Index

Note: Page numbers in italic denote figures. Page numbers in bold denote tables.

Acadian orogens, 272–278 anorthosite, 533, 535 low grade facies rocks, 546 anorthosite–mangerite–charnockite–granite/granophyre Acapulco profile, 184 (AMCG Suite), 544, 545–546 Acapulco Trench, 172 Antarctica plate, 164 Acatla´n complex, 249, 273 kinematics scheme, 164 Chazumba and Cosoltepec units, 279 SAND, 155 palaeogeographic model, 274 South American plate, 164 Accreted Caribbean Terranes, 491, 492 Antioquia Terrane, 731 accretion Palaeozoic core, 518 Guaranda terrane, 480–481 Antioquia-Tahami terrane, 11 v. erosion in Central America, 449 apatite, 540 African hot spots, 5 Barbados, 756 AFT. See apatitite fission track (AFT) East Venezuela, 754 Agua Clara Formation, 592, 606 heavy minerals source areas, 759 transformation ratio, 607 Nariva Formation, 754 Albian–Early Eocene Andes–Caribbean Plate Trinidad, 753 boundary, 15 apatitite fission track (AFT) Alboran Sea, 142 ages, 698 Aleutian Islands, 562 erosion, 767 Algeciras, 570 Appalachian Mountains, 546 alkali feldspar, 539 Aptian time, 771 Alleghanian orogens, 546 Aptian–Albian, 105–106 allochthonous terranes boundary, 504–507 change is island arc geochemistry, 340 allochthons, 757 volcanic arc, 328 alluvium, 341 Aptian–Maastrichtian Altos Cuchumatanes, 221 closure, 12 uranium lead ages, 303 evolution, 25–26 zircon geochronology, 297–298, 300–302 Apure Basin, 35 Amazon Craton, 543, 545 arc activity, 71 AMCG Suite. See anorthosite–mangerite–charnockite– arc magmatism, 169–173 granite/granophyre (AMCG Suite) arc reconstructions, 169–173 Amotape–Tahuı´n metamorphic belt, 510 arc-associated basins, 149 amphibolite, 266 Banda Sea, 147–149 analyses, 556 argon, 562 facies belt, 760 Chortı´s Block granitoids and significant facies metamorphic terranes, 760–761 age groups, 241 facies metamorphism, 282 data, 233–235 shearing degree increase, 722 geochronology, 555, 558 Ancon Formation, 392 loss induced by tectonics, 435, 437 andalusite source areas, 758 mineral spectra, 236–238 Andean Arimao Formation, 392 arc system, 733 Armas Formation, 210 Back-Arc Basin, 488, 494–495, 521 stratigraphic column, 210 Bocono´ Fault system, 587 Arperos oceanic lithosphere, 26 frontal thrust, 614 Arquia-Quebradagrande Complex, 514 intra-arc basin, 734 Arteaga, 275 Neoproterozoic–Palaeozoic rocks, 495 Aruba, 92 orogeny circa, 639–640 Aruba Batholith, 565 Para-autochthons, 757 Aruba–Blanquilla islands, 133 Andes. See also Me´rida Andes; Northern Andes asthenospheric flow, 148 Northern v. Central, 504 Atlantic crust, 109 andesites, 92 Atlantic Plate, 78 breccias, 475 Atlantic-type margin, 504 dykes, 563 Atlantica, 543 Pin˜on Formation, 475 Atrato sutures, 499 rocks, 560 autochthonous greenschist, 760–761 anhedral quartz, 540 autochthonous South America, 504–507 anhydrite, 661–662 Aves Ridge, 34 830 INDEX

