K-12 Science Classroom Action Research As Imbedded Professional Development to Improve Student Achievement

Home , Action research

K-12 SCIENCE CLASSROOM ACTION RESEARCH AS EMBEDDED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT TO IMPROVE STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

The Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

Margilee Planton Hilson, M.S.

****

The Ohio State University 2008

Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Kathy Cabe Trundle, Adviser

Professor Donna L. Farland-Smith, Co-adviser ______Professor Douglas T. Owens Adviser College of Education and Human Ecology School of Teaching and Learning

Margilee Planton Hilson

2008

ABSTRACT

This research was an analysis of the influence of participation in a classroom action research program upon student achievement and teacher professional development. This research evaluated three years of data from a district wide teacher action research program in a large urban Midwestern city. Sixty-seven teachers involved in an action research project focused on science instruction were included in this study. The purpose of the action research program was threefold: 1) improve student achievement, 2) identify best instructional strategies for promoting student achievement, and 3) recognize, replicate, and disseminate excellence in teaching.

Determination of student achievement gain was conducted through comparing the mean difference between pre- and post project standardized assessment data relative to the school district averages. Standardized assessments such as the Metropolitan

Achievement Test Version 8, State Department of Education created achievement tests and District created end of course exams were administered to students annually. The results suggest that teachers who engage in classroom action research may improve student achievement in science as measured by standardized tests. In the 42 cases with complete data sets, the mean student achievement gain above the district average was

3.65 Normal Curve Equivalents and an effect size of .46 was found with a 7.96 standard deviation.

Dedicated to my father, Herbert Clark Planton and my mother, Georgean Grace Witkoski whose sacrifices and encouragement enabled me to go to school.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank my husband; Jeff F. Hilson III, whose patience and encouragement during the past six years was invaluable.

I also wish to thank my advisors Kathy Cabe Trundle, Donna L. Farland-Smith and

Douglas T. Owens for their steadfast support and wisdom.

I am grateful to Sally Hobson, Tiffany Wild, Lori Marshall, and Cindy Schroeder, who were fellow graduate students and loyal members of “The Writing Group.”

VITA

September 24, 1952 ……………………Born - Warren, Ohio, U.S.A.

1974 ……………………………………B.S. Elementary Education, The Ohio State University

1976 ……………………………………M.S. Family Relations and Human Development The Ohio State University

1985 -1988 …………………………….Teacher, Overbrook Weekday Preschool

1988 -1992 …………………………….Teacher, Clintonville Academy

1992 - present ………………………….Teacher, Columbus City Schools

2005 - present ………………………… Regional Value Added Specialist, Ohio Department of Education

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Education

Minor Field: Research Methods in Human Resource Development

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract ...... ii Dedication ...... iii Acknowledgments...... iv Vita ...... v List of Tables ...... xi List of Figures ...... xii

Chapters:

1. Nature and Scope of the Study...... 1

Context …...... 1 History of the Performance Advancement System ...... 2 Rationale for Action Research as Professional Development in Urban Settings ...... 4 Problem Statement ...... 5 Significance of the Study ...... 5 Research Questions ...... 6 Definition of Terms...... 7 Limitations of the Study...... 8

2. Literature Review...... 10

Teacher as Learner ...... 10 Theoretical Influences on Teacher as Learner ...... 10 Types of Teacher Knowledge ...... 13 Science Education Professional Development Models/Strategies Utilized in Urban Settings...... 20 Purpose of Professional Development ...... 21 Standards for Effective Professional Development ...... 23 Classification of Professional Development ...... 27 Current Research in Science Education Professional Development ...... 32 Analyses of Large Scale Multi-site Science Education Programs ...... 32 Aligning and Implementing Curriculum ...... 37 Collaborative Structure ...... 39

Examining Teaching and Learning ...... 40 Immersion Experience ...... 42 Practicing Teaching ...... 44 Vehicles and Mechanisms ...... 45 Summary of Professional Development in Science Education ...... 53 Overview of Action Research ...... 54 Classifications of Action Research ...... 55 Unique Characteristics of Action Research ...... 61 Data Collection and Analysis Methods in Action Research ...... 63 Situating Action Research in General Research ...... 64 Rationale for Classroom Action Research in Science Education ...... 67 Classroom Action Research in Science Education ...... 70 Science Action Research Studies Focused on Content Knowledge ...... 72 Science Action Research Studies Focused on Pedagogical Knowledge ...... 75 Science Action Research Studies Focused on Pedagogical Content Knowledge ...... 78 Summary of Action Research in Science Education ...... 86 Chapter Summary ...... 90

3. Methodology ...... 91

Overview of the Study ...... 91 Participants ...... 92 Context ...... 93 Research Design ...... 95 Conditions of Data Collection ...... 98 Data Sources ...... 99 PAS Participation Records ...... 99 Student Achievement Records ...... 99 Teacher Research Summary Reports ...... 101 Professional Development Records ...... 101 PAS Program Documents ...... 102 National Science Education Standards ...... 102 Data Analysis ...... 103 Quantitative ...... 104 Qualitative ...... 105 Trustworthiness ...... 107 Researcher Role ...... 107 Multiple Data Sources...... 107 Multiple Voices ...... 108 Limitations of the Study...... 108 Chapter Summary ...... 110

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4. Results ...... 111

Research Question #1: How Did Implementation of Teacher Action Research Projects Vary Across Grade Level Bands? ...... 112 Background ...... 112 Participation Results ...... 113 Interpretive Findings ...... 114 Science-Oriented Projects ...... 115 Strategy-Oriented Projects ...... 116 Testing-Oriented Projects ...... 117 Literacy-Oriented Projects ...... 118 Research-Oriented Projects ...... 118 Summary Research Question 1 ...... 119 Research Question 2: What Growth in Teaching Knowledge and Skills Do PAS Teachers Report? ...... 120 Background ...... 120 Pedagogical Knowledge ...... 121 Pedagogical Knowledge of Strategy Refinement ...... 121 Pedagogical Knowledge of Reflective Practice ...... 122 Pedagogical Knowledge of Assessment ...... 123 Pedagogical Knowledge of Parental Involvement ...... 124 Pedagogical Content Knowledge ...... 126 Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Student Inquiry ...... 126 Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Building a Conceptual Framework ...... 128 Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Writing in a Content Area ...... 130 Summary Research Question 2 ...... 131 Research Question 3: Do the Instructional Practices Reported by Teachers Reflect the National Science Education Standards? ...... 132 Background ...... 132 1. Unifying Concepts and Processes ...... 133 2. Science as Inquiry ...... 134 3. Physical Science ...... 135 4. Life Science ...... 136 5. Earth and Space Science ...... 137 6. Science and Technology ...... 137 7. Science in Personal and Social Perspectives ...... 138 8. History and Nature of Science ...... 139 Summary Research Question 3 ...... 140 Research Question 4: Do the Instructional Practices Reported by Teachers Reflect the Knowledge and Skills Presented in Other Professional Development Episodes Available to the Teachers? ...... 140 Background ...... 140 Interpretive Findings ...... 142 Summary Research Question 4 ...... 145

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Research Question 5: What Practical Issues Did Teachers Identify as Having an Impact on Student Science Achievement? ...... 146 Background ...... 146 Interpretive Findings ...... 147 Theme 1: Increasing Student Subject Knowledge ...... 147 Theme 2: Raising Test Scores ...... 148 Theme 3: Constructed Response Replies ...... 149 Theme 4: Improving Process Skills ...... 150 Theme 5: Improving Social Skills ...... 151 Theme 6: Improving Literacy Skills ...... 151 Summary Research Question 5 ...... 152 Research Question 6: What Instructional Practices Did Teachers Utilize with Students to Improve Achievement on Science Assessments? ...... 152 Background ...... 152 Instructional Practice and Student Achievement Results ...... 153 Interpretive Findings ...... 155 Similarities and Differences ...... 155 Summarizing and Note-Taking ...... 155 Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition ...... 155 Homework and Practice ...... 156 Nonlinguistic Representation ...... 156 Cooperative Learning ...... 156 Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback ...... 157 Generating and Testing Hypotheses ...... 157 Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers ...... 158 Summary Research Question 6 ...... 158 Research Question 7: How Do the Student Achievement Outcomes of PAS Teachers Vary? ...... 158 Background ...... 158 Quantitative Results ...... 159 Interpretive Findings ...... 162 Summary Research Question 7 ...... 166 Research Question 8: How Do Program Requirements Influence Implementation? ...... 167 Background ...... 167 Interpretive Findings ...... 168 Interaction with Students ...... 168 Diverse Student Learning Needs ...... 169 Curriculum Constraints ...... 169 Scheduling Limitations ...... 170 Poor Attendance ...... 171 Testing Issues ...... 172 Student Motivation...... 172 Eligibility for Award Stipend...... 174 Summary Research Question 8 ...... 174

Chapter Summary ...... 175

5. Conclusions and Discussion ...... 177

Professional Development ...... 177 Student Learning ...... 178 Teacher Learning ...... 180 Teaching Practice ...... 185 Organizational Goals ...... 187 Classroom Action Research ...... 189 Identifying a Problem ...... 190 Making an Intervention Plan and Acting on It...... 191 Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Plan ...... 192 Personal and Prolonged Engagement...... 193 Implications...... 195 Professional Development ...... 195 Classroom Practice...... 198 PAS Program ...... 201 Recommendations for Further Research ...... 201 Limitations ...... 203

List of References ...... 206

Appendices: A: Summary of Marzano et al. (2001) Research-Based Instructional Strategies as Used by PAS Teachers...... 218 B: PAS Research Report Writing Prompts ...... 220 C: Professional Development Coding Categories...... 222 D: Summaries of PAS Science Action Research Projects ...... 225

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 Attributes of High Quality Professional Development ...... 25

2.2 Factors Impacting the Design of Professional Development Programs ...... 30

2.3 Situating Action Research in Inquiry Paradigms by Purpose of Research ...... 67

3.1 Overview of Research Questions, Data Sources and Analysis Procedures ...... 103

3.2 Initial Coding Fields for the Analysis of Research Summary Reports ...... 106

4.1 Enrollment and Completion Rates by School Level ...... 113

4.2 Projects by School Level and Focus ...... 114

4.3 Professional Development Initiatives Present in 42 PAS Summary Reports ... 142

4.4 Grouped Professional Development Initiatives in 42 PAS Summary Reports . 144

4.5 Frequency and Success of Instructional Strategies Reported by Teachers on PAS Applications ...... 154

4.6 Student Achievement Outcomes by School Level ...... 161

4.7 Effect Size by School Level ...... 162

4.8 Non-completion Rates by School Level ...... 174

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 A Model of Teacher Knowledge ...... 19

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CHAPTER 1

NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This chapter explains the historical context and rationale for this study. It also posits the statement of the problem and the significance of the study. A listing of the research questions, definitions of key terms, and limitations of the study end the chapter.

Context of the Study

Compliance with Federal mandates as enumerated in the Elementary and

Secondary Education Act, also known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB) necessitates that school districts provide highly qualified teachers. Research has shown that highly knowledgeable science teachers are better able to facilitate student learning than less qualified teachers (Hewson, Kahle, Scantlebury, & Davies, 2001; Knight & Wiseman,

2005). However, recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) scores seem to indicate that many American teachers are doing a less than adequate job in addressing science education through the National Science Education Standards

(NAEP, 2005). Urban districts have fared particularly poorly due to opportunity to learn gaps (Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry & Hewson, 2003.) As a result, policy makers have embraced teacher professional development as a critical piece in the puzzle

of implementing national science education reform efforts (Beyer, Delgado, Davis &

Krajcik, 2007).

Broadly speaking, the goals of teacher professional development revolve around

teacher learning. Increasing the skills and knowledge of teachers may occur in several

areas; subject content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, or pedagogical content

knowledge (Shulman, 1987). However, identifying the specific knowledge needs of

teachers has been the subject of much debate and research because contextual factors of

teaching and learning have been treated inconsistently (Abell, 2007; Kennedy, 1991;

Loucks-Horsley, et al., 2003). Current models of teacher professional development have

had variable success in changing teacher practices to those most associated with

improved student achievement (Guskey, 2003). This may be the result of viewing

teacher development from a deficit standpoint instead of a transformative stance

(Loucks-Horsley, et al.). Information was needed about programs that empower

teachers to identify and rectify problems in both teaching practice and student achievement within their science classrooms.

History of the Performance Advancement System

Federal legislation requires states to generate tracking systems to monitor the

progress school districts are making in meeting accountability standards. When one

large Ohio urban district fell into its state’s School Improvement category of Academic

Emergency, it was clear to all concerned that implemented district-wide instructional

policies were not meeting the needs of all students and that locally validated practices

were needed. A plan was devised to empower teachers to think like a researcher in

terms of identifying a question, hypothesizing a solution, and enacting a treatment.

The Performance Advancement System (PAS) was and still is the program created in this large Ohio urban school district, which allows teachers to engage in classroom action research. PAS has three goals: 1) improve student achievement, 2) identify through classroom research the best instructional strategies for promoting student achievement in the urban school district, and 3) recognize, replicate, and disseminate excellence in teaching. Douglas Reeves, nationally recognized accountability expert, served as facilitator for the PAS development process.

Reeves suggested a program design modeled after classroom action research.

Guidelines were written requiring participants to select a sample, a State Department of

Education accountability area, such as science, mathematics, reading or social studies,

and a research-based instructional strategy. Participants were referred to Classroom

Instruction that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement by Marzano, Pickering and Pollock (2001) to select a strategy on which to base their action research intervention. Appendix A lists a brief description of each strategy.

Parameters were set to allow all members of the teachers’ union to participate, including teachers, tutors, nurses, psychologists, and speech, physical, and occupational therapists. Sources of pre- and post- project achievement test scores were identified for data analysis to determine gain. At the end of the school year, participants were required to write a short summary report explaining their research questions, actions taken and the results of their actions on student achievement.

A local educational testing service was hired to review student assessment data and calculate the achievement gains made by students. The mean class gain between the pretest and posttest assessments for participants was compared to the district gain

3 between the same pretest and posttest assessments. Teachers whose students demonstrated achievement results higher than the district average received a cash bonus of $2,000.00; after 2003 the bonus was raised to $2,500.00. In school year 2001-2002, in order to earn the cash award, teachers initially had to produce statistically significant results determined by one standard error of measurement. This standard of achievement proved to be too high for novice action researchers so the standard was decreased to .5 standard error. Eventually, all reference to standard error was removed and in school years 2002-2003, and 2003-2004, teachers only had to show gain greater than the district average gain. A plan was made to gradually increase the achievement standard each year until it again reflected statistical significance.

Rationale for Action Research as Professional Development

Classroom action research can be considered a viable means for professional development for several reasons. Classroom action research allows for maximum accountability in terms of addressing variable contexts and student differences.

Teachers in urban settings face the extra challenges of high student mobility, language barriers, generational poverty and the effects of violent crime on students. Moll (1990) suggested that teachers should seek out and integrate into classroom practice learning strategies uniquely situated within the cultures of their students. He termed these cultural resources funds of knowledge. The practical and cyclical nature of classroom action research may be one way that teachers may systematically connect to the specific learning needs and potential of the students.

There is a high level of teacher engagement in professional development enacted as classroom action research because the teacher initiates the research question.

Teachers who choose to participate in classroom action research report feelings of empowerment and increased efficacy to help their students achieve (van Zee, Lay &

Roberts, 2003). In light of the negative view that the public media portrays urban teachers, professional development that foregrounds teacher practical knowledge may be viewed as a refreshing morale booster.

Problem Statement

The Performance Advancement System was instituted as a form of teacher professional development embedded in day-to-day practice. The school district expected that improved teacher knowledge and skills would transfer into improved student achievement. This research is an analysis of the personal professional development enacted by science teachers while conducting classroom action research projects in PAS and the resultant impact on student achievement in science.

Significance of the Study

Teacher professional development typically has been evaluated in terms of changed teacher attitudes or beliefs about teaching practice (Guskey, 2003). In addition to appraising changes in teacher attitudes and beliefs, this study also explored relationships between professional development as enacted through teacher classroom action research projects and improved student science achievement. Identifying instructional strategies employed by urban science teachers focused on school improvement will contribute teacher practical knowledge to science education canon

(van Driel, Beijaard, & Verloop, 2001). Little actual classroom teacher action research has been published (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993); examining teacher research records

will add to the knowledge base of how teachers interpreted the role of research in actual

classroom practice.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the design of this study and the analysis of the data:

1. How did implementation of teacher action research projects vary across grade

band levels?

2. What growth in teaching knowledge and skills do PAS teachers report?

3. Do the instructional practices reported by teachers reflect the National Science

Education Standards?

4. Do the instructional practices reported by teachers reflect the subject,

pedagogical or pedagogical content knowledge presented in other professional

development episodes attended by the teachers preceding or during the data

collection period?

5. What practical issues did teachers identify as having an impact on student

science achievement?

6. What instructional practices did teachers utilize with students to improve

achievement on state achievement tests, nationally normed assessments, or

district created end-of-course exams?

7. How do the student achievement outcomes of science teachers who participated

in PAS vary?

8. How do PAS program requirements influence teacher action research

implementation?

Definition of Terms

Classroom Action Research

Classroom action research is defined here to mean practitioner initiated inquiry into a classroom practice thought to influence student achievement. The inquiry is sustained throughout the school year and follows the cyclical model of problem identification, solution selection, implementation, and evaluation of outcomes. Multiple iterations of the research cycle are necessary throughout the school year informed by student progress toward the achievement goal (Calhoun, 1994).

Improved Student Achievement

Student achievement was operationalized to mean student scores on Ohio

Achievement Tests, Metropolitan Achievement Test Version 8, or school district end- of-course exams for high school students. Improvement was the measured gain in summative test scores from prior to current school year for each student relative to the school district mean gain (Columbus City Schools, 2007).

Professional Development

Professional development was considered to be any intentional sustained activity in which teachers engaged for the express purpose of improving their knowledge and skills to teach students science (Banilower, Boyd, Pasley, & Weiss,

2006).

Opportunity to Learn Gaps

Curriculum that is truncated by rigid scope and sequence timelines and bound by transmissive teaching practices limits opportunities for developing conceptual

7 understanding. Students subject to this type of limited curriculum are said to have gaps in their opportunity to learn science (Loucks-Horsley et al., 2003).

Limitations of the Study

This study was limited by factors inherent in the ex post facto research design.

The design is employed to study events that have already occurred and to seek linkages between known outcomes and pre-existing conditions (Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 2002).

The research subjects self-selected into the program being evaluated, therefore, outcomes may be the result of peculiarities intrinsic to the research sample. For example, in the years immediately preceding the data collection, a major district-wide

Urban Systemic Initiative (USI) sponsored by the National Science Foundation was enacted. Teachers who selected science in PAS very likely also voluntarily participated in the extensive professional development offered through the USI grant. Additionally, self-reported teacher data, in form of research summary reports, was utilized. If the teacher reports were not accurate reflections of the classroom action research, then conclusions drawn from them may be skewed.

Gains in student achievement were calculated utilizing student scores on standardized achievement tests. However, summative student achievement tests varied from grade level to grade level; consequently z-scores were utilized to compute gain.

Utilizing different achievement tests from one grade level to another highlights the issue of comparable difficulty levels of the assessments, which was not determined.

Producing a gain between the Metropolitan Achievement Test and the State

Achievement Test may not have been as difficult as showing a gain when the pretest and posttest assessments were both State Achievement Tests. A further limitation

8 related to achievement tests was that student performance on standardized assessments was assumed to be a valid appraisal of classroom instruction.

Generalizability of the results of this study is limited due to the situated nature of classroom action research (Feldman, 1994). It would be very difficult, if not impossible to replicate the conditions present within a collection of classroom action research projects. Successful application of research outcomes would depend upon the match with students and teachers in other settings.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this research project was to investigate the role of classroom action research as embedded professional development for improving student achievement in science. This literature review is organized into three sections. First, a theoretical framework for teacher learning and types of knowledge teachers need to know in relation to their classroom work will be examined. Next, a discussion of professional development models utilized in science education for advancing the skills and knowledge of teachers will be presented. Finally, the application of one form of professional development, classroom action research, as practiced in science education will be reviewed.

Teacher as Learner

Theoretical Influences on Teacher as Learner

Teacher learning will be considered here from the theoretical stance of constructivism. Constructivism, as a learning theory, has been built upon developmental theories such as Piaget’s ontogenetic theory of logical thought processes (Phillips,

1969), Hunt’s (1978) conceptual level theory, and Loevinger’s (Loevinger & Blasi,

1977) ego development theory. The practical applications of constructivism have been manifest through information-processing approaches such as teaching for conceptual

change (Posner, Strike, Hewson & Gertzog, 1982) and the learning cycle (Lawson,

Abraham & Renner, 1989). However, social learning theories such as Vygotsky’s sociohistorical learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978) and Bandura’s observational learning theory (Miller, 2002) have added a great deal to teacher knowledge about the strong influences of social context on teaching and learning. Employing a cognitive/developmental view of teacher learning permits teaching behaviorally discreet skills, in addition to acknowledging contextual factors (Sprinthall & Thies-Sprinthall,

1980.)

Constructivism, when viewed as a personal enterprise, focuses on a few common components. Learners bring a set of preconceived notions and personal theories to every learning opportunity. Information is extracted from the environment, compared to what is known, and is either rejected, accepted as is, or accepted with modification into the learner’s knowledge base (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000;

Loucks-Horsley, et al., 2003; Woolfolk, 2004). Two levels of conceptual change, assimilation and accommodation, are commonly discussed (Duit & Treagust, 2003).

Assimilation occurs when a learner merely applies his existing beliefs and knowledge to a new situation. The information gained is not fundamentally different from currently held beliefs, but rather an enhancement or extension of what is already believed to be true. Accommodation occurs when a learner is not able to apply his existing beliefs and knowledge to achieve a satisfactory answer. When a whole class of problems defies solution within a conceptual system then the student will enact a fundamental change in his/her central conception in order to make sense of the phenomena. Accommodation is a transformation to a new conceptual understanding. Meaningful learning is the term

11 applied when students successfully exchange incorrect for correct conceptual knowledge. Through this evaluation process, learners construct meaning from both personal and social experiences.

Constructivism, when viewed as a social enterprise, is grounded in sociohistorical learning theory and based on the belief that historical antecedents temper all knowledge (Wertsch, 1991). The key element of social constructivism is that humans construct their knowledge from social interactions with other people, objects, cultural mores, and social institutions. All information assimilated is processed through the lens of prior experience situated in particular social encounters. Sociohistorical theory adds the dimension of historical influence on the social construction of knowledge. Learning and subsequently development occurs on multiple levels, phylogenetic which refers to species level advancement, historical which refers to cultural level changes, ontogenetic which concerns personal growth over a life time, and microgenetic, which is also personal, but focuses mostly on growth in schooled knowledge (Cole, 1990).

Constructivism based on observational learning is based upon two concepts: (a) social context influences learning through selective reinforcement and, (b) modeling complex behaviors facilitates acquisition of knowledge as a system of interactive components (Miller, 2002). Learning ballet, swimming, or other performance based learning tasks requires observation of a more experienced other to understand what counts as a successful completion. Observational learning may contribute heavily to firmly held beliefs, because it occurs over time and in socially meaningful contexts.

Teachers have prior knowledge pertinent to subject matter, but they also have a great deal of experience with schooling. “Teachers have spent over 3000 days as children and

young adults observing teachers (Kennedy, 1990a). Their experiences are tantamount to

an apprenticeship of observation, and it is one which is invested with emotion, given the students’ dependence on the teacher” (Kennedy, 1991, p. 8).

In the study of teacher learning, the type of constructivist framework chosen is a

function of what type of knowledge is being investigated or promoted. Backwards

design, e.g., deciding what knowledge and/or skills are desired prior to planning

instruction, may be as useful in planning instruction for teachers as it is for students

(Wiggins & McTigue, 1998). Once a plan is in place for what knowledge is desired,

then a suitable framework can be selected to guide instructional technique. For example,

if the desired outcome is an increase in the depth of teacher content knowledge, professional development planners need to emphasize Piagetian-style constructivism that is focused on conceptual knowledge production. In contrast, if the goal is to generate effective classroom teaching practice, influences from the social learning theories such as Vygotsky-inspired constructivism are desirable. Researchers of teacher learning and professional development planners are advised to select a theoretical stance that most closely aligns to the type of knowledge being studied or desired as an outcome (Orgill, Bodner, Ferguson, Hunter & Mayo, 2007.) Different types of knowledge may warrant different theoretical leanings and instructional frameworks.

Types of Teacher Knowledge

Cognitive views of learning identify three types of knowledge: declarative, procedural and conditional (Woolfolk, 2004). Declarative knowledge is information that can be stated either verbally, written, or through some other symbol system. Declarative knowledge is factual and frequently the type of information tested through multiple-

choice exams. Procedural knowledge utilizes declarative knowledge for action;

procedural knowledge must be demonstrated. Performance tasks such as solving

problems, playing a musical instrument, or writing an extended response to a prompt

could be used to assess procedural knowledge. Conditional knowledge combines

declarative and procedural knowledge by regulating when one discreet bit of knowledge

or procedure is appropriate for the given situation. Teacher learning, similar to student

learning can be expected to include all three types of knowledge.

Quantifying teacher knowledge is a difficult task because it entails multiple

perspectives. Shulman (1987) noted that studies of teaching typically occur in the social

setting of classrooms, while research into learning and development is conducted on individuals. Some researchers approach the topic from the stance of research and theory on learning in general; others focus on the relationship between education and society.

Considering specific content area knowledge needs and effective teaching practice are two more views of teacher knowledge requirements. At the National Center for

Research on Teacher Learning, four elements are considered in evaluating teacher learning research: the theoretical stance toward teachers as learners, concepts of teacher tasks, features of teaching practice, and the context of public expectations (Kennedy,

1991).

When teachers are viewed as learners, constructivist teaching and learning principles, widely employed with K-12 students, may be applied to adult instruction.

“Teachers, like other learners, interpret new content through existing understandings and modify and reinterpret new ideas on the basis of what they already know or

believe” (Kennedy, 1991, p. 3). Other researchers have labeled the development of

14 increasingly more sophisticated ideas, theories and principles in teachers as the scientific dimension of teacher learning (Schibeci & Hickey, 2000). Historically, teacher research has been informed by behaviorist theory and focused on learning how to teach (Loughran, 2007). Teacher knowledge was measured in terms of years of experience, number of courses taken, or comprehensive multiple-choice exams (Abell,

2007). Now that teacher learning is equated with increasing conceptual understanding, researchers utilize concept mapping, problem solving exercises, and classroom observations to gauge teacher growth (Abell, 2007).

Kennedy (1991) defined the teaching task as “connecting important substantive ideas to diverse learners” (p.11). The content of school subjects is often not taught in teacher preparation programs, nor is the unique structure of state standards. Schibeci and Hickey (2000) identified teacher-learning opportunities specifically focused on the content teachers must teach as the professional dimension. In order to engage in successful teaching, the teacher must possess a deep, thorough understanding of their subject matter in order to explain concepts from multiple perspectives and to make connections between/among concepts clear. The teacher must also know the common misconceptions of their students, which concepts are hard for students to grasp, and why. Teachers must understand which instructional representations will make sense to their students. “To choose a worthwhile task then, teachers need to have enough understanding of the subject to know which ideas are central, which are peripheral, how different ideas relate to one another, and how these ideas can be interpreted to the uninitiated” (Kennedy, p.13).

Knowledge of teaching practice entails teachers developing skill in interpreting classroom events and student understanding on the fly during instruction (Kennedy,

1991). Reflection on the soundness of those pedagogical decisions may occur later, and revisions implemented during the next instructional period. Logistical management decisions may also be decided both during active instruction and later during a reflective planning period. The flexibility necessary to mange the intellectual and logistical demand of practice requires situated learning as the knowledge is dependent upon the unique constellation of students and context. Schibeci and Hickey (2000) suggested that this dimension of teacher learning could be labeled personal as it is related to the day-to-day work of teaching, and that successful personal learning provides motivation to teachers to continue learning more about practice.

Public expectations for graduates have changed from a desire for factory workers who can follow directions, to employees who are flexible, adaptable, good problem solvers, able to work in ambiguous situations, and able to work collaboratively

(Friedman, 2005). If this student expectation is applied to teachers, then the tenets of transformative learning, that is, fundamental changes in beliefs, knowledge and practice ought to be the goal for teacher learning (Loucks-Horsley, et al., 2003). “Historically, professional development has focused on only adding new skills and knowledge without helping teachers to rethink and discard or transform thinking and beliefs”

(Loucks-Horsley, p. 46).

Shulman (1986, 1987) has identified three major domains of teacher content knowledge that are roughly similar to declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge: subject content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical

content knowledge. Subject content knowledge corresponds to declarative knowledge

and comprises the facts, relational constructs and theoretical frameworks of an

identified body of information. Subject content knowledge includes more than simply

knowing the factual information associated with a subject area; knowledge of subject

content also implies knowing why something is true, and under what conditions it is

not. Pedagogical knowledge equates to procedural knowledge and has two dimensions

(a) general skill in classroom management and organization as well as (b) curricular

knowledge. Curricular knowledge is composed of knowing about the programs and

materials available and suitable for teaching the subject matter. The third domain of

teacher knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) mirrors conditional

knowledge in that it refers to knowing how to teach the content so that students can

learn it. PCK involves knowing the relative difficulty of the concepts, common student

misconceptions and instructional strategies that enhance student conceptual

understanding.

Shulman (1987) also identified three contextual elements important to

establishing a teacher knowledge base. Teachers must possess a thorough knowledge of

their students’ unique characteristics such as personal life circumstances, cultural

influences, and prior educational experiences. In addition, teachers must know the political circumstances in which they work including local, state, and federal

instructional mandates as well as the inner workings of educational financial supports.

Finally, teachers must also have metacognitive awareness of their personal theoretical positions on the purpose of schooling, how students learn, and the role of education in society.

Abell (2007) has built upon Shulman’s designations of teacher knowledge by

constructing a concept map to highlight the relationships among the components

(Figure 2.1). The central item of the map is pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

which contains five aspects: orientation toward teaching science, knowledge of science

learners, knowledge of science curriculum, knowledge of science instructional strategies, and knowledge of science assessment. Three additional items influence PCK: science subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and knowledge of context.

Science subject matter knowledge has two parts, science syntactic knowledge and science substantive knowledge. Pedagogical knowledge has four aspects: instructional principles, classroom management, learners and learning, and educational aims.

Knowledge of context includes being cognizant of student needs and interests as well as, familiarization with school, community, and district expectations (Abell, p. 1107).

By making PCK the central component of teacher knowledge, Abell implies that the subcomponents of PCK are developed through teacher learning in the other three components: subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and context.

When viewed through a constructivist theoretical framework, supporting teacher

learning involves many of the same tenets as student learning. Knowledge is

evolutionary rather than static. It is constructed by each learner from both personal and

social interactions, and increases in complexity through successive iterations.

Individuals in the midst of conceptual change may hold seemingly contradictory beliefs

until sufficient experiences and/or mental organization permit resolution. The supports

provided to learners can have profound influence on the knowledge outcomes.

Science Subject Matter Knowledge Pedagogical Knowledge

1. Science Syntactic 1. Instructional Principles Knowledge 2. Classroom Management 2. Science Substantive 3. Learners and learning Knowledge 4. Educational aims

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

1. Orientation toward teaching science 2. Knowledge of science learners 3. Knowledge of science curriculum 4. Knowledge of scie nce instructional strategies 5. Knowledge of science assessment

Knowledge of Context

1. Students 2. School 3. Community 4. District

Figure2.1. A Model of Teacher Knowledge (adapted from Abell, 2007).

The next section of this paper will address different types of professional development

strategies for enhancing teacher learning in science education.

Science Education Professional Development Models and Strategies

Professional development has been defined in urban settings as “those activities that improve in-service teachers’ capacity to teach kindergarten to 12th-grade students

from ethnic, language, geographic, and socioeconomic populations placed at risk of

academic failure due to environmental conditions” (Knight & Wiseman, 2005, p. 392).

Other researchers frame professional development as “involving both informal and

planned learning, often involving input from others (such as academics and consultants), and with the intention of improving the quality of teaching, and involving the transformation of knowledge, values, and beliefs into classroom practice” (Schibeci

& Hickey, 2003, p.120). Lee, Hart, Cuevas, and Enders (2004) also link professional development to “altering teachers’ beliefs and/or enabling teachers to engage in reform- oriented instructional practices” (p.1023).

Teacher professional development is viewed as a critical piece in the puzzle of implementing national science education reform efforts (Haney & Lumpe, 1995).

Classroom teachers provide the interface between those entities that regulate educational requirements such as, state departments of education, and student outcomes.

Research supports the pivotal role of teachers indicating that teacher quality has a greater impact on student achievement than any other factor (Knight & Wiseman,

2005). Implementing recommended curricula that frequently change due to dynamic

20 political agendas, and evolving academic research outcomes, necessitates a system for keeping teachers current (Butler, Lauscher, Jarvis-Selinger & Beckingham, 2004).

Purpose of Professional Development

Broad goals of professional development may be set in terms of student learning, teacher learning, teaching practice, or organizational concerns (Loucks-

Horsley, et al., 2003). Typically in practice, some combination of the four is utilized, particularly if the professional development occurs over an extended period of time involving cycles or phases of implementation. However, the broad assumption is that improving teacher knowledge and skills will result in improved student knowledge and skills.

Professional development programs focused on improving student learning cite achievement disparities among their student accountability subgroups. Recent national assessment results indicate that there still are significant achievement gaps among students by race, gender and socio-economic standing (Borman & Associates, 2005;

NAEP, 2005). Some researchers attribute this situation to the pedagogy of poverty

(Kahle, Meece, & Scantlebury, 2000) in which students attending low achieving urban schools receive didactic, non-constructivist learning opportunities. Few articles featuring science professional development for teachers of diverse populations exist, and even fewer empirical studies have been published (Knight & Wiseman, 2005).

However, it is important that professional development programs be devised to change the pedagogy of poverty through closing opportunity to learn gaps as well as student achievement gaps (Loucks-Horsley et al., 2003).

Professional development focused on increasing teacher learning frequently is

based upon the work of Shulman (1986) who defined three types of teacher content

knowledge: subject content knowledge, curricular content knowledge, and pedagogical

content knowledge. Subject content knowledge includes more than simply knowing the

factual information associated with a subject area; knowledge of content also implies

knowing why something is true, and under what conditions it is not. Curricular content knowledge encompasses knowledge of the resources available for teaching a subject and when to select one over another. Many school districts supply science kits to the teachers, but frequently other resources such as interactive websites, working scientists in the community, or outreach programs from museums may greatly enhance the learning episode. A teacher with curricular content knowledge would supplement the given materials with additional items and opportunities. Pedagogical content knowledge

(PCK) is “in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others” (Shulman, p.9). PCK includes knowing the typical misunderstandings students hold and which aspects of the information are difficult or easy to grasp.

Professional development focused on improving teacher practice emphasizes transforming national and state standards into measurable student learning. Many districts have adopted the policy of developing SMART (Specific, Measurable,

Attainable, Results-oriented, and Time-bound) goals to link teacher knowledge, curriculum standards and student conceptual understanding (Kelleher, 2003). In order for practice to change, teacher knowledge in all of its forms must be adequate and

teacher beliefs must be aligned with reform initiatives (Rannikmae, Holbrook, & Teppo,

2007).

