-Derived Fauna 211 Reclamation and Dredging 306 Morphological Adaptations 211 Bund Walls 307 vin CONTENTS The Future of Mangroves and Salt Marshes in Australia 30S Cilossary JIJ Bibliography 315 Index 371 Figures 1. World distribution of mangroves in relation to the 24°C isotherm 4 2. Australian mangrove biogeographic regions 6 3. Geographical distribution of continents in the early Cretaceous period, showing the [jrobable migration routes of the mangrove flora 9 4. Australian distribution of major mangrove species 70, 77 5. Relationship along the Queensland coastline between rich mangrove vegetation and the 1,250 mm annual isohyel 12 6. Salt glands in mangroves 15 7. Leaf hairs and scales in mangroves 22 8. Transverse sections of leaves of Australian mangroves with isobilateral leaves 23 9. Major morphological root ty[)es found in mangroves 27 10. Flowering times of mangroves and mangrove associates in Port Curtis 37 11. Fruiting times of mangroves in Port Curtis 38 12. Interrelationships between major physico-chemical factors and the extent and nature of the mangrove plant cover 46 13. Rates of leaf formation in nine species of mangroves 48 14. Stomatal opening in Rhiz.ophoru mangle in response to various air teinperatures 49 15. Light-saturation curve for Aviccnnia marina at Westernport Bay 53 16. Number of months per year during which mean radiation level between sunrise and sunset falls below 350 watts m - 55 17. Annual rainfall and evaporation distribution in Australia 57 18. Seasonal mean sea-level changes at Gladstone 59 19. Soil water content from three study areas at Gladstone 62 20. Growth of Avicennia marina at various seawater concentrations 67 21. Growth of A eg ice ras corniculaium and Riuzopfjora sty/osa at various seawater concentrations 68 22. Relationship of soil chlorinity to tidal levels at four study areas at Gladstone 69 X LIST OF FIGURES 23. Characteristics of the soils from the vegetation-free salt flats 47. Pattern of distribution of ilea crab species in relationship to and adjacent mangrove communities at Gladstone 74 the zoning of mangroves in north Queensland 185 24. Results of model simulation of Florida mangrove eco­ 48. Densities of mangrove mollusc species in various mangrove system 82 zones in the Kimberiey region of Western Australia 189 25. Classificalion of Queensland drainage basins on the basis of 49. Density and diversity of molluscs in various mangrove zones their run-off coefficients and mean rainfall 89 in the Kimberley region 190 26. Queensland drainage basin groups showing those that can be 50. Data on species numbers for mangrove stands at Patonga on considered as having reliable rainfall 90 the Hawkesbury River 191 27. Depletion curves for mangroves at Gladstone 95 51. Distribution of crabs at Exmouth Gulf in relation to 28. Open shoreline zonation at Princess Charlotte Bay 99 (a) percentage of sand and clay 194 29. Strategic ordination of mangrove species at Repulse (b) texture of sediment 195 Bay 10] 52. (a) Abundance and penetration of crabs along the Brisbane 30. Superimposition of various characteristics on the ordination River during normal weather conditions 200 shown in figure 29 103 (b) Numbers of species of crabs at selected localities along 31. Upriver distribution patterns of mangroves in three the Brisbane River 200 areas 111 ' 53. General distribution patterns of some Australian molluscan 32. Integration of vegetational boundaries with gradient-related wood borers 202 and tidally induced boundary conditions 116 i 54. Branching pattern for a single Rhizophora mangle root from 33. Stylized zonational sequences along open shorelines and into Clam Key, Florida 203 adjacent river mouths 120 55. Schematic drawing of Periophihalmus showing adaptations 34. Classification of mangrove environments using physiographic of the eyes and pelvic fins 211 characteristics 123 56. Cycle of fin movements during locomotion on land by 35. Classiticaiion of mangrove environments using geomorpho­ crutching of Periophihalmus 213 logical characteristics 126 57. Respiratory ventilation of Metapliix crenutatus 216 36. Successional stages in the fungal breakdown of seedlings of 58. Figures of Spionid, Eunicid and Nereidid (polychaetes) Rhizophora mangle in Florida 134 showing the development of gills along the body 217 37. Algal standing crop on mudflats at Gladstone 137 59. Size distribution histograms for three species of crab 218 38. Percentage of
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