Azuero Complex western Panama´, 429 compression, 805 Azuero Peninsula, 412 EW9501 MCS lines, 806 Azuero Plateau, 438 seismic stratigraphy, 800 radiolarian cherts, 429 Venezuelan Basin, 79 volcanic activity, 801 backthrusting, 155–166 Beicip Franlab, 606 Bahamas continental margin, 387–388 Benbow Inlier Bahamas Platform, 60, 373, 374 formations, 340 Caribbean Arc, 366–367, 370–371 Lower Cretaceous island arc lavas, 340–343 sediments, 366 Benioff Zone, 173 Bahamian collisions, 43 arcs, 172 Bahia Honda unit, 371 forearcs, 172 palaeomagnetic determinations, 387 geodynamic modelling, 175 Baja Verapaz, 59 seismicity, 45 shear zone, 258 Berriasian faunal gap, 667 Banda plate, 85 Berrugate Formation volcaniclastic rocks, 20 Banda Sea, 139, 141–142, 143 biotite, 541 active continental margins, 144 gneiss, 266 analogies, 151 biotite–hornblende clinopyroxenite rock, 541 arc-associated basins, 147–149 bioturbated siliceous deposits, 465 backthrusting, 151 black chert conglomerates, 790 Caribbean age difference, 143 Blanquilla basin, 577 internal basins, 149–150 blue tourmaline, 759 internal ridges, 150–151 blueschists Neogene movements, 143 Northern Andes, 496–497 north–south convergence, 151 Sierra del Convento, 380 reconstruction map, 142 Boca de Jaruco oil field, 319 seismic tomography, 145–146 Bocono´ Fault, 570, 572, 614 seismicity, 145–146 dextral offset, 574 strike-slip provinces, 146–147 dextral thrusts, 642 thrust belts, 143 total dextral slip, 573 volcanic arc, 145 Bolivar Block, 128, 133 Ban˜os Fault Zone, 495–496 Bonaire Basin, 570, 577 Barbados CA Washikemba sample, 406 accretionary prism frontal, 614 palaeo-transform fault, 627 clastic sandstone domains, 743–793 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate downstream eastern continuation, 784 boundary, 577 heavy minerals, 756 Bonaire Block, 133 schematic structural cross-section, 747 dextral Oca fault, 570 Venezuela, 755–756, 784–786 bore hole Mariel, 367 Barcelona Trough, 772, 786 Brazil Shield, 545 Venezuela, 772–781 Brazilian Shield, 757 Barinas Basin, 690 brittle–ductile two-layer crustal analogue models, 185 barite cement in sandstone, 671 brown bastite, 553 Barrovian, 547 Bruja Formation, 392 Barrow, John, 547 Bucaramanga, 570, 614 Basal Complex, 747 Burica Formation, 415 basal Vidon˜o limestone, 635 Burica Peninsulas basalt geological setting, 413–415 Caribbean Plateau, 511 Late Cretaceous to Miocene seamount accretion, olistolith, 418 411–450 Osa Me´lange, 424–425 me´lange formation convergent margin episodic Site 1001, 815–816, 823 growth, 411–450 ytterbium, 562 Burro Negro, 614 Basaltic Andesite, 553, 562, 563 basaltic lavas, 475 Cabaiguan Formation, 392 basaltic rocks olistoliths, 427 Cabo de la Vela Complex (CVC), 551, 560–561, 563 basaltic volcanism, 716 analytical techniques, 554–555 bastite, 554 basaltic dykes, 560 Bath–Dunrobin Formation, 23 Caribbean realm, 565 bathymetry, 148 formation model, 564, 564 Beata Ridge, 95–97 gabbros and basalts, 563 CLIP, 803, 805 gabbros and hornblendites, 554 Colombian Basin, 79 gabbros geochemistry, 561 INDEX 831

geochemistry, 555, 558, 559–560 Can˜o Island geochronological data, 562 rock types, 424–425 geological setting, 549–551 shear planes, 425 geology, 552 Cantabria Formation, 392 isotopical data, 562 Capacho Formation, 697 Jarara–Etpana sequence, 564 Caparo Fault, 35 Late Cretaceous intra-oceanic arc, 549–565 Capdevila Formation, 392 mafic volcanic dykes, 554 Caracas–Caribbean, 637 mineral chemistry, 555 Caratas sandstones, 629 multistage evolution, 549–565 carbonate, 538 neodymium isotopes, 560 sequences, 373 Northeastern Colombian Caribbean carboniferous crinoids, 222 region, 549–565 Cariaco Trough, 643, 675 other minerals, 558 Carib Graben, 660 potassium argon