Professional development based upon organizational goals often targets building

capacity to sustain reform initiatives. Many of the Local Systemic Change (LSC) grant

programs had the training of teacher leaders, curriculum alignment, and development of

formative assessment as key elements (Banilower, et al., 2006.) Many researchers have

reported the need for sustained teacher support following professional development

events (Kahle, et al., 2000).

Standards for Effective Professional Development

In 1996, the National Research Council (NRC) published the National Science

Education Standards (NSES), a set of standards for “what students need to know,

understand, and be able to do to be scientifically literate at different grade levels”,

(NRC, 1996, p.2). This document was intended as a tool for planning instruction to

ensure high quality learning outcomes for all students. One section of the NSES was

devoted to outlining standards for science teacher professional development. The

standards specified teacher-learning needs in four broad areas. First, teachers must learn

essential science content knowledge through the perspectives and methods of inquiry.

Second, teachers must also learn to integrate science knowledge with pedagogy suitable for a wide array of student learning needs. Third, professional development for science

teachers must instill the understanding that learning science is a life-long endeavor.

Lastly, professional development programs must be coherent and integrated to permit

learning over time.

These standards were built upon four basic assumptions about the process of

treating adults as learners. The inquiring minds that become science teachers never stop

learning, so professional development for a teacher of science is a continuous life-long

process. Differentiating participant/provider roles is artificial. Adult learners bring a

great deal of prior knowledge and expertise to a professional development event and as

such should be treated as knowledgeable others, i.e. participants in a learning

community. The conventional process/product view of professional development for

teachers is inadequate to meet the dynamic learning needs of teachers; they need opportunities for intellectual professional growth. These growth opportunities must be

clearly and appropriately imbedded in teachers’ work in the context of the school.

Since the NSES were published, a great deal of research has occurred with the

intent of discovering effective strategies for implementing the standards. Borman et al.

(2005) cited ten attributes of high-quality professional development identified by the

National Education Association (NEA) Foundation for the Improvement of Education.

Table 2.1 lists these attributes grouped under the four broad goals identified by Loucks-

Horsley et al. (2003), student learning, teacher learning, teaching practice, and

organizational concerns.

Outcome Goals Attributes

Student learning • Improves student learning.

• Fosters better subject matter knowledge, greater understanding of learning, and a full appreciation of students’ needs.

• Is site based and supportive of a clear vision for student achievement

Teacher learning • Allows enough time for inquiry, reflection, and mentoring and is part of the normal school day.

• Is directed toward teachers’ intellectual development and leadership.

• Is designed and directed by teachers and includes the best principles of adult learning.

Teacher practice • Helps educators meet the needs of students who learn in different ways and come from diverse backgrounds.

• Is sustained, rigorous, and adequate to the long-term change of practice.

• Makes the best use of new technologies.

Organizational/profession • Balances individual priorities with school and district concerns needs, and advances the profession as a whole.

Table 2.1. Attributes of High Quality Professional Development.

Professional teacher organizations such as the National Science Teachers

Association (NSTA) have also built upon the standards and adopted research-based position statements regarding essential elements of effective professional development.

The position statements clarify the original four NSES assumptions by highlighting the connections to student and teacher learning.

• Professional development programs should be based on student learning needs and should help science educators address difficulties students have with subject-matter knowledge and skills. • Professional development programs should be based on the needs of science educators—of both individuals and members of collaborative groups—who are involved in the program. Ongoing professional development initiatives should be assessed and refined to meet teachers’ changing needs. • Professional development should be integrated and coordinated with other initiatives in schools and embedded in curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices. • Professional development programs should maintain a sustained focus over time, providing opportunity for continuous improvement. • Professional development should actively involve teachers in observing, analyzing, and applying feedback to teaching practices. • Professional development should concentrate on specific issues of science content and pedagogy that are derived from research and exemplary practice. Programs should connect issues of instruction and student learning of knowledge and skills to the actual context of classrooms. • Professional development should promote collaboration among teachers in the same school, grade, or subject. NSTA (2006)

Guskey (2003) reviewed 13 lists of effective professional developments criteria

and discovered wide variation in epistemological stances, characteristics highlighted,

and means of measuring the outcomes. Variation in program goals such as: developing awareness of reform initiatives, building knowledge, translating knowledge into classroom practice through writing lessons, improving lesson implementation, or reflection of practice on student outcomes (Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for

Mathematics and Science Education, n.d.) differentiate the desired outcomes for

professional development. However, Guskey stated that one criterion was indispensable

for evaluating professional development: improved student achievement. The

improvement should be measured in multiple ways including: standardized achievement

tests, course grades, criterion referenced tests, and performance based assessments. If it

is accepted that the purpose of schooling is to educate the students, then all resources

ought to be explicitly related to student learning. Effective teacher professional development must lead to improved student achievement. Measuring the effectiveness of professional development cannot be based upon the “happiness quotient- how satisfied teachers are with a particular workshop- but rather what effect professional development will have on student learning” (Kelleher, 2003).

Classification of Professional Development

Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) published a seminal article identifying five models of staff development. The principal process of enactment defined the models.

The first model was named Individually Guided and was characterized by teachers self-

selecting an activity for personal learning. The activities chosen met a personal need for

knowledge and could be as simple as reading a book or planning an integrated

curriculum unit. The second model was Observation and Assessment, which featured

reflection and analysis upon the observation by a second person. Examples of this type

were peer or consultant coaching, and clinical supervision. The third model was called

Involvement in a Development/Improvement Process and cast teachers into

collaborative groups engaging in curriculum writing, program design, or creating school

improvement action plans. The fourth model Training became for most teachers the

only form of professional development experienced. In the training model, teachers

were typically the recipients of stand-alone workshops conducted through a lecture

format by outside experts on a specific topic. The final model Inquiry centered on

reflective practice as described by John Dewey (1960) and put into practice as

classroom action research modeled after Schön (1983).

Other chroniclers of professional development (Sprinthall, Reiman, & Thies-

Sprinthall, 1996) organized a review around a statement by the philosopher Gilbert Ryle

who “provided a succinct differentiation between knowledge about (theory-description)

and knowledge how-to (program-description)” (p.668). Teacher professional

development that aligns with Ryle’s concept of knowledge about was categorized under the grouping, Theories for the Teacher as an Adult Learner. Principles of adult learning were drawn from cognitive and social constructivist learning theories, information processing theory, belief and attitude inventories, career development and ladder phases, and gender differences. The authors indicated that, in order for professional development to result in satisfactory outcomes; it needs to be a good match with teachers’ cognitive, sociocultural, and emotional status.

The second broad category of Sprinthall, et al. (1996), Teacher Development:

Approaches and Programs, focused on how professional development practices are linked to theory. Two types of programs were described: the craft model and the expert model. The craft model is based upon the assumption that a set of superior teaching practices exists that ought to be shared with all teachers. These practices are the result of “the accumulated wisdom from teachers and/or practice –oriented researchers”

(p.677). In many respects, craft knowledge seems quite similar to pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1986) without the assurances of accurate teacher subject knowledge. Updated craft model programs built on the romantic view of accumulated teacher wisdom, but added scientifically acquired data to decide which bits of wisdom were worth encouraging. One notable example is the Essential Schools program initiated by Ted Sizer (Morris, Chrispeels & Burke, 2003). Other types of craft model-

like programs include utilizing autobiographical case studies of successful practice,

school-based management teams, regional teacher resource centers, and teacher renewal

retreat locations.

The third type of professional development described by Sprinthall, et al.

(1996), Interactive Models, combines the concepts of teacher-as-an-adult-learner and

teacher-as-source-of-accumulated-wisdom. “Learning that impacts cognitive structure

and promotes more complex cognitions requires the active participation of the learner

(Anderson, 1990; Piaget, 1972; Vygotsky, 1978). The interactive models all seek to

engage the teacher as an active participant in the learning process” (p. 687). The

interactive models are based in teacher inquiry, cognitive and social constructivism, and

transformative learning. Notable examples include teacher as reflective practitioner,

teacher as action researcher, interactive partnership models, and mentoring/coaching

programs. In each case, teachers build on and refine their existing knowledge through

engaging in inquiry.

Program developers of teacher professional development need to consider

theory, practice, and research when designing programs. “Without a careful integration of the three components [teachers] will continue to traverse from fad to fad- perhaps blissfully unaware of the distinctions between the cosmic and the trivial” (Sprinthall, et al., 1996, p. 667).

Researchers specializing in the fields of science and mathematics education have recently published a framework for designing professional development that does combine multiple influences (Loucks-Horsley, et al., 2003). The framework builds upon the earlier Five Model research by Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) by recognizing

29 sociocultural factors that influence appropriate choices for professional development.

The design of a professional development program should consider: the knowledge and beliefs of the stakeholders, the context, in which the teachers work, and the critical issues that must be resolved. Ignoring these sociocultural factors seemed to doom weak programs to failure and seriously jeopardize strong ones. Teachers must be viewed as adult learners influenced by the complex social setting in which they live and teach.

Knowledge and Beliefs Context Critical Issues

• Learners and learning • Students, standards and • Finding time for learning results professional • Teachers and teaching development • Teachers and their • Nature of science learning needs • Ensuring equity

• Nature of mathematics • Curriculum, instruction, • Building professional assessment practices culture • Professional and the learning development environment • Developing leadership • The change process • Organizational culture • Building capacity for • Organizational structure sustainability and leadership • Scaling up • National, state, and local policies • Garnering public support • Available resources

• History of professional development

• Parents and the community

Table 2.2. Factors Impacting the Design of Professional Development Programs.

Table 2.2 was adapted from information in Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) and lists

possible considerations in each of the three areas.

Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) found that in practice, most professional

development episodes were not pure iterations of one the original five models; rather

actual programs shared a set of 18 strategies that were divided across six themes: (a)

aligning and implementing curriculum; (b) collaborative structures; (c) examining

teaching and learning; (d) immersion experiences; (e) practicing teaching; and (f)

vehicles and mechanisms (p.12). Strategies employed within the first theme support development of Shulman’s concept of curriculum content knowledge. Teachers would

spend time learning how to implement new curriculum, selecting appropriate classroom

materials, aligning classroom activities with standards or designing new curriculum.

Collaborative structures refer to teachers working in networks, study groups or

partnering with mathematical/scientific professionals in the workplace. Professional

development focused on the examination of teaching and learning would involve

teachers in classroom action research, lesson study, writing case studies or examining

student work perhaps through scoring assessments and reflecting on the student outcomes. Immersion experiences frequently place teachers in working laboratories or

ongoing scientific research projects to work side-by-side with scientists or

mathematicians. Teachers have first hand experience with inquiry as practiced by the

scientific community. Practicing teaching involves teaching other teachers through

mentoring or coaching programs. Frequently, mentor teachers model appropriate

pedagogy for new or struggling teachers. The last theme, vehicles and mechanisms,

validates the necessity for expert knowledge external to the teacher and the teacher’s

immediate working environment. Strategies in this theme include workshops, institutes,

seminars, and university courses. In some cases, electronic learning communities have

been established through chat rooms moderated by experts, video conferencing, or

online courses. A well-known strategy in this theme is the development of professional

developers, formerly known as the train-the-trainer model.

This list of six themes is not exhaustive of techniques in current practice, but

will be utilized here to organize a review of current articles in the professional

literature. Many of the professional development projects investigated and reported do

not fit neatly into one category or another, but for ease of discussion have been arbitrarily assigned to a category which appears to capture the dominant elements of the program. The first group of articles must have a classification of their own because they are summaries of summaries and the exact nature of the professional development was not reported.

Current Research in Science Education Professional Development

Analyses of Large Scale Multi-Site Science Education Programs

Banilower et al. (2006) analyzed ten years of annual reports submitted by 88

Local System Change (LSC) projects support by the National Science Foundation. One of the primary goals of the LSC funded projects was to “improve instruction in science, mathematics, and technology through teacher professional development within whole schools or school districts” (p.1). There were many design variations among the programs, but all were supposed to be based on five principles:

1. Use of professional development providers highly competent in subject

content and standards-based reform pedagogy for science education.

2. Establishing a collegial atmosphere for teachers as learners.

3. Focused delivery of subject and pedagogical content knowledge.

4. Providing high quality instructional materials and the training for

teachers to develop curriculum content knowledge.

5. Providing sustained support to teachers.

The purpose of this evaluation was to determine: (a) the overall quality of the professional development offered; (b) the extent of teacher and district involvement; (c) the impact on teacher preparedness, attitudes and beliefs about science, mathematics, and technology teaching; (d) the impact on classroom practices; (e) changes in districts’ vision for exemplary science, mathematics, and technology education; and (f) the extent of districts’ institutionalization of high quality science, mathematics, and technology professional development. The annual reports included multiple data sources: classroom teachers, principals and LSC support personnel. Teacher data were in the form of interviews, questionnaires, and classroom observation reports. Principals completed a questionnaire as well. LSC principal investigators and evaluators completed project rating scales and questionnaires. LSC principal investigators also were interviewed. Everyone was observed during professional development activities.

Banilower et al. (2006) found that the LSC goal of providing high quality professional development was met. Typically, summer institutes lasting one to two weeks were offered and followed up with periodic professional development and support throughout the school year. The follow-up activities varied widely from site to site and included: workshops/seminars, content institutes, study groups, coaching, mentoring, demonstration teaching, and classroom observations followed up with

debriefings. In nearly 50% of the sessions, teachers were engaged in learning through

inquiry, 17% of the sessions involved lecture, and 27% were based on examining

classroom practice and/or student work.

Achieving extensive involvement of teachers and districts was not as successful

as hoped. Large numbers of teachers did receive many hours of high quality

professional development. However, project planners underestimated the high rates of

teacher mobility within districts, from one teaching assignment to another, and losses

due to retirement, resignations and staff reductions. Other factors negatively impacting

teacher participation included shifting curricular priorities (from science to reading) within districts due to Federal accountability guidelines and district budget reductions resulting in the loss of professional development days and funding for substitute teachers.

Data collected indicated that teacher participation in LSC professional development had a small positive increase in teacher perceptions of pedagogical preparedness, attitudes and beliefs regarding reform-oriented teaching in science.

Classroom observations by project evaluators confirmed that teacher participation in

LSC professional development resulted in higher quality lessons. A positive correlation was found between the number of hours attending professional development and high evaluator ratings of classroom lessons.

LSC projects appear to have made positive progress in establishing acceptance of standards-based reforms in science teaching. At sites where LSC principal investigators cultivated principal, school district, and community buy-in, greater project

ratings were achieved. In some situations, creative community partnerships have been

formed to sustain LSC initiatives beyond the duration of the grant. In other locations

districts have purchased the recommended high quality materials, rewritten curricula,

and restructured the ways teachers receive classroom support in science.

The researchers concluded that overall, the LSC projects met the goals of providing high quality professional development, improving teacher knowledge and skills to teach science, and changing the institutional culture of how to “do” science.

Remaining challenges include guaranteeing the subject content knowledge of

professional development providers, devoting more time to increasing teacher content knowledge and less time to curricular content knowledge, increasing the amount of ongoing teacher support, including principals in training, and increasing the number of opportunities for teachers to attend professional development.

Borman et al. (2005) surveyed teachers and administrators at 47 Urban Systemic

Initiative school sites in four large urban districts: Chicago, El Paso, Memphis, and

Miami-Dade. The purpose of the survey was to ascertain teacher perceptions of what aspects of the LSC professional development were effective. The research questions were: (a) what components of professional development helped the most, (b) what challenges were experienced as a result of the professional development, (c) did the professional development alter teacher beliefs about teaching and learning, and (d) what changes in classroom practice occurred. Data were obtained from a Survey of

Classroom Practices and audio taped focus group meetings. Data indicated that the professional development components that helped the most and made changes in classroom practice focused on: using multiple assessment strategies, incorporating technology, differentiating instruction, learning about new standards, methods, and

curricular materials. Sessions that were not perceived to be useful by the teachers

seemed to have unacceptable time requirements: participating in networks or study

groups, attending training institutes exceeding 40 hours, observing other teachers,

portfolio assessment, and reading or journal writing. Teachers reported that they

increased their content knowledge and appreciated the professional development

received, but needed more support to implement the strategies in their classrooms. The

preferred structure of professional development was through active participation at

teachers’ home buildings.

Cormas, Barufaldi, Fleming, and Mezei (2007), analyzed the findings section of

21 GK-12 summary reports to catalogue effective characteristics reported to have

resulted from this professional development opportunity. The GK-12 programs, funded

by the National Science Foundation, were collaborations between institutions of higher

learning and local school districts. Graduate and advanced undergraduate students from

the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) were placed in

K-12 classrooms to work with teachers. Among the goals of the GK-12 programs were,

to improve student and teacher content knowledge. Effective Research-Based

Characteristics of Professional Development (ERBCPD); an instrument previously developed by Cormas was used to evaluate the reports. Eighteen characteristics were coded but only five were included in at least 50% of the reports and agreed upon by the

reviewers of the reports. The most frequently mentioned effective characteristics were:

(a) treats teachers as professionals, (b) involves collaboration among teachers and others, (c) professional development is ongoing, (d) improves communication skills (of the university students), and (d) professional development occurred in the home

environment of the teachers. Cormas et al. concluded that the absence in the data of

references to student or teaching content learning indicated that improvement in

monitoring the quality of professional development in GK-12 programs was warranted.

Schibeci and Hickey (2003) investigated the factors influential in 28 primary

grade teachers’ decisions to attend or avoid science professional development. Data

sources were audio taped individual teacher interviews and selected teacher professional development attendance records. Eight factors were found to be highly influential:

opportunity, compulsion, convenience, enticement, interest, recommendation, relevance, and commitment. Unexpected information that emerged from the data was the degree to which teachers’ life experiences contributed to their science content knowledge. Hobbies, vacations, previous job experiences, occupations of family members, and elective reading by the teachers, contributed to their knowledge and understanding of science content. The researchers suggested that professional development providers consider teachers’ prior knowledge when planning sessions.

Aligning and Implementing Curriculum

This section relates current research consistent with the first Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) theme. In aligning and implementing curriculum, teachers increase their knowledge and skills through learning how to implement new curriculum, writing new curriculum, aligning classroom practice to curriculum, or selecting appropriate classroom materials.

Beyer, et al. (2007) investigated the potential opportunities for individual teacher professional development through utilizing the teacher editions and supplements accompanying textbook series. A modified form of Davis and Krajcik’s design heuristic

37 for educative materials was applied to the teacher editions and/or teacher guides of eight biology textbook programs. The research questions centered on finding instances of teacher support in terms of: (a) teacher subject content knowledge, (b) PCK for teaching through inquiry, and (c) PCK for science topics. In addition, the researchers documented how often a rationale was provided for the supports compared to the frequency of implementation guidance. Data indicated that teachers could reliably use the teacher editions for subject content knowledge but not PCK for either inquiry or science topics. Furthermore, the textbooks provided more support for implementation

(how to do it) than rationale (why to do it). The researchers stated that the development of improved science curriculum materials to assist teachers in fostering deep student conceptual understanding was warranted.

Elster (2007) reported results from a 3-year European Development of

Innovative Science Teaching (EUDIST) project in which Austrian teacher-teams collaborated with subject experts, and pedagogical experts to generate integrated science curriculum units. Teaching science through integrated units was a significant departure from the traditional pedagogy and therefore necessitated new curriculum. A key element in EUDIST school improvement projects was the inclusion of teacher expertise in document and program planning. Data sources included discourse from group meetings, case study reflection papers written by the teachers, co-constructed training documents and school team generated mind maps, which are a type of flow chart. Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) classified curriculum writing under the theme aligning and implementing curriculum, although the long-term professional learning community nature of this project may also categorize it as collaborative structures. The

end product of this professional development project was a curriculum document

utilized throughout the school system.

Collaborative Structure

Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) described collaborative structures as those

programs involving professional learning communities, networks, communities of

practice, study groups, or community partnerships. Only one example was found in the

current literature.

Palincsar, Magnusson, Marano, Ford and Brown (1998) reported about a

Community of Practice (COP) formed for the purpose of co-constructing formal

knowledge of the practice of inquiry-based science teaching in elementary school.

Eighteen teachers from grades K-5 in schools predominately populated by economically disadvantaged students joined with two university instructors, one in science education and the other literacy, and their doctoral students. The intent of the group was to mesh the theoretical knowledge of the university experts with the practical knowledge of the classroom teachers into an orientation called Guided Inquiry supporting Multiple

Literacies (GIsML). Data sources included video taped classroom lessons, written lesson plans, observations, and student assessments. The project was initiated with two separate weeklong summer seminars. The first week focused on teachers learning about inquiry teaching through actually conducting investigations in the morning and in the afternoon debriefing with the university instructor to learn about the PCK employed in the morning session. During the second summer seminar, teacher teams planned and taught inquiry lessons to each other which were videotaped for group analysis. Teachers wrote journal entries recording their thoughts about the analysis. During the school

39 year, the COP met twice a month to analyze GIsML planned lessons that the teachers had taught in their own classrooms. Prior to presenting a teaching episode video to the entire group, teachers debriefed with a university instructor. Specific student conceptual understanding information was collected through pre-and post lesson assessments. Data suggest that a successful COP was formed as evidenced by teachers routinely citing contributions from each other during lesson analyses, and teachers forming smaller special interest groups within the COP for further study. One teacher confirmed the sense of group identity when she asked permission of the group to utilize GIsML lessons in a different instructional setting.

Examining Teaching and Learning

Programs in this category involve teachers in classroom action research, lesson study, writing case studies, or evaluating student work in terms of the attainment of pre- set criteria. Reflection and evaluation figured prominently in the teacher development activities in this theme.

Chen, Schwille, and Wickler (2007) reported an ongoing project in which teachers examined teaching and learning through lesson study. Sixteen teachers from grades 4, 5, and 6 participated in an intensive three-week summer institute to receive training in grade level specific subject content knowledge and lesson analysis techniques. Teachers were taught strategies for linking subject content to student learning through analyzing classroom videocases. A videocase was composed of one or more classroom videos plus all related teacher/student artifacts documenting a series of lessons. Throughout the school year teachers met monthly to review each other’s videocases. Data sources included: pre-and post- training classroom videos of each

teacher; written teacher subject content tests taken pre- and post- summer training and

then again at the end of the school year; three written teacher analyses of videocases;

and student pre- and post- school year subject content assessments. The intent of the

project was to increase teacher and student subject content knowledge, increase teacher skill in critiquing lessons, and to promote reform-based science teaching practices. At the time this paper was distributed at the annual meeting of National Association for

Research in Science Teaching, April 2007, no summative data were available.

Doyle (2007) also reported a lesson study utilizing classroom video to improve teacher subject and pedagogical content knowledge. Eighteen preservice teachers enrolled in a science methods class worked in small groups to plan and teach lessons to children in regular classrooms. The lessons were videotaped for co-analysis with an expert other, usually the cooperating classroom teacher. The preservice teachers wrote a summary paper following the analysis. Research data sources included written lesson plans, videotaped lessons and university instructor video observation notes. Document

analysis and oral inquiry results indicated that nine of the preservice teachers showed

evidence of increased PCK. The remaining preservice teachers had problems with incorrect subject content knowledge, faulty lesson plans, missed opportunities to address children’s misconceptions or classroom management issues.

Wong, Cheng and Yung (2007) investigated strategies for increasing high school science teachers PCK in physics (n=2), biology (n=2), and chemistry (n=1). Data

sources were teacher responses to the Views of the Nature of Science (VNOS) questionnaire, classroom videos, study group discussion notes, teacher semi-structured interviews and a post-project questionnaire. The strategies offered to the teachers were

attending a six-hour training session featuring (a) instruction about NOS, (b) a rationale

for new curricular materials, and (c) how to review videotaped lessons. An alternate

choice was to implement classroom lessons and analyzing videotapes of the lessons

with the curriculum writers and other teachers. Data indicated that the most effective

strategies were implementing the lessons and reviewing the videotapes in a study group.

Trendel, Fischer, Reyer and Wackermann (2007) assisted 18 high school physics

teachers in Germany to engage in videotaped lesson analysis. The teachers received

initial training in applying the theory of Basis Models of Teaching and Learning

proposed by Oser and Baeriswyl, (2001). This theory involves identifying systematic

linkages between learning goals and learning processes. Throughout the school term, the teachers videotaped five lessons and met both as a group and individually with a coach to analyze the lessons. Data sources included a teacher questionnaire, a structured teacher interview, co-constructed video analysis of five different lessons, student examinations, and a student perception inventory. The research questions examined how teachers used PCK to pursue classroom instructional goals and what changes resulted from the professional development lesson study. The findings indicated that using videotaped lessons was an effective means of focusing on teacher intent and student outcomes. Teachers easily identified lapses in implementing the Basis Model and were able to propose lesson revision. Over the course of the project, teachers increased the level of cognitive activity in their classrooms.

Immersion Experience

Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) characterized this theme by the authentic inquiry experiences of teachers with real-world scientists and mathematicians.

Grove and Dixon (2007) investigated the participation of 13 K-12 classroom

teachers in the Research Experience for Teachers (RET) program. This program places

teachers with a mentor scientist for six weeks to engage in authentic inquiry. The RET program was based upon five elements of high quality science teaching: inquiry, NOS, experimental design, process skills, and communication about science. Teachers were

screened for suitability to participate in this situated cognition type of apprenticeship.

Teachers needed to submit a written lesson plan and a videotape of a typical science

lesson with their application. During the six-week mentorship, the teachers attended a

weekly colloquium discussion (conducted by a RET staff member) around the five

elements in relation to their laboratory participation. Two days after each colloquium an

expert in the field conducted a follow-up discussion with the teachers around the five

elements. Data sources for this research included pre-RET experience written lesson

plans and videotape, pre-and post-program interviews, revisited lesson plans, post-

program classroom observations, and follow-up interviews of the five teachers

observed. Results were interpreted in terms of expectancy theory, which suggests that

rich, laboratory or field science experiences may change a teacher’s perception of how

science really works in applied venues and subsequently alter classroom practice. Data

indicated that teachers increased their understanding of the five RET elements. Many of

the teachers reported that they would make changes to their submitted lesson plans as a

result of their RET experience. However, classroom observations indicated very little

change in teaching practice. Grove and Dixon cited research suggesting that dramatic

changes to teaching practice do not occur immediately, but rather changes will be

enacted over time. A follow-up study of previous RET participants was planned to see

if the five RET elements have been incorporated over time.

Practicing Teaching

The unusual theme title, practicing teaching, indicates programs in which

teachers either provide or receive mentoring or coaching on their teaching practice.

Personal growth occurs whether one is the provider or the receiver of services, similar to reciprocal teaching.

Koch and Appleton (2007) reported on the effect of a mentoring model of

professional development with two Australian year-7 teachers. The mentoring was initiated with a full day workshop on inquiry methods and co-constructing an instructional unit on mystery matter, which involved identifying a number of similarly looking white powders. Over a ten-week period, mentoring was enacted in three ways: semi-formal small group activities, cooperative lesson planning, and cooperative teaching. Data were collected from researcher classroom observation notes, pre-and post-mentoring interviews, and an episode of Draw-a-Science-Teacher-Test (DAST-T).

The research question was to discover pedagogical changes occurring during and after

the mentoring process. Data indicated that both teachers increased their efficacy for

teaching science. Both teachers also improved their classroom questioning techniques

and implementation of student inquiry.

Sterling, Frazier, Logerwell, and Dunn (2007) investigated a variety of support measures for the support and retention of non-certified science teachers. The New

Science Teachers Support Network (NSTSN) was established to provide professional development during the first two years of non-certified teachers’ careers. Thirty-six new

suburban high school teachers participated in the study; 21 of them were in the

treatment group. Supports given to the treatment group were extensive and included:

two university taught methods courses, coaching (96 contact hours the first year and 24

hours the second) by a retired science Master Teacher, unlimited access to an onsite colleague teacher mentor, access to a university subject content mentor, and teacher resource support via the NSTSN website. Data were collected from students, coaches,

and the teachers themselves. Student achievement data were collected in the forms of

course grades, end-of-course exams, and state mandated achievement tests. The coaches

provided a performance rating and regular classroom observation reports. The teachers

completed online efficacy surveys three times the first year and two times the second

year. There were three types of efficacy surveys: teacher self-efficacy, efficacy for

teaching diverse students, and science teaching efficacy. Findings indicated that there

was no significant difference between treatment and control teachers on any of the three

efficacy scales. Student assessments indicated that the students of the treatment teachers

had higher state standardized test scores; results for student grades however were mixed

among the grade levels and courses. Data from the coach ratings and observation

reports indicated higher growth in classroom management, planning and instruction for

teachers who had received support through NSTSN.

Vehicles and Mechanisms

Programs categorized under this theme include traditional workshops, seminars,

course, and institutes. The training sessions may occur face-to-face or in some cases

through electronic learning communities moderated by experts, video conferencing, or

online courses. A well-known strategy in this theme is the development of professional

developers, formerly known as the train-the-trainer model. The most important feature

of this category is the use of outside experts to bring new knowledge to teachers.

Rannikmae, et al. (2007) reported a multi-year study to follow and document the sustainability of science teacher change toward Scientific and Technological Literacy

(STL) teaching. Twenty experienced high school chemistry teachers participated in this study. In the first year, teachers were introduced to the philosophy and instructional techniques of STL. The STL approach focused on teaching science through problem solving of current socially relevant issues. The model highlighted teaching key scientific conceptual understandings in relation to social, environmental, ethical, and personal components. Embedding science learning in social issues was expected to increase student engagement and increase conceptual understanding. In the first year, an emphasis was placed on teachers creating and field-testing curricular materials consistent with STL. Teachers were provided with regular inservice support in STL during Years 2-5 of the study. Data were collected twice from teacher generated teaching-learning charts. The first was created at the end of the first year in which extensive professional development occurred, and again five years later. Results indicated that pedagogical change depended upon teachers developing ownership of reform initiatives. Little evidence could be found indicating pedagogical acceptance of

Scientific and Technological Literacy principles. A few teachers utilized social issues to introduce a topic, but most continued to rely on a traditional textbook based approach to

instruction.

Nichols, Churach, and Fisher (2007) inquired into teacher attitudes regarding the

mining and mineral processing industry following an intensive training effort. The

46 underlying purpose of the training was to increase the number of people choosing to enter the mining and mineral processing industry. It was not the intent to recruit the teachers, but rather for the teachers to give their students an inviting view of the industry. A government funded research center, university science department, and industry partners collaborated in providing professional development training to 44

Australian classroom teachers. The training consisted of short courses, workshops, and lectures on resource processing techniques to increase subject content knowledge. To build knowledge of how the geological sciences are applied, tours of the research facility and industrial sites, as well as mini-sessions explicating the processing industry structure were given. The data source was an attitude inventory composed of 16 Likert- type items. Data results indicated that the teachers had increased positive attitudes toward the mining and mineral industry following the training.

Lee et al. (2004) investigated teacher beliefs about teaching science through inquiry before and after a yearlong training program. This study was part of a larger study introducing science to a diverse student population and incorporated cultural and linguistic accommodations in an effort to close achievement gaps. The teacher participants were 53 third and fourth grade teachers in six schools of a large urban school district. A lack of instructional materials consistent with the researchers’ goals, necessitated the development of two units for each grade level incorporating inquiry, cultural considerations, English Second Language (ESL) supports, and basic literacy.

Teacher guides were also developed containing content specific teaching strategies.

Over the course of the school year, teachers attended four full day workshops during normal school hours. The first workshop focused on the role of inquiry in science and

how to engage students in inquiry. The second workshop was devoted to ESL

accommodations and facilitating literacy through science. The third workshop addressed the importance of including students’ home culture and language into daily instruction. During the fourth (last) workshop, teachers shared their implementation experiences. Data sources included pre- and post-training focus group interviews, a post project teacher questionnaire, and classroom observation notes. Classroom observations were coded for scientific understanding, use of inquiry, presence of discourse, and teacher subject content knowledge. The teacher questionnaire and focus group responses indicated that the teachers felt more prepared and had an increased positive attitude toward inquiry science. Classroom observations however, did not indicate much change in actual practice.

Krockover and Carleton (2007) also investigated changes in teacher beliefs following a yearlong training program. The training “focused on assisting teachers in meeting state and national education standards by integrating constructivist-based,

inquiry-oriented teaching techniques into classroom” instruction (p.3). The program

consisted of a two-week summer institute modeling the use of science at a contrived,

crime scene investigation. The emphasis was placed on utilizing inquiry and

constructivist methods to solve the make-believe crime. During the two-week period

teachers also collaborated to write an instructional unit to teach the following school

year. Two refresher sessions occurred during the school year and teachers presented the

outcomes of their instructional unit at a spring state science conference. Three administrations of the Context Beliefs about Teaching Science (CBATS) and teacher reflection papers provided the data for analysis. Data indicated that there was an overall

48 increase in teachers’ beliefs about their teaching context; however, there were variable outcomes among the subscales on the CBATS. Participants were challenged by time constraints, student behavior, and lack of student prior subject content knowledge.

Nevertheless, teacher beliefs regarding availability of high quality instructional materials and administrator support for science education increased, but enabling beliefs in terms of power differentials with state board of education directives remained low.

Rogers et al. (2007) investigated teachers’ and professional development providers’ views of the most effective components of a yearlong professional development program. The program included attendance at a two-to-three week summer institute focused on inquiry-based teaching projects and several follow-up sessions throughout the school year. The data source was individually conducted, semi- structured interviews with 72 teachers and 32 professional development providers.

Interview comments from the teachers revealed that they valued receiving instructional activities that were ready-to-use in their classrooms. Teachers also appreciated professional development sessions in which they actively engaged in the student activities to fully grasp potential implementation challenges. Developing networks with other teachers was the third component mentioned by teachers. Providers thought that effective professional development included practical and grade level specific activities.

Providers also thought that it was important to allow teachers time to engage in guided inquiry with the student activities and to model the use of research-based teaching strategies. Providers emphasized the effectiveness of debriefing after active learning sessions to make the instructional strategies explicit to the teachers. Increasing teacher subject content knowledge and establishing collegial relationships with the teachers

were two additional measures of effective professional development discussed by the

providers.

Wee, Shepardson, Fast and Harbor (2007) investigated if teachers who had

attended professional development training in inquiry science instruction, expanded

their understanding of inquiry, or ability to design inquiry-based lessons through actual

practice in their classrooms. The participants were four purposely-selected teachers who

had participated in a comprehensive professional development program titled Envision

which targeted teachers’ understanding of environmental science concepts, inquiry, and inquiry teaching. The training consisted of a pre-institute workshop, a four-week summer institute and an additional workshop during the school year. Data sources included teacher created lesson files, written teacher responses to open response prompts, concept maps, and observation reports compiled by an Envision master teacher. The lesson files were composed of a written narrative describing a lesson and related artifacts such as assessments, teacher developed materials, laboratory assignments, and student assignments. The open response prompts probed teacher understanding of inquiry within the context of classroom pedagogy. Concept maps were used to examine teacher understanding of inquiry in general. The observations were conducted using a protocol called the Inquiry Analysis Tool (IAT) and the reports consisted of field notes and teacher interview data. Data indicated that classroom implementation added little to the teachers’ understanding of inquiry in general.

Teachers’ understanding of inquiry in the context of classroom pedagogy and ability to design inquiry lessons was improved after attendance at the summer institute but this knowledge was not observed in practice.