geochronology, 555, 558 Carib Halite Formation, 659–678, 664, 677 pyroxene, 555–557 age, 660–661 rocks, 561 alternative interpretations, 675–676 spinel, 555 anhydrite/gypsum, 661–662 strontium isotopes, 555 anomalous oilfield brine salinity, 671 tectonomagmatic setting, 560–565 barite cement in sandstone, 671 ultramafic rocks, 551–554 basins near-conformable, 674 whole rock geochemistry, 554–555, 555 basins on Caribbean nappe, 674–675 Cabo Matapalo Unit, 414, 447 basins on collapsed highlands still subsiding, 673–674 tectono-stratigraphy, 440 basins unconformable, 673 Cacaguapa schist, 225–226 Berriasian faunal gap in Venezuela-Trinidad, 667 igneous rocks geochronology, 226–227 buried halite evidence, 662–664 Cajalbana–Bahia Honda area, 319 climate, 676–677 Cajobabo territory, 333 climatic implications, 676 Cuban northern ophiolites emplacement, 326 closed depressions, 663 geological map, 327 collapse fracturing, 667–668 structural profile, 327 depositional environment, 676 calc-alkaline depositional thickness, 676–677 average immobile element compositions, 405 dissolution rate, 677 Bonaire Basin, 406 dissolved halite thickness, 677 sample data, 404 dissolving upward, 666 saturation, 464 drowning coast geomorphology, 662–663 series, 399 enigmatic southern anticline, 665–667 trace elements, 401–410 environment, 676–677 Washikemba sample, 406 fold- and thrust-belt structural style, 664–665 calciturbidite, 424–425 gravity anomalies, 664 Calderas Formation, 392 gypsum veins, 670–671 Caledonian metamorphic belts, 547 halite, 661 Caledonian sutures, 545 halite solution depth, 677 Caledonian tectonic fabric, 83 halite-dissolving fluid circulation, 677 Calentura Formation, 473 heat-flow anomalies, 663–664 Camagu¨ey Massif, 321 inferred stratigraphic position, 662 Cuban northern ophiolites emplacement, 320–322 intramontane plains, 663 erosion, 373 metamorphic-grade discontinuities, 668–669 subduction behaviour, 375 mineralization, 671–672 CAMP. See Central Atlantic Magmatic Morichito Basin, 675 Province (CAMP) mud-volcano fluid composition, 664 Campanian Neogene supraorogen basins, 672–673 age interpretation, 687–700 northwestern Colombia, 661–662 boundary, 690–691 oil and mineral exploration impact, 678 Caribbean-South America oblique collision model, oils with evaporitic signatures, 671 622–637, 638–639 possible diapirs and diapiric solution breccias, Cuban northern ophiolites emplacement, 327–329 669–670 dinoflagellates, 697 prolific petroleum province, 659–678 palaeogeographic position of arc, 388 Rauhwacke, 670 Paleocene quiescence, 329 rollover structure, 670 Venezuela structuring event, 687–700 saline fluid inclusions, 671 Campanian Moreno Formation, 371, 388 saline springs, 663 Campur Formation, 208 solution residues, 668 Canande Fault Zone, 515 solution unique scale and extent, 677–678 832 INDEX

Carib Halite Formation (Continued) tectonic elements map, 763 subsidence rate, 676–677 tectonic evolution, 1–47, 565 thickness, 676–677 tectonic map, 4 Trinidad, 666 tectonics, 191–193 Trinidad evaporites, 661–662 thrust belts, 144 vanished halite evidence, 665–676 topographical map, 144 Venezuela, 661–662 volcanic arc, 145 Caribbean, 614 volcanic plateau origins, 792 accretionary belt, 792 volcanic terranes, 32 active continental margins, 144–145 Yucata´n-rotation models, 1 Alboran Sea, 142 Caribbean Arc, 372, 373, 497, 514, 731 allochthons, 757 Bahamas continental margin, 387–388 Aptian–Maastrichtian evolution, 25–26 Bahamas platform, 370–371 arc-associated basins, 149 Bahamas-type margin in Central Cuba, 366–367 backthrusting, 155–166 Bahamian collisions, 43 Banda Sea, 139, 141–142, 151 Caribbean Plate origin, 361–362 Colombian Marginal Seaway, 501 collisions, 282–283 Colombian Oceanic Plateau, 412 continental basement, 368–370 cross section, 68, 71 continental margin sequences, 365–370 crust, 510, 511 continental margin tectonic environment, Cuban northern ophiolites emplacement, 315–334 367–368 CVC, 565 Cretaceous Caribbean Arc in Cuba subduction- deformation belt, 570 accretionary complex, 379–383 diffuse triple junction, 29 Cuba geochronological data, 361–393 displacement history, 33 Cuba metamorphic rocks tectonic settings, 380 events timeline, 67 Cuban island arc-related geological units, 371 Farallon motion, 21 Cuban north Caribbean suture zone post-collision Farallon Plate, 21 structure, 384–386 forearc, 641 Cuban part magmatic events, 375 free-air gravity, 147 eastern Cuba Caribbean Arc related rocks, geological history, 315–334 376–378 igneous rocks uranium lead ratio, 406 erosion, 375–376 in situ origin, 77–109 Escambray complex, 380–383 Indo-Atlantic hot spot reference frame, 36 fast shortening, 666 internal basins, 149–150 fragments, 28, 492 internal ridges, 150 geotectonic and petrological background, Jurassic sediments, 624 379–380 Lesser Antilles Arc, 508 geotectonic model, 384–391 map reconstruction, 17 granitoids, 374 marginal belts, 57 Great Antillean, 371–378 migration, 516 indenter Pacific provenance model arguments, motion, 41–42 391–392 motion to America, 37 indenting northern part, 389 neotectonics, 38 lithostratigraphic chart, 392 north–south convergence, 151 Ma (45–40), 391 oceanic crust, 97–98 Ma (65–60), 390–391 ophiolites, 561 Ma (70), 389–390 origin Inter-American models, 489 Ma (80–75), 388–389 oroclinal basin, 139–152 Ma (120–80), 388 Pacific Ocean, 139 metamorphic ages, 31 plate boundary map, 39 metamorphic rocks pressure–temperature–time plate geodynamics, 698 paths, 380 reconstruction map, 10–11, 14–15, 18, 25 movement between Caribbean and North American related arc, 517 plates, 371–378 rocks, 499 nappe stacking timing, 370–371 seamount, 97 Nicaragua Rise, 28 sediment pile, 370 northern and western Cuba, 383–384 seismic tomography, 145 northwestern branch geotectonic story, 361–393 sequential plate reconstruction, 618–620 northwestern Caribbean tectonic events timing, serpentinite, 97–98 388–391 stress model, 202 NW flank, 45 strike-slip provinces, 147 Pinos complex, 383 structural sketch map, 206 rock distribution, 363–365 suture zone, 384–386 SAC, 380 INDEX 833

Siuna Belt, 28 Caribbean Plate, 40, 77, 90, 205, 446, 511, 512, southeastern Cuba, 383 513, 514, 518, 736, 744 subduction related magmatism, 371–375 absolute velocity, 645 thrusting, 370–371 Aptian–Albian, 105–106 thrusting indications, 376 Atlantic crust, 109 uplift, 375–376 Atlantic Plate, 78 volcanic rocks, 374 Beata Ridge, 95–97 volcanism, 13 boundary, 28, 277 volcano-sedimentary sequences, 377 Campanian birth, 621 Western Cuba, 365–366 Cayman Ridge, 78, 88–89 Yucata´n collisions, 43 Cayman Trench, 78 