Morrison and Estes (2007) explored teacher perspectives on engaging in simulations of real world inquiry led by scientists in addition to traditional training on using new instructional kits. The participants were 47 middle school teachers in

Washington State. The professional development was offered during the summer and consisted of two days with scientific experts and two days with science educators. The scientists led the teachers in a problem-based adult learning opportunity on the same topic as covered by the teaching kits. The science educators led the teachers through the new curricular materials emphasizing how to use the supplies. Data sources included pre, post, and delayed post teacher surveys, focus group interviews with seven teachers, videotaped classroom observations and follow-up interviews with five teachers, the researcher’s observation log, and feedback from the scientists. In addition to gleaning teacher perspectives on receiving professional development from real scientists, the researchers wanted to see if the inquiry methods espoused by the scientists were incorporated in the teachers’ classrooms. Data indicated that the teachers experienced frustration when working with the scientists, because the teachers lacked precise content vocabulary and prior content knowledge; but at the end teachers reported gains in both.

The teachers enjoyed the adult learning opportunity, but did not think that the time spent on it was warranted. They would have preferred more time to receive practical information about the new kits. However, at the delayed post survey, teachers reported that they were glad they had spent two days in adult learning, as the additional subject content knowledge accrued enabled them to teach the kit lessons with greater depth.

Kahle et al. (2000) investigated the impact of standards based teaching on

African-American urban middle school student achievement. This study was part of a

larger study examining changes in teaching and learning in Ohio as a result of

participation in the Systemic School Initiative (SSI). The participants were eight urban

middle school teachers who had received SSI professional development in science

education and their African-American students. The teachers participated in a six-week summer institute designed to expand teacher subject content knowledge, to experience

modeled inquiry instruction, and to explicitly connect course content to the National

Science Education Standards. During the school year, attendance at six seminars that

stressed standards-based teaching, equity and assessment were required. Data were

collected from teacher, principal and student questionnaires. Students also took the

Discovery Inquiry Test; an assessment modeled after the NAEP assessments to measure

student knowledge. Results indicated that students in the classes of teachers who

attended SSI professional development scored higher on the Discovery Inquiry Test than students in matched control group classes. Sustained professional development emphasizing content knowledge and inquiry teaching increased the likelihood that standards-based instruction actually occurred in classrooms. Students’ gender, attitude toward science, and perception of peer participation were important predictors of science achievement. Girls scored higher than the boys and tended to have better attitudes and perceptions of greater home support.

Czerniak (2007) reported findings of an analysis of student science achievement records of fourth and sixth grade Ohio students whose teachers participated in the

Toledo Area Partnership in Education: Support Teachers as Resources to Improve

Elementary Science (TAPESTRIES). TAPESTRIES was funded through an Urban

Systemic Initiative grant from the National Science Foundation. Analyses were

conducted on Ohio Proficiency exam results for 8,060 fourth and sixth grade students in

Toledo Public Schools and yearly classroom observations. Sixteen trained elementary

support teachers conducted the classroom observations. The TAPESTRIES program

was focused on increasing teacher knowledge and skills to teach standards-based

lessons through: developing a cadre of science support teachers; providing high quality

and sustained professional development; implementing inquiry-based science curriculum; and aligning curriculum, classroom practice, and assessment to national standards. Support teachers received a two-week summer institute, two university courses, a staff retreat and attendance at a spring conference. After training, support teachers were assigned a cohort of classroom teachers to coach through bi-weekly lesson studies. In addition to training the support teachers, TAPESTRIES staff hosted a retreat for principals and two community meetings for disbursing information about the ongoing teacher training. A newsletter was published in the fall and spring to share updates regarding teacher science resources and opportunities. A website was maintained by TAPESTRIES staff to facilitate teacher networking, access to expert subject content knowledge through a link titled Ask-a-Scientist, and sharing of teacher resources. Data indicated that Ohio Proficiency Science Test scores improved in Toledo after TAPESTRIES implementation. Higher levels of implementation yielded higher test scores. A cumulative effect of having multiple TAPESTRIES teachers was associated with increased student achievement.

Summary of Professional Development in Science Education

This section reviewed some of the current literature on teacher professional development models. Specific examples where organized under the Loucks-Horsley et

al. (2003) themes: aligning and implementing curriculum; collaborative structure;

examining teaching and learning; immersion experiences; practicing teaching; and

vehicles and mechanisms. In some cases the teacher learning goals were centered on

increasing subject matter knowledge (immersion experiences), others focused on

pedagogical knowledge (aligning and implementing curriculum), and still others were

directed to improving PCK (collaborative structure; examining teaching and learning;

practicing teaching). One set of studies, vehicles and mechanisms, confronted learning

needs for all kinds of knowledge through complex long-term interventions. The next

section will look more closely at one type of program for teacher learning classified

under examining teaching and learning, classroom action research.

Overview of Action Research

Historical accounts credit Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist and German

immigrant with creating the phrase action research to describe the process of generating

corrective actions by reflecting upon problems in practice (Masters, 1995; McTaggart,

1991). Lewin (1948) published an article titled, “Action Research and Minority

Problems” in which he described the process of action research as a cycle of: (a) problem identification, (b) solution selection, (c) implementation and (d) evaluation of outcomes. Others before Lewin had promoted reflective inquiry, notably John Dewey

(1960) and employed techniques similar to action research in solving social problems

(Kock, McQueen, & Scott, n.d.; Masters; McTaggart). In the 60 years since its inception, action research has evolved into different forms to suit the theoretical and practical needs of the participants (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2003; McKernan, 1996;

McTaggart).

Classifications of Action Research

The literature describes multiple classifications of action research each reflective

of varying epistemological positioning and purpose. Some types of action research are

based in critical theory and focus on the emancipation or transformation of participants

laboring under social, political, economic, gender or racial restrictions. Many

educational action research approaches are directed primarily at developing practical

applications rooted in learning theory instead of social-political theories. A few action

research models are quite close to traditional positivist research designs in that they

systematically study the effects of implementing specific strategies in social settings.

Businesses have appropriated other types of action research for training purposes,

internal productivity audits and human relations assessment. Business models rely on

management psychology instead of social-political theory, learning theory, or scientific

rationalism.

The seven types of action research described by Kemmis and McTaggart (2003) are delineated primarily by theoretical framework and enactment location. Participatory

action research is usually conducted in developing countries and has three attributes that

distinguish it from regular research: (a) shared ownership of research projects, (b)

community-based analysis of social problems, and (c) orientation toward community

action. There is a strong element of emancipation in participatory action research.

Outside leaders work with disenfranchised locals who need assistance in gaining

equitable treatment in economical, political or social institutions. Friere’s (2003)

description of promoting literacy in Brazil and Chile is a good example of participatory

action research. Pedagogy of the Oppressed was written in 1968 by Paulo Freire as an

explanation of his work in Brazil educating disenfranchised people. Freire’s book

weaves together multiple theories of philosophy, political activism, and education.

Friere described how teachers literate in the ways of oppression and infused with love

for mankind could serve as guides to the oppressed.

Critical action research is similar to participatory action research in that it shares a theoretical stance in critical theory, but proponents of critical action research also

strive to be very inclusive of all participants. This type of action research may be

conducted anywhere that groups are marginalized. The goal is to effect social change to

eliminate/equalize the social factors that unfairly discriminate among members of the

community. Consequently, a large network of participants is sought to provide insight into the problem, suggest remediation and maintain the solutions in practice. Ladson-

Billings’ (1994) work with teachers of African-American students is a good representation of critical action research. In The Dreamkeepers, Ladson-Billings described her work as an ethnographic study, but because the teachers “agreed to participate in a research collaborative that would analyze and interpret the data and work together to understand their collective expertise” (p. 145), the work also may be considered as action research. The goal of the research was to document effective instructional practices with African-American students. As the teachers reflected about their own practice, they implemented changes to better suit the needs of their students.

The distinguishing feature of the third classification, classroom action research, is that it is conducted by teachers, and occurs in K-12 school and university classrooms.

The emphasis of the research is on practical classroom issues such as building classroom community or how to help a class of children master a specific domain of

knowledge. Theories used to guide classroom action research are more likely to be learning theories rather than critical theories. University personnel often offer expert assistance in terms of data collection and analysis techniques. They also may assist in

organizing focus groups or professional learning communities for the researching

teachers to discuss and share their findings. van Zee (1998) reported on her facilitation

of classroom action research by both preservice and inservice teachers. This project had

multiple layers of research in that van Zee who is a university assistant professor

examined her practice as an instructor of preservice teachers while simultaneously the

preservice and inservice teachers examined their instructional practices with children.

At both levels, the knowledge sought pertained directly to effective instructional

practice.

Action science is a technique used by businesses and some educational

organizations to uncover the gaps between practical knowledge used by workers and the theoretical knowledge they are expected to have. It “emphasizes the study of practice in organizational settings as a source of new understandings and improved practice”

(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2003, p. 342). Frequently outside consultants are employed to facilitate focus groups, surveys, and other forms of data collection within the organization. In 2004, this author participated in an action science inquiry into how her school district was implementing differentiated compensation programs for teachers.

American Product Quality Control (APQC), a consulting agency based in Houston,

Texas, assisted Columbus Public Schools, Denver Public Schools, Douglas County

School District (Colorado), Houston Independent School District, Milwaukee Public

Schools, New Orleans Public Schools, Oakland Unified School District (California),

and Wichita Public Schools in a benchmarking project to identify what was currently

being done in terms of differentiated compensation for teachers. Three group meetings

were held once each in Denver, Columbus and Houston. In between the meetings

participants met through conference telephone calls and communicated through email.

APQC’s role was to manage the meetings and communication and help us utilize our

existing resources, both human and material, to fully develop our well-intentioned but

disjointed existing programs. Through APQC’s prompting, Columbus Public Schools

conducted an online survey of teachers to discover their thoughts about the Gainsharing

plan in which school staffs receive bonus pay for exceeding adequate yearly progress

standards. Five focus groups were also conducted around the district to allow teachers

an open forum for sharing their experiences and feelings about the Performance

Advancement System, the district-wide teacher action research program. When it was

Columbus’ turn to host the face-to-face meeting, participants visited ten schools to

allow unscripted discourse regarding the benchmarking project. By the end of the

school year, each school district had developed an action plan detailing current status,

long-term goals and ongoing SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Results-

oriented, and Timely) goals for improving their differentiated compensation programs.

Kemmis and McTaggart (2003) assigned the term action learning to the action

research conducted by large organizations such as hospitals or community service

groups. Typical research questions center on topics such as the fit between the

organization’s mission statement and the actual implementation. An emphasis would be

on identifying and removing barriers to achieving the organization’s goals. Action

learning has been used by businesses to train their managers in implementing company

policy and to trouble shoot problems. Townsend and Adams (2004) reported on a

yearlong action research inquiry into a school district’s progress toward developing a

professional learning community. District-wide data were collected through focus

groups, surveys, interviews and document analysis. Participants included teachers,

administrators, custodians, bus drivers, and educational assistants. The researchers

generated a list of 11 recommendations for future action by the school district. Some of

the recommendations suggested areas for review and revision to include the voices of all stakeholders; others noted areas that were functioning well and should be continued.

The findings of this action research were used to align the school district’s policies and

practices to their goal of becoming a professional learning community.

Kemmis and McTaggart (2003) identified two more action research models

commonly used in business, soft systems approach and industrial. Both of these

approaches are consultant driven and aim to increase efficiency and productivity within

the organization. The soft systems approach draws out the expertise of the workers for problem solution while the industrial model supplies training from the outside for the workers. Both models are influenced by organizational psychology and business management techniques.

The work of German philosopher Jürgen Habermas has also influenced thinking about action research (McTaggart, 1991). His theory of knowledge-constitutive interests, suggests that how knowledge is constituted reflects the way it is subsequently used. Knowledge that is obtained through empirical-analytic means is used for technical purposes. Knowledge developed through hermeneutic-interpretive strategies is used for practical applications. Knowledge obtained through critical-political

analysis is destined for use in emancipatory causes. The influence on Tripp’s (1990)

action research categories is clear. Tripp characterized three types of classroom action research: technical, practical and emancipatory. In technical action research, teachers select an instructional strategy and study how it works in their own classroom. Practical action research is self-directed and aimed at improvement within day-to-day classroom

functioning. Emancipatory action research is also self-directed but is intended to

identify and rectify social limitations to educational functioning.

McKernan (1996) also identified three broad types of action research that seem

to be influenced by Habermas’ theory of knowledge constitutive interests. Type 1,

scientific-technical, has positivist traits and involves testing a particular intervention

within a specified theoretical construct. Type 2, practical-deliberative, involves

collaboration among participants to define, understand and solve a problem. Type 3,

critical-emancipatory, focuses on designing practical and political action to theoretically

situate and solve an identified problem.

Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1993) have developed an analytical framework for

teacher action research that has two broad categories: empirical and conceptual.

Empirical action research deals directly with the analysis and interpretation of field

collected data. Three types of empirical research are delineated by mode of reflection:

teacher journaling, oral inquiries, and classroom/school studies. Through journal

writing, teachers privately reflect upon the impact of their instructional practices upon

their students. Oral inquiries are a form of collaborative group reflection in which

multiple teachers discuss issues, experiences and meaning related to the outcomes of

instructional practice within their own and each other’s classrooms. Classroom studies

60 can be individual or collaborative, but are based upon data collected through interviews, observations and documents such as student work. The fourth type of teacher research is enacted through essay writing and is classified under the heading conceptual research.

In conceptual research, teachers draw upon multiple sources of information to build persuasive essays about educational research, classroom climate, or other assertions for which their reflections can supply warrants.

Unique Characteristics of Action Research

The many forms of action research share a number of common elements that differentiate it from other types of research. Action research has often been envisioned as a cyclical process in which successive episodes grow ever closer to truth and successful resolution of the problem (Kock,, et al., n.d.; Lewin, 1948; Masters, 1995;

O’Brien, 1998). McTaggart (1991) made the connection between action research and the Aristotelian concept of praxis. Praxis is the state of practice being informed by personal reflection on one’s actions and the outcomes of those actions. The cycle has been described as having four (Lewin) or five steps (Sussman & Evered, 1978.) The process involves identifying a problem, planning action to address the problem, implementing the action, and reflectively assessing the results of the action. O’Brien stated, “For action researchers, theory informs practice, practice refines theory, in a continuous transformation. (p.5)” Action research cycles are meant to be responsive events and in practice frequently are altered mid-cycle as results dictate the need, i.e., if the action does not help alleviate the problem, the action is changed until it does

(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2003; Kock, et al.; Lewin; Schön, 1983).

Personal engagement and collaboration among the participants are other key elements of action research. The researcher does not provide a treatment to subjects; rather all parties concerned are considered participants with an equal voice. Masters

(1995) identifies this as empowerment of participants and collaboration through participation. Winter (1989) stated that action research is characterized as having collaborative resource and plural structure. Feldman and Atkin (1995) describe action research as collaborative, focused on own practice, and self-developmental.

The acquisition of knowledge, generated through reflection and discussion among participants, is the goal of action research (Kock, et al., n.d.; Lewin, 1948;

Masters, 1995; O’Brien, 1998). Winter (1989) identified the concepts of reflective critique and dialectical critique, which involve participants explicitly stating their personal situations regarding the problem and resolving the issue through extensive discussion among peers. Winter further explained that there is a certain amount of risk in participants being so forthright in inviting public scrutiny of their personal beliefs and practice.

Accounts of the elements of action research emphasize the strong moral mandate to act in a conscionable manner and actually implement the knowledge gained.

Masters (1995) stated that social change is the direct result of action research. Kemmis and McTaggart (2003) stated that participatory action research has an “orientation toward community action” (p. 337). Feldman and Atkin (1995) described the moral component inherent in the instructional decisions of teachers. Lewin (1948) went so far as to say:

The research needed for social practice can best be characterized as research for social management or social engineering. It is a type of action research, a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action, and research leading to social action. [Italics added] Research that produces nothing but books will not suffice. (pp. 202-203)

Data Collection and Analysis Methods in Action Research

Data collection methods in action research are selected to provide the data

necessary to answer the research questions. However, the cyclical nature of action

research − identify a problem, collect data, act on the data, re-evaluate the problem, collect data, over and over, often requires multiple forms of data collection techniques within the same project. Conventional research methods include observations, interviews, surveys, questionnaires, audio, and videotaping (Calhoun, 1994; Ferrance,

2000; Meyers & Rust, 2003). Archival data such as student permanent record files including grades, attendance, referrals, standardized test scores, and awards/honors provide valuable baseline information (Calhoun; Ferrance). Student generated artifacts such as writing samples, portfolio entries, projects, or journals have been suggested as well (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993; Hubbard & Power, 1993; Meyers & Rust). Less commonly used techniques are classroom maps, photographs, student sketch journals, and sociograms (Ernst, 1997; Hubbard & Power).

Data analysis technique tends toward interpretive methods such as discourse analysis, oral processing, document analysis, and reflection journals (Cochran-Smith &

Lytle, 1993; Kemmis & McTaggart, 2003). To increase the trustworthiness of the findings, action researchers often engage in triangulation of the data to support conclusions with multiple views. The criteria for establishing trustworthiness are (a) credibility, (b) transferability, and (c) dependability as explained in a (d) reflexive

journal (Lather, 2001). These criteria are supported through prolonged engagement and persistent observation. Having a robust data corpus, an impeccable audit trail, and clear writing also enhance the trustworthiness of the research conclusions.

Situating Action Research in General Research

Inquiry paradigms can be differentiated one from another through determining

the intended purpose of the research and examining the ontology, epistemology and

methodology of the approach. Researchers have suggested four main purposes for

research: prediction, understanding, emancipation and deconstruction (Lather & St.

Pierre, 2005). In the descriptions that follow and in Table 2.3, the purposes are

compared in terms of whole-to-part relationships.

Typically, research conducted to predict an outcome has a positivistic stance yet

may use a wide variety of methods to collect and analyze data. A key difference from

the other purposes is found in the ontology; positivists believe there is only one reality

and it is accessible to everyone through sensory experience. Discovering this whole

from examining the pieces of evidence is the goal of a positivist researcher. The

epistemology of the positivist proclaims that knowledge exists outside of the human

mind and power is obtained through collecting the most knowledge. There are

prescribed methods for obtaining correct knowledge; violations of the methods result in

incorrect information. Methodology includes the techniques of observation, interview,

planned treatments, and measured variables. An important part of the research design is

a thorough review of previous knowledge and theory surrounding the subject of interest.

Using this knowledge, a hypothesis is put forth and an inviolate plan is devised to test

the hypothesis. Data analysis is usually done mathematically and conclusions are based

on statistical significance. The researcher maintains a professional distance from the

subjects/objects of study to avoid introducing threats to validity; in the best studies, the subjects are drawn randomly from a population and furthermore randomly assigned to treatment. If the results are deemed significant, conclusions are generalized back to the entire population. The researcher’s purpose is to find “truth” in controlled situations so that knowledge is advanced for everyone. Action research conducted from a positivist stance is likely to be funded and or facilitated from a large organization.

Research focused on understanding is interpretive in its posture and may employ

naturalistic or ethnographic forms of data collection, but is theoretically based in

constructivism. Constructivism might be considered the opposite of deconstructivism in

that constructivism is based on collecting pieces of data and transforming them into

understandable wholes. However, the ontology of a constructivist would support the existence of multiple realities, all equally valid, unlike the positivist. The epistemology

of a constructivist would buttress the belief that individuals create reality through

uniquely lived circumstances. Power is created through understanding the entire

constellation of factors present in the environment. Methodology for a constructivist might include observation, interviews, manipulation of objects, analysis of social customs, discerning purpose of behavior, or participant-observation. An overarching theme in constructivism is an emergent research design in which the researcher is closely engaged with the subjects of study. The subjects and population are considered simultaneously. Research conclusions may be reached through consensus with the subjects. Many forms of action research could be located in this quadrant of the research paradigms.

Critical-emancipatory purposed research is similar to constructivism in that the

ontology dictates a belief in multiple realities, but a practitioner of a critical-

emancipatory stance views differential power among the realities. In this view, pieces of reality are constructed into different wholes, but the wholes are not of equal social standing. Emancipatory research is epistemologically based in critical theory such as

gender, race, or political and often utilizes participatory action research to achieve

results. This epistemological view claims that the value or power of knowledge is

measured in terms of how it enhances political or social influence. Different ways of

knowing privilege some people above others. Dominant social groups are charged with

actively promoting their view of reality while suppressing everyone else’s. Unjust social

structures are viewed as intact wholes that must be disabled into constituent pieces to

fairly redistribute the social power. The methodology is conducted primarily through

language, both oral (dialogic and interview) and written (text analysis). The researcher

is highly engaged with the subjects of study and considers the general population

simultaneously. The overall purpose of the researcher is very much guided by a desire

for emancipation, conclusions are meant to promote social change. For many action

researchers, critical-emancipatory is the only true way to conduct action research.

Deconstructivist research can be characterized as aggressively disarticulating

existing realities (wholes) into constitutive parts. Research grounded in

deconstructivism relies on post structural, postmodern and similar worldview theories.

The ontological beliefs of deconstructionists are driven by incertitude in that all

concepts, beliefs and social structures may be based upon falsehoods or truths, yet the

way to determine truth is unknown. The epistemological position of deconstructionists

substantiates their claim that knowledge is only found within a power network, which

means that all knowledge is dangerous, i.e. capable of causing harm if used on someone

who is outside of the network. Methodology in deconstructivism is unique unto

practitioners, as each must struggle to express their inquiry in a meaningful yet non-

abusive manner. Deconstructionist researchers conduct their inquiry removed from the

subjects or objects of study and deliberately avoid connecting the results of their inquiry

to the population at large making it unsuitable for most kinds of action research.

Inquiry Paradigm Purpose of Research Forms of Action Research

Positivism Predict Action Science

(Parts to one whole) Soft Systems Approach

Industrial

Constructivism Understand Classroom Action Research

(Parts to multiple wholes) Action Learning

Critical Emancipate Participatory Action Research

(Some wholes to parts) Critical Action Research

Post modern Deconstruction Elements of deconstructivism may appear in any form of (Wholes to parts) action research.

Note. Paradigms are modeled after Lather & St. Pierre, 2005. Forms of action research are from Kemmis & McTaggart, 2003.

Table 2.3. Situating Action Research in Inquiry Paradigms by Purpose of Research

Rationale for Classroom Action Research in Science Education

In his lecture at the 1986 NSTA annual meeting, Hurd (1986) addressed ways research in science education can serve teachers better and improve student learning.

Among the points he raised was the need for research in science education to adopt a new integrative model encompassing qualitative as well as quantitative elements. He suggested “a model derived from ecology which recognizes complexities and assumes broad patterns of interactive behavior such as would be characteristic of a teacher and students in a learning situation” (Hurd, p. 3). While Hurd did not use the phrase teacher action research, he called for the inclusion of teachers as full partners in science education research. Without the perspective of practitioners, research on instruction, curriculum, and learning becomes little more than “an interesting exercise” (p. 3).

Duckworth (1987) recounted her technique of teaching preservice teachers to engage in teaching as research. At the core of her method was assigning students a natural phenomenon to observe such as phases of the moon or the motion of a pendulum and observing how the students made sense out of their inquiry. In the current science education vernacular, this would be labeled as teaching through inquiry

(Llewellyn, 2002), but Duckworth called it arranging an occasion for the “having of wonderful ideas” (p. 13). Wonderful ideas are novice-generated stepping-stones toward the accepted understanding of scientific concepts. Teachers as well as school children benefit from having wonderful ideas. When the natural phenomena teachers observe are

children, the teachers may get wonderful ideas about how to improve their instructional

practice. It might be inferred that teachers working in this manner are engaged in a form

classroom action research if they are systematically and critically involved. Duckworth

advocated a form of embedded practitioner research similar to the format espoused by

Feldman and Minstrell (2000).

I am not proposing that schoolteachers single-handedly become published researchers in the development of human learning. Rather, I am proposing that teaching, understood as engaging learners in phenomena and working to understand the sense they are making, might be the sine qua non of such research. (Duckworth, p. 140)

Feldman (1994) called for a new conception of validity in science education

research- validity through practical testing.

In order for teacher-research to be effective- for science teachers to come to better understandings of their educational situations through it, and for practice to improve- a radically different conception of what counts as research must be accepted. It is a conception that fits into what science teachers already do- the monitoring and adjusting of good practice. (p. 99)

Feldman explained that educational research must be embedded in the daily practice of teachers if it is to have multiple forms of validity: construct, face, and catalytic.

Construct validity refers to the manner in which a theory or research conclusion is reached. Face validity represents the common sense factor, does the research appear to be practical. Catalytic validity implies that it is possible to take action based upon the results. Because insiders, and by this Feldman meant teachers, who intimately know the students, local community mores, and school district expectations, have tempered the outcomes of classroom action research in actual practice, educators can feel confidence in the results. Feldman further asserted that classroom action research is interpretive work and not meant to produce outcomes suitable for broad generalization. What can be generalized is the process for fact-finding, e.g., strategies for engaging in action research in a science classroom. The results of action research are primarily for the use of the practitioner who garnered them from systematic and critical inquiry in their own classroom.

Tillotson (2000) reported that science teachers, like many other types of teachers, do not value educational research because much of it does not translate well into classroom practice. Some science teachers have opted to enact classroom action research because of its much greater face validity and accessibility to practical outcomes. Tillotson described two forms of action research, reflective and problem solving. When using the reflective form, teachers gather a variety of data throughout the school year to evaluate the effectiveness of their instructional practice. In the problem solving form, teachers follow a five-step action research cycle attributed to Sagor

(2000): (a) identification of a problem, (b) collection of data that have a bearing on the solving the problem from at least three different sources, (c) analysis of the data, (d) reporting of the findings to the school community who also may have a vested interest in the outcome, and (e) development of an action plan to implement the findings.

According to Tillotson, the success of classroom action research in improving science teachers’ practice is influenced by the degree to which teachers are committed to changing the status quo, have a clear plan for implementing changes based on the data, and collaborate in small active teams.

Classroom Action Research in Science Education

Science education has embraced classroom action research as a viable means to improve practice through inquiry and reflection. Many important research questions in science education have been investigated through classroom action research. Studies reviewed for this paper were found at all educational levels− elementary school, middle school, high school and university methods courses for preservice teachers and inservice training classes for practicing teachers. In each of these studies, researchers

identified a question about effective science education practice, planned an intervention,

implemented the action and evaluated the success of the action through collaborative reflection before refining the query and repeating the cycle. The studies reviewed

represent a variety of action research paradigms. Since questions and reflections

frequently occurred on multiple levels within the same study, it was difficult to

precisely classify individual studies as one type of action research or another. For

example, in the cases of some university and school administrative personnel

facilitating preservice and/or practicing teachers, the facilitators seemed to fit one

category such as scientific-technical (Larson, Mayer, Kight, & Golson, 1998) or critical-emancipatory (Goodnough, 2003) while the classroom teachers clearly directed their efforts toward more practical-deliberative outcomes. Abell (2005) noted multiple

purposes within the three studies she reported, “multiple purposes lead to multiple

actions. However, multiple purposes may also create conflicts related to ownership,

action and quality” (p. 291). Noffke (1997) also noted different layers of purpose in

action research, “the professional, the personal and the political” (p. 75) that have

potential to either enrich or cause conflict in the process. Many of the university-based

researchers, who worked with classroom teachers, referenced Elliott’s (1991) concept of

first and second order action research. First order research is what the classroom

teachers engaged in, working directly with their own students. The university

researchers who researched the researching teachers conducted second order action

research.

Regardless of the level from which the researchers operated, each was seeking

information on which to act to complete the cycle of action research. Shulman’s (1987)

three kinds of knowledge can be used to frame the knowledge sought in classroom

action research projects: subject content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. Subject content knowledge refers to the subject matter, the essential concepts that comprise the domain to be mastered. Pedagogical knowledge encompasses cognizance of how the content is organized, what instructional materials are prescribed and expected learning outcomes. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) links the previous two knowledge types with teaching acumen; it involves knowing how to teach the content so others can comprehend it. PCK also includes comprehension of the misconceptions and difficulties students are likely to experience during instruction. Because classroom action research has an emergent evolving element, researchers cannot explicitly anticipate the answers that they will find. However, the type of knowledge sought by the researchers will organize the following discussion.

Science Action Research Studies Focused on Content Knowledge

Akerson and Abd-El-Khalick (2003) worked with a fourth grade teacher to help her teach the nature of science (NOS) explicitly on a consistent basis. Three aspects of

NOS were selected for emphasis: the inferential, the tentative and the creative. It was found that although the classroom teacher had tacit knowledge of NOS acquired through university coursework and expressed intentionally to teach NOS, she needed explicit guidance to transfer the knowledge into her classroom teaching. The teacher lacked more than pedagogical content knowledge, she also needed to increase the robustness of her understanding of the NOS. The researchers provided support through

“face-to-face or electronically mediated lesson debriefings, researcher or teacher

initiated questions, clarifications, reflections, and self-critiques, and researcher- delivered model lessons” (p. 1037). These supports for clarifying the meaning of NOS

for the classroom teacher were classified into three broad areas, activating the teacher’s

tacit knowledge of NOS, providing content specific examples of NOS applications, and

direct modeling of lessons by the researcher with the teacher’s students. The emergent

quality of the scaffolding provided to the teacher mirrored the social constructivist

learning construct, the zone of proximal development. By the conclusion of the study,

the teacher had progressed in the consistency of her explicit instruction of NOS, but still

had room for additional improvement.

Al-Qura’n et al. (2001) collaborated with five preservice teachers and one

practicing teacher to develop and teach an integrated geology unit for sixth grade

students. The first order action research conducted by the teachers involved revising a

traditionally didactic geology unit to reflect a student-centered view while also

including community, and additional content area goals. The teachers planned and

revised the unit while field-testing their ideas in classrooms. The university researcher’s

second order action research focused on revising the teacher training curriculum to

include inquiry teaching as a means of facilitating the generation of content and skill

knowledge in the teachers. Data were collected through audio taped teacher interviews,

videotaped teaching sessions, teacher/researcher diaries, student worksheets, lesson

plans, and student examinations. The university researcher conducted document

analyses on the print sources and presented the findings to the teachers. Oral inquiry

sessions were held following teaching sessions during which participants viewed the

videotapes, discussed the document analyses data and planned revisions to their

teaching strategies. Implementing an inquiry approach to curriculum planning proved

successful in increasing teacher knowledge and skills and student engagement. The

university researcher gained knowledge and experience in facilitating inquiry teaching.

Cavicchi, Hughes-McDonnell, and Lucht (2001) engaged in collaborative action

research on their own practice of using open inquiry to facilitate practicing science

teachers learning about light and shadow. Five workshops were held in which teachers

had opportunities to engage in playful inquiry activities focused on light and shadow. In planning the environment for exploration, the researchers experimented with everyday

materials themselves to become aware of limitations that could be resolved such as

having light sources that moved, having the capacity to totally darken the space, and

selection of objects for manipulation based upon translucency. Each workshop was

initiated with a question meant to evoke exploration with the materials in terms of light

and shadow, but was not meant to guide the teachers toward a specific outcome. The

researchers used Socratic type questioning to encourage the teachers’ meaning making

and to promote additional inquiry. The goal was to not only increase content

knowledge, but to model open inquiry techniques for teachers to employ in their own

classrooms. The researchers concluded that influential factors in conducting successful

open inquiry sessions with teachers included: (a) having a wide array of materials for

exploration, (b) having adequate space, (c) encouragement through questioning, and (d)

allowing variation in the form of teacher reflection. The influence of standardized

testing and the resultant expectations of teachers and students were found to have a

limiting effect on successful open inquiry explorations.

Valanides, Nicolaidou, and Eilks (2003) explored grade 12 students’ conceptions of oxidation and combustion. Through teacher administered pre − and post

− experiment interviews, the researchers discovered that students’ thinking seemed to be dominated by their perceptions. Even students who had an academic history of high success relied on memorized facts and held a very thin depth of conceptual understanding about oxidation and combustion. The researchers postulated that teachers contribute to student misconception by failing to differentiate between observable macroscopic evidence and microscopic chemical changes. Furthermore, the symbolic notation typically used in chemistry does not differentiate between the two layers. The researchers recommended that teachers engage in action research to determine student prior conceptions before and during instruction to align instruction with student needs.

Science Action Research Studies Focused on Pedagogical Knowledge

Berlin (1996) reported on a 5-year study of the Berlin-White Action Research

Model (BWARM) with public school teachers. The BWARM project involved teachers in classroom action research while receiving professional development from the university through planned coursework and regular oral inquiry research seminars. The first order teacher researchers investigated implementation of innovative curriculum and teaching pedagogy in their own classrooms. Some of the topics were: “Using Student

Scientist Interactions to Improve Attitudes Toward Science and Science Related

Careers” and “Using Computer Environmental Simulations to Enhance Student

Decision Making” (Berlin). The second order university researchers examined their efforts in improving “the structures and social conditions of practice” (p.5). Some of 75

the findings of the university researchers were that the BWARM model: increased

teacher participation in leadership roles; enhanced teacher attitudes toward innovation

and educational research; improved teacher use of reflection and classroom innovation;

and stimulated vertical and horizontal collaboration among school buildings, district

and institutions.

Roth and Lee (2004) studied three classes of seventh-grade science students and

their teachers guided through a project-based study of stream restoration by two

participant-researchers interested in scientific literacy from a critical-emancipatory

outlook. The goals were to embed school curriculum within the community to achieve

authentic teaching and learning opportunities. Authenticity and multiple viewpoints

were used to engage all students in learning and generating science knowledge,

particularly those who typically spurned school science. Data for this 3-year study were

collected through audio and videotaped instructional sessions, field notes, public media

coverage, and professional literature produced by an interested environmental group.

Results indicated that the students made genuine contributions to the knowledge base of

community stream restoration. Data generated by the students were valued by themselves and also by the community. Students engaged in alternate ways with the project and gained inquiry skills similar to those taught in traditional science lessons.

The researchers further concluded that the lines between school learning and community relevance were blurred by this project.

Lewis (2004) wrote about a project to build a working theoretical model of participatory environmental educational pedagogy. The setting was an alternative high school in New York City at which an experimental program Project Grow was created

to engage students and teachers in project-based learning. The goal was to imbue

students and staff with an environmental sense of community accountability while developing marketable skills and academic potential in the students. The challenge of the program was to specify expected learning outcomes in light of content standards, testing, and stamina of the teachers. Large amounts of teacher personal time and physical effort were necessary to launch and maintain the Project Grow program.

Through interviews, informal conversations, and document analysis, the researcher determined that triumphs in student achievement were not necessarily tied to testing and that curricular challenges remained to be resolved.

Gayford (2002) described a year-long oral inquiry into 17 high school teachers investigating the meaning of a new environmental literacy curriculum. To facilitate full participation by all members, three groups were formed. Groups met independently of each other throughout the school year, but did convene together once at the beginning to set the parameters of their work and once at the end to generate a consensus statement.

The topics for discussion at each meeting varied, but some of the common ones addressed the concern that the science curriculum was already too broad and the content that needed to be taught in an environmental literacy course did not fall exclusively within the bounds of science. Teachers were reluctant to accept the role of delivering information perceived as indoctrination to students especially concerning controversial issues, which precipitated discussions into the nature of science. In the end, a consensus statement was composed describing what environmental literacy was, its purpose, and role within the community. The teachers concluded that elements of environmental literacy could be included in their present curricular areas.