Yucata´n continental margin, 387–388 Cayman Trough, 79, 84–85, 97, 109 Yucata´n platform, 370–371 Cenomanian, 106 Yucata´n type margin, 365–366 Cenozoic–Quanternary evolution, 571 Caribbean boundary Central America, 98 Cretaceous zone, 13–17 Choco´,88 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate Chorotega, 88 boundary, 569–571 Chortı´s Block, 87–88, 197 Caribbean evolution Colombia, 510 flat slab subduction, 42–46 components, 79 Neo-Caribbean phase, 37–41 constraints, 65–66 slab break off, 42–46 continental crust, 86–97, 136 Caribbean Foldbelt, 769 Costa Rica, 57–58 Caribbean foreland basin, 630 Cretaceous, 103–104 deposits, 628 crustal thickness, 86, 92, 108 Caribbean geology Cuba, 60–61 implications, 133–134 definitions, 57 line drawing, 96 diapirs, 97 sea drilling, 127 drift mechanisms, 576 Caribbean Great Arc, 577 Early Proterozoic, 214 Caribbean hotspots, 512 Ecuador accreted oceanic terranes, 469–482 Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP), 16, 22, 412, Eocene, 104–105, 777 412, 498, 518, 799 events, 105–108 data, 801 evolution, 66 discussion, 805–807 geological evolution, 205–217 eastern Beata Ridge compression, 805 geology, 127 formational environment, 799–807 geotectonic framework, 363 interpretation, 801–805 global analogues, 85–86 origin, 800 gravity data, 86–87 plateau nature and source, 801–805 Greater Antilles, 90 submarine volcanic stratigraphy, 799–807 Guatemala, 59–60 Caribbean lithosphere, 21, 22–23 Gulf of Mexico, 134 subduction, 520 Hispaniola, 61–62 underthrusting, 20 igneous rocks, 91–92 Caribbean nappes, 624 interoceanic channel, 213–214 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate boundary, kinematics, 57–72 575–576 knolls, 97 Caribbean oceanic lithosphere Late Cretaceous and Early Cenozoic ages, 277 migration history, 38 Late Cretaceous–Paleocene, 104 opening, 2 Lesser Antilles, 489 Pacific origin, 46 Maastrichtian–Palaeogene expansion, 26–35 Caribbean Oceanic Plateau (COP), 72, 92–95, 479, marine limestone, 107–108 809–824 Mesozoic volcanism, 86 analytical methods, 813–814 metamorphic rocks, 100–101 Caribbean Plate structure, 810–811 Middle America, 77, 78 DSDP Leg 15 drill sites, 810–811 Middle America evolution, 127–136 geochemical data, 814–817 migration, 213 Leg 15 drill sites, 811 models, 212–213 Leg 165 drill sites, 811 morphotectonic units, 205 magma source evolution, 809–824 Motagua Orocline origin, 84 map, 811 motion, 16, 510–511, 517, 579, 792 ODP Leg 165, 811–813 Nicaragua Rise, 88–89 Pin˜on terrane, 481 North America, 127 Caribbean Orogen, 791 Northern Andes, 488, 509–522, 510–511, 524 834 INDEX

Caribbean Plate (Continued) Ma (71), 514 oblique subduction, 515 ophiolite rocks, 550 ocean fractures, 80 pre-Mesozoic terrains, 545 oceanic magnetic anomalies, 79–80 reconstruction, 513, 514, 518, 519 ophiolite-related rocks, 549 tectonic features, 744 ophiolites, 67 tectonic framework and location, 550 origin, 328, 361–362, 487 Caribbean-South America origin explanation, 690 age of metamorphism, 637 Pacific Ocean, 92 Andean orogeny circa 35Ma onset, 639–640 Pacific Origin Model, 698 Campanian, 622–637 palaeomagnetic data, 103 Campanian–Eocene, 638–639 palaeontology, 101–102 Caracas–Caribbean Gps, 637 Panama´ Arc, 490 Caribbean Plate absolute velocity, 645 pinning, 199 Caribbean Plate campanian birth, 621 prevailing understanding, 79 Caribbean Plate rear boundary, 638–639 Puerto Rico, 62 Colombia, 626 reconstruction, 66 Cuba detachment from South America, 617–621 regional correlations, 65 debrites, 636 regional setting, 77–79 early Venezuela olistostromes, 627–630 regional tectonic fabric, 82 Ecuador to Guajira, 638–639 Salt Mountain, 95–97 Eocene SW motion, 630 South America, 90–91, 507, 524, 780 Gua´rico Fm, 636 southern edge, 469–482 Gulf of Venezuela-Falco´n Basin circa 35Ma stratigraphy, 103–105 birth, 639 structural periodicity, 82–83 inner Nappe mobilization age, 636–637 structure, 57–65, 810–811 interaction, 638–639 subduction arcs, 214 interaction schematic history, 768 tectonic fabric origin, 83–84 Late Miocene uplift of Eastern Cordillera, 642 tectonic setting, 80–82 longer rifting, 614–617 tectonic–palaeogeographic evolution models, 273 Maracaibo Eocene unconformity, 630 thickening, 91 mega-olistoliths, 632–633 Trans-American volcanic arc, 524 Me´rida Andes-Falco´n Pliocene orogeny, 642–643 translation, 252 missing Inter-Americas Ocean, 617–621 Vema Wedge, 81 motion, 15, 512, 514, 518, 519, 644 Venezuela, 62–65, 70 motion shift, 2.5Ma, 643–645 volcanic activity, 214–215 nappe overlap, 637 volcanic arc rocks, 98–100 no great arc, 621–622 volcanoes, 97 oblique collision model, 613–646 Caribbean Plate boundary, 220 oblique collision with central Venezuela–Trinidad, Caribbean–South America oblique collision model, 640–642 638–639 olistolithic olistoliths, 636 Cretaceous zone, 17–20 orphan olistoliths, 634–636 deformation zones, 197 Paleocene relative motion change effect, 626 geodynamic features, 570 Paleocene–Eocene Maracaibo foredeep, 626–630 geodynamic reconstruction, 578, 579, 580, 581 Pangaean reconstruction, 645 lithospheric scale, 580, 581 plate boundary, 15, 20 methods, 220–227 plate oblique convergence, 768 Mexico-Guatemala-Honduras, 219–287 Pliocene, 622–637 shear stress, 286 Proto-Caribbean foreland basin, 625–626 South America–Caribbean motion, 28 Proto-Caribbean foreland basin age span, 630 tectonic blocks, 570 Proto-Caribbean interaction, 622–637 zone, 197 Proto-Caribbean subduction, 637 Caribbean Plateau, 134 redeposited carbonates, 636 basalts, 511 siquisique, 625 drift, 72 South America, 622–637 Ecuador, 523 Trinidad, 626 Caribbean primitive island arc rocks turbidites, 636 average immobile element compositions, 405 Venezuela, 626 major and trace elements, 403–404 Venezuela–Trinidad northern nappe mountains, Caribbean region 622–625 Cretaceous PIA successions, 400 wildflysch northern source, 631–632 Indo-Atlantic hot reference frame, 28 younger Proto-Caribbean Ocean, 614–617 Ma (100), 518 Caribbean terranes Ma (120), 519 forearc trailing edge, 499–501 Ma (56), 513 metamorphic belts, 760 INDEX 835

Caribbean Wedge latitudes, 82 Centroid moment-tensor (CMT), 199 Caribe Formation, 209 Chortı´s Block, 201 Caronı´ River, 779 earthquake focal mechanisms, 200 Castillo Formation, 592, 592, 606, 606, 607 solutions, 197 transformation ratio, 607 Ceres Software, 606 cataclastic rocks, 184 kinematic restoration, 603 Cauca-Almaguer Fault, 497–498, 498 Cerro Pelado Formation, 589, 592, 592, 606 Cauca-Patia Valley basement, 498–499 Cerros Guayamuri, 719 Caujarao Formations, 590 Chacalapa Fault, 173 Cauto Depression, 363 Chacalapa mylonites, 185 Cayman Ridge, 78, 89 Chacalapa shear zone Caribbean Plate, 88–89 cataclastic rocks, 184 Ma (10–15) gap, 390 mylonite, 184 Cayman Trench, 78 Chacolapa mylonite, 241 Cayman Trough, 79, 85, 97–98, 133, 170, 252, 283 charnockite, 537, 539 Caribbean Plate, 84–85, 109 gabbronorite, 537 Middle American Trench, 192 Chaudie`re sandstones, 752 northern plate boundaries, 84–85 Chazumba units, 279 southern plate boundaries, 84–85 Chemal Formation, 208 CCOP. See Colombian–Caribbean Oceanic Plateau cherry conglomerate, 636 (CCOP) chert, 459. See also red chert Celica Arc, 510 black conglomerates, 790 Cenomanian, 106 La De´sirade, 464 Cenozoic Caribbean-Proto-Caribbean trench-trench v. supralava ribbon chert, 463 collision, 766 Chiapas Cenozoic clastic distribution patterns, 747 age v. elevation and distance from coast, 244 Cenozoic geodynamic evolution, 580 mylonitic gneiss, 241, 242 Cenozoic geological record, 169–174 Chiapas Foldbelt Basin, 5, 27 Cenozoic Huancabamba–Palestina Fault Chiapas Massif, 249, 250 Zone, 491 North Chortı´s-Motagua Fault Zone, 30 Cenozoic limestone, 340 Chile free-air gravity map, 12 Cenozoic molasse, 35 Chiocol Formation, 206 Cenozoic reconstructions, 172 Chiquimula batholith, 255 Cenozoic Subinal Formation, 285 chlorite geothermometer, 254 Cenozoic Subinal-formation red beds, 265–266 chloritoid source areas, 758 Cenozoic time, 574 Chochal Formation, 207–208 Cenozoic units, 331 Choco´, 570 Cenozoic uplift and unroofing ages, 761 Caribbean Plate, 88 Cenozoic volcanic rocks, 271 Chontal Arc volcanic rocks, 28 Cenozoic Subinal-formation red beds, Chorotega, 88 265–266 Chortı´s Block, 197, 215, 220, 225–226, 243–245, structure and kinematics, 265–266 247–248, 250, 280, 619 Cenozoic–Quanternary evolution, 571 active seismic deformation, 203 Cenozoic–Quaternary sedimentary and magmatic AFT ages, 251 rocks, 270 basement and cover sequences, 221 Cenozoic-Recent Kermadec, 402 basement complexes, 221–227 Central America break away, 284 accretion v. erosion, 449 Caribbean Plate, 87–88 barrier, 101–102 Cenozoic deformation, 268 Caribbean Plate margins, 98 clay block cross-sectional model, 190 crustal blocks, 296 CMT, 201 deformation zone, 197 Cretaceous ages, 275 isthmus, 72 Cretaceous tectonics, 276 land bridge, 101–102 data, 199–202 margin Osa Peninsulas, 447–449 deformation, 183 organic material, 102 fission-track thermochronology, 249–250 Pacific subduction zone, 72 granitoids, 241, 248–249 radiolaria, 102 Guatemala, 487 rudists, 102 Jurassic evolution, 280 seismicity, 197 Jurassic extensional structures, 281 volcanic arc, 197, 203 Jurassic tectonics, 274 Central American Arc, 412 Late Cretaceous and Early Cenozoic Central Andes v. Northern Andes, 504 ages, 277 Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), 83 lead, 230 Central Range-Warm Springs, 614 lithostratigraphy, 222–224 836 INDEX