Science Action Research Studies Focused on Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Larson et al. (1998) collaborated with school administrators at a Department of

Defense School located in Japan who were desirous of reducing the science

achievement gap among students in the building and improving the validity of research- based practice in the eyes of the teachers. They devised a plan of having individual classroom teachers conduct action research inquiry regarding their own science

instructional practice. Support was provided to teachers through several all-day training

sessions covering action research methods, constructivist teaching principles, and an

analysis of student achievement gaps as evidenced by the school’s standardized test

scores. Throughout the project, teachers communicated with a facilitator through email

and telephone. Informal meetings occurred at school among the teacher researchers.

The school administrators’ focus was on the use of teacher action research (second

order action research project) for academic improvement as measured by standardized

tests scores. The foci were varied for the first order teachers’ projects (student use of

information resources, developing critical thinking, increasing frequency of science

instruction, etc.) but specifically designed to meet the practical needs of particular

teachers and children. The results reported for two teacher projects dealt with

employing writing-to-learn to increase science content knowledge. Results of all

classroom teachers’ work were shared at a year-end conference. It was concluded that

teachers increased their understanding of formal research techniques and were able to

bridge the research-practice gap by generating their own data. The data collected

improved the teachers’ practice but due to a reluctance to address social-political issues

78 in student learning, no conclusions were reached regarding closing the achievement gaps.

Goodnough (2003) engaged in critical self-reflection regarding her role as facilitator with an action research group while the teacher participants examined the use of multiple intelligence theory to teach science. Four practicing teachers (2 elementary schools, 1 middle school and 1 high school) and the facilitator met weekly to share and reflect upon instructional experiences. The facilitator described her actions:

By assuming a multiplicity of roles throughout the project, by shifting roles to meet changing circumstances and needs, and by assuming several roles simultaneously, I was able to foster collaboration within the AR group and to provide optimal support to the research participants at various stages of the project (p.48).

The teacher participants, however, were consumed with adapting traditional science lessons to allow student participation using all of the multiple intelligences. On the

Kemmis and McTaggart (2003) classification scale, the facilitator was engaged in participatory action research while the teachers were following a classroom action research form. Results indicated that the classroom teacher participants gained science content knowledge as well as science pedagogical knowledge. The teachers also increased their confidence to teach the science curriculum and developed expertise in engaging in action research.

Two of the studies reviewed for pedagogical content knowledge were situated within the critical-emancipatory framework of action research. Nyhof-Young (2000), reported a study in which a university instructor and 6 science teachers enrolled in an action research course, explored gender equitable practice in science and technology

education. Participants dealt with contentious views in their personal practice as well as within the action research group. The facilitator commented:

Practitioners of action research need to be very aware of the contexts (political, social and economic) in which their groups operate and in which their participants practice. Tensions and resonances [sic] among the personal and professional contexts of participants and the structural context (e.g., the established roles, beliefs and norms of the educational system) will impact on and shape a group, often in unexpected ways, from its earliest stages. (pp. 475- 476)

Results indicated that group dynamics could quickly derail an action research group. A recommendation was made for participants to keep discussions on topic and constructive, in order to make progress toward resolving the research questions. It was also concluded that group facilitators should engage in a self-study of their role as facilitator.

Capobianco, Lincoln, Canual-Browne, and Trimarchi (2006) investigated how issues of equity and diversity are addressed in high school science classrooms.

The theoretical framework for this study was feminist critical-emancipatory. The framework and operations of this collaborative were not prescribed by district- based guidelines nor were they facilitated by administrators, educational consultants, or science curriculum experts who direct what teachers must do in order to comply with standards for professional development. (p.63)

Eleven teachers were listed as participants, but data were only reported for three female teachers. Participants met after school in each other’s homes for dinner and conversation approximately every 3 weeks during the school year. Oral inquiry

(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993) discussions centered on research studies related to

feminist theories and application of feminist theories to science classroom work. The

first order researchers also recorded their thoughts in journals and developed personal

classroom inquiry projects to implement their thinking. The second order university

researcher studied the teachers through classroom observations, semi-structured

interviews, and individual consultation sessions. Through the process of shared inquiry,

the teachers became empowered to become producers of knowledge instead of merely

consumers. The university researcher concluded that teacher researchers need the

support and challenges of working a collaborative group, the freedom to ask their own

questions, establish routines, and question methodologies to profit from teaching through inquiry.

Rice and Roychoudhury (2003) explored techniques for teaching a university

methods class with the intent of increasing preservice teachers confidence to teach

science because increased teacher efficacy has been shown to positively impact teacher

effectiveness. The methods course instructor engaged in a critical self-awareness study

of recurrent cycles of observation, reflection, and action. Data were collected through videotaping, instructor’s class notes, semi-structured student interviews, and course evaluations. Participants included 53 elementary education students enrolled in a science methods class, 1 graduate student who served as a participant observer, and the methods course instructor. A second methods course instructor assisted in the data analysis. Techniques found to have a positive impact on the preservice teachers’ attitudes towards teaching science included: modeling the learning cycle and other instructional strategies; creating a safe, noncompetitive learning environment; reduced authoritarian mandates; and modeling enthusiasm for science and science teaching.

Abell (2005) reported on three similar self-awareness studies by university science instructors who taught preservice teachers. The research was directed at investigating the similarities and differences among science educators’ use of reflective

81 inquiry to improve their teaching. The first order researchers collected data through student interviews, instructor’s journal, student artifacts, field notes, course evaluations, and participant observations. Because the questions were different in each study, the outcomes and actions were also different. The biology instructor regularly assigned her students to write in a journal with the intention that they were writing-to-learn.

However, her students viewed the writing assignments as unnecessary duplication of other preparation work, so the instructor changed her expectations for the writing assignments. In the Physics for Teachers course, the instructor taught the class using student inquiry methods, but discovered a certain amount of apprehension regarding course expectations. As a result, he planned a study group with his graduate teaching assistant to closely review assignments and expected outcomes. The science methods instructor discovered that her teaching of the NOS was not as explicit as she had hoped, so changes were planned for the next class of preservice teachers. In each case, the university teacher altered their instruction in response to the data collected.

van Zee (1998) and van Zee, Lay and Roberts, (2003) were interested in increasing the competence and confidence of preservice teachers to teach science. They devised a collaborative system of placing preservice science teachers with practicing science teachers for the purpose of teaching and learning science instructional methods in an authentic situation. In addition, a Science Inquiry Group (SING) composed of practicing teachers, who were graduates of the university instructor’s inquiry methods class, and the current preservice teachers in the methods class was employed as a means of supporting and sharing action research projects. By involving preservice teachers in

82 inquiry learning in a supportive environment, the university instructor was able to increase preservice teacher efficacy and confidence to teach science.

Van Tassell (2001), a primary grade classroom teacher, detailed her own research into the use of student-generated questions in classroom instruction. A differentiation was made between ordinary questions that teachers ask when they already know the answer and real questions that students ask when they do not know the answer, but want to know the answer. Promoting classroom discourse was a key feature in this action research study. Data were generated through student learning logs, transcriptions of classroom lessons and teacher journals. Results indicated that when classroom work centered on real student questions, everyone was more engaged.

Furthermore, it was concluded that second graders needed substantial modeling in developing questions suitable for inquiry. Building content background knowledge assisted students in crafting inquiry questions that were empirically testable with the resources available to them. Connections were made to sociocultural learning theory in terms of learning as a social activity; the more the class questioned, explored and discussed together, the deeper their conceptual knowledge became. Support for this teacher-initiated research was provided through oral inquiry with a group of teachers and university researchers, Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project

(DICEP).

Goodnough (2004) formed a group Teachers Researching Inquiry-Based

Science (TRIBS) that worked together for one school year to improve science teaching and learning. Classroom action research was used to provide a structure for this professional development. The group was composed of 4 elementary teachers, 1 science

mentor teacher, and 1 science coordinator. About once a month, the TRIBS met and

discussed topics germane to elementary science education such as constructivism and

instructional techniques that support inquiry learning. Teachers developed a personal research question to pursue in their classroom while the university researcher and mentor teacher conducted a second order action research project of studying the teachers learning pedagogical content knowledge through inquiry. The conclusions were that school districts and universities can profit through professional development partnerships but it is important that each side be able to achieve individual goals in addition to the joint goals.

Zembylas and Isenbarger (2002) reported about a classroom teacher’s yearlong classroom action project to explore techniques for including students identified as having special learning needs into her science lessons. Data were gathered from the

teacher’s plan book and journal, student science notebooks and other artifacts, class

notes, and audio recordings of classroom discussions. The teacher relied on

sociocultural learning theory to explain how she made formerly isolated students bloom

intellectually and socially. A key feature of her technique was to focus on the strengths and talents of each student instead of operating from a deficit model. She also

emphasized the need to maintain caring relationships with the students to enable them

to become risk takers and full participants in the classroom community.

Justi and van Driel (2005) reported another case study of one teacher’s

classroom action research. Like many other similar projects, the purpose of this dual

layer action research was to involve the teacher in embedded professional development.

In this project, the teacher, a new chemistry instructor, investigated the effects of

teaching with models on student comprehension. The second order action research of

the university instructors was to document growth in teacher pedagogical content knowledge. “By experimenting with teaching activities the participants are familiar with, and by documenting and investigating how these activities work out in practice, beginning teachers may develop their practical knowledge of specific domains” (p.198).

Requiring students to create and explain a concept using a model revealed that their

level of conceptual understanding was not as complete as the classroom teacher

thought. The combination of university-based coursework and the opportunity to test new ideas in practice was very successful in increasing the teacher’s knowledge in

content, curriculum, and pedagogical content knowledge.

Digital photographs, another form of representation, were highlighted in a

teacher classroom action research project by Schiller and Tillet (2004). The research

question dealt with how information and communication technology can augment

young children’s awareness and representation of their school environment. This study

was not specifically about science action research, but it is included here because

observation and communication are essential science process skills. Even though the

students in this study were only 7 and 8-years-old, they became very skilled in the

generation of digital photographs and using electronic editing software. The classroom

teacher learned the necessary technology skills as student needs dictated. Through

engaging in oral inquiry with her students and giving paper and pencil surveys, the

teacher collected data on the successes and continuing challenges of shepherding a

primary grade classroom to become fluent in digital communication. In light of Justi

and van Driel’s (2005) study about constructing models and Valanides et al. (2003)

study about students’ misconceptions among macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic

representation, specifically teaching students to use digital photography for concept

building in elementary school seems relevant in the study of science education

methodology.

Summary of Action Research in Science Education

Many of the big questions in science education were researched in these few

practitioner-generated studies. Cavicchi et al. (2001) modeled the use of open inquiry to

enable personal discovery of concepts related to light and shadow. Key factors that emerged in using open inquiry effectively were: how materials are displayed, teacher questioning techniques, having adequate space, allowing for differentiated student response formats, having student/teacher expectations aligned, and accounting for the influences of standardized testing.

The value of integrated curriculum was addressed in the Al-Qura’n et al. (2001) study about teachers collaboratively writing and teaching a unit on geology within a predominately didactic educational culture. Participants concluded that integrated curriculum improved student and teacher engagement while facilitating a deeper understanding of the science content. Roth and Lee (2004) also explored integrating curriculum through encouraging self-selected modes of student contribution to the stream restoration project. Students chose diverse means of contributing by generating written products, conducting interviews, collecting scientific data with instruments, documenting progress through photography, and more.

The use of multiple forms of representation was investigated by several researchers. Application of multiple intelligence theory to science education was

explored in the study reported by Goodnough (2003). Through researching the

connections between multiple learning modes, participants gained content knowledge,

pedagogy knowledge, confidence, and expertise in reflectively examining personal practice. The benefits of using models to enhance conceptual change were discussed in

Justi and van Driel (2005) and extending student conceptions of structure through digital photographing by Schiller and Tillett (2004).

Inclusion, in terms of accommodating special needs students in regular classroom activities, was addressed by Zembylas and Isenbarger (2002) and also Roth and Lee (2004). Capobianco et al. (2006) and Nyhof-Young (2000) studied gender equity through oral inquiry. Participants in both studies probed their personal and professional beliefs about gender equity in science education in an attempt to change their practice to reflect more positive and inclusive views. Nyhof-Young participants discovered that group dynamics could be disruptive to the research endeavor if power imbalances are allowed to go unchecked. Capobianco et al. found that teacher participants became empowered to become producers instead of merely consumers of knowledge.

In the research reported by Larson et al. (1998) classroom teachers empirically confirmed important elements of conceptual change theory by encouraging children to develop concept summaries of science experiences. The first grade teachers worked at helping their students formulate and state in their own words explanations of why or how phenomena occurred. The teachers discovered the value of isolating and challenging their students’ misconceptions through repeated work with the same concepts, pushing the students ever closer to accurate scientific understanding.

Valanides et al. (2003) also made discoveries about promoting student conceptual

change in oxidation and combustion. They identified a source of student conceptual

confusions in mixed representations during instruction. When macroscopic (perceptual)

information does not map onto microscopic (non-observable) chemical changes and the process is recorded using symbolic representations that ignore the mismatch, then students struggle to develop true conceptual knowledge.

Van Tassell (2001) investigated teaching second grade science through student generated questions. It was discovered that students need assistance in formulating testable questions, but that pursuing genuine student questions was worth the time and effort because it led to deeper understanding of content. Van Tassell also worked through the dilemma of allowing students to explore their own questions despite the

teacher’s need to address standards based curriculum requirements. The value of

standards was evidenced the second year when the students required extensive teacher

modeling in inquiry skills and content before they had sufficient background knowledge

to ask and investigate testable questions. In helping students translate experience into

valid science concepts, Van Tassell found that young children often take a circuitous route to scientific understanding that requires patience and persistence on the teacher’s part.

Akerson and Abd-El-Khalick (2003) addressed the issue of explicitly teaching the nature of science to fourth graders. Their collaboration with the fourth grade teacher revealed that the teacher needed to be reminded of the connections between content and the nature of science and that expert modeling was useful for the teacher’s

enlightenment. One of the practitioner studies reported by Abell (2005) also addressed explicitly teaching NOS, but the students were preservice teachers not children.

Project-Based Learning was featured in the study by Roth and Lee (2004) in which middle school students and teachers learned how to contribute academic expertise to a large community-based stream restoration project. Participants were empowered to find their own authentic methods and reasons for working with/for the restoration such as making video documentaries, sampling the water, conducting specie counts, creating flyers, presenting at informational meetings, etc. Through the Roth and

Lee study, participants also experienced multicultural perspectives on the natural world because community advice was solicited from the First People Aboriginal group. A by- product of most of these studies was that teachers increased their science content knowledge as well as their students and gained an appreciation of socially constructed knowledge.

Many of the studies dealt with teacher training for both preservice teachers and as professional development for inservice teachers. Frequent goals were to increase teacher competence and confidence to teach science (Abell, 2005; Akerson & Abd-el-

Khalick, 2003; Berlin, 1996; Goodnough, 2004; Lewis, 2004; Rice & Roychoudhury,

2003; van Zee, 1998; van Zee et al., 2003.) Some were designed to increase teacher content knowledge (Akerson & Abd-El-Khalick; Al-Qura’n et al., 2001; Cavicchi et al.,

2001; Valanides et al., 2003). Others were designed to be self-studies directed at improved practice (Abell; Rice & Rouchoudhury; Van Tassell, 2001; Zembylas &

Isenbarger, 2002).

Chapter Summary

This review of the literature has covered three broad areas: a theoretical

framework for viewing teachers as learners, models of professional development for

teaching science teachers, and the application of classroom action research as

professional development. The purpose of the review was to build a case for the

efficacy of utilizing classroom action research to improve science teacher skills and

knowledge in order that the teachers may in turn affect improved student achievement

in science. However, very few of the studies reviewed addressed student achievement.

Most studies of science professional development centered on increasing teacher

knowledge or confidence to teach science. Two notable exceptions were Kahle et al.

(2000) and Czerniak (2007) who both measured student achievement in relation to

teacher professional development. The same focus on teacher learning was found in the

science classroom action research studies reviewed. The only classroom action research

study that mentioned student achievement as a research question was Larson et al.

(1998), but the researcher reported that insufficient data obstructed conclusions about

student achievement outcomes.

Therefore, the present study was enacted to explore connections between student achievement and classroom action research as a form of professional development.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

After an overview, this chapter will identify the: (a) participants, (b) context, (c)

research design, (d) data sources, and (e) data analysis procedures. This chapter will also explain how the data sources and analyses were used to address the research questions introduced in Chapter One. Finally, limitations and trustworthiness of the study will be discussed. This research compiled descriptive data sets of teacher participation and student achievement for teachers who were enrolled in an urban district wide classroom action research program. Three years of data records pertaining to teacher participation in the Performance Advancement System (PAS), and resultant student achievement outcomes, were analyzed to ascertain potential effects of teacher initiated classroom action research to improved student achievement. The analyses also included data from student achievement records, PAS program documents, the science teachers’ research summary reports, and district professional development records.

Overview of the Study

The purpose of this study was to describe and understand the potential influence

of science teacher classroom action research projects upon student science achievement.

A search of the professional literature indicated that students in America are not

achieving as well in science as their counterparts in other countries. However, highly qualified science teachers tend to have students who have higher achievement than

students of non-highly qualified teachers. A commonly accepted plan for increasing teacher knowledge and skills so that they may become highly qualified is to have teachers engage in professional development. Professional development can be considered a form of adult learning. Therefore, learning theory as it applies to adult learners was reviewed and a search was made to determine what types of knowledge science teachers needed to master. Next, professional development protocols and the resultant student achievement were investigated to discover how teachers have been taught. The outcomes of this study will provide teachers and researchers critical information regarding one specific type of professional development, classroom action research and the potential impact on student achievement in science.

Participants

The population for this study included all teachers who conducted classroom action research under PAS during school years 2001-2002, 2002-2003, and 2003-2004.

There were a total of 1326 participants during the three year data collection period. The

PAS projects were focused on reading (n = 583), mathematics (n = 335), science (n =

67), writing (n = 150), social studies (n = 57), attendance (n = 131), and graduation

(n=3). The research sample was composed of the 67 cases which focused on science

and included 28 elementary teachers, 12 middle school teachers and 27 high school

teachers. The Midwestern school district in which the data were collected was large and urban. The district had approximately 3,000 classroom teachers during the years data

were generated. About 50% of the teachers held at least a Master’s degree, 74% were female, and 77% were Caucasian. There were approximately 60,000 students enrolled

92 in the district; 71% of the students were classified as economically disadvantaged, 70% were non-white, and 15% had disabilities.

Sixty-seven cases were identified as instances of classroom research into science practices; however, only 42 of the cases had accessible data sets. Twenty-five of the 67 cases were excluded from this analysis because they were missing both student achievement data and teacher research summary reports. These 25 participants failed to complete all of the requirements mandated by PAS. In this program, teachers were required to submit a research summary report at the end of their projects. Twenty-one participants did not, so program administrators assumed that the teachers had discontinued their classroom research and did not forward the students’ achievement data to the outside analyst. The remaining four teachers submitted reports, but a three member reviewing committee rejected their reports. The reports were rejected due to insufficient teacher documentation of research activities. In both the non-completed and the rejected cases, the data record merely indicated that the teachers applied to participate in PAS but neither quantitative nor qualitative summative data were registered.

Context

The action research design employed by the PAS teachers was a mixed methods approach. The research was done in the spirit of Lewin (1948) including: identification of a problem, selecting a solution, implementing it, and then evaluating the solution’s effectiveness in a continuous spiral of planning, action, and fact finding. PAS teachers monitored the effect of their instruction on student achievement through frequent short cycle assessments. Teachers were encouraged to adjust instruction in terms of pacing,

mode of delivery, and student assignments to maximize student concept formation and

development. Classic components of qualitative research such as prolonged

engagement, emergent design, and cultivation of relationships with the researched

(Lincoln & Guba, 2003) were evidenced in the projects. Teachers committed to the

program in October of a given school year and continued their projects through May of

the same school year. Typically teachers worked with the students in their own

classrooms, which afforded daily contact.

Key quantitative elements were also included such as objectifying subjects

through numeric measurement of behavior, researcher control of treatment, and expectations for generalizability (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). Even though teachers built long term caring relationships with their students, student needs and successes were only documented in terms of achievement test results. Projects were evaluated in terms of student achievement on criterion referenced tests such as state achievement tests, the Metropolitan Achievement Test (8), and district created end of course exams.

Participants controlled the treatment through complying with the NCLB mandate of applying research-based instructional strategies for improving student achievement.

These strategies were labeled: identifying similarities and differences, summarizing and

note taking, reinforcing effort and providing recognition, homework and practice,

nonlinguistic representations, cooperative learning, setting objectives and providing

feedback, generating and testing hypotheses, cues, questions, and advance organizers

(Marzano et al., 2001). Appendix A contains a list of each of the strategies used by PAS

teachers. Numerous inservice training sessions were offered to support teachers in

94 learning about and selecting a strategy appropriate for the achievement problem that they had identified for their action research.

Research Design

The design employed in this research was modeled after ex post facto. This type of design is utilized to study events that have already occurred for the purpose of seeking linkages between known outcomes and antecedent conditions (Ary, et al.,

2002). Unlike typical ex post facto studies which use multiple regression or ANCOVA to establish linkages, this research generated linkages through interpretative techniques.

The strength of this design is that it allows researchers to investigate naturally occurring social groups when randomization of group membership and treatment is either not possible or ethical. The weakness of this design is that cause and effect cannot be definitively assigned because rival hypotheses may persist even after controls have been utilized.

Ary et al. (2002) suggest three areas of potential error in concluding cause and effect in ex post facto designs: (a) common cause, (b) reverse causality, and (c) alternate explanations. When the apparent relationship between independent and dependent variables is really caused by a third variable, the relationship is said to have a common cause. For example, the more students there are enrolled in public schools, the harder it is to find a parking place downtown. It is spurious to claim that the increased number of students caused an increase in parking problems; rather the increased number of students and parking issues are both a consequence of increased population in an area.

In the present study, controlling for incorrect conclusions regarding student achievement due to common causes was addressed through a thorough search of the

professional development opportunities reported by the teachers, which preceded and

occurred during the data collection time period. PAS program documents and district

testing regimen were also reviewed for confounding influences on student achievement.

Ary et al. (2002) described a second interpretation pitfall in ex post facto studies termed

reverse causality. The researcher must consider the possibility that the assignment of

variables as independent and dependent may be reversed that is Y caused X, instead of

X causing Y. The best way to sort out this dilemma is to determine which variable

occurred first. If X occurred first, then Y could not possibly have caused X. In the

present study, reverse causality was not an issue because the measurement of student achievement occurred after the implementation of the classroom action research. The third area of erroneous interpretation, alternate explanations, is the most challenging to resolve in ex post facto research. Researchers must carefully consider all possible explanations for the value of dependent variables. A thorough review of the literature

plus wide ranging descriptive data gathering may reveal rival hypotheses to explain the

dependent variable outcomes. Ary et al. (2002) suggested three methods for dealing

with rival hypotheses.

The first method of dealing with rival hypotheses, matching, requires research

participants to be matched along key attributes with comparable control individuals. For

example, teachers and students in high achieving schools would be matched with other

high achieving school populations. In the present research this was not possible because

detailed student achievement information was not available for class groups other than

the participating PAS teachers. Only district level aggregate scores were available for

96 non-PAS teacher groups. The available sample size, 42, was too small for meaningful matching within the PAS teachers.

The second method, homogenous grouping, involves restricting the group comparisons to those similar in attributes. In this research, grade bands, elementary, middle and high school defined homogeneous groups. Elementary grades are kindergarten through fifth, middle school includes grades sixth through eighth, and high school includes grades ninth through twelfth. Apart from the differences in the ages of the learners, grouping by grade band also accounted for differences in summative learner assessments and teacher credentialing. High school students typically were assessed with district created end-of-course exams, for which reliability and validity had not been established. An exception was ninth grade students, who were assessed using a state created proficiency test. However, the test was designed to measure student competencies accrued in grades K-8 and bore little correlation to the ninth grade curriculum. Students in grades 4 and 6 took state created proficiency tests based upon the state mandated curriculum for those grades and students in grades 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8 took the Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT). Both the state and MAT assessments were thoroughly vetted for reliability and validity. In addition, at the time the data were generated, the state required high school teachers to be content certified, while K-8 teachers were only required to have general certification. Differences in teacher training and student testing may have influenced the resultant student achievement outcomes, therefore, results were reported by grade level bands.

The third method of dealing with rival hypotheses is to build extraneous variables into the design and control through statistical means such as analysis of co-

variance (ANCOVA) or conducting partial correlations. ANCOVA is a statistical

measure that adjusts the value of the dependent variable by neutralizing the initial

differences between the control and the treatment groups. However, “when interpreting

ex post facto research, it is inappropriate to assume ANCOVA has satisfactorily

adjusted for initial differences” (Ary et al., 2002, p. 348). Therefore, ANCOVA was not

utilized in the present research. Likewise, partial correlation is a statistical means of

establishing a relationship between two variables when one or more others are removed.

However, correlations are computed on variables within the same group. In the present

study, the primary interest was in differences between two different groups, students of

PAS teachers and students of non-PAS teachers. The present research is meant to be a

descriptive analysis of teacher participation in an action research program. Statistical

measures appropriate for experimental research designs have limited use in ex post

facto studies, so were not employed.

Conditions of Data Collection

The teacher participation and student achievement data were generated during

school years 2001- 2002, 2002-2003, and 2003-2004. The data were stored in both

electronic and hard copy formats. Unfortunately, some of the electronic files were

corrupt, incomplete, and coding was inconsistent from year to year. Likewise the paper

files were jumbled, but fortunately, individual files were adequately labeled, and some

of the administrative staff from the affected years were still available for consultation.

Verification of teacher participation and student achievement data was achieved through

triangulating the multiple data sources: electronic records, paper records and oral

recollection of policy decisions by PAS administrators. Collating and reconfiguring the

teacher participation and student achievement data record to reflect a consistent coding

scheme was a major undertaking.

Data Sources

Data sources for this study included: (a) PAS participation records of teachers,

(b) student achievement results, (c) teacher research summary reports, (d) district

professional development records, and (e) PAS program documents.

PAS Participation Records

When teachers enrolled in PAS, they were required to submit a paper

application detailing personal identification information such as name and work

location as well as the names of the students in their sample, their research question(s),

proposed solution and intended formative assessment protocols. Historically, secretaries

and the program coordinator entered this information into an Excel spreadsheet. The electronic records were stored on the school district’s secure computer servers at the data center. The paper copies of the applications, stored in filing cabinets at the secure data center, were filed by year and work location of the teachers. While developing the descriptive data sets, discrepancies that emerged among the data, were resolved by cross checking the records held by the school district with records maintained by the outside data consultant. In addition, people who had held administrative roles in PAS were consulted on matters of policy that impacted the integrity of the data.

Student Achievement Records

All student achievement data for district and state mandated assessments were stored in massive district wide files at the secure data center. District data analysts extracted individual student pretest and posttest scores for the students of PAS teachers

99 from the system. These student achievement data were linked to the correct PAS teacher and added to the registration file. District analysts also computed the district minimum and maximum scores for each assessment, and the standard deviation. Lastly, individual student attendance rates were calculated and added to the registration file. Program guidelines dictated that elementary and middle school students had to maintain a 90% attendance rate and high school students were required have an attendance rate of 88% during the classroom action research project. These data were also added to the registration file. The outside data analyst calculated and added information regarding student achievement gain to the file.

Student achievement gain was calculated by identifying the prior year science summative test score and the current year science summative test score for each student in a teacher’s sample and then computing a simple class-mean gain. In most cases, dissimilar assessments in adjacent grade levels necessitated conversion of student raw scores to z scores. The z score is the number of standard deviation units an individual student’s raw score is above or below the district mean. It has a one-to-one relationship with the standard deviation unit; one z-score unit equals one standard deviation unit. On the z score scale the mean is set at zero. The z score is calculated by taking the raw score for a student, subtracting the district mean (average) of all student scores and dividing by the district standard deviation on the assessment. For example: z score =

(student raw score – district mean) /district standard deviation. Student z scores were further converted to Normal Curve Equivalents for reporting.

The Normal Curve Equivalent (NCE) is derived from the z score. On the NCE scale, the mean is set at 50% and each unit of standard deviation is represented by a

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21.06% increase or decrease from the mean. The NCE has a range of 1 to 99%. The

Normal Curve Equivalent can be thought of as the raw score percentage fitted to the

normal distribution (bell curve). The NCE is calculated by multiplying the z score by

21.06 and adding 50. That is: NCE = (z score x 21.06) + 50.

Teacher Research Summary Reports

A requirement of PAS is that at the conclusion of the school year, teachers must

submit a written summary report detailing their action research project. One purpose of

the summary report was to foster teacher reflection on connections between their

teaching practice and resultant student achievement. Teachers were given written

prompts to assist in the reflection process. Teachers were expected to address these prompts as a minimum. However, many chose to include additional information in their

summary reports. The papers were not to exceed four typed pages in length, but a few

were much longer. Appendix B lists the required writing prompts for each year data

were collected. The prompts were essentially the same during all three years from

which data were collected.

Professional Development Records

District professional development records covering the years immediately

preceding and during the PAS data generation years were an additional data source.

Professional development catalogs and an administrative document were used to establish major school district professional development initiatives. Teacher learning, as evidenced by classroom practice, may not appear until long after professional development episodes (Kelleher, 2003). Participation in a year long action research project was expected to create a context for experimenting with strategy

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implementation. Therefore, the professional development records were reviewed because it was anticipated that teachers might include knowledge acquired in previous

sessions during their action research projects.

PAS Program Documents

Each year that PAS was conducted, participants received a printed copy and had

access to an online copy of the guidelines for participation, the PAS Guideline Booklet.

This document was revised each year to reflect the ongoing improvements of the

program as mandated by the governing committee, the Joint PAS Committee. Details

regarding selection of a student sample, identification of a research question, formative

and summative student assessment, acceptable instructional strategies and prompts for

writing a research summary report were listed in the booklet. The booklets from school

years 2001-2002, 2002-2003 and 2003-2004 served as reference to document teacher

participation requirements.

The initial years of PAS were marked by contentious challenges to the rules by

PAS participants. These challenges were addressed by the Joint PAS Committee and documented in meeting minutes. Some of the written guidelines were changed mid-

cycle to better meet the needs of teachers and students. The meeting minutes from the

years data were generated also served as data sources for documenting teacher

participation requirements.

National Science Education Standards

In 1996, the NRC published a set of standards for “what students need to know,

understand, and be able to do to be scientifically literate at different grade levels”,

(NRC, 1996, p.2). This document was intended as a tool for planning instruction to

102 ensure high quality learning outcomes for all students and was utilized as a reference for science content in the PAS teacher projects.

Data Analysis

Data analysis procedures varied in relation to the information sought for each research question. Table 3.1 summarizes the research questions, data sources and analysis procedures.

Research Question Data Source Data Analysis

How did implementation of teacher PAS teacher participation SPSS frequency action research projects vary across records count grade band levels? Teacher research Consumption summary reports analysis

What growth in knowledge and skills Teacher research Consumption do PAS teachers report? summary reports analysis

Do the instructional practices Teacher research Content reported by teachers reflect the summary reports analysis National Science Education Standards? NSES Production analysis

Do the instructional practices Teacher research Content reported by teachers reflect the summary reports analysis knowledge and skills presented in other professional development District professional Production episodes attended by the teacher? development records analysis

What practical issues did teachers Teacher research Content identify as having an impact on summary reports analysis student science achievement?

(Continued)

Table 3.1. Overview of Research Questions, Data Sources, and Analysis Procedures.

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Table 3.1. Continued.

Research Question Data Source Data Analysis

What instructional practices Teacher research summary Content analysis did teachers utilize with reports students to improve achievement on science assessments?

How do the student Teacher research summary Content analysis achievement outcomes of reports PAS teachers vary? Student achievement SPSS cross tab records Effect size

How do program Teacher research summary Production analysis requirements influence reports implementation? PAS Guideline Booklet Production analysis

PAS Joint Committee Production analysis meeting minutes

Quantitative

Descriptive data sets were generated through statistical procedures in the

Statistical Program for the Social Sciences (SPSS Version 15.0 for Windows). Simple frequency counts and cross tabulation of teacher participation and student achievement data were calculated. Effect sizes were also calculated to measure the impact of teacher participation in action research on student achievement. Evaluating student achievement by comparing performance to a set standard can sometimes mask the practical value of that achievement due to marked differences in sample size. In PAS, classroom sample sizes typically were less than 30, but were compared to the district sample that had on average 4,500 students. Therefore, differences in variability had a greater impact on the

104 classroom means than on the district. One way to ameliorate this problem is to calculate an effect size, which is a measure of the magnitude of the treatment independent of the sample size. One method described by Rosenthal (1991) advocates the use of the standard deviation value obtained from a paired samples t test. An effect size is calculated by dividing the difference between the pretest and posttest scores by the standard deviation obtained from the paired samples t. Using the interpretation scale suggested by Cohen (as cited in King & Minium, 2003) an effect size of .20 may be viewed as small, .50 viewed as medium, and .80 considered large. The resultant effect sizes will be discussed in relation to the analyses of the teacher summary reports.

Qualitative

In this research, an inductive method was employed during document analyses on PAS science teacher research summary reports. Teacher professional development records and PAS documents were examined for supporting evidence and influence upon the teacher summary reports. The analyses were conducted using the three lenses suggested by Prior (2003). The teacher research summary reports were analyzed for content, elements of production, and purposes for consumption. The purpose of content analysis was to discover what teachers reported doing with students during their classroom action research. The summary reports were also examined for evidence of conditions contributing to how the research was conducted, (i.e. elements of production), such as influences from other professional development events. Purpose for consumption, why the summary report was produced, was informed by PAS program documents as well as the content of the summary reports.

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An emergent qualitative coding scheme was developed as suggested by the data

(Charmaz, 2003). However, Table 3.2 indicates broad categories that initially framed the analyses. Content analysis focused on the question, “What did the teachers report doing?” Production analysis considered the question, “What influenced how the teacher did the research?” The third area, consumption, sought answers to, “Why did the teacher do the research in the manner chosen?” Themes and patterns that emerged were documented.

Content (what):

• Practical issues in science achievement identified as needing improvement

• Types of instructional practices implemented

• Evidence of student conceptual growth

• NSES content categories addressed

Production (how):

• Conditions/challenges affecting implementation of the classroom research

• Influences of previous professional development

• PAS program requirements

• Evidence of utilizing the National Science Education Standards

Consumption (why):

• Evidence of changes in teaching practice

• Evidence of student learning

• Evidence of teacher learning through reflection

Table 3.2. Initial Coding Fields for the Analysis of Teacher Research Summary Reports. 106

Trustworthiness

Researcher Role

Prolonged engagement as a participant observer, both inside and outside of PAS was employed to gain an authentic view of the program (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993;

Lincoln & Guba, 2003). During the years that the data in this study were generated, the primary researcher engaged in classroom action research with second grade students and contributed to the data set. However, at the end of school year 2003-2004, she accepted the position of program coordinator. It was in this capacity that the evaluation was initiated out of a strong desire to improve the scope and effectiveness of PAS. At that time the very existence of the program was in jeopardy due to a budget crisis in the school district, so it was critical that an evaluation of the program be performed to justify either its continuance or demise.

Multiple Data Sources

Multiple data sources were utilized in developing a document analysis data corpus; teacher participation records, teacher professional development records, teacher research summary reports, student achievement records, NSES and PAS program documents. Verification of the data collected was achieved through triangulating the multiple data sources and methods. Electronic records were confirmed through comparison to paper files and also to electronic records kept by the outside PAS data analyst. Comparisons were made between the teacher self reported research-based instructional strategies in the electronic records and descriptions of actual practice reported by the teachers’ in their summary reports.

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Multiple Voices

Multiple views of the outcomes assisted the researcher in reconstructing the

moment, as it were, of the teachers’ classroom action research projects. Elliott (1991)

described university supported classroom action research as having multiple levels of

focus. Multiple viewpoints were also found in PAS that correspond to the three types of

classroom action research delineated by McKernan (1996), but the proponents of each

view were separated by organizational roles, which predicted the resultant espoused

purpose for research. The school district, which provided financial support for PAS,

specified clear expectations that the purpose of PAS was to improve student

achievement and generate knowledge of instructional procedures that would be suitable

for urban education. The school district embraced a technical-scientific stance toward

classroom action research. The teachers’ union, which championed the rights of the

teachers, was most interested in empowering the teachers to demonstrate their skills and

knowledge apart from the teacher proof curriculum imposed by the school district and

to earn bonus pay for a job well done. The teachers’ union supported PAS from a

critical-emancipatory stance. Walking the tightrope between the position of the school district and that of the teachers’ union, the classroom teachers were most interested in discovering practical solutions to the everyday problems of teaching and learning in an urban setting. The teachers operated from a practical-deliberative stance. For the teachers, thinking like a researcher was synonymous with problem solving.

Limitations of the Study

This study was limited by the ex post facto research design. This design is employed to study events that have already occurred and seeks linkages between known

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outcomes and pre-existing conditions (Ary, et al., 2002). The research subjects self-

selected into the program being evaluated, therefore, outcomes may be the result of

peculiarities inherent in the research sample. Additionally, self-reported teacher data, in

form of research summary reports, was utilized. If the teacher reports were not accurate

reflections of the classroom action research, then conclusions drawn from them may be

skewed.

Gains in student achievement were calculated utilizing student scores on

standardized achievement tests. However, summative student achievement tests varied

from grade level to grade level; consequently z-scores were utilized to compute gain.

Utilizing different achievement tests from one grade level to another highlighted the issue of comparable difficulty levels of the assessments, which was not determined.

Producing a gain between the Metropolitan Achievement Test and the State

Achievement Test may not have been as difficult as showing a gain when the pretest and posttest assessments were both State Achievement Tests. A further limitation related to achievement tests is that student performance on standardized assessments was assumed to be a valid appraisal of classroom instruction.

Generalizability of the results of this study is limited by the situated nature of classroom action research (Feldman, 1994). It would be very difficult, if not impossible to replicate all conditions present within a collection of classroom action research projects. Successful application of research outcomes would depend upon the match with students and teachers in other settings.

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Chapter Summary

This chapter explained the methodology utilized in the present study.

Information pertaining to: participants, context, research design, data sources, data

analysis, trustworthiness and limitations were discussed. Table 3.1 was created to serve

as an overview of the research questions matched with the data sources and analysis

procedures utilized to answer them. Table 3.2 identified preliminary coding categories

for the document analysis of the teacher research summary reports. The next chapter,

Chapter Four, will discuss the findings, which both answered and challenged the

research questions.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

This chapter reports the results from the data analysis for the study. The results are reported in eight sections corresponding to the eight research questions. For the analysis of research questions one and seven, teachers were grouped into three grade bands: elementary, including grades kindergarten through fifth, middle school, including grades six through eight, and high school including grades nine through twelve. Data were collected and analyzed to answer the remaining research questions without regard to the grade level taught by the teachers.

This study examined the influence of science teacher action research projects upon student science achievement. Eight research questions guided the research.

1. How did implementation of teacher action research projects vary across grade

band levels?

2. What growth in teaching knowledge and skills did PAS teachers report?

3. Do the instructional practices reported by teachers reflect the National Science

Education Standards?

4. Do the instructional practices reported by teachers reflect the knowledge and

skills presented in other professional development episodes available to the

teachers?

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5. What practical issues did teachers identify as having an impact on student

science achievement?

6. What instructional practices did teachers utilize with students to improve

achievement on science assessments?

7. How do the student achievement outcomes of Performance Advancement

System teachers vary?

8. How do program requirements influence implementation?

Research Question 1: How Did Implementation of Teacher Action Research Projects Vary Across Grade Level Bands?

Background

Teachers who voluntarily participated in PAS were subject to a few inviolate

parameters. Participants were required to identify a student sample, an academic area of

need, and a research-based instructional strategy to employ as an intervention. The

information had to be submitted on an application by a specified deadline. Throughout

the school year, teachers implemented their projects and collected formative assessment

data to modify their instructional interventions based upon student response. At the end

of the school year, teachers gave students the district level summative assessment and wrote a research summary report. If the teachers complied with all program parameters

and their students’ demonstrated a mean achievement gain greater than the school

district, then the teachers were eligible for a cash award. Participants who failed to

complete all of the requirements mandated by the program were not eligible for the

award.

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Participation Results

The data sources utilized to determine how participation in PAS varied across

school levels were the teacher research applications and PAS program files.

Participation information was entered into an Excel spreadsheet to permit analysis using

the software Statistical Program for the Social Sciences. A crosstabs analysis was

conducted to tabulate the numbers and percentages of teachers who completed a PAS

science project.

Sixty-seven teachers initiated an action research project in science; however

only 42 of the cases completed the entire process. Twenty-one participants failed to

complete all of the program requirements, and so, were missing the student achievement

data analysis for gain examined elsewhere in this research. The remaining four teachers

submitted research reports, but a three member reviewing committee rejected their

reports. Table 4.1 summarizes the enrollment and completion data by school level:

elementary, grades kindergarten through fifth (ES), middle school, grades six through

eight (MS), and high school, grades nine through twelve (HS).

School Level Enrollment N Completion N % Completion ES 28 18 64% MS 12 4 34% HS 27 20 74% Total 67 42 63%

Table 4.1. Enrollment and Completion Rates by School Level.

The enrollment rates of teachers in PAS were nearly equal for elementary and

high school teachers; however, more HS teachers completed their projects than ES

teachers. Fewer teachers of middle school students enrolled, and even fewer completed

113 their projects. The total number of teachers who enrolled but failed to complete all PAS requirements was 25.

Interpretive Findings

The data source utilized to answer the question of how teacher interpretation of classroom action research varied across the grade level bands was the teacher research summary reports. The reports were read multiple times and analyzed utilizing Prior’s

(2003) document analysis framework. This framework espouses viewing documents through three lenses, the face value content, elements of production, and purpose(s) for consumption. Evidence was collected to supply warrants for what teachers did, how they did it, and why they did it.

Five themes emerged from the teacher research summary reports indicating that

PAS teachers chose subtly different foci to implement their science classroom action research projects. The five orientation categories that emerged were labeled science oriented, strategy oriented, testing practice, literacy oriented, and research oriented.

Table 4.2 lists the number of projects by school level that fit each category.

ES MS HS Total

Science 10 1 6 17 Strategy 3 2 10 15 Testing 2 1 2 5 Literacy 3 0 0 3 Research 0 0 2 2 Total 18 4 20 42

Table 4.2 Projects by School Level and Focus.

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Science-Oriented Projects

Teachers who focused their classroom action research on science oriented goals described systematic instruction aimed at building conceptual understanding, facilitating student inquiry, and addressing science content standards. An example of working for conceptual understanding was a middle school teacher who monitored student conceptual understanding through regular homework assignments. Students were required to write responses to prompts based upon the day’s lesson. During the first ten minutes of the following class period, students shared and defended their written responses with classmates. These discussions afforded the teacher an opportunity to catch and re-teach content that was misunderstood. In addition, the teacher shared an insight about the nature of science:

Students gained insight on appropriate responses necessary for extended response questions and an understanding that the explanation of a scientific process is as important as the final answer. (Case 968.1)

The inquiry theme was exemplified by a high school physics teacher who encouraged student inquiry by having students work in cooperative groups in the laboratory, during problem solving sessions and unit reviews. He described the intensity of his students’ inquiry work:

The Junk Box Wars lab required students to build a rubber band powered car and a snowball launcher. During the building of the rubber band-powered cars the groups began to get very competitive and often went to great lengths to hide their ideas from other groups. (Case 703.1)

An example of focusing on the NSES (NRC, 1996) was provided by an elementary teacher who built her project upon delivering the science standards to students through guided inquiry episodes followed by direct instruction. She described

115 following a modification of the 5E Learning Cycle model, as described by Llewellyn

(2002), learned during prior professional development.

Students came for science instruction twice a week. During the 75-minute lab hour, the focus was to introduce students to major science concepts using the skills of inquiry. During the tutoring time, the focus was on specific test taking skills and identifying weaknesses in process skills and knowledge. When major weaknesses in knowledge or process skills were identified, lab time was used to give students a concrete understanding of a concept or skill. (Case 376.3)

Historically, elementary teachers have allocated little classroom time for science

(Appleton, 2007). It is interesting to note that more than half of the elementary teacher projects could be classified as having a science-oriented focus. However, such was not the case for all of the PAS teachers, some chose a different focus.

Strategy-Oriented Projects

Fifteen of the PAS teachers interpreted PAS as an opportunity to learn a new teaching strategy, in essence, improving their own pedagogical knowledge, instead of working towards improving student learning. An elementary teacher based her project on the premise that teaching students to take good notes would raise students’ science achievement. She taught her students to take notes on the textbook by using the section headings and chapter check-up questions. The students progressed to taking notes during videos and class lectures. Eventually the students wrote outlines and created webs.

When first begun, this practice [taking notes on a video] was hard for the students (there were no subheadings or pre-known questions to use), but by their creating a web on the material presented in the video as they watched, students gained another tool to improve their skill. (Case 695.3)

One middle school teacher persisted in employing graphic organizers despite misgivings that some of her students did not understand the content.

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The graphic organizers were not as effective for my students who did not have any knowledge of what the question was asking. These students became proficient at putting the key words of the question into the different sections of the organizers, but it did not provide them with enough help to be successful answering the questions. Hopefully, the skill they learned about analyzing questions will serve them later in school. (Case 139)

High school teachers in particular (n= 10), were drawn to strategy-oriented implementations. The reason may be that content instruction is ingrained at the high school level; so teachers chose to experiment with the delivery of the content. One example of a high school biology project involved a great emphasis upon developing critical thinking skills.

The objective was to sharpen the students’ critical thinking skills with weekly practice answering high-level questions that required the students to think critically about the content of the lesson. (Case 798)

Testing-Oriented Projects

Despite the district emphasis on increasing student test scores, only 5 PAS teachers chose to focus on test-taking procedures in their science projects. Teachers had the students write answers daily to open-response questions modeled after state proficiency test questions or take multiple iterations of practice tests devised from released test items. One of the elementary teachers assigned structured notebooks in which students recorded definitions of science terms and directions for setting up and analyzing guided inquiry lessons. She commented:

The students answered the questions carefully and gave me their best. But, they did not enjoy working on the curriculum guide assessment questions. (Case 527)

A middle school teacher gave so many practice tests that she had the students chart their progress on them throughout the year.

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After administering the 9th grade Practice Proficiency Test the second week of school, I discovered less than 25% of my 8th grade students past [sic] the science section of the test. With this information I developed a plan to have students chart their progress weekly in Science as well as their scores on Practice Proficiency Tests throughout the year. (Case 873)

Literacy-Oriented Projects

Three elementary teachers chose to utilize the area of science for teaching literacy skills, primarily nonfiction writing. An example of a teacher who focused on literacy skills combined teaching students to write summaries with creating a science notebook. She reported:

I had the students bring in a three-ring binder to use exclusively for science. Throughout the school year the binders served as a study guide students could take home, study and bring back to school. Almost all of the work in the binder was the student's own summaries or notes about various topics we studied in class. There were also observation charts or worksheets from experiments/activities we had done in class. (Case 521.3)

Another teacher reported positive student reactions to working on literacy standards during science class.

My conclusion is that students need to do more publishing. This past year's students were very proud of their accomplishment of publishing. I will also continue the science journal writing. I feel it has been an effective strategy for memory retention. (Case 896)

Research-Oriented Projects

Two high school teachers chose to implement an experimental design instead of an action research design for their PAS projects. One teacher created a time series research design in which all students received the research strategy treatment, but only for a limited period of time. She concluded that during the grading periods in which students received strategy-based instruction, formative test scores were better than when students did not receive the strategy-based instruction. The other teacher who focused

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on enacting a research project focused on applying the conceptual change model to

students learning about light and motion mechanics. Students completed a survey before

instruction to establish existing knowledge and beliefs. Students were challenged to

support or refute their stated conceptual understandings on the survey with evidence

collected during guided inquiry. She concluded that some of her students made

progress, but that others still needed more work.

The pre and post data results indicate that students need more discussion and argumentation opportunities related to the concepts of the nature of light, the geometry of convex lenses, and the characteristics of pendulum motion. (Case 958)

Summary Research Question 1

Results indicated that there was variation across grade bands in the manner which PAS participants implemented science classroom action research. The orientations of the science action research projects were diversified across five general categories: science, strategy, testing, literacy and research. Elementary teachers focused mainly on science-oriented goals and worked on developing conceptual understanding, facilitating student inquiry and employing the NSES. High school teachers mainly

worked on experimenting with strategy implementation such as cooperative learning,

portfolio assessment and reinforcing student effort. There were too few middle school

teachers (n = 4) to generate a project focus pattern. Of the five focus areas that emerged from the teacher summary reports, science-oriented had the greatest number of participants.

Data also confirmed that there was variation across grade bands in the PAS participation rates. Numbers of participants were nearly equal in elementary and high

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school, but middle school teacher participation was much less. No data were available

to explain this discrepancy.

Research Question 2: What Growth in Teaching Knowledge and Skills Do PAS

Teachers Report?

Background

In the first section, data pertaining to teacher participation and project focus were reported. In this section, what teachers learned from completing their action

research will be presented. The data source was the teacher research summary reports

which included teacher responses to four open-ended questions. Appendix B lists the

four open-ended questions to which teachers were required to respond. These open-

ended questions were designed to assist the PAS teachers in reflecting about the

successes and challenges of their projects. The teacher responses were interpreted

through Prior’s (2003) document analysis framework which includes analysis of

content, production and consumption. The consumption portion of the framework

focuses on the use of the document produced. In this analysis, the use of the document

was to generate teacher knowledge through reflection. The knowledge teachers accrued

through PAS participation are consistent with two out of three types of teacher

knowledge defined by Shulman (1986; 1987), pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical

content knowledge. No evidence of teacher learning was found that corresponds to

Shulman’s third type of knowledge, subject content knowledge.

Identifying teacher learning in terms of pedagogical and pedagogical content

knowledge is consistent with one purpose generally associated with classroom action

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research, which is to identify and solve questions of classroom practice. Data supporting

this assertion from the teacher research summary reports will be reported in two

sections. Examples consistent with gains in general teaching knowledge known as

pedagogical knowledge will be presented first. Next, examples of teachers reporting

learning in specific teaching knowledge known as PCK will be given.

Pedagogical Knowledge

Four themes of pedagogical teacher learning emerged from the data analysis:

(1) refinement of strategy implementation, (2) use of reflection to guide practice,

(3) knowledge about formative assessment, and (4) awareness of the need to include

parents in school learning.

Pedagogical Knowledge of Strategy Refinement

Results indicated that the greatest number of statements regarding teacher learning were categorized as refinements to the implementation of their selected strategy. These refinements are categorized as pedagogical knowledge because they comprise general knowledge of effective instructional practices. Three examples of teachers who learned how to improve their implementation of cooperative learning groups will be shared here. A high school teacher noted that he changed his role from director to guide as he and his students learned how to implement cooperative groups.

As time passed and students became accustomed to this method of learning I found that I became more of a guide and less of a director in their learning. I found that I had time to walk around the classroom and advise groups and even challenge some groups to explore that one step beyond what was presented in the text. (Case 77.1)

By changing roles from a director to a guide, this teacher surrendered the responsibility for learning to his students. The stance of his teaching pedagogy switched from didactic

121 to constructivist. A different high school teacher realized that how groups were constructed influenced the quality of the student work produced.

It was discovered that the construction of the groups played a significant role in the success of the group adequately completing an assignment. When students worked on self-selected topics, they worked more productively in self-selected groups. On the other hand, when students had to complete assignments that involved pre-determined topics, pre-assigned groups were the most effective because the groups were more balanced. (Case 1069.1)

This example illustrates teacher improvement in the pedagogical knowledge of why matching learning objectives and cooperative grouping structures is important. Self- selected groups work best on self-selected topics and assigned groups work best on assigned topics. A third teacher discovered that permitting students to work in cooperative groups was productive for some objectives, but insufficient for attaining the level of academic achievement he desired.

I plan to continue implementing the strategies using cooperative learning groups for level one assignments. However, I will implement other strategies to improve test scores and accelerate learning. (Case 413)

The pedagogical knowledge attained by this teacher was that cooperative learning groups cannot be the only classroom strategy he uses.

Pedagogical Knowledge of Reflective Practice

Some teachers stated that their personal learning centered on developing an understanding of their practice through reflection. Reflective practice is not limited to a specific content area; it is applicable to teaching all subjects. Therefore, when reflection is employed on a regular basis, it becomes pedagogical knowledge of how to proceed with the next instructional cycle. A teacher remarked:

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I have increased my reflections on my teaching methods. It was through this reflection that I came to realize I need to increase my use of writing in science labs for all of the students in the grade levels that I co-teach. (Case 491.1)

This teacher changed her pedagogical knowledge to include the use of reflection more often. The value of reflection revealed the need to include writing in science class for all of her students, not just ones identified as gifted and talented. Upon reflection, another teacher began to question her uniform teaching style.

Having a chance to participate in this PAS project has taught me a lot about myself as a teacher. Many times, I feel students have mastered a concept without testing my own hypothesis. I found this to be true during the year. Just when I thought students had mastered a certain skill, such as taking curriculum guide assessments, I was proven wrong. This gave me the opportunity to examine my teaching style as an educator and to realize that there is never one right way. What works for some children, may not work for others. (Case 527)

The pedagogical knowledge of this teacher was altered to include the need for differentiated instruction. In a third case, a teacher commented on the value of student reflection as a source of identifying instructional starting points.

In order for my teaching to be more successful for the 2004-2005 school year, I would spend more time on working with more reflective writing, particularly homework journals. For me, the writing entries in journals, portfolios, and projects revealed vital information about what my students learned and what misconceptions I still needed to help clarify. (Case 363.3)

Through teacher reflection on student reflection, this example showed a growth in pedagogical knowledge pertaining to assessment of student understanding.

Pedagogical Knowledge of Assessment

Some PAS teachers referenced personal learning in terms of developing more effective formative assessment practices. Formative assessment has been described as techniques employed by teachers to determine the extent that students comprehend

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current instruction (Bell, 2007). An elementary teacher described her discovery of

rubrics in this example.

When I first started using my Performance Advancement System plan I had teacher-made tests as my only building-level measure. However, through the process I came to realize the value of using rubrics with the students. (Case 97)

By including rubrics in her repertoire of assessment possibilities, this teacher increased

her pedagogical knowledge. Other teachers reported developing different assessment

techniques such as assessing prior knowledge through oral questioning and written

student responses. The next example is also from an elementary teacher.

Another way this strategy was effective had more to do with my teaching, but still consequently improved my students' learning. Advance questioning and organizers gave me more insight into what my students already knew than I ever had before. This sounds obvious, but it made it possible for me to make changes to my lessons immediately to accommodate my students' prior knowledge. (Case 299.3)

The pedagogical knowledge learned in this case was that determining student prior

knowledge was useful when planning instruction to meet the needs of the students.

A high school teacher noted the variable effects of assessment choice on student results.

In my reflection, I learned that students who sometimes test poorly on paper really knew the content that I had taught. I truly believe using portfolios and projects afforded students diverse ways to demonstrate their knowledge, creativity, and analytical talents. Indeed, it provided me with a valuable assessment tool that was very useful for adapting future lessons. (Case 363.1)

The pedagogical knowledge learned in this case was that formative assessment can

highlight student knowledge that is not revealed in standardized tests.

Pedagogical Knowledge of Parental Involvement

The last pedagogical knowledge theme to emerge from the teacher research summary reports was increased awareness of the need to include parents in the school

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learning of their children. Parental involvement was perceived by the PAS teachers as a

means to increase student attendance and engagement. This is consistent with Social

Constructivist Learning Theory in which the development of a community of learners

contributes to knowledge construction (Miller, 2002). As a strategy for improving

classroom climate and community relations, parental involvement was viewed here as

pedagogical knowledge. A high school teacher who participated in PAS with a team of

colleagues commented that early in their project, they realized that improvement in their

methods for including parents had to be a part of their action research.

As for parental contact, we started by recognizing that this was an area in which we needed to improve our own efforts. Overall, I am very proud of the improvements we made over our own efforts in this area [parental contacts] from previous years. (Case 591.2)

The teachers expanded their repertoire of pedagogical knowledge to include a system for initiating and documenting communication with each parent in the freshman class at least three times during a grading period. The communication took the forms of

telephone calls, post cards, face-to-face meetings at school sporting events, and formal

conferences.

An elementary teacher reported that she planned to contact the parents of low

performing students to seek parental support for student learning.

My goal will be to utilize this data collection to individualize the needs of students who are in jeopardy of failing and making some phone calls to parents to initiate some assistance from home. (Case 376.1)

The pedagogical knowledge in this case emphasizes the need to build family/school

connections for improving student achievement.

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Results indicate that PAS science participants gained pedagogical knowledge related to refinement of instructional strategy delivery, use of reflective practice, formative assessment, and inclusion of parents into the school learning of their children.

In the next section, teacher learning of how to teach so students can learn will be

presented.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) involves knowing how to teach specific

content so that students can learn the material. PCK involves knowing the relative

difficulty of the concepts, common student misconceptions and instructional strategies

that enhance student conceptual understanding. Three themes emerged from the PAS

science teachers’ summary reports that were specifically related to teaching and

learning in science, facilitating student inquiry, developing conceptual understanding

and incorporating writing-to-learn in science.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Student Inquiry

Ten PAS teachers reported evidence of learning to teach science through student

inquiry. However, a wide range of meaning was associated with the concept of student

inquiry when interpreting the summary reports. Both of the following examples were

drawn from elementary teacher reports. The first viewed inquiry as a long-term guided

experience in which students accrued investigatory skill. The teacher related how she

changed the order in which she presented concepts of inquiry to her students.

This year's timeline demonstrates a clear and improved departure from the past order of instruction. I feel that introducing the documentation and data collection instruction before the small group project was more beneficial to my students because these skills afforded them the opportunity to gather and refine

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information using some prior knowledge newly developed in these areas. (Case 1054.1)

This example demonstrates that logical sequencing of inquiry skills can be an important

PCK tool for developing student conceptual understanding.

The teacher in the second example differentiated between open and guided inquiry demonstrating the value of explicit science education instruction for inservice teachers. She referenced a prior professional development experience that was highly influential on her practice.

Two years ago I was enrolled in COSI's Inquiry Learning for Schools (ILS). This program changed the way I teach science. The purpose of the class was to introduce teachers to using scientific inquiry with students. I implemented this strategy with nearly every lesson I taught. I developed an inquiry science journal that totally immersed students into the inquiry process. (Case 376.3)

The PCK developed by this teacher was a practical expression of theory learned in previous professional development.

Three teachers seemed to equate student inquiry with student engagement in active lessons within cooperative learning groups. The first teacher described using discreet episodes of active learning that may have been guided inquiry.

It is my conclusion that if teachers would be consistent and teach science in a hands-on components-based way using practice proficiency questions, allowing cooperative learning, children would learn the concepts of science, and show more success on the State Proficiency Test. (Case 870)

The PCK learned by this teacher was that the social construction of knowledge through active learning in cooperative groups utilizing science content highlighted in practice exam items was likely beneficial in passing state achievement tests.

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A middle school teacher alluded to inquiry episodes by name, but did not explain what occurred in the lessons. What she did make explicit, was that the lessons occurred during cooperative groups.

I think that students like science because group work isn't boring. Because they are excited about it, they learn it and remember it better. Most of our cooperative group activities were successful. Two of my favorites were Mystery Powder and Decomposing Log. (Case 940)

The PCK learning by the middle school teacher is not explicit, but she did find that students enjoyed cooperative inquiry lessons. A high school teacher also built lessons around cooperative group inquiry.

My whole teaching philosophy is dependent on cooperative learning because I believe that students must be actively involved in their own education. To help students teach themselves, I used group work. We did 3 to 5 activities a week, and students worked in groups for almost all of them. (Case 877.1)

The PCK demonstrated by this example is consistent with social constructivist learning theory in that students constructed knowledge through inquiry in a social situation.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Building a Conceptual Framework

A common theme throughout the PAS summary reports was devising schemes to assist students in recording pertinent facts, vocabulary and procedures unique to science education. Vygotsky (1978) stated that one of the key tasks teachers need to perform at school is to supply students with the logical framework of the subject content being studied. Students bring everyday knowledge to the learning situation, and teachers must supply the language and structure of logical thinking to assist in the transformation of experience into conventionally accepted conceptual understanding.

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Without an organizing framework, students may perceive lessons as isolated bits of knowledge.

One elementary teacher reported the usefulness of employing graphic organizers to assist students in building connections among facts and vocabulary related to the same concept.

This specific strategy [graphic organizer] was very effective in my class. I felt that it got the students focused on the concept and it helped them organize their thoughts and ideas. (Case 740)

The PCK developed by this teacher was utilizing a variety of graphic organizers with students to assist them in making conceptual connections.

Another elementary teacher found that teaching students to summarize classroom discourse, recording notes during guided inquiry, and constructing a portfolio of content related artifacts were valuable tools to organizing young students’ thinking about science.

Teaching science in a format using note taking and summarizing, is a useful way to instruct students. Portfolios are beneficial components for [teachers and students] keeping track of student progress. Although all students showed progress in some way, some students will need to revisit ideas and concepts in the future. (Case 973.1)

This teacher developed PCK in teaching students to record science learning in notes, summaries and portfolios. These student artifacts demonstrated progress in developing science knowledge to both the students and the teacher.

A fourth grade teacher found similar student benefits from requiring students to keep all of their science work together in a binder.

In reflection, I feel the binder was an excellent way to keep students organized in science, as well as give them a useful resource for [preparing for summative] assessment. (Case 521.3)

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This example showed that when students kept a science binder, the teacher could be

assured that students would have the necessary study materials for test preparation. The

PCK learned by the teacher revolved around how to support fourth graders in creating

and using notebooks for study. This type of physical organization can be used to

promote mental organization of science concepts.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Writing in a Content Area

A variety of writing strategies were reported by 40% of the PAS science

teachers. When students are guided through writing processes geared toward

cataloguing and clarifying information, the technique is termed writing-to-learn

(Routman, 1991). The termed label is meant to differentiate between learning how to

write and utilizing writing as an applied skill for learning. Results indicated that writing

was employed in three types of student assignments: laboratory write-ups, formative

assessment, and science journals. A high school teacher described how writing in

laboratory notebooks was used as a means of encouraging students to embrace

evidenced-based reasoning.

The one area that students struggled with all year was writing the conclusion. My strategy for next year will be to continue working on the hypothesis and procedure and also work on students' ability to convey what they observe in the lab in their conclusion. (Case 530)

Making conclusions based upon evidence is an important step away from perceptual understanding of science concepts toward logical understanding of science concepts.

The PCK in process of being acquired was, knowing how to help students write evidence-based conclusions.

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Learning how to incorporate writing in science class was identified by an elementary teacher as a valuable tool to measure student conceptual understanding.

I will continue with my emphasis on requiring students to write about their understanding of each SLC [State Learning Competency] or activity topic. Additionally, I believe it was very valuable for my students to use a variety of graphic organizers to help with their writing. I will continue to supply rubrics along with an assignment, so students know what is expected and are able to evaluate their own products prior to my evaluation. (Case 937)

This example showed how a teacher developed PCK in helping students to self-evaluate their conceptual understanding through writing.

Another elementary teacher valued writing in science journals for building science content knowledge.

I will also continue the science journal writing. I feel it has been an effective strategy for memory retention. (Case 896)

Summary Research Question 2

Evidence of teacher learning was extrapolated from the teacher research summary reports. Teachers reported learning pedagogical tools such as improving their instructional delivery of research-based strategies, developing an understanding of their practice through reflection, developing formative assessments, and finding ways to include parents. Teachers also described learning pedagogical content knowledge in terms of learning to teach science through student inquiry, developing organizational schemes for students to record vocabulary, concepts and scientific procedures; and incorporating writing to build student conceptual understanding.

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Research Question 3: Do the Instructional Practices Reported by Teachers Reflect the

National Science Education Standards?

Background

In the previous two research questions, results were presented detailing variations in teacher participation rates, implementation focus, and teacher learning.

This section will report the extent to which PAS teachers addressed the National

Science Education Standards. The data sources were the teacher research applications and teacher research summary reports. The document analysis framework of Prior

(2003), was used in analyzing the science content of the teacher summary reports and research applications. A frequency count was made of cases that supplied evidence of work in the eight NSES.

The National Science Education Standards are grouped under eight broad areas:

(1) unifying concepts and processes, (2) science as inquiry, (3) physical science, (4) life science, (5) earth and space science, (6) science and technology, (7) science in personal and social perspectives, and (8) history and nature of science. Students in all grade bands, grades K-4, grades 5-8 and grades 9-12 are expected to receive instruction in each of the eight areas. Expectations for what students should know and be able to do increase in complexity from kindergarten through twelfth grade. The instructional practices of PAS science teachers included evidence from all eight standard areas.

However, PAS program requirements for the teacher summary reports are focused on stimulating teacher reflection. Teachers were required to give evidence of how their instructional strategy worked, not evidence of covering all of the standards. Therefore,

132 teachers selected instructional examples based upon their relevance to the strategy implementation.

1. Unifying Concepts and Processes

This standard addresses the fundamental principles of science such as the existence of an external reality that can be observed and measured. It emphasizes the stance that evidence based reasoning supplies the necessary information to discover the inherent order and systems of the natural world. Teachers who met this standard intentionally linked concepts during instruction and created a conceptual framework for students.

Three PAS teachers supplied evidence that they intentionally engaged students in developing a logical framework of scientific knowledge i.e. unified concepts and processes. Excerpts from two of the cases are provided here. In the first example, a high school teacher described how he utilized multiple resources to teach fundamental science concepts.

The instructional strategies were effective because it helped to reinforce scientific concepts and "big ideas" taught in class. These "big ideas" that students learned were drawn from CPS [Columbus Public Schools] benchmarks, SLCs, and curriculum guides. (Case 363.1)

This example demonstrates teacher awareness and emphasis upon organizing principles of science that he labels big ideas. The second example is from a second grade teacher who presented lessons systematically and explicitly taught the connections from one lesson to the next.

The talking portion of the lesson began with a "two minute review" of the previous lessons by referring to the Science Concept/Word Wall. This was a bright blue science fair display board on which I mounted a colorful outline of terms, concepts, and applications. The information was carefully arranged to

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facilitate logical conclusions. I used icons and samples beside the words to help jog the memories of the students. In the course of the lessons, every time a new concept or term was introduced, it was added to the display board. Often I presented new information in the form of a chart or some other graphic organizer on the overhead and then gave students a hard copy to include in their science folder. At the end of every lesson, I reviewed the concept board again. The purpose of the board was to fix an organizing image of the content material in the minds of the students. (Case 116.1)

This example demonstrates teacher intent to assist students in building an understanding

of the domains of science and the interconnections among the concepts within each

domain.

2. Science as Inquiry

This standard is based upon students learning science through active

participation in the science content areas. Constructing knowledge through inquiry

requires students to ask questions and construct answers through both physical

manipulation of materials and mental manipulation of ideas. In most cases, PAS

teachers only described guided inquiry opportunities for their students. However, one

elementary teacher specifically differentiated between open and guided inquiry.

My students have learned the difference between "cookbook" science and "inquiry" science. Conducting inquiry science allows students the opportunity to direct their own learning by developing their own experiment to answer questions they have developed. Inquiry requires the use of higher-order cognitive skills. (Case 376.3)

This elementary teacher further explained that her students had one 75 minute class

period per week allocated to science inquiry. Additionally, evidence was found that

PAS teachers employed classroom and small group discourse to support the social

construction of scientific knowledge during inquiry sessions.

Inductive reasoning was used from one science lab activity to the next when we conducted several experiments on the same unit (bubbles, air and water, etc.)

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We would use prior knowledge to help us predict what to include in our new experiment's hypothesis. (Case 491.1)

This sample explains how classroom discourse was utilized to support the inquiry

process.

The next example was from a high school teacher, who employed inquiry

combined with cooperative learning during student laboratory exercises.

Some of these activities included metric measuring, building rockets and measuring average velocity, acceleration, force and momentum. Groups constructed roller coasters and examined and calculated forces in their study of Newton's Laws. (Case 77.1)

The active participation of these high school students while in small groups permitted

the students to support one another’s thinking during the inquiry process.

3. Physical Science

This standard covers the “facts, concepts, principles, theories, and models”

(NRC, 1996, p. 106) pertinent to the domain of physical science. More than 25% of the

PAS science projects referenced a student lesson based in the physical sciences. An

additional 14% of the high school teachers listed a physical science teaching position on

the application, but did not give examples specifically identifying physical science

lessons. In the summary report of a ninth grade teacher (Case 530), student formative

assessment scores were found for the following topics: measurement for accuracy and

precision, flame, ionic compound, molecular swallow, decomposition, and bag the gas.

Another high school teacher specifically identified a physical science topic.

I focused on using activation of prior knowledge, discussion, and argumentation to assist students in identifying and/or altering their conceptions related to motion and wave phenomenon. (Case 958)

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An elementary teacher included physical science topics in her listing of instructional units covered during science class.

The components were: weather patterns, environmental issues, earth's surface changes, Newton's Laws, physical/chemical change, simple machines, nutrition, reactions to changing environment, and lastly process skills. (Case 870)

The next standard for which evidence was found is life science.

4. Life Science

This standard covers the “facts, concepts, principles, theories, and models”

(NRC, 1996, p. 106) pertinent to the domain of life science. Many of the PAS teachers

(17%) referenced student activities related to the life sciences and an additional 12% listed a life science teaching position on their application. An elementary teacher related the following classroom discussion which is evidence of life science instruction.

For example: I remember a discussion about vertebrates and invertebrates (also in field notes). Ann said, "A snake doesn't have bones." Bob replied, "Look at that chart of reptiles! Snakes are on it. Reptiles are vertebrates." Betty drew a picture of a food chain. It contained sun and water, plants, a horse and a mountain lion. (Case 973)

Another elementary teacher described making models of body systems during class.

For SLC [State Learning Competency] 18, the students were learning about the six body systems. When we were learning about the respiratory system, we made physical representations of the lungs by using water and sponges. (Case 740)

A high school teacher referenced a collaborative program between the local university

Primate Research Center and area high school students as an opportunity for students to work together while learning life science.

The Primate Project unit was designed to encourage high school Biology students to work in cooperative groups. (Case 363.1)

The next standard for which evidence was found is earth and space science.

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5. Earth and Space Science

This standard covers the “facts, concepts, principles, theories, and models”

(NRC, 1996, p. 106) pertinent to the domain of earth and space science. All six of the

PAS projects that specifically mentioned earth and space related lessons, were in the elementary grade band. There were and still are very few earth and space middle or high school science courses in the PAS district. An example of a reference to an earth and space lesson included this one about a weather unit.

We made a type of word splash when we began our weather forecasting unit, putting all the terms we knew (or thought we knew) in a particular color. (Case 299.3)

Another example described a lesson about soil composition.

We did a soil sample activity using a cupcake. I received some of the best hypotheses I had seen all year. (Case 527)

A third example indicated that the students had been studying rocks.

Ted could not name three rocks after we had read, written, drew and discussed many names for rocks over a period of two weeks. (Case 973.1)

Little information could be discerned regarding the depth or duration of these earth and space lessons, however, they were important enough to the PAS teachers to include as good examples of strategy implementation.

6. Science and Technology

This standard defines what students should understand about the similarities and differences between natural and man-made designs in science. “These standards emphasize the process of design and fundamental understandings about the enterprise of science and its various linkages with technology” (NRC, 1996, p. 106.) Only two high school projects referenced students engaged in designing objects for scientific purposes.

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The first example was already identified in an earlier section as a good example of a teacher facilitating open inquiry. This time the case is used to illustrate a student assignment involving science and technology. The task appeared to be modeled after cable television programs popular at the time PAS data were collected in which contestants had to utilize salvaged materials to design useful objects.

The Junk Box Wars lab required students to build a rubber band powered car and a snowball launcher. (Case 703.1)

The second example was less clear about what the students actually created, but the guidelines for the contest suggest the same type of outcome. Students were required to create an object useful in the realm of science.

Students completed portfolios to enter into an annual national contest; the Explora-Vision Awards sponsored by Toshiba and NSTA. The contest involved students working to "combine their imaginations with the tools of science to create and explore a vision of a future technology." (Case 1069.3)

Student Explora-Vision projects may have incorporated goals from the next standard, science in personal and social perspectives.

7. Science in Personal and Social Perspectives

This standard is directed at developing students into scientifically-sound decision makers. Students must learn how to apply science in order to make informed choices regarding the impact of scientific discoveries on public policy. Two teachers encouraged students to think about ways that school science connected with everyday living. The first example was from an elementary teacher who encouraged students to connect school learning with everyday knowledge.

As we study every major concept in the SLCs [State Learning Competencies], students are required to make connections in writing to their real life experiences, literature they have read, and news reports, etc. (Case 937.1)

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The second example was a high school teacher who also encouraged her students to look for the practical connections between school learning and home applications.

Using the Socratic approach, students make connections with what they have recently learned to previously learned material. Also I encourage students to analogize everyday arrangements to the coursework, and vice-versa. (Case 210.1)

Neither of the examples provided address the social justice element of this standard.

Both teachers focused their instruction on connecting school to everyday knowledge on a personal level. Likewise, little evidence was found to support the next standard, the history and nature of science.

8. History and Nature of Science

This standard emphasizes the concept that science is a dynamic enterprise and reflective of the state of current knowledge as well as the social mores of specific historical timeframes. Advances in scientific knowledge and technology have contributed tremendously to the health and well being of most people, but not without marginalizing others. None of the PAS teachers addressed the social consequences and hurdles of scientific advancement. Only one, a middle school teacher, commented on the nature of science.

The lack of evidence supporting instruction in personal and social perspectives as well as the history and nature of science may be the result of the current high stakes test environment. These ideas will be developed more fully in Chapter 5 in implications for classroom practice.

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Summary Research Question 3

Collectively, the instructional practices of PAS teachers included evidence of addressing all eight NSES areas. Elementary teachers referenced student work in all areas except science and technology; and history and the nature of science. The standards cited most often by elementary teachers were inquiry (n = 8), earth and space

(n = 6), and life science (n = 5). High school teachers provided evidence of working in five of the standards. The most frequently cited standards were physical science (n

=14), life science (n = 6) and inquiry (n = 4). Two of the middle school teachers cited four different areas; physical science, life science, unifying concepts and processes; and history and nature of science. The other two middle school teachers made no reference to student involvement in a NSES area. In six cases, no evidence of NSES usage could be discerned.

Research Question 4: Do the Instructional Practices Reported by Teachers Reflect the

Knowledge and Skills Presented in Other Professional Development Episodes Available

to the Teachers?

Background

The first three research questions analyzed the data set for evidence of teacher participation rates, project focus, evidence of teacher learning, and use of the NSES.

This section will explain the presence of other professional development initiatives in the classroom practice of PAS science teachers.

During the years that PAS data were collected, the school district had in place a professional development program that permitted teachers to attend training during the

140 contractual school day. Five days a school year, students stayed at home and the teachers attended a full day of professional development training of their own choice.

Before the student non-attendance days, catalogs listing the training offerings were circulated among the teachers to permit advance planning. Sometimes teachers were mandated to attend specific training, but most of the time teachers were permitted to make a selection from among 70 different offerings. Each curricular department offered a suite of choices.

The data sources utilized to determine if the instructional practices of PAS science teachers reflected the knowledge and skills presented in other professional development episodes were the teacher research summary reports, professional development catalogs, and a school district directive regarding classroom observations.

The summary reports were read multiple times and analyzed for evidence of process utilizing Prior’s (2003) document analysis framework. Coding categories were pre- selected based upon the school district directive to all administrators. A document was circulated among district administrators specifying that anyone conducting a Downey three-minute walk-through (Downey, Steffy, English, Frase & Poston, 2004) record evidence of particular professional development initiatives such as writing across the curriculum, use of curriculum guides, and so forth. Appendix C lists these professional development initiatives and provides a summary of how the terms were interpreted.

Five additional categories were added to track connections to themes in current science education literature: elements of the conceptual change model, elements of the 5E

Learning Cycle, active student centered lessons, use of classroom discourse and project/theme based instruction. These 14 categories were selected for use here because

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they represented substantial professional development within the district, and this

training was expected to influence the classroom practice of PAS teachers.

The research summary reports submitted by the participating teachers were read

multiple times for evidence conforming to the 14 pre-selected categories. A frequency

count of projects that contained evidence consistent with the pre-selected categories was

tabulated. If they had evidence that was consistent with multiple categories, cases were

counted multiple times.

Interpretive Findings

Table 4.3 summarizes the presence in the PAS summary reports of the identified

professional development initiatives. The frequency column lists the actual number of

cases in which evidence was found supporting the strategy listed. The “% usage”

column indicates the percentage of cases in which evidence of the initiative was found.

Initiative Frequency N % Usage Use of data to drive instruction 21 50 Active student-centered lessons 21 50 Writing in the content area 19 45 Use of classroom discourse 16 38 Rubrics or other tools for student self-checking 17 40 Student notebooks/portfolios 14 33 Use of curriculum guides and /or pacing charts 12 29 Focused written practice of short & extended response 11 26 answers Conceptual Change model-elements 10 24 Differentiated instruction 9 21 Learning Cycle-elements 6 14 Use of higher level questioning 6 14 Project based/thematic lessons 5 12 Cultural relevancy 4 10

Table 4.3. Professional Development Initiatives Present in 42 PAS Summary Reports.

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The use of data to drive instruction was one of the professional development

initiatives reported most often in the summary reports. This is consistent with a PAS

requirement which was to monitor the effectiveness of their action research through

formative assessment. Its lack in nearly 50% of the reports may indicate that the

teachers either did not fulfill the requirement, or did not value the formative data

enough to mention its use in their summary report. However, the high frequency of

using rubrics or other tools for student self-checking may be the manner in which some

teachers interpreted the mandate to use data for instruction.

The second initiative listed, active student-centered lessons, is consistent with constructivist practice as reported in the science education literature. Four of the next highest six categories, writing in the content area, use of classroom discourse, employing student notebooks/portfolios, and focused written practice of short and extended responses to achievement test-like questions are consistent with the use of literacy skills in content area subjects.

Further analysis of the 14 professional development initiatives suggested an underlying structure of fewer actual strategies. Table 4.4 lists the implemented strategies grouped by an alternate structure. The frequency column lists the actual number of cases in which evidence was found supporting one or more of the strategy(s) listed under the heading. The “% usage” column indicates the percentage of cases in which evidence of the strategy was found.

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Initiative Frequency N % Usage Literacy 36 86 Writing in the content area Use of classroom discourse Student notebooks/portfolios Focused written practice of short & extended response answers

Data 29 69 Use of data to drive instruction (teacher) Rubrics or other tools for student self- checking

Active students 26 62 Active student centered lessons Conceptual Change model-elements Learning Cycle-elements Project based/thematic lessons Use of higher level questioning

Use of curriculum guides and /or pacing 12 29 charts

Differentiated instruction 9 21

Cultural relevancy 4 10

Table 4.4. Grouped Professional Development Initiatives in 42 PAS Summary Reports.

Nearly all PAS science teachers (86%) incorporated a form of literacy in their science classroom practice. Writing, whether as responses to practice exam questions, reflection journals or expository writing assignments had a dominant presence in the

PAS classrooms. Classroom and cooperative group discourse was also utilized to

construct student knowledge. These practices are consistent with teaching practice

aimed at closing achievement gaps for English language learners and marginalized

student groups through improving conventional English language skills (Payne, 1998;

Zehler, 1994). 144

When the original 14 initiatives are grouped into 6 categories, the use of data to drive instruction, drops to the second most frequently utilized professional development initiative strand. Sixty-nine percent of the PAS summary reports included information about using data in the classroom. In some cases teachers utilized data from formative assessment, but in others, students self-assessed and used the data to modify their own performance. This practice is consistent with the authentic assessment professional literature which supports the use of ongoing embedded assessment to plan instruction

(Burke, 2005).

Engaging students in active learning was also reported by a large percentage of the PAS teachers. Sixty-two percent of PAS science teachers made use of student- centered inquiry sessions, cooperative group projects, and the social construction of knowledge through classroom discourse. These practices are consistent with the NSES.

Summary Research Question 4

Qualitative analysis of the teacher research summary reports indicated that teachers utilized professional development initiatives of the host school district in the implementation of PAS. The three most frequently reported categories of professional development reflected in the teacher reports were incorporating literacy strategies, use of data to inform instruction, and active student engagement. The strong presence of district professional development initiatives in the teacher summary reports may indicate the development of pedagogical content knowledge in teachers and validate the expense and effort of providing strong professional development opportunities.

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Research Question 5: What Practical Issues Did Teachers Identify as Having an Impact

on Student Science Achievement?

Background

The first four research questions analyzed the data set for evidence of (1) teacher participation rates and project focus, (2) growth in teacher knowledge and skills, (3) use of the NSES, and (4) the presence of district professional development initiatives. This section will report results pertinent to the research questions of the PAS science teachers. The data sources for information were the teacher research applications and summary reports. The document analysis framework of Prior (2003) was employed to analyze the content of what the teachers reported.

One characteristic that separates classroom action research from other kinds of research is the selection of a research question. In experimental research, the questions usually emerge from theory or a review of the professional literature. In classroom action research, teachers identify an area of concern in either student learning or teaching practice, and develop a plan to solve the problem. The research design is not bound by invariable treatments and control groups; rather classroom action research is focused on working with students to improve the climate and outcomes of day-to-day classroom life. In PAS, teachers were required to give a rationale for their classroom research. Review of the rationales suggested six themes of practical concern that served as the organizational point for the science action research projects. These results will be reported in six sections corresponding to the six themes.

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Interpretive Findings

Theme 1: Increasing Student Subject Knowledge

The practical concern cited most often by PAS teachers revolved around increasing student subject content knowledge and/or the development of conceptual understanding. Sixteen PAS teachers named practical concerns related to student content learning. For example, an elementary teacher who taught science from an inquiry perspective employed many kinesthetic activities and provided students with graphic organizers to record and summarize the data. She stated:

I planned my lessons with a deliberate attempt to include all of the senses in order to increase the likelihood that the students would form and retain science concepts. (Case 116.1)

A high school Physics teacher stated that his year long goal was to have his students enjoy learning and obtain enough knowledge to excel on the Physics End of Course

Exam. To assist student learning, the teacher placed the students in cooperative teams.

In his summary report he stated:

Use of cooperative learning in Physics will allow for students to help peer teach and provide more effective feedback to the teacher. Students will work in cooperative groups in a lab setting, in problem solving situations, group quizzes and unit reviews. Student groups will be rotated during the semester to ensure mixing of strength and skill levels. These methods will ensure the unit goals are accomplished in an enjoyable and positive manner. (Case 703.1)

A different high school teacher was very succinct in the knowledge that she wished to facilitate in her students.

I proposed to enable students to improve their ability to organize ideas about mechanics (the study of how things move) and wave phenomenon through the use of surveys to help students get a picture of their own ideas, to use discussion to enable them to refine or confirm their conceptions, and to use argumentation to assist students in integrating new or altered knowledge into their cognitive structures. (Case 958)

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Theme 2: Raising Test Scores

The second most frequently mentioned area of practical concern was to raise

student scores on state and district mandated achievement tests. Nine PAS science

teachers declared that this was their practical issue. From the school district point of

view, improving student achievement on mandated tests was considered to be the action

part of PAS classroom action research. PAS program documents indicated that PAS

was originally conceived as a school improvement strategy and administered by the

Department of School Improvement in the district. All PAS projects were supposed to

have the goal of raising student test scores, but some teacher-researchers emphasized

test performance more than others.

An elementary teacher of gifted and talented students voiced the concern that

her job was to keep student performance above the required benchmark level.

As a K-5 gifted Specialist, it is my job to help my students achieve the "Exceeds Benchmark" level on the district SLCs [State Learning Competencies]. (Case 491.1)

A fourth grade teacher shared her thinking about the challenges of passing tests and the vertical alignment of student knowledge and skills.

My students took the 4th grade proficiency test last year and our school's passing rate was 56% (29 out of 52). This is an area where improvement is needed. From my observations since the beginning of the school year, this is an area where students have many misconceptions. These need to be addressed before taking the 6th grade test next year. (Case 527)

The next example is from a middle school teacher’s report in which she combined building student content knowledge emphasizing that the knowledge was to be used on the proficiency test.

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I am confident that these simulated experiences will not only enable students to correctly answer more science questions, but give students background knowledge that may help them in all areas of the proficiency test. (Case 940)

Theme 3: Constructed Response Replies

The third area of concern is really a subset of raising test scores, but was

particularly identified by 14% of the PAS participants, improving student written

response to short and extended proficiency-type questions. There are typically six

constructed response questions on every state achievement test, four of them are worth

two points each and the other two are worth four points each. Constructed response

answers account for about 33% of the points on the achievement test. Historically,

students in the PAS district simply skipped the constructed response questions,

effectively forfeiting any chance of passing the test. A major initiative was launched in

the district to help students learn how to write answers that would net them the full

amount of points, either two or four, for the constructed response questions. Six of the

PAS science teachers specifically named improving students’ written responses as the practical problem they planned to solve. In some cases, the PAS intervention strategy

was having students practice writing answers to open response question on a daily basis.

This middle school teacher however combined working on written responses with a

focus on developing content knowledge or conceptual understanding.

Based on the 2001 practice proficiency test, only 26% of the students passed. After reviewing the practice test, I found that the students did very poorly on the extended response and short answer questions. I expect that by focusing on extended response and short answer questions, the students’ science proficiency scores will increase. (Case 968.1)

The next two examples are from elementary teachers. The first teacher taught using the

strategy of summarizing and note-taking. Students learned to summarize science lessons

149 using quick writes, and then later expanded the quick responses into longer and more detailed statements suitable for an answer to an extended response exam question. The second teacher focused primarily upon developing student writing skills to craft exam question responses.

By choosing #2, summarizing and note taking, as a strategy for focus in the PAS project, students will develop better written responses. As a result scores on open-ended responses should increase. (Case 67.3)

[My project focuses on] providing all fourth graders with skills needed for success on the short answer and extended response portions of the Proficiency tests in Science and Citizenship. (Case 659.3)

Theme 4: Improving Process Skills

Seven PAS science teachers chose to improve science process skills such as planning experimental design, developing metacognition, or reasoning from evidence in science. Through improving these skills, the teachers expected that overall science achievement would increase. The first two examples are from the work of high school teachers and the third is an elementary teacher.

Students were required to write their own hypothesis once given a research question. Then write a replicable lab procedure to test the hypothesis. (Case 530)

The use of cooperative learning groups in the context of problem-based curriculum promotes the development of metacognitive skills. (Case 1069.1)

Problem-solving in science areas directly impact math and reading proficiencies, both of which need improvement at the second grade level. (Case 1054.1)

Teaching process skill development in science has been recognized in science education for years (Shymansky, Hedges & Woodworth, 1990), but some PAS teachers extended skill development into the social realm.

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Theme 5: Improving Social Skills

Three high school teachers worked to improve student social skills such as the development of a sound work ethic, a sense of efficacy, and adjustment to school expectations.

I chose to use my Biology classes for this study because they are mostly 10th graders and are at a delicate time in high school. This is the year where students usually start to see if they are "college material" and can be turned away from higher education very easily. Low scores and decreased academic success can lead to dropping out, not graduating, or not pursuing further educational opportunities. I want my students to feel successful and to be successful. I chose these three strategies because they are already built into my long-range planning. All of the below strategies will increase student performance in my classroom. (Case 210.1)

My goal is to instill confidence in students to help them succeed in science and in school and in life. I will do this by reinforcing their efforts and helping them to teach themselves. (Case 877.1)

Our focus in the FSA (Freshman Success Academy) is to help the students become better adapted to a productive school environment. (Case 1083.2)

Elementary teachers eschewed the development of social skills during science class, but two focused on literacy skills.

Theme 6: Improving Literacy Skills

Two elementary cases named a practical need to increase student usage and understanding of science vocabulary words and to utilize content specific words in expository writing. This goal was consistent with district-wide professional development offered at the time. One of the teachers summed up their intent:

In the April 2001 Science and Children Magazine, I read an article "A Key to Science Learning". Using these 'key science words' as cues, science written answers should be more focused toward communication of the correct science information. (Case 67.1)

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Summary Research Question 5

PAS science teachers identified practical issues in their teaching practice or student achievement weaknesses that could be grouped into six broad areas. Most of the teachers worked to improve student content knowledge and conceptual understanding.

Many simply said that their research was based on raising student test scores. Other teachers specifically identified improving written student responses on short and extended response proficiency test questions. Another common practical issue identified was to improve student performance of science process skills such as critical thinking and constructing inquiry investigations. Some teachers emphasized the improvement of student social skills such as the ability to work cooperatively on science assignments. A few teachers viewed the path to improved science achievement through increasing content specific vocabulary and expository writing skills. These six categories summarize the breadth but not depth of the teachers’ inquiry into personal practice and student learning.

Research Question 6: What Instructional Practices Did Teachers Utilize with Students

to Improve Achievement on Science Assessments?

Background

The first five research questions analyzed the data set for evidence of (1) teacher participation rates and project focus, (2) growth in knowledge and skills (3) use of the

NSES, (4) the presence of district professional development initiatives, and (5) research questions of the teachers. This section will report results of the instructional practices reported by the PAS teachers.

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One of the requirements for PAS participation is that teachers must select and implement at least one research-based instructional strategy in their action research project. Participants were referred to Classroom Instruction that Works: Research-

Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement by Marzano et al. (2001) to select a strategy on which to base their action research intervention. Marzano et al. (2001) developed a list of nine broad categories of instructional strategies through a meta- analysis of research seeking information regarding the improvement of student achievement. Appendix A lists the nine strategies and functional interpretations as manifest in instructional practice.

Instructional Practice and Student Achievement Results

The data sources for this analysis were the teacher research applications, the research summary reports, and student achievement records. A frequency count of the instructional strategies reported by teachers on their applications to participate in PAS showed that all nine of the Marzano et al. (2001) instructional strategies were represented. However, it is difficult to surmise a clear picture of the effect of any one strategy because the teachers were free to combine strategies. Furthermore, as found in research question 1, individual interpretation of the strategies by the PAS teachers varied. Table 4.5 lists the nine Marzano et al. (2001) strategies, the frequency with which they were listed on the teacher research applications, and the resultant success in student achievement exceeding the school district mean.

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Strategy Frequency % Usage % N Successful Cooperative Learning 12 29 66 Effort & Recognition 11 26 63 Homework & Practice 9 21 55 Generating & Testing Hypotheses 7 17 57 Summarizing & Note-Taking 5 12 80 Nonlinguistic Representations 4 10 75 Objectives & Feedback 4 10 75 Similarities and Differences 4 10 50 Cues, Questions & Advance Organizers 4 10 25

Table 4.5. Frequency and Success of Instructional Strategies Reported by Teachers on PAS Applications.

The two strategies most frequently reported by teachers as being used were,

cooperative learning and reinforcing effort and providing recognition. However, three

other strategies had a much higher percentage of participants successful in improving

student achievement: summarizing and note-taking, nonlinguistic representation, and

setting objectives and providing specific feedback.

Throughout the school year, the teachers were encouraged to modify their

original intervention plan based upon student response. Modification during action

research is expected, as the research is envisioned as a cyclical process of plan-act-

evaluate. One of the writing prompts for the summary report asked the teachers, “What

strategies did you use with your students? How did you adapt the strategy to fit the

needs of your students?” A qualitative content analysis of teacher response to this

prompt was utilized to produce summaries of how the teachers interpreted each of the

nine Marzano strategies. Furthermore, Appendix D lists short synopses of each PAS

project.

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Interpretive Findings

Similarities and Differences

PAS program documents quantify this strategy as explicitly guiding students to

note characteristics of concepts which permit sorting or categorization. Patterns and

relationships between concepts can then be highlighted which may facilitate conceptual

understanding. Teachers who selected this strategy assisted students in utilizing a

variety of graphic organizers to organize students’ evolving conceptual understandings.

Students used the completed graphic organizers for writing summaries and as a basis for classroom discourse of the content being studied.

Summarizing and Note-taking

This strategy involves teaching students how to recognize the key points in a written passage, oral discussion or inquiry episode. PAS teachers interpreted summarizing and note-taking by having students maintain science journals or portfolios.

Student writing about science content was supported through teacher-prepared outlines, concept maps, or specific protocols for answering questions. Often, student work was scored with a rubric for the purpose of formative assessment.

Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition

The purpose of using this strategy is to emphasize to students that effort is an indispensible component of achievement. A challenging more of urban poverty culture

is that in the world of school, teachers do the work while students merely absorb the

knowledge (Payne, 1998). This point of view contradicts research in constructivism and

intentional learning, so some PAS teachers sought to motivate students into active

participation. To that end, many students were required to periodically rate their

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classroom effort and compare it to their grades. In some cases, teachers arranged public

recognition of student effort by making positive telephone calls to parents, mailing good

news postcards, and giving students tangible rewards such as pencils or popcorn parties.

Homework and Practice

The function of assigning homework to students is to provide practice in an area

currently being instructed. Developing deep understanding of a topic requires both time

and focused practice. Only high school and one middle school PAS teacher selected this strategy as a means of increasing student achievement in science. Several of the teachers specifically had the students practice writing answers for short and extended response proficiency exam questions. Others required their students to answer chapter check-up questions, write laboratory reports, conduct research for classroom projects or memorize discrete facts.

Nonlinguistic Representation

This strategy focuses on visual and kinesthetic cues to assist students in acquiring and understanding information. The three elementary teachers who employed nonlinguistic representation all interpreted it as having students actively engaged in guided inquiry lessons. Students recorded observations during the inquiry episodes on graphic organizers, in pictures, and by constructing models. The middle school teacher reported using graphic organizers to stimulate student discussion and to assist in writing responses to proficiency type questions.

Cooperative Learning

PAS documents describe facilitating cooperative learning as grouping students in various ways to promote positive group interdependence. The intent was to have

156 students accountable for the learning of everyone in the group. More PAS teachers claimed to be using cooperative learning than any of the other strategies. In practice, many of the PAS teachers implemented this strategy in a manner consistent with social constructivist theory. Students were given opportunities to work on inquiry projects together, engage in small and large group discourse, as well as confer with experts to obtain needed information. The difference between PAS projects in which students demonstrated high achievement gain and those that did not, was in teacher commitment to allow students to engage in meaningful interaction with each other.

Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback

The focus of this strategy is on teachers and students co-constructing a learning goal on which students receive specific, corrective, and timely feedback about how well they are progressing toward the goal. In PAS, the goals selected were directly related to state learning outcomes. Students were taught how to use rubrics to self-evaluate their work. Students were also taught how to track their success by utilizing criterion referenced checklists and charts. Teachers provided verbal and written comment to support the students in achieving the identified goals.

Generating and Testing Hypotheses

This strategy was employed by PAS teachers to assist students in developing testable questions and engaging in inquiry. PAS teachers who successfully utilized this strategy emphasized evidenced based reasoning when the students recorded the outcomes of the inquiries. Unsuccessful PAS teachers emphasized rigid procedural write-ups over actual inquiry.

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Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers

The purpose of this strategy was to activate student prior knowledge and provide

a logical framework for student learning. Only one PAS teacher was successful in

employing this strategy. She chose to emphasize the specific vocabulary of science

content making sure that students understood the terms and how the concepts described

by the terms built upon one another. The other PAS projects employing this strategy

were not focused on science. One was directed at testing, one was concerned with

research, and the third was about the strategy itself.

Summary Research Question 6

All PAS science teachers selected at least one of the nine research-based instructional strategies identified by Marzano et al. (2001). Most of the teachers

identified more than one strategy. Projects that included summarizing and note-taking,

nonlinguistic representations, and setting objectives and providing feedback had a

higher percentage of students who demonstrated higher achievement than the district

mean on summative science tests.

Research Question 7: How Do the Student Achievement Outcomes of PAS Teachers

Vary?

Background

The first six research questions analyzed the data set for evidence of (1) teacher

participation rates and project focus, (2) growth in knowledge and skills (3) use of the

NSES, (4) the presence of district professional development initiatives, (5) research

questions of the teachers, and (6) instructional practices. This section will report

158 variation of student achievement results. In PAS, student achievement was measured by student performance on yearly summative science tests. Criterion referenced tests such as State Proficiency Tests and district created end of course exams were given to most students. However, a norm-referenced test, the Metropolitan Achievement Test version

8, was used for students who were not required to take the criterion referenced tests.

Improvement was calculated by comparing students’ prior year science summative test scores to current year summative test scores. In order to calculate a gain from one year to the next, student scores were converted to z scores and then transformed into Normal

Curve Equivalent (NCE) scores. Both the z score and the NCE transformations were computed using the school district’s mean and standard deviations, therefore the resultant NCE was in relation to the school district. The PAS student achievement records included mean student pretest and post test NCE scores for each PAS case.

The data sources used for this research question were student achievement records and teacher research summary reports. The quantitative analysis of the student achievement records was conducted using SPSS, a statistical software program. The interpretive analysis of the teacher summary reports was conducted using the document analysis framework of Prior (2003).

Quantitative Results

The 42 cases analyzed represented 36 different teachers, as six teachers participated multiple years, and included 1320 students. Each participation episode of the six teachers who participated twice was counted independently. In all six cases of multiple-year participation, the first year of participation was 2001-2002, and the second year of participation was 2003-2004. Even though the projects had many

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similarities between the two participation episodes, the students and context were

different and so the episodes were counted separately.

The success criterion in PAS was that the mean student achievement gain of the

PAS teacher’s sample had to exceed the school district mean gain by one Normal Curve

Equivalent (NCE). Student achievement gain was calculated by identifying the prior

year science summative test score and the current year science summative test score for

each student in a teacher’s sample and then computing a simple class-mean gain. In

most cases, dissimilar assessments in adjacent grade levels necessitated conversion of

student raw scores to z-scores. The z-score is the number of standard deviation units an

individual student’s raw score is above or below the school district mean. It has a one-

to-one relationship with the standard deviation unit; one z-score unit equals one

standard deviation unit. On the z-score scale the mean is set at zero. The z-score is

calculated by taking the raw score for a student, subtracting the district mean (average)

of all student scores and dividing by the district standard deviation on the assessment.

For example: z-score = (student raw score – district mean) /district standard deviation.

Therefore in this case, z-scores reflect how far student scores deviate from the school

district mean. Student z scores were further converted to NCE for reporting. The NCE is

calculated by multiplying the z-score by 21.06 and adding 50. That is: NCE = (z-score x

21.06) + 50.

Table 4.6 summarizes the achievement outcomes of the teachers by school level: elementary (ES) K-5, middle school (MS) grades 6-8, and high school (HS) grades 9-

12. Twenty-three cases had a mean student achievement gain exceeding the district average gain by one NCE. These data seem to indicate that middle and high school

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PAS participants had an equal chance of producing gains greater or less than the district

average. In middle and high school, 50% of the cases scored higher and 50% scored

lower that the district average. The elementary teachers however, had greater success;

61% of the cases scored higher than the district average.

School Level N N at School Level % at School Level Demonstrating Achievement Demonstrating Achievement Gain > District Gain > District ES 18 11 61% MS 4 2 50% HS 20 10 50% Total 42 23 55%

Table 4.6. Student Achievement Outcomes by School Level.

Evaluating student achievement by comparing performance to a set standard, in

this case exceeding the district mean gain, can sometimes mask the practical value of

that achievement due to marked differences in sample size. In PAS, classroom sample

sizes typically were less than 30, but were compared to the entire population (all

students in the school district that took the same spring to spring assessments) which

averaged 4,500 students per grade level. Therefore, differences in variability had a

greater impact on the classroom means than on the district. One way to ameliorate this problem is to calculate an effect size, which is a measure of the magnitude of the treatment independent of the sample size. An effect size is calculated by dividing the difference between the pretest and posttest scores by the standard deviation value obtained from a paired samples t test (Rosenthal, 1991).

To calculate an effect size for the total PAS science teacher sample, pretest and

posttest means and standard deviations were obtained by compiling the pretest and

posttest NCE scores for each PAS case onto a spreadsheet. These data were analyzed by 161

running a paired samples t test using SPSS. The resulting pretest and post test overall

means of the individual project means and standard deviation were used to calculate an

overall effect size. The process was repeated for each school level to permit

disaggregating the outcomes.

Table 4.7 displays the results of calculating an effect size for each school level.

School level N Mean NCE Gain SD Effect Size Paired t d ES 18 5.32 7.00 .76 MS 4 3.47 4.21 .82 HS 20 2.19 9.24 .24 Total 42 3.65 7.96 .46

Table 4.7. Effect Size by School Level.

Using the interpretation scale suggested by Cohen (as cited in King & Minium, 2003)

an effect size of .20 may be viewed as small, .50 viewed as medium, and .80 considered

large. Results indicate that for the 42 cases analyzed, PAS teachers engaged in

classroom action research may have had a medium effect on increasing student science

achievement. Disaggregating the effects by school level shows that elementary and

middle school teachers may have had a medium to high effect; high school teachers

may have had a small effect on improving student achievement.

Interpretive Findings

A qualitative analysis of the teacher research summary reports was conducted to

collect teacher reported evidence of student growth. One of the Summary Report

writing prompts was, “Give examples of how your strategy was or was not successful

with your students.” Data collected from teacher response to this prompt indicate that

student growth was reported either as percentage increases on criterion reference tests

162 or as rich anecdotal evidence. An example of a high school teacher comment involving increased test scores was:

The class I chose to focus my PAS study on had 52% of the students passing the science portion of the first practice test and only 36% passing science on the second practice test [the second test was the new Ohio Graduation Test, not the Ohio Proficiency Test that was first practice test]. The science class that I selected to concentrate this study on had 21 out of 25 pass the science section of the Ohio Proficiency Test, which is an 84% pass rate. (Case 873)

The anecdotal evidence was quite varied but linked to the overall focus of the project.

Data pertinent to the first research question indicated that the focus of PAS science projects varied among fives emphases: science oriented, strategy improvement, testing focus, literacy interpretation, and controlled research. Teachers whose projects had a pronounced science content focus tended to report evidence of student growth in terms of increased content knowledge or conceptual understanding. An elementary teacher reported evidence of student growth in terms of integrating science content knowledge with other learning situations.

For most students a multi-sensory non-linguistic approach to science was very well received. They energetically participated even though science was relegated to the final period of the day. The regular classroom teacher reported to me that the students made connections from science class during other lessons during the day, notably reading. Apparently, the science lessons provided much needed background information necessary to make meaning from the selections used during reading instruction. The library assistant informed me that some of the students requested books related to our science lessons. Independent student drawings often were of concepts introduced during science. These examples indicate student-initiated integrations of concepts throughout the curriculum. (Case 116.1)

Another elementary teacher commented on students’ increased knowledge and skills in conducting inquiry.

As the year progressed, the children became better able to collect and record data. By year's end, the small groups were able to formulate plans to accomplish

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their tasks, due in no small part to their ability to work in a systematic manner. (Case 1054.1)

PAS teachers who implemented strategy oriented projects interpreted PAS as an opportunity to learn a new teaching strategy, in essence, improving their own pedagogical knowledge. Student learning reported by these teachers referenced student compliance with the strategy components. A high school teacher reported:

I have maintained the strategy of having my students rate their effort for the week as part of their warm-up on Friday. About 50% of my students wrote at the end of the year that this helped them to consider what they had done that week and so they could try to improve next week. (Case 332.3)

A second high school teacher reported disappointing student compliance with the strategy.

Students who succeeded in organizing their notebooks and maintaining their grade logs performed well on building level measures. However, other students refused to maintain their notebooks and did not earn good grades. The strategy of receiving homework was not effective in most classes. Only the students who were conscientious about their grades would complete the assignment at home. Those whose grades were average or below, would not complete the assignment or leave it on the classroom desk. (Case 855.1)

Teachers whose projects were focused on improving student test taking skills reported student learning in terms of student progress answering exam questions. An example of an elementary teacher response was:

I saw that students gained confidence in their written responses to Proficiency formatted short answer/extended response questions, and in organizing information in a useful manner. (Case 659.3)

The teacher also noted improvements in student confidence to answer test questions. A high school teacher, however, elaborated on student improvement on both performance- based assessments as well as specific sections of the proficiency exam.

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I noticed an improvement of students' answers to proficiency type questions on the criterion-referenced tests. Students performed much better on the performance-based assessments. Students also performed better in the Physical Science portions of the proficiency test because of the curriculum. (Case 127)

Results indicated that literacy oriented projects were directed at improving

student skill in nonfiction writing. Student progress was measured in terms of

improvement in crafting constructed response answers to proficiency type questions or

writing informational essays. The first example offered describes student progress in terms of attempting to answer questions and not leaving questions blank.

It was evident as I graded the tests that unlike the first quarter's test, in which some students left the written response questions blank, scores went up as students began to get partial credit or full credit as they attempted to write answers. (Case 521.3)

The second example also shows student progress measured in terms of meeting interim steps on the path to proficiency.

At the start of the year, the students' quality of writing was fairly weak, however, if the main idea was expressed in writing or orally, I gave satisfactory marks. By mid-year, I saw a big change in the content of the student work. (Case 896)

Both of these elementary teachers were concerned with teaching students how to write, and perceived science content to be supporting information for crafting a written response.

Two of the high school PAS projects were oriented toward experimental research. The two teachers referred to student learning as performance in relation to the experimental treatment. In the first example, the teacher was nonspecific about what counted as student progress.

I used the strategy with three chapters and compared the results to three chapters without using the strategy. I purposely alternated the use of the strategy and I

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found evidence that when students were taught using the Homework and Practice strategy, they were most successful. (Case 855.3)

In the second example, the expected knowledge was explicit.

Teachers also commented on student learning as growth in social skills.

Comments on social skill development emerged in some projects that enacted cooperative learning or reinforcing effort and providing recognition. A middle school teacher tied growth in social skill to growth in academic achievement. She commented:

I saw lots of student growth over the year. I didn't hear, "I can't work with that person!" after the first few cooperative experiences. I was surprised to see some of the large increases in percentage of points earned on written response questions [from the September practice test to the January practice test]. (Case 940)

A high school teacher noted a decline in classroom discipline problems and attributed it

to his application of reinforcing effort and providing recognition for appropriate work at school.

Student behavior problems also dramatically reduced for me during the second semester. I believe the dramatic change was due to the fact that most [of the] implementation of these educational strategies was in full effect by the start of the second semester. (Case 1083.2)

Teachers did not comment frequently on improved social skills, but when they did it was attributed to their strategy implementation.

Summary Research Question 7

Student achievement was found to be higher than the district average in 61% of the elementary PAS science projects and 50% of the middle school and high school

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projects. However, impressive effect size scores were calculated for elementary (.76) and middle school (.82) students. Teacher comments on what counted as student

learning paralleled the categories found in Research Question 1. Teachers reported

student learning in terms of science knowledge, strategy knowledge, test-taking skills,

literacy skills, or a fulfilling research hypotheses.

Research Question 8: How Do Program Requirements Influence Implementation?

Background

The first seven research questions analyzed the data set for evidence of (1)

teacher participation rates and project focus, (2) growth in knowledge and skills (3) use

of the NSES, (4) the presence of district professional development initiatives, (5)

research questions of the teachers, (6) instructional practices, and (7) variation of

student achievement results. This final section will report results on how program

requirements influenced implementation. The data sources were PAS participation

records, the teacher research summary reports, and the PAS guideline booklets from the

three years data were collected. Data were qualitatively analyzed using Prior’s (2003)

document analysis framework which includes analysis of content, production, and

consumption. The production portion of the framework focuses on conditions present

during the event described by the document that may have influenced the outcome. The

analysis for this final question considered circumstances precipitated by the PAS

program requirements on the teacher implementation.

Teachers who voluntarily participated in PAS were subject to a few inviolate

parameters. Participants were required to identify a student sample, an academic area of

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need, and a research-based instructional strategy to employ as an intervention. The

information had to be submitted on an application by a specified deadline. Throughout

the school year, teachers implemented their projects and collected formative assessment

data to modify their instructional interventions based upon student response. At the end

of the school year, teachers gave students the district level summative assessment and wrote a research summary report. If the teachers complied with all program parameters

and their students’ demonstrated a mean achievement gain greater than the school

district, then the teachers were eligible for a cash award. These program rules impacted

teacher implementation in two ways: (a) successful interaction with students, and (b)

eligibility for the PAS award stipend.

Interpretive Findings

Interaction with Students

PAS was originally envisioned as a school improvement program in which

teachers would devise unique intervention plans to raise student achievement in state

accountability subject areas. After the teachers made their selections of student sample,

accountability area, and strategy, they were not permitted to change. Working with the

idiosyncrasies of their student/subject selections was the intended challenge. Six themes

emerged from the summary reports that indicate teachers encountered challenges in

dealing with the following conditions: diverse student learning needs, curriculum

constraints, scheduling limitations, poor attendance, testing issues, and student

motivation. Data supporting each of these six themes will be discussed next.

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Diverse student learning needs.

The PAS school district was large, urban, and public. The school population was

diverse in terms of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, academic skill, and English

language competency. During the data collection school years there were approximately

60,000 students enrolled in the district; 71% of the students were classified as

economically disadvantaged, 70% were non-white, and 15% had disabilities. Despite

this complex social milieu, high academic expectations were held for every student.

Teachers commented on the challenges that this presented.

[I had a] diverse population of students from GT (gifted and talented), regular, LD (learning disabled), and ESL (English Second Language) fourth graders. (Case 67.3)

We were still "tracking" our students, and my three sections of science were very different in terms of vocabulary skills and background knowledge. (Case 299.3)

In three of the classes, many outside factors including inclusion of special needs students, immaturity, truancy and inappropriate socializing led to changes in the daily lessons. (Case 855.1)

Prior to January, I was finding it hard to use some of the strategies with my students, such as the use of physical representations, because they were very off task. (740)

Teachers attempted to mitigate these challenges by employing their research-based instructional strategy. Teacher reported growth in teaching knowledge and skills

indicated that the teachers learned to adapt the strategies to match the needs of their

students.

Curriculum constraints.

Another challenge that teachers faced was complying with school district

curriculum mandates. The PAS district based its curriculum on the State Learning

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Competencies which were intended to make sure that students received a thorough and balanced education from grades K-12. In addition, strict pacing charts were enacted to encourage a timely coverage of the curriculum. Teachers who focused on individual student needs, found compliance with the curriculum guides a challenge. An example of a high school teacher who thought that greater course variety would meet the needs of students better is given below.

I still, however, disagree with the school district thinking of putting all students in Biology rather than having other choices like Unified 10. Students would be better served if they had another alternative other than Biology. The new textbook (Modern Biology) provides some difficult reading for the below average student and in some ways turns them off. (Case 1080.1)

A different high school teacher thought that the required end-of-course exam was unfair.

I also feel that a different district level test needs to be developed for block schedule schools. Of the 32 questions on the district level physics test form B, the third short answer question and questions 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 28, and 29, or 37.5% of the questions, related to areas I did not have the time to cover. Consequently, I feel that my students did not perform as well on these questions as possible. (Case 703.1)

Scheduling limitations.

The cause of the unfair exam complaint was based on a scheduling problem. In some high school cases, block scheduling caused the curriculum to become compacted beyond the capability of students to engage with the content. Students taught in block scheduling had class periods twice as long as normal, but the courses lasted only one semester. One teacher observed that students became overwhelmed when several teachers each gave double assignments.

I realized and expected that at least part of the problem was the difference in schedules [from previous years]. This year, all of my students had three other

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equally demanding core subject teachers at the same time. Last year they only had one. (Case 332.3)

Another high school teacher was concerned about how detrimental student absences

were to achievement under block scheduling.

With block scheduling we need to cover a chapter every 4 to 5 school days in order to stay within our timeline and cover the appropriate units. This puts a huge relationship of attendance to class success. (Case 1080.1)

In elementary school cases, scheduling NCLB mandatory reading and mathematics instructional blocks limited the amount of time available for teaching science.

Students only received 90 minutes a week of science instruction. (Case 376.1)

Poor attendance.

High school teachers reported the necessity to adjust instruction to accommodate poor student attendance patterns. In some cases, the students were chronically tardy, but in others they were absent. In classrooms working in cooperative groups, missing students disrupted the work flow as evidenced by this teacher.

Poor attendance by some students impacted group activities and required regrouping or individualized attention including independent work. (Case 77.1)

Teachers who had class periods on either end of the school day attributed student attendance problems to the time of the day.

Since the class was held first block attendance was a major factor. Oftentimes tardies were the greatest problem. Students coming in late would be unfamiliar with the necessary concepts to assure group and individual success. (Case 413)

The eighth period Biology class is subjected to poor attendance and incomplete assignments because it is the last period of the school day so their scores did not reach the averages of the first period class. (Case 855.3)

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Testing issues.

In Research Question 1, data indicated that only four PAS teachers focused their

projects on testing, however, all PAS teachers were required to give their students a

district-wide exam at the end of the school year. In the grades taking state mandated proficiency tests, teachers and students felt pressured to perform well. One high school teacher commented that the testing pressure impacted her strategy selection.

The pressure of OPT for many students offers another very good reason to focus on comparing and contrasting in the classroom, as this strategy is highly relied upon to test proficiency in science. (Case 210.1)

In the grades not subject to state proficiency tests, developing suitable formative tests was a necessary task for teachers. There were neither commercially produced practice books nor released test items with which to construct criterion referenced tests. A second grade teacher commented on the lack of support materials for test construction.

Creating the tests [CRT] was quite a challenge due to a lack of models. Some of the teaching materials provided by the district (Scholastic, FOSS, or Delta kits) had suggested assessment items but they rarely conformed to our Benchmarks. I also had difficulty locating good pictures to use in constructing multiple choice type questions such as appear on the MAT8. (Case 116.1)

In the early years of PAS when these data were generated, preparing students to take standards-based achievement tests was a new phenomenon. By emphasizing student achievement on standardized tests and offering a cash bonus for successful student scores, PAS was one measure by the school district to encourage teacher acceptance of responsibility for student scores.

Student motivation.

Student motivation to participate in class and complete assignments was mentioned as a challenge by PAS teachers at all grade band levels.

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[At the end of the year] students were not very motivated, and many did not turn in this assignment. Also, a few students were absent for several days. These were the same students who did not enjoy science and refused to turn in a majority of their work. (Case 527)

For some of the students the homework was not successful because they refused to complete it. (Case 127)

This year, unlike any other I have experienced, it was difficult to obtain and observe continuous effort and achievement improvement as the year carried on. Early on, it became apparent that a majority of my students seemed unable or unwilling to be able to turn in all their completed work and a filled out Binder Sheet. (Case 332.3)

In each of the preceding three cases, the tone of the teacher comment was negative and blamed the students for refusing to cooperate. Little empathy for the students could be discerned from the comments.

Lack of parental cooperation was also discussed by teachers as a limiting factor in the successful implementation of the PAS projects. However, the next two teachers described positive interactions with students and persistence in pursuing their PAS goals.

The biggest problem I encountered was placing so much emphasis on cooperation from the home. For several students, the amount of cooperation was marginal at best. Also, only those students who were really self-motivated followed through with some of the home-based work. Although enthusiasm was high in the classroom, home activities were often a deterrent to completion of some children's journals. (Case1054.1)

Parent conferences were not quite as beneficial as hoped. Only a minority of the students' parents actually showed up for the conferences. Some drawbacks to this method [telephone calls] were finding working and current phone numbers. When the problem of not having a working phone arose, a letter was typically sent out to the child's residence. (Case 1083.2)

PAS teachers varied in their willingness to work through challenges in their action research projects. Those that were the most persistent, inventive, and responsive to

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student needs were successful in raising student achievement. Their success will be

discussed in the next chapter.

Eligibility for Award Stipend

In order to become eligible for the PAS cash award, teachers were required to

complete all program parameters and have a mean student achievement gain greater

than the school district. More than a third of teachers who initiated a PAS project were

ineligible to receive the award because they failed to complete the project. If teachers

failed to submit a research summary report, their official participation in PAS was

terminated. Likewise, if teachers submitted a summary report but it was rejected by a

three person reviewing committee, they became ineligible. Their student data sets were

not analyzed for gain. Table 4.8 indicates the numbers and percentages of PAS projects initiated but not successfully completed.

School level Enrollment N Non-completion N % Non-completion ES 28 10 (includes 2 rejections) 36% MS 12 8 66% HS 27 7 (includes 2 rejections) 26% Total 67 25 37%

Table 4.8. Non-completion Rates by School Level.

Results indicate that high school teachers completed PAS projects at a higher

percentage rate than either elementary or middle school teachers. Likewise, middle

school teachers completed the smallest percentage of their cases. Possible reasons for

this phenomenon will be discussed in the next chapter.

Summary Research Question 8

Data indicate that PAS program requirements affected teacher implementation

in two ways: (a) successful academic interaction with students, and (b) eligibility for the 174

PAS award stipend. Teachers were not permitted to change student sample,

accountability area, or strategy after applying to participate. Consequently, challenges

to the successful implementation of the instructional strategy had to be overcome.

Teachers reported problems in relation to: diverse student learning needs, curriculum constraints, scheduling limitations, testing issues, and student motivation. In addition,

program parameters also limited teacher eligibility for the cash award by terminating

participation if an acceptable research summary report was not received.

Chapter Summary

This chapter detailed the findings for eight research questions about the influence of science teacher classroom action research projects upon student achievement. Three years of data records pertaining to science teacher participation in the Performance Advancement System were examined. Data suggested that across school levels, there were variations in teacher participation rates and general foci for the projects. However, most teachers reported learning from their action research experience whether or not their students showed high achievement gains. Among all 42

PAS projects, the instructional practices of the teachers included evidence of addressing all eight NSES areas. In addition, PAS science teachers included major school district professional development initiatives in the areas of literacy, use of data to inform instruction, and active student engagement. PAS teachers chose to research an array of practical classroom issues, but most of the projects dealt with either increasing student subject content knowledge or raising student achievement test scores. Teachers utilized combinations of research-based instructional strategies in their action research, but the

cases that employed summarizing and note-taking, nonlinguistic representations or

175 setting objectives and providing feedback, had a greater percentage of high achieving student samples. Overall, students of PAS teachers were reported to have higher science achievement standardized test scores than the average student population in the PAS district. Finally, program requirements were found to impact successful teacher implementation of PAS in terms of creating avenues for productive interaction with students and getting credit for their work.

The next chapter will discuss possible theoretical connections between the data presented in this chapter and data previously reported in the professional literature. In addition, implications and suggestions for further research will be made based upon the findings reported here.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter discusses the findings of chapter four and situates these findings in previous research on professional development in science education in general and classroom action research in particular. This discussion is presented in five sections.

The first section examines present results in terms of current research in science professional development. Section one is divided into four subsections that parallel the four areas of professional development identified by Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) and reports findings in student learning, teacher learning, teaching practice, and organizational support. The second section compares present findings to previous findings in classroom action research with an emphasis on student achievement.

Implications for professional development and classroom practice in science are presented in the third section. Specific program additions for the action research program evaluated will also be discussed in section three. The fourth section contains recommendations for additional research. Finally, section five reviews limitations of the study.

Professional Development

Working in the unsettled environment of modern education necessitates a system for keeping teacher knowledge and skills current (Butler, Lauscher, Jarvis-

Selinger & Beckingham, 2004.) Implementing recommended curricula, which

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frequently change due to dynamic political agendas, while meeting the academic needs

of an increasingly diverse student population requires teachers to be life-long learners.

The institutionalized means of teaching inservice teachers is called professional development. Models of professional development differ by the principle method of enactment. Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) defined high quality professional development

as possessing four attributes: increases student learning, enhances teacher learning,

improves teaching practice, and supports organizational and professional goals in

sustaining excellence in teaching. The program outcomes of the Performance

Advancement System (PAS), the teacher action research program evaluated in the

present research, are consistent with the attributes identified by Loucks-Horsley et al.

Student Learning

One of the goals of PAS was to increase student achievement. As reported in

chapter four, the results of this research indicate that student learning in science was

positively impacted in 61% of the elementary cases and 50% of the middle and high

school cases. The effect sizes of those gains were quite high for elementary (.76) and

middle school students (.82) but small for high school students (.24). Factors that may

have contributed to high student achievement were the selection of a problem area

within the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) having a research focus

on science goals, and working toward improving student subject knowledge. The

combination of standards, goals and objectives may be termed the instructional focus of

the project. Instructional focus findings indicate a marked difference between cases that

were successful in generating high student achievement and cases that did not.

Successful cases tended to have an instructional focus that included improving student

178 content knowledge and teaching for conceptual understanding. Data collected in this study indicated that 75 percent of the cases selecting improvement of student content knowledge as a practical issue to resolve generated high student achievement. Likewise,

100 percent of the cases having an overall focus on developing conceptual understanding and promoting student inquiry obtained high student achievement. For cases reporting usage of the eight NSES, no discernable difference was found for student achievement among the eight standards; however, teachers who reported teaching NSES fared much better than teachers who did not report evidence of employing NSES. Instructional focus based in the NSES has been found to raise student achievement by other researchers as discussed below.

The findings in the present study are consistent with the work of Kahle et al.

(2000) who found that students in the classrooms of teachers who had participated in professional development emphasizing standards-based teaching scored higher on the

Discovery Inquiry Test than students in a matched sample. The Discovery Inquiry Test is an assessment modeled after the NAEP assessment. Czerniak (2007) also reported measurable increases in student science achievement following TAPASTRIES, an intensive standards-based teacher professional development program. Czerniak found that higher implementation yielded higher test scores and a cumulative effect of having multiple TAPASTRIES trained teachers was associated with increased student achievement.

Very few professional development programs report changes in student achievement as a result of their implementation (Guskey, 2003). Linking student achievement to teacher professional development is a significant departure from

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outcomes normally reported in the professional development literature. Calls for

measuring the effectiveness of professional development through student achievement

have increased in recent years (Borman et al., 2005; Czerniak, 2007; Guskey, 2003;

Kahle et al., 2000; Kelleher, 2003; NSTA, 2006; Sterling et al., 2007.) The results of the

present study make a contribution toward documenting effective professional development through increased student achievement.

Teacher Learning

When viewed through a constructivist theoretical framework, supporting teacher

learning involves many of the same tenets as student learning. Learners bring a set of

preconceived notions and personal theories to every learning opportunity. Information is extracted from the environment, compared to what is known, and is either rejected, accepted as is, or accepted with modification into the learner’s knowledge base

(Bransford, et al., 2000; Loucks-Horsley, et al., 2003; Woolfolk, 2004). When viewed through sociohistorical learning theory, the key element of constructivism is that humans construct their knowledge from social interactions with other people, objects, cultural mores, and social institutions (Wertsch, 1991). All information assimilated is processed through the lens of prior experience situated in particular social encounters.

(Miller, 2002). Teachers as learners are influenced by their own cognition, their social encounters, and their observations of others.

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This research provided findings consistent with teacher learning through

personal reflection, social interactions, and through observation during the inquiry inherent in action research. In PAS teachers established in writing on their application what their preconceived beliefs were regarding the knowledge and skills of their students. Throughout the school year, PAS teachers evaluated student produced artifacts, planned and delivered lessons, interacted with students and colleagues, and reflected on the impact of their actions upon student achievement. To the extent that teachers’ learning reflected the veracity of students’ evolving conceptual understanding, the subsequent instructional modifications they made were productive. In some cases, the teacher learning came too late to impact student achievement within the PAS project. However, teachers commented that the next time they would alter their instruction accordingly.

This research identified teacher learning in terms of practical applications.

Program parameters required teachers to answer four questions when writing a research summary report. One of the questions asked the teachers what they had learned [about

how to teach science] and how they intended to implement that knowledge during the next school year. This question served to prompt the teachers into evidence based reasoning. Through reflection, teachers were encouraged to dwell upon the outcomes of their instructional efforts and what action they would take as a result of the knowledge gleaned from their research.

The knowledge teachers gained was consistent with two of the three domains by Shulman (1987), pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge.

Identifying teacher learning in terms of pedagogical and pedagogical content knowledge

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is consistent with one purpose generally associated with classroom action research, which is to identify and solve questions of classroom practice. Teachers reported gains in pedagogical knowledge in four areas: strategy refinement, reflective practice, formative assessment practices, and parental inclusion. The greatest number of teachers recounted learning improved ways of applying an instructional strategy. What is interesting about this knowledge is that the teachers constructed it for themselves from interactions with students. Unlike large scale top-down professional development training from experts, this learning evolved from reflective practice to match the instructional needs of the students. Teachers who reported pedagogical knowledge gains in strategy delivery had great success in raising student achievement scores. Teachers who disclosed learning about skills such as constructing formative assessment or working with parents were also engaged in reflective practice. Teacher knowledge gained through classroom action research is a wonderful example of adult learners engaged in constructivist learning.

Some of the knowledge gains conveyed by teachers were pedagogical content knowledge. Five teachers specifically discussed improving their knowledge of facilitating student inquiry. Six worked on techniques for building conceptual understanding and three specifically focused on writing-to-learn science concepts.

Concentrating pedagogical knowledge on teaching domain-specific content is consistent with much current research in science education (Abell, 2005; Justi & van Driel, 2005;

Van Tassell, 2001; van Zee et al., 2003.)

In contrast to gains in pedagogical knowledge and PCK, teacher learning in terms of subject content knowledge was not supported. No instances of teachers

182 advancing their subject content knowledge were found in the current research. This is a significant departure from other professional development episodes reported in the literature. The lack of teacher gains in subject content knowledge may be attributable to the independent manner in which the PAS teachers conducted their research. PAS teachers did not receive any content instruction from outside experts, although some teachers reported content instruction from other professional development. Unlike other action research cases reported in the professional literature, PAS teachers did not work closely with university mentors. Elliott (1991) described this type of research as first and second order action research. The classroom teachers were the first order researchers and the university mentors were the second order. In cases involving two- tier action research, the university mentors often had a goal of increasing teacher subject content knowledge while the classroom teachers had a different goal for their students.

The lack of reported gain in subject content knowledge may also be the result of teacher interpretation of the research report writing prompts and researcher interpretation of teacher written responses. Teachers were not directly asked, “What did you learn?”

Teacher learning was inferred from response to “What overall conclusions can you draw from [your action research]?”

Teachers who were able to apply their knowledge to good advantage in raising student achievement may have had a thorough understanding of the context in which they taught. In addition to labeling three types of essential teacher knowledge, researchers also placed importance on teachers knowing influences on the social context of schooling (Loucks-Horsley et al., 2003; Shulman, 1987). Teachers who were able to navigate the political minefield of school improvement mandates, work with the

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vagaries of preparing students for testing, and cull the funds of knowledge brought by

students, may have facilitated higher student achievement than their colleagues who could not manage the context. Those teachers who saw only deficits displayed little empathy for students or persistence in working with the issues. The teachers who complained about the lack of student motivation and parental involvement, without

seeking resolution, may have held personal theoretical stances consistent with Coleman et al. (1966) whose work came to be known as the Coleman Report, and concluded that

teachers have little effect on student learning. Results and findings from the evaluation of PAS science projects discredit the Coleman Report conclusion that teachers have little impact on student achievement.

Other researchers have found teacher beliefs negatively impacted by context.

Lee et al. (2004) found that science professional development in large urban districts is hampered by pressure to prepare for high stakes tests in mathematics and reading. This pressure leads to a disproportionate amount of instructional time being devoted to mathematics and literacy. Often, mandatory schedules also included strictly scripted curriculum which contributed to the excessive time spent on mathematics and literacy.

Lee et al. also reported teacher challenges in supporting English language learners and students with issues related to high poverty. Banilower et al. (2006) found logistical challenges in urban districts. Because of their size, urban districts have trouble distributing information in a timely manner and including all stakeholders in meaningful training sessions. Due to economic considerations, most professional development has to occur in large groups, which precludes addressing specific teacher

184 learning needs. Contextual factors that highlight cultural differences between teachers and students and pit resources against demand contribute to negative teacher efficacy.

Teaching Practice

Teaching as a researcher (i.e. engaging in inquiry through classroom action research) is a pedagogical reflection of the NSES, Science as Inquiry. Reflection is one of the key components to successful teaching practice in a classroom action research paradigm. Reflective practice was evidenced by teachers reporting personal learning and implementing that learning in the continuous action research spiral of plan-act- evaluate. The results of this research supported improved teaching practice in seven areas: refinement of strategy implementation, reflective practice, formative assessment, parental inclusion, facilitating student inquiry, supporting student conceptual understanding, and writing in the content area.

Changes in teaching practice, reported in these seven areas, were consistent with previous research in teacher professional development. Many different strategies have been featured in science education research. Rannikmae et al. (2007) worked with teachers to implement Scientific and Technological Literacy through creation of instructional materials and lessons. Trendel et al. (2007) also worked with teachers on implementing a discreet program, Theory of Basis Models of Teaching and Learning.

Butler et al. (2004) investigated strategies contained in the Strategic Content Learning program. Goodnough (2003) facilitated a teacher action research group in applying multiple intelligences to science instruction. Questioning techniques were researched by

Van Tassell (2001) and Koch and Appleton (2007). A collection of strategies were researched by Sterling et al. (2007) in the New Science Teachers Support Network

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(NSTSN), by Czerniak, (2007) in the Toledo Area Partnership in Education: Support

Teachers as Resources to Improve Elementary Science (TAPESTRIES), and by

Banilower et al. (2006) in the Local Systemic Change through Teacher Enhancement

Initiative.

The second area of teaching practice changes in the present research, studying practice through reflection, has also been investigated by previous researchers.

Goodnough (2004) and Palinscar et al. (1998) both facilitated learning communities of elementary teachers who engaged in collaborative reflection on teaching inquiry-based science. While Chen et al. (2007) worked with a group of intermediate teachers who reflected on their practice utilizing videocases. A video case is one or more classroom videos plus all of the related teacher and student artifacts generated from the lessons recorded on the video. van Zee et al. (2003) also used classroom video in addition to other data sources, in facilitating reflective practice in a teacher researcher group that was studying teaching through inquiry.

In the present study, teachers reported changed practice in teaching students through inquiry by inquiring into their own practice. In findings published by previous researchers, the students who learned through inquiry were teachers, not children. For example, four sets of researchers engineered inquiry learning episodes for teachers for the purpose of increasing subject content knowledge (Grove & Dixon, 2007; Kahle et al., 2000; Morrison & Estes, 2007; Wee et al., 2007.) The expectation for each set of researchers was that if teachers learned subject content through inquiry, they would in turn teach their own students subject content through inquiry. Employing inquiry instruction had mixed results for both the previous researchers and the teachers in the

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present research. Instruction based on student inquiry may not be enough to guarantee

high student achievement or changes in teacher classroom practice.

A common theme throughout the teacher practices reported in the present

research was devising schemes to assist students in processing scientific facts,

procedures and processes into complete scientifically accurate concepts. PAS teachers

employed a wide variety of techniques such as, graphic organizers, student notebooks of

teacher prepared notes, portfolio collections, advance questioning to establish prior

knowledge, and classroom discourse. Research in teaching practices to help students

develop conceptual understanding was also found in previously published literature. For

example, Valanides et al. (2003) and Justi and vanDriel, (2005) investigated the use of

visual and concrete modeling to assist students in conceptualizing chemical reactions.

Akerson and Abd-El-Khalick, (2003) relied on model teaching, reflective questioning,

and direct instruction to help an elementary teacher fully grasp the concepts related to

the nature of science. Cavicchi et al. (2001) experimented with providing open inquiry

experiences for teachers to help them learn concepts related to light and shadow. In the

present research, success varied in raising student achievement by using schemes to assist students in developing conceptual understanding.

Organizational Goals

The fourth element of high quality professional development identified by

Loucks-Horsley et al. (2003) involves linking professional development outcomes within an organization to promote and sustain reform initiatives. This research provided findings that PAS supported major themes of previous school district professional development initiatives. Data indicated that teachers incorporated various literacy

187 strategies, using data to drive instruction, facilitating active student learning, and the use of curriculum guides and pacing charts in interpreting the Marzano et al. (2001) strategies.

The reported use of professional development objectives in actual classroom practice was positive albeit unexpected. Some researchers report that despite elaborate, expensive, and lengthy professional development programs, teachers do not implement the professional development objectives into practice (Grove & Dixon, 2007; Lee et al.,

2004; Rannikmae et al., 2007; Wee et al., 2007. Grove and Dixon suggested viewing teacher acceptance and implementation of newly acquired pedagogical knowledge through the lens of Expectancy-Value Theory. This theory has three components: choice, expectancy, and value. Teachers have a choice to implement or ignore information acquired through professional development. In order to choose implementation, they must believe or expect that they can implement the practices and also that the practices have value to resolve problems in their practice.

Expectancy-Value Theory parallels the conceptual change model in science learning (Posner et al., 1982.) In the conceptual change model, learners must first decide that their conceptual understanding of a situation is inadequate. If a solution is presented, it must be intelligible, plausible, and fruitful for the learner to accept it.

Recognizing that a problem exists corresponds to the choice phase of Expectancy-Value

Theory. Learners must agree to participate. The second phase, intelligible, matches the

Expectancy-Value Theory stage of expectancy. The learner must understand the words and meaning of the solution and believe that they can implement it. The third and fourth phases of the conceptual change model, plausibility and fruitfulness, mirror the value

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stage of Expectancy-Value Theory. The solution must seem reasonable and likely to

solve even future problems for the learner, in other words, the solution has value.

Findings from the teacher research summary reports established that the PAS teachers had accepted and implemented instructional strategies acquired in previous professional development. In terms of Expectancy-Value Theory and the Conceptual

Change Model, the instructional strategies appeared to be valued and used because they were intelligible, plausible, and fruitful.

Classroom Action Research

Classroom action research is one of seven forms of action research identified by

Kemmis and McTaggart (2003). The distinguishing feature of classroom action research is that it is focused on solving practical problems of teaching and learning in classrooms. Like other forms of action research, classroom action research follows a cyclical pattern of problem identification, planning, acting, and evaluation. Multiple iterations of the plan-act-evaluate portion of the cycle are enacted until the problem situation is resolved. Knowledge is acquired through personal reflection and discourse.

Throughout the cycle, emergent knowledge is reinvested into the process for the mutual benefit of all participants. This component is the action part of action research. There is a strong moral mandate to immediately implement findings as they become known.

Another element of classroom action research includes personal and prolonged engagement among the participants. Findings of the present research indicated that

teacher implementation of PAS was consistent with descriptions of classroom action

research found in the professional literature (Calhoun, 1994; Kemmis & McTaggart,

2003; Lewin, 1948; Sagor, 2000). The cyclical pattern of identifying a problem, making

189 an intervention plan, acting on the plan and evaluating the plan was followed by 42 PAS science participants.

Identifying a Problem

In classroom action research, research questions are derived from practical issues related to teaching and learning. In this research, six types of practical problems were identified by the teachers from perceptions of student achievement need in science class. One of the themes was composed of nondescript plans to raise test scores. Nine teachers reported unfocused projects aimed at increasing student test scores. Only two of them resulted in student achievement higher than the district. Four of the themes dealt with specific skill development: writing responses to constructed response exam questions, use of science process skills, expanding science vocabulary and expository writing skills, and developing social skills for group learning. Ten of the skill based projects resulted in student achievement higher than the district. However, the practical problem aligned most closely with improving student achievement was to improve student subject content knowledge. Teachers who focused on this type of practical concern worked with students to develop deep conceptual understanding. Teachers addressed misconceptions through oral and written discourse. They made use of nonlinguistic representations such as model making, drawing, and graphic organizers to assist students in building scientifically accurate concepts. These teachers also designated class time for cooperative student inquiry and project-based learning.

Twelve cases that centered on improving student subject content knowledge produced high student achievement results. Focusing on improving student subject content knowledge is consistent with some cases of action research facilitated by university

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personnel with inservice teachers (Akerson & Abd-El-Khalick, 2003; Cavicchi, et al.,

2001.)

Other types of practical research questions found in the professional literature did not focus on student achievement. Frequent goals were to increase teacher

competence and confidence to teach science (Abell, 2005; Akerson & Abd-el-Khalick,

2003; Berlin, 1996; Goodnough, 2004; Koch & Appleton, 2007; Lewis, 2004; Rice &

Roychoudhury, 2003; van Zee, 1998; van Zee et al., 2003.) Some were designed to

increase teacher content knowledge (Akerson & Abd-El-Khalick; Al-Qura’n et al.,

2001; Cavicchi et al., 2001; Grove & Dixon, 2007; Nichols et al., 2007; Valanides et al.,

2003). Others were designed to be self-studies directed at improved practice (Abell;

Rice & Rouchoudhury; Van Tassell, 2001; Zembylas & Isenbarger, 2002). Action research projects not linked to student achievement tended to be university based and focused on adults, not children. Adult learning was documented in the PAS projects, but the primary goal was to increase student learning. Documenting increases in student achievement was a major emphasis of this research and a significant contribution to the literature.

Making an Intervention Plan and Acting on It

The intervention plans devised and acted upon by the PAS teachers were based upon the research-based instructional strategies identified by Marzano et al. (2001).

The strategies associated with high student achievement were summarizing and note taking, nonlinguistic representation, and setting objectives and providing feedback. Of the cases citing the use of summarizing and note taking, 80% had high student achievement. Seventy-five percent of the cases that used nonlinguistic representations

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and 75% of the case employing setting objectives and providing feedback also resulted in high student achievement. This ranking of strategy effectiveness does not match the results of Marzano et al. who found that the three most effective strategies were identifying similarities and differences, summarizing and note taking, and reinforcing effort and providing recognition.

The different ranking in this research may be the result of how effectiveness was measured. In PAS, effectiveness was determined solely by improved student science achievement in grades K-12 in a large urban Midwestern school district. Marzano et al.

(2001) noted that their rankings may be limited by the inclusion of studies from all grade levels, all subject areas, all socioeconomic levels and aptitude. They cautioned,

“The inference that should be drawn from this illustration is that no instructional strategy works equally well in all situations” (Marzano et al., p.8). In addition to applying Marzano et al. strategies in a delimited framework, i.e. science instruction in an urban environment, the teachers tempered their implementation of the strategies with knowledge gained from previous professional development. Additional strategies linked to high student achievement were, using data to plan instruction, engaging student in active learning, and employing various written or oral literacy strategies. These unique combinations of instructional strategies may have been the key to the PAS teachers’ success in raising student achievement.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Plan

Teachers evaluated the effectiveness of their plans through administering short cycle assessments to their students. These assessments took the forms of criterion referenced tests and quizzes, portfolio assessments, performance-based assessments, or

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written assignments that were scored with rubrics. Information obtained from the short cycle assessments was used to reset the intervention plan before continuing the action

research cycle. Measuring the effectiveness of the classroom action research through

student achievement measures was not consistent with how success in classroom action

research was measured in previous research.

Most of the previous research measured success through grounded theory methods such as document analysis of journals, lesson plans, or portfolio entries (Al-

Qura’n et al., 2001; Cavicchi et al., 2001; Goodnough, 2003; Roth & Lee, 2004.) Some of the studies relied on interviews, oral inquiry, or video taped lessons (Abell, 2005;

Gayford, 2002; Lewis, 2004; van Zee et al., 2003.) Other projects used questionnaires, classroom observation notes, or student artifacts (Akerson & Abd-El-Khalick, 2003;

Capobianco et al., 2006; Zembylas & Isenbarger, 2002.) The underlying theme of most classroom action research reported in the professional literature is that the goals were unrelated to student achievement on subject content knowledge tests. Even though most of the projects would fit with the professional dimension of Noffke’s (1997) professional, personal, political continuum, the knowledge goals pertained to improving pedagogical knowledge. Thus, PAS is significant in the realm of action research as professional development because its success was measured in terms of improved student achievement, not teacher pedagogical knowledge.

Personal and Prolonged Engagement

Apart from enacting the action research cycle, most PAS teachers also met the requirement to have personal and prolonged engagement with their student samples.

Teachers enrolled in PAS in the fall and continued their projects through late spring of

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the same school year. Results indicated that 63% of the teacher participants completed

all portions of the PAS program. However, because this research was modeled after the

ex post facto design, no real time observations were made to confirm the actual amount of time teachers committed to their PAS projects. The variable completion rates of the three grade bands may be attributable to differences in teacher commitment to personal, consistent, and prolonged contact with their students while engaged in their PAS intervention strategy. High school projects had a completion rate of 74%, and elementary cases had a completion rate of 64%. However, middle school teachers only completed 34% of their projects.

A disappointing 37% of the teacher participants initiated but never completed an action research project. Possible explanations for this high drop-out rate may be teacher mobility, personal demands, or a misunderstanding of the amount of work necessary to enact an action research project. Well intentioned plans in the fall may have become derailed by a lack of teacher stamina, or a perceived lack of support by the teachers.

Lack of completion has been noted by other researchers, Lewis, (2004) also reported problems with teacher commitment to action research programs.

A different view of why teachers initiated but failed to complete PAS projects may lie in Noffke’s (1997) assessment of purpose for action research. Noffke noted that researchers embrace action research for different epistemological reasons: political, professional, or personal. Researchers with political goals tend to use their research outcomes for social justice. Researchers, with professional goals, view implementing action research as a politically “neutral process of knowledge accumulation” (Noffke, p.306.) The third purpose identified by Noffke is personal,

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Between these two focuses on political and professional dimensions lies a third purpose that, for many action research practitioners, is central: the personal. This emphasis denies neither the importance of political activity nor the generation of professional knowledge, but it views the main benefits of engaging in action research as lying in areas such as greater self-knowledge and fulfillment in one’s work, a deeper understanding of one’s own practice, and the development of personal relationships through researching together (p.306.)

PAS program drop-outs may have experienced a mismatch between their purpose for

participating and the school district’s purpose in sponsoring the program. The PAS

program documents explicitly state goals for PAS that are professional in nature: to increase student achievement, identify best instructional practices for an urban teaching environment, and to disseminate effective teaching practice among other teachers in the

school district. PAS teachers whose purposes were either political or personal may have

chafed at the required guidelines and stopped participating.

Implications

Results of this research suggest implications for three areas: teacher professional development, classroom practice, and additions to the PAS program.

Professional Development

PAS should be continued as a form of teacher professional development in the school district. Participation in PAS appeared to be an effective means of professional development; students learned, teachers learned, practice was modified and connections were made to the goals of the school district as an organization. However, a high degree of teacher motivation to participate and a climate of democratic decision making may have supported this success. The core element of getting teacher buy-in appeared to be allowing teachers to identify and research a question that had personal meaning. Real questions resonate with improving teacher knowledge because they start with current

195 understandings and reach for fruitful answers. Implementing the answers to their questions empowered teachers further to ask more context specific questions. In addition, the limitation of requiring teachers to employ student achievement data as a resource in constructing their questions served the purpose of including the goals of the school district in the questioning process.

It is necessary for teachers to understand the value of questioning their own practice instead of accepting the criticisms of outsiders. State and federal accountability systems cannot make allowances for the myriad factors that operate at the local level, yet must pronounce anonymous judgment upon the work of teachers and students.

Teachers are positioned to interpret governmental mandates for student achievement in light of local and most importantly, family expectations. Through daily contact, teachers become aware of the nuances of student subject content understanding and explanatory frameworks. Assigning meaning to student academic progress can only be done by someone who knows where the students actually started, as opposed to where they were supposed to have started. Therefore, teacher questioning in classroom action research is targeted at progress, not necessarily at achievement.

In order for the learning acquired in classroom action research as professional development to be utilized and expanded, support structures need to be in place.

Teacher learning developed from data collected over only one school year is fragile and easily forgotten without reinforcement. Instituting regular oral inquiry sessions for participants like those reported by Goodnough (2004) and van Zee, (1998) may meet the structural needs of participants who are new to the process of classroom action research. Some PAS participants may be encouraged to further develop their research

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ideas if mentors were assigned to them as in the studies of Justi and van Driel, (2005) or van Zee, et al. (2003). Still others may solidify their knowledge if graded university coursework was involved such as were provided by Berlin, (1996) or Capobianco et al.

(2006.)

Challenges noted by the PAS teachers suggest that future professional development opportunities apart from PAS, should address the complex social context of teaching science. Identifying and dealing with the cultural, political and personal theory gaps between student needs and societal demands for high achievement may have negatively impacted some PAS projects. In the unsuccessful cases, there seemed to be an underlying lack of teacher efficacy to address the issues of poor attendance, lack of student motivation, and low level of basic skills. In addition, due to the political decision of assigning priority to reading and mathematics instruction in the PAS district, there was a serious lack of student prior knowledge in the domain of science.

Professional development opportunities that acknowledge this gap and supply systemic guidance for rectifying it are needed.

If the emphasis in reading and mathematics instruction were shifted from learning how to read and compute, to learning how to apply those skills to learn science, then higher science achievement may result. Training sessions on the uses of writing and classroom discourse specifically focused on science education standards may enable more teachers to take advantage of these effective strategies. The majority of

PAS cases in which student achievement was higher than the district involved the use of literacy skills applied to science content learning. However, only one of the PAS science teachers sought to enhance student science knowledge through applying the

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mathematical skills of measurement and data analysis during inquiry. Teachers and

subsequently students may benefit from the explicit use of applied mathematics in

science instruction.

The continuation of PAS as a year long teacher learning opportunity should be

permitted as the time aspect is consistent with constructivist learning theory. Teachers

who are learning how to improve their practice need time for the hard work of reflection

between teaching episodes. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1993) stated:

When teachers themselves conduct research, they make problematic what they think they already know, what they see when they observe their own students as learners, and what they choose to do about the disjunctions that often exist in their classrooms, schools and communities. (p.64)

For classroom action research to function as professional development, teachers must have the opportunity to perceive their own knowledge gaps and work through solutions that are intelligible, plausible, and fruitful. This process takes time and multiple iterations of problem identification, planning, acting and evaluating the solution.

Classroom Practice

Based upon the results and findings of this research four implications for science classroom practice can be made. The first, as already discussed in the section about student learning, is that science teachers should develop and maintain a clear instructional focus on science curricula during science class time. Secondly, applied elements of literacy, written and oral discourse, should be included to assist students in developing conceptual understanding of the science content. Third, teachers should monitor the effects of their instruction through formative assessment data to keep lessons productive by operating within the zone of student existing and potential

198 knowledge. And finally, urban science classroom practice ought to include three of the

Marzano et al (2001) strategies.

A clear instructional focus on science curricula would include a robust curriculum inclusive of all NSES. Findings in the present study indicated that teachers who diluted their science instructional time with an excessive focus on test preparation, social development issues, or other curricular area content standards, were not as successful in raising student achievement in science. Likewise, effective science teaching practice was found to include an explicit emphasis upon developing student subject content knowledge. In the present research, results indicated that an emphasis upon the development of strategy knowledge in place of specific science subject knowledge had a deleterious effect on student achievement. Therefore, when student achievement in science is measured by student performance on standardized tests, good teaching practice ought to include a clear instructional focus on science.

The second implication for teaching practice involves the intentional use of written and oral discourse to build explanatory frameworks for students. Teachers who assisted student knowledge production through guided notes, portfolio construction, cooperative group projects, and classroom discourse tended to have high student achievement. Employing literacy as a tool to build understanding also supports an important teacher role in a constructivist classroom, which is to make explicit the relationships among factual information discovered through inquiry. This is consistent with teaching the NSES of Unifying Concepts and Processes which stresses the connections among the domains of science.

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The third implication is that science teaching practice should include monitoring student understanding through formative assessment. Using data to inform instruction is basic to engaging in constructivist teaching practice and also to conducting an action research project. Without periodic feedback, teachers would not know the impact of their instruction and could not plan the next instructional episode or step in the continuous action research spiral of plan-act-evaluate. Furthermore, teaching as a researcher, i.e. through inquiry, is a pedagogical reflection of the NSES for students,

Science as Inquiry. Reflection and productive action on formative assessment are key components to successful teaching practice in a classroom action research paradigm.

The fourth implication that may be drawn from the present research, is that teaching practice incorporating the Marzano et al. (2001) strategies of summarizing and note taking, nonlinguistic representation, and setting objectives and providing feedback was associated with higher student achievement gains. Elements of these strategies have already been mentioned, but are included here as well to make explicit connections between the stated and enacted strategies. Teachers who chose to teach students how to write summaries and take notes made effective use of these applied literacy skills for developing student subject content knowledge. Teachers who favored the use of nonlinguistic representations to assist students in constructing conceptual understanding also tended to foster classroom discourse. Additionally, setting objectives and providing feedback was enacted through students monitoring their own progress with data generated by applying rubrics. These findings suggest that summarizing and note taking, nonlinguistic representation, and setting objectives and providing feedback might be beneficial to the teaching practice of other science teachers.

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PAS Program

The necessity for a new kind of PAS support was suggested by the emergence of

the importance of developing and maintaining an instructional focus on science goals as

a key factor in high student achievement. If quarterly PAS research review meetings of

just science teachers were held, the teachers may find ways to focus their classroom

action research to reflect science goals. Inviting the district science curriculum

specialists would add another layer of science focus to the discourse.

A second implication specific to the PAS program is that PAS teachers were not required to declare a theoretical stance for their research nor were they obligated to review previous research on their questions. Some of the failed projects may have been the result of implementing a string of disconnected activities devoid of guiding

principles. This simplistic recipe approach to improving student achievement is a

subversion of the action research model, which calls for purposeful reflection on action.

Overtly providing a theoretical basis for improving student achievement through classroom action research may assist the PAS teachers in productive reflection on their

selection and implementation of instructional strategies.

Recommendations for Further Research

Results from Research Question 1 revealed a discrepancy between the number

of middle school projects attempted and completed and the number of elementary and

high school projects initiated and completed. Further research into the beliefs and

attitudes of middle school teachers toward teaching science may help to explain why in

three years, only 4 middle school science teachers initiated and completed a PAS

201 project. A related question to low participation of middle school teachers is why do teachers at any grade level initiate but do not complete a PAS project?

The professional literature has reports of various supports for teachers engaged in classroom action research. Future research may investigate which of those supports, discourse protocols during oral inquiry, university course credit and support, or intensive subject content knowledge support for teachers, etc. are consistent with improved student achievement scores on standardized assessments.

Review of the teacher research summary reports indicated that most of the successful projects incorporated some form of literacy, but very little applied mathematics. Future research may explore the impact of facilitating teachers in using mathematics to build scientific conceptual understanding.

In PAS, success was measured in terms of gains in student achievement. Future research may calculate PAS teacher gains using a different progress metric such as value-added analysis. Some questions have been raised regarding the reliability and validity of measuring student achievement gain as a simple year to year gain. Value- added calculations make use of multiple years of student data, which renders a more reliable measure of student progress with significance at 1-2 standard errors, dependent upon which value-added model is used.

Some PAS teachers demonstrated a high level of expertise in writing their research summary reports. Future research may seek to establish links between teacher experience and highest degree held and high student achievement. It may be found that teachers, whose projects produced high student achievement gains, have always produced high student achievement gains. Perhaps participation in PAS is not such an

202 effective professional development tool, but rather an elaborate way to identify teachers who are already exceptional.

Limitations

The results and findings of this research are limited by the ex post facto research design. All analyses were conducted on existing data; therefore there were no active independent variables. The purpose of this research was to seek linkages between known student achievement data and events that occurred during the instructional period preceding the achievement tests. The variable of interest was teacher participation in classroom action research focused on improving student achievement.

Interpretation of the data was done with the knowledge that many other variables could have impacted student achievement. For example, high influxes of English language learners into only some school buildings my have put those PAS teachers at a disadvantage because their students were unable to read the exam questions.

Another limitation of the results is related to the manner in which student achievement was calculated. Three different tests were used to measure student achievement, yet no measure of relative difficulty was available. Students in grades 4,

6, and 9 were assessed with state mandated proficiency tests. Students in grades 1, 2, 3,

5, 7, and 8 took the Metropolitan Achievement Test version 8. High school students in grades 10, 11, and 12 took school district constructed end-of-course exams. Unlike the

MAT8 or the state proficiency tests, the end of course exams had unsubstantiated reliability and validity. If the high school students had been tested with a different exam, the achievement outcomes might have been different. Achievement was measured as simple gain from one school year to the next and was compared to the

203 school district mean gain for the same grade level. The ease of showing a large gain in one grade level may not have been the same in another grade level.

Another example of a confounding variable is that teacher participants self- selected into the PAS program, therefore outcomes may be the result of peculiarities within the research sample. For example, the teacher participants were eligible to earn a cash bonus of $2000.00, so some participants may have enrolled simply for the chance of earning the stipend instead of actually working toward improved knowledge and skills.

Much of the data analysis was conducted on teacher research summary reports.

The reliability of teachers remembering and accurately reporting events from the entire school year may be suspect. In addition, the teachers had to respond to four required writing prompts when writing their reports. Teacher understanding and interpretation of those prompts influenced what they chose to write. The classroom examples that they shared may or may not have been adequate reflections of student response throughout the project.

Generalizability of the results is limited due to the situated nature of classroom action research (Feldman, 1994.) Each case was uniquely constructed and implemented dependent upon the learning needs of the students, the knowledge and skills of the teachers, and the combinations of intervention strategies selected for use. It would be nearly impossible to duplicate the same constellation of conditions; therefore the results may pertain only to the students and teachers who participated. However, if the findings are accepted in the spirit of historical research, then the findings may have greater use.

Studying people in context is always messy and determining motives and outcomes is

204 imperfect. The validity of this type of research lies in finding consensus from multiple iterations in diverse settings. “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it” (Santayana, 1906). Teachers need to know the history of how science has been taught to students like theirs if they are to improve upon the past.

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APPENDIX A

SUMMARY OF MARZANO ET AL. (2001) RESEARCH-BASED INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES AS USED BY PAS TEACHERS

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Strategy Basic Elements

Identifying Similarities and Recognizing characteristics, categories, Differences patterns, and relationships among things or ideas

Summarizing and Note-taking Distilling information into a synthesized form

Reinforcing Effort and Providing Emphasizing that effort is the cause of Recognition achievement

Homework and Practice Opportunities to deepen understanding and skills relative to content that has been initially presented

Non-linguistic Representations Using visual cues, mental pictures or physical sensations to obtain and store knowledge

Cooperative Learning Grouping strategies that promote positive interdependence, group accountability, and group processing

Setting Objectives and Providing Establishing a specific learning goal with Feedback students and giving explicit corrective and timely information to students about how well they are progressing

Generating and Testing Hypotheses Students applying personal knowledge to develop a conjecture for empirical testing

Cues, Questions and Advance Activating prior knowledge and providing Organizers ideational scaffolding

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APPENDIX B

PAS RESEARCH REPORT WRITING PROMPTS

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2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004

What strategies did you use What strategies did you use What strategies did you use with your students? How with your students? If the with your students? If the did you adapt the strategy instructional strategy(s) instructional strategy(s) to fit the needs of your you selected is described in you selected is described in students? Classroom Instruction that Classroom Instruction that Works (Marzano et al., Works (Marzano et al., 2001), what, if any, 2001), what, if any, adaptations did you make adaptations did you make prior to implementation? If prior to implementation? If your strategy(s) is not your strategy(s) is not found in Classroom found in Classroom Instruction that Works Instruction that Works (Marzano et al.), please (Marzano et al.), please describe and provide the describe and provide the research base. research base.

Give examples of how this Give examples of how this Give examples of how this strategy was or was not strategy was or was not strategy(s) was or was not effective with your effective with your effective with your students. students. students.

What was the baseline for What was your building- List your building-level your building-level level measure(s)? How did (classroom) measures(s)? measure(s)? How did student performance on How did student student performance on building-level measures performance on building- building-level measures change during the course of level (classroom) measures change during the course of the year and why? Provide change during the course of the year and why? Provide quantitative and qualitative the year and why? Provide quantitative and qualitative data to support your quantitative (numeric) and data to support your rationale. qualitative (descriptive) rationale. data to support your reasons.

What overall conclusions What overall conclusions What overall conclusions can you draw from this can you draw from this can you draw from this information? How will this information? How will this information? How will this influence the strategies and influence the strategies and influence the strategies and measures that you will use measures that you will use measures that you will use for the 2002-2003 school for the 2003-2004 school for the 2004-2005 school year? year? year?

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APPENDIX C

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT CODING CATEGORIES

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Professional Development Initiatives Evidentiary Meaning

Use of Data to Drive Instruction Lessons based on demonstrated student knowledge and skills as determined by formative assessments

Active Student Centered Lessons Students engaged in open or guided inquiry, or cooperative grouping

Writing in the Content Area Use of flow charts, webbing, graphic organizers, KWL charts, Cornell notes, or quick writes

Use of Classroom Discourse Students engaged in open or guided discussion of the concepts being taught/investigated, i.e. Instructional Conversations, Paideia Seminar

Rubrics or Other Student Self Assessment Student use of self or teacher generated Tools rubrics, checklists, flowcharts, etc. to self monitor achievement progress

Student Notebooks/Portfolios Student use of structured systems for storage of written instructional materials or products

Use of Curriculum Guides and/or Pacing Use of school district provided curricular Charts materials to regulate instructional content and pacing

Focused Practice of Short & Extended Written practice on constructing an answer Response Answers to an open-ended achievement test question. Use of structured writing strategies.

Conceptual Change Model Attending to misconceptions, constructivism, using discrepant events, emphasis on development of scientifically accepted theory

Learning Cycle Five E model, student inquiry, constructivism, student prior knowledge

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Professional Development Initiatives Evidentiary Meaning

Use of Higher Level Questioning Teacher/student use of questions for analysis, synthesis or evaluation

Project/thematic Based Lessons Integration of curricular areas based on enduring themes or solving real world problems

Cultural Relevance Using cultural referents to build conceptual understanding within an inclusive learning community

Differentiated Instruction Modifying instruction in terms of content, process or product

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APPENDIX D

SUMMARIES OF PAS SCIENCE ACTION RESEARCH PROJECTS

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain 67.1 ES 6.68 Fourth grade students improved their science proficiency test scores through summarizing and note taking. Summarizing included questioning, prediction, clarifying, and problem solving in order to draw a conclusion from data collected during a science investigation. Structured opportunities for student note taking occurred through using teacher prepared notes, student webbing and summary statements written in a journal throughout the school year. Students were taught how to web science concepts, do quick writes and how to read and take notes for research. Webbing and quick writes were completed both before and after units of study to generate informal assessment data. Requiring written responses during lessons and in using journals emphasized the importance of writing as it relates to science proficiency.

67.3 ES 5.70 Replication of 67.1

97 ES 25.53 First grade students improved their science skills and knowledge through receiving instruction guided by setting specific objectives and providing timely feedback. Each lesson was initiated with a brief discussion of the intended lesson objectives. Students were encouraged to ask questions about the objectives in terms of how the objectives related to the ongoing work of the classroom. Specific oral feedback related to student performance on the objectives was given to students both while they were working and in individual conferences after the lesson. During the conferences students were taught to use a rubric for scoring their own performance.

116.1 ES 5.69 Second grade students improved their science skills and knowledge through utilization of nonlinguistic representations. An emphasis was placed on using sensory rich activities to provide multiple neural links within memory. A key component was the daily use of a science word wall on which a colorful outline of terms, concepts and applications were illustrated by photographs, diagrams, icons, pictures and/or graphic organizers. The science wall was used to begin and end each lesson with a review of previous work and an introduction of the next concept to be shared. Most class sessions included guided or open student inquiry using diverse materials. Often the lessons were conducted outside of the normal classroom such as the

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain playground, school garden or a specific field trip site. Manipulating objects or exploring unique spaces while engaged in a focused activity allowed the students to use all of their senses to record data and helped the students to generate mental images of the content. At the end of each lesson, students were required to record their observations and/or conclusions. Multisensory materials such as clay, paint or colored pencils were available for the students to make charts, diagrams or models of their day's work.

299.3 ES .64 Fourth grade students improved their science proficiency test scores through working with the strategy cues, questions and advance organizers. Frequently students engaged in class construction of KWL charts and color coded word walls. Student progress was monitored through the use of writing during science class. Chadwell Type I assignments were utilized to highlight student understanding prior to instruction and Type II was used as a summative measure. An emphasis was placed on questioning and classroom oral discourse to build and extend student understanding. An emphasis was also placed upon practicing writing responses to open ended proficiency test questions.

376.1 ES 3.67 Fourth grade students improved their science skills through instruction using the strategies 1) generating and testing hypotheses and 2) reinforcing effort and providing recognition. Once a week students came to the science lab and were engaged in a one hour and fifteen minute inquiry science lesson. Generating and testing hypotheses is the basis of inquiry learning. When weaknesses in content knowledge surfaced, focused lessons were delivered to provide sufficient background knowledge. Also once a week students were tutored in small groups on test taking skills specific to the fourth grade proficiency test. Progress in science proficiency was charted for each student and used for motivation. Having the opportunity to guide their own learning through inquiry increased student confidence, which led to improved effort and higher achievement.

376.3 ES 5.93 Replication of 376.1

491.1 ES .95 Fourth grade students increased their science proficiency test scores through learning how to generate and test hypotheses

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain in science class. An emphasis was placed on analyzing and writing lab reports of assigned experiments. Writing templates were designed and presented to students to assist them in both inductive and deductive thinking processes. The researcher concluded that students need modeling, guided discussion and reflection to help them with problem solving, invention, experimental inquiry, and in making decisions. An emphasis was also placed upon practicing writing responses to open ended proficiency test questions.

521.3 ES 7.72 Fourth grade students improved their science proficiency scores through taking notes and summarizing content during science lessons. The notes and summaries were kept in a three-ring binder the entire year and referenced during writing assignments as well as for studying for tests. Additional written assignments such as lab reports and concept summaries were also included in the notebook. Students were initially taught how to take notes through a teacher-generated outline of important terms and concepts. During class the students wrote the necessary definitions and explanations of the concepts listed. Key vocabulary words were highlighted to make them easier to find for "quick write" writing assignments. Direct instruction in writing and rubric scoring techniques for short and extended response questions in science was also provided. The students were taught how to use their notebooks to find the necessary content material for answering the questions.

527 ES -3.46 Fifth grade students employed the strategies of cooperative learning and generating and testing hypotheses during science class. An emphasis was placed on practicing proficiency type test questions throughout the school year. Structured notebooks were created to assist students in recording definitions of science terms and directions for setting up and analyzing guided inquiry lessons.

659.3 ES .32 Fourth grade students worked to improve their scores on the proficiency test through developing writing skills to answer open ended proficiency test questions. Teacher questioning throughout the science lesson was designed to assist the students in making generalizations, inferences, determine cause and effect and to analyze data gathered in class. Verbal cues and advance organizers were also employed to focus

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain student thinking toward the science concepts being taught. Departmentalization permitted the teacher to focus on science instruction; however, students not in her homeroom seemed to have less content knowledge. The researcher concluded that her integration of science content during the language arts block added to her homeroom students’ content knowledge. Students in the other homerooms missed this content support.

695.3 ES .57 Students in a class composed of both fourth and fifth graders learned to summarize and take notes utilizing a science textbook, science content videos and teacher prepared learning materials. An emphasis was placed on teaching students to recognize print cues for identifying important information. For example, bold print type, section headings and side-bar captions were noted. Students were also required to answer chapter check-up questions as a means of learning testable content.

740 ES -.19 Multiple components of nonlinguistic representations were utilized with fourth grade students during science class. A routine was established in which students utilized a graphic organizer similar in format to Cornell notes during each lesson to record prior knowledge, presented factual material, and a summarization of revised thinking on the topic. Physical model making and drawing pictures were also employed to build student understanding of science concepts. Classroom management issues impacted the successful implementation of these strategies.

870 ES 1.82 Fourth grade students improved their science proficiency test scores through participating in inquiry lab work with a partner and then writing an illustrated summary in a journal. Each class began with a proficiency type question targeting the previous lesson's content allowing for ongoing practice in proficiency type assessments. Consistently writing and keeping summaries in a journal helped students to organize their thoughts and revise their evolving understanding of scientific concepts. Nine overarching components of the science curriculum were selected and each was taught for three weeks. All components were covered before the March administration of the proficiency test.

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain 896 ES .75 Second grade students improved their science test scores through a classroom emphasis on oral discourse, written literacy skills, and guided group inquiry. Oral partner sharing interspersed with teacher questioning during guided inquiry helped to build student content knowledge. Varied instructional resources such as picture books, manipulative items from the science kits, videos and teacher demonstrated discrepant events captured student interest.

937.1 ES 7.94 Fourth and fifth grade students improved their achievement scores through maintaining science portfolios. These portfolios contained conceptual work completed on graphic organizers, written summaries of nonfiction reading, lab reports and other science class assignments. Students self- checked their work and their classmates work with a teacher prepared rubric before inclusion in the portfolio. Active learning lessons were inquiry oriented. As each new learning outcome was covered, students were required to write short summaries connecting past learning with present.

973.1 ES 18.52 First grade students improved their understanding of and achievement in science through writing summaries of science lessons. Initially summaries were the result of classroom discourse and were written collaboratively in a whole group on chart paper. Students were encouraged to copy the (short) summary into a personal science journal and add illustrations or additional content. Through student oral participation, misconceptions were identified and additional instructional support was provided. Nonfiction picture storybooks were used to supplement curricular materials.

1054.1 ES 6.95 Second grade students improved their science achievement scores through guided practice in observation, documentation, data collection and cooperative group inquiry. The students completed a series of assignments that built process skills in context. First observation was taught, then observation with documentation, and finally observation, documentation and data collection. A concluding project involved students working together on a group-designed inquiry, utilizing the previous three process skills.

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain 139 MS 5.48 Graphic organizers were employed to help sixth grade students learn to write short and extended response answers to achievement test like questions. Daily practice ensured a deep understanding of how to deconstruct a question and write an appropriate answer. Discussion of the answers revealed student knowledge and misconceptions. Classroom discourse was used for students to justify their responses to their classmates and self-correct their answers. Students received similar practice in their English & Language Arts class where a parallel action research project was simultaneously in progress.

873 MS -.33 Eighth grade students monitored their progress toward science proficiency through keeping a notebook of assignments and weekly grade sheets. Students took multiple practice proficiency tests and completed practice extended response writing prompts that were graded. Weekly, students reflected on their effort and grades. Students were required to obtain a parental signature to encourage home involvement with student learning.

940 MS .29 Sixth grade students improved their social and academic skills by working in cooperative groups during science class. During group time, each student had individual responsibilities as well as obligations to the effective functioning of the group. The teacher circulated throughout the room during group work and proffered positive reinforcement, checked for content knowledge formation, and asked questions to stimulate group processing. The teacher concluded that the confidence students gained from their successes in group time carried over to other learning.

968.1 MS 8.42 Sixth grade students improved their scores on the science proficiency test through practicing extended response questions as homework assignments. Homework was designed to review specific science concepts taught during class. At the beginning of each class a discussion of the previous night's homework was held and students were given an opportunity to ask questions. Students who displayed misconceptions were given individual and/or group tutoring to correct their misunderstanding. Students often benefited from hearing explanations from their peers because they were given in everyday language and drawn from

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain experiences common among the students. Students gained skill in composing extended response answers and gained insight into the value of explaining scientific processes as much as knowing factual information.

77.1 HS 12.05 Cooperative learning was used in ninth grade physical science classes to increase student performance in both lab situations and on standardized tests. Flexible grouping allowed accommodation for varying student and content needs. Random assignment, teacher selected, student selected, alphabetical grouping, even birthday generated groups were used as means for selection. Group size also varied and ranged from two to five students depending upon the activity. Some groups remained together for several days but other times they stayed together for the entire semester. Using cooperative learning worked best when the students were motivated to learn and cooperate. When the students were willing to work together there were fewer discipline problems in class. Initially this approach took more teacher involvement to overcome students' perception that the purpose of group work was socializing. With persistence and accountability in the form of deadlines and group/individual grades, students soon valued cooperative learning for academic achievement.

127 HS -.73 Ninth and tenth grade students enrolled in physical science utilized homework and practice to improve their proficiency test scores in science. Homework was only assigned on material that had already been taught in class. Students had homework “buddies” to call for assistance. Homework was always reviewed in class the next day to permit the discovery and correction of misconceptions. Flash cards and practice proficiency tests were employed during class time to reinforce the tested content.

210.1 HS - 9.30 Multiple strategies were employed to assist high school biology students increase their science achievement: reinforcing effort and providing recognition; homework and practice; and identifying similarities and differences. Students frequently engaged in Type I writing assignments, which were utilized to establish prior knowledge. Many other types of assessments were also employed and self- tracked by students in a science assignment notebook.

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain 332.1 HS 10.56 Ninth grade students improved their scores in science through generating portfolios and using the data to track the relationship between effort and success. Portfolios included all of the daily work, tests, journal entries, project summaries, and video score sheets. At least twice a quarter the portfolios were collected and given a grade based upon completeness. Students that attended regularly and applied strong effort found positive results in their proficiency test outcome and coursework grades. Each student rated their weekly effort on Friday in a required journal entry, wrote an explanation for their rating and at the end of each quarter produced a graph detailing weekly effort. Verbal praise and small rewards were given to students who completed their work each week. An emphasis was placed on applying the effort necessary to receive an "A" on the portfolio checks because consistent "A" work would prepare the student to do well on the proficiency test.

332.3 HS -3.42 Ninth grade students were encouraged to monitor their own effort in physical science class through completing a weekly assignment and grade checklist. However, student non- cooperation in completing assignments nearly derailed the entire project. Furthermore, changes in student scheduling created an unusually heavy homework load in core subjects. Extensive teacher modeling in time management and encouragement helped some students to stay on track.

363.1 HS 7.75 High school students improved their skills and knowledge in Chemistry through cooperative learning and differentiated instruction. Students working in small groups of two or three exchanged ideas, communicated scientific knowledge, and tutored peers. Thematic units such as Elements and the Importance of the Periodic Table were designed to help students gain depth of knowledge and understand real world application of scientific principles. Varied modes of instruction were used such as laboratory investigations, written reflections, projects and guest speakers. Computer technology was routinely incorporated into instruction and student work. Students were given choices to demonstrate knowledge such as making PowerPoint shows, models, poster presentations using diagrams, charts and graphs, and biographical timelines. Portfolio assessment gave insight into students' understanding of scientific concepts that often

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain remains hidden when assessment is limited to paper and pencil exams.

363.3 HS 12.62 Replication of 363.1

413 HS - 1.85 High school chemistry students worked in cooperative groups to complete guided inquiry labs and practice assignments both inside and outside of class. Poor student attendance and tardiness confounded the group work, as student contributions were inconsistent. However, in many cases, high achieving students helped lower achieving students to understand the material.

530 HS - 3.65 Chemistry students learned to develop and test hypotheses about given science phenomena. Initially, guidelines were given to assist the students in formulating testable questions and determining logical procedures for testing the hypothesis. Students wrote detailed plans in laboratory notebooks, which assisted the teacher in identifying student instructional needs.

591.2 HS 10.53 Reinforcing effort and providing recognition were used with ninth grade science students. Students were required to write a journal entry each Friday in which they rated their own effort in science class. At the end of the semester students rated their effort and compared it to their final grade to gauge the results of their work. A classroom poster indicating the classroom percentage of students achieving at least a 75% in science was updated weekly to assist students in their self- evaluation of effort. Public recognition for student effort was delivered in the form of monthly and end of the year academic award assemblies. A sustained effort in increasing positive parental contact was also employed as a means of public reinforcement and recognition. The teachers of the Freshman Success Academy Team created a parental contact notebook for each of their classes and rotated it among the team members throughout the school year. By keeping track of parental contacts we were able to coordinate our efforts. Telephone calls, informal contacts such as at sporting events, newsletters and postcards mailed to the students' home were methods used for parental contact regarding positive student behavior and academic effort. These positive contacts became known as "Cowboy Kudos" and were very favorably

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain received by most parents.

703.1 HS 18.45 Cooperative learning was used with twelfth grade students enrolled in Physics. Flexible grouping was employed to allow teacher discretion based on complexity of content and students' interpersonal skills. Grouping techniques included student choice, random draw, mixed ability and alphabetical. Small self selected groups worked together the entire year on teacher assigned problems, peer tutoring, catching up on missed assignments and frequently studied together outside of class. Groups for formal exam reviews were created through random assignment. Lab groups were teacher selected based upon mixed ability. Student grouping for labs and reviews were effective in team building however, to ensure maximum benefit; the teacher needed to closely monitor the groups.

798 HS - 9.87 Biology students attempted to increase their critical thinking skills through weekly practice in answering high-level questions drawn from the curriculum content. Initially the practice was assigned as independent written homework assignments. Later assignments were completed in small mixed-ability groups in class and results reported orally.

855.1 HS 8.82 Ninth grade students improved their science achievement through maintaining a science notebook and self-monitoring progress. Students entered personal grades weekly into a grade log and computed running percentages of achievement. All science assignments were included in a teacher- structured notebook. Students utilized their notebooks as a resource to complete assignments, to study for exams, and to relate previous instruction to current instruction.

855.3 HS - 9.45 Biology students participated in a classroom experiment to determine the efficacy of implementing a homework and practice strategy. The students alternately received and then did not receive the intervention strategy. The teacher compared student achievement from one quarter to the next and concluded that the strategy made a difference in student grades. However, the teacher researcher failed to understand that success in PAS is determined by comparison of her PAS student sample to all non-PAS students. The inconsistent application of the research-based instructional strategy with

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain her students depressed their overall achievement.

877.1 HS 2.56 Ninth grade students improved their science achievement through cooperative learning and self-monitoring of effort. Students quantified and recorded personal effort in completing assignments in homework logs. Explicitly connecting student effort to grades improved student engagement in classroom activities. Frequent telephone calls to parents to report student successes were highly influential in motivating students to even greater levels of effort. Permitting students to work collaboratively on assignments built a sense of classroom community that valued and reinforced student achievement.

958 HS - 8.96 Physics students were assisted in developing scientifically accurate conceptions of the mechanics of motion and wave phenomena. Student prior knowledge was activated through taking The Survey of Mechanics Conceptions and Survey of Wave Phenomena. Classroom discussion during whole class demonstrations and inquiry activities in student labs. Students were guided to defend their positions using data. An emphasis was placed on exposing and correcting student alternate conceptions.

1069.1 HS 11.02 High school Biology students increased their science achievement through completing homework assignments explicitly related to current classroom topics. Additional practice was facilitated through working in cooperative groups during class. The size of the groups varied to match the nature of the assignments. For example, lab partners worked in groups of 2 or 3, while research projects usually included 4 or 5 students. Assignments were differentiated to meet the learning needs of individual students.

1069.3 HS -12.06 Physics students created portfolios of their work while participating in the ExploraVision contest sponsored by Toshiba and NSTA. The contest involved students working to combine their imaginations with the tools of science to create a vision of a future technology. Students worked in cooperative groups and received regular positive reinforcement from the teacher. The teacher guided students in their personal inquiry through individual conferences. Portfolio documentation was reviewed during the

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ID Level NCE Summary Gain conferences utilizing a rubric.

1080.1 HS - 8.73 Biology students participated in cooperative learning to enhance their learning. Classroom instruction relied heavily upon the use of the textbook and accompanying resource materials. The students were enrolled utilizing a block schedule, which meant that students only had Biology for one semester. In addition, student attendance greatly influenced achievement.

1083.2 HS 8.27 Reinforcing effort and providing recognition were used with ninth grade science students. Journals were used for the students to personally track their efforts and improvements in science class. Every three weeks the teacher provided a grade check including a list of assignments, grades received, missing assignments and the student's current grade for the class. Hallway displays of student photographs celebrated good work and strong effort in science class. Monthly and end of the year academic award assemblies including tangible rewards such as movie passes and snacks recognized and rewarded academic accomplishment and effort. Postcards identifying positive student behavior and academic accomplishments were mailed to the homes of students. These positive communications became known as "Cowboy Kudos" and were highly effective in engaging parents in the school lives of their children.

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