Chortı´s Block (Continued) Coast Range Ophiolite, 463 magmatic arc, 283 coastal group Jamaica, 341 magmatism, 183 Coba´n Formation, 208, 215 margins, 17 Cocos plates method, 199–202 compression pinning, 202 Mexico, 286 diffuse triple junction, 29 Nicaragua Rise, 177 seismic activity, 199 North America, 191–192 Colombia oblique convergence deformation, 192 and Ecuador Western Cordilleras, 498–499 pressure–temperature–time-deformation evolution, Andean arc system, 733 222–224 Andean intra-arc basin, 734 recent eastward displacement, 283–284 Antioquia–Tahami terrane, 11 rifting, 286 Caribbean Plate, 510 Sandino Basin, 31 Caribbean-related arc, 517 seismotectonic model, 197–203 Caribbean-South America oblique collision SHRIMP, 230 model, 626 sinistral displacement and erosion, 284 Central Cordillera, 615 southern Mexico, 286 Cimarrona Fault, 490 structural data, 264, 267 collision, 36 tectonic framework, 197–199, 198 dissected geological map, 509 tectonic-palaeogeographic evolution models, 273 east–west seismic section, 45 TMS zircon ages, 231 Eastern Cordillera, 623 trans-American plate boundary, 12 Emeralds, 671 uranium, 230 emeralds, 670 zircons cathodoluminescence images, 232 halite indicators, 660 Chortı´s-Nicaragua Rise migration, 26 mantle plume, 619 Chuacu´s Complex, 223, 229, 243, 250, 260, 262, Pacifico forearc basin, 500 263, 273 palinspastic maps, 509 AFT ages, 251 Panama´ Arc, 641 argon mineral spectra, 236–238 Pangaea, 502 basement, 271 Pangaean rifting, 514 fission-track thermochronology, 249–250 prolific petroleum province, 659–678 geochronology, 224 saline springs, 663 lead, 229 sediment source regimen, 756 low-temperature thermochronology data, 244 subduction direction, 513 metasediment, 302–303 Colombian Basin, 43, 79, 95, 135 MSWD, 235 Colombian Caribbean region P-T-t data, 256 CVC, 549–565 petrology, 253–254 Colombian Central Cordillera, 490 pressure–temperature–time diagrams, 252 Colombian Fault, 641 Rabinal complex, 232 Colombian Marginal Seaway, 11, 492, 496, 501, 503, rubidium strontium whole rock-feldspar-mica 504, 523, 734 isochrons, 236–238 Aptian–Maastrichtian closure, 12 series, 206 Caribbean lithosphere, 22–23 structure and kinematics, 259–265, 263–264, oceanic crust, 12 264–266 Colombian Oceanic Plateau, 412 thorium, 229 Colombian Plate, 96 uranium, 229 Colombian–Caribbean Oceanic Plateau (CCOP), 412 WM(P)A, 235 Colo´n Formation zircon geochronology, 297–298, 302–303 base, 691 Chuacu´s Orogeny continuity definition, 689 Late Cenozoic, 216 migration, 698 Motagua, 317 planktonic foraminifera, 695 Cimarrona Fault, 490–491 reflection definition, 689 circum-Caribbean region, 399–407 unit location map, 688 circum-Pacific, 459–460 Venezuela structuring event, 695–697 clinopyroxene, 540, 541, 554 Colo´n Unit, 687 geothermometer, 253 Columbus Basin, 101 tectonic settings, 557 compositional zonation, 400 clinopyroxenite, 538, 538, 540–541 compression pinning, 202 clinozoisite, 757 Coniacian–Santonian age of formation, 419–420 CLIP. See Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP) Continent margin, 83 CMT. See Centroid moment-tensor (CMT) Continental Arc Fragments, 491 coarse-grained granodiorite, 255 continental crust, 86–97 INDEX 837

Continental Margin, 491 geochemically analogous to modern island arc basement rock, 368 tholeiite series, 399–407 rifting, 65 IAT composition and classification, 400–401 Continental Slivers, 491 isotope comparison of PIA and IAT series, 405–406 continuous basaltic andesite dyke, 553 modern island arc tholeiite series, 399–407 COP. See Caribbean Oceanic Plateau (COP) PIA, IAT and CA trace elements, 401–410 copper primitive island arc v. island arc tholeiite evaporite solution, 672 compositions, 400–406 Cordillera, 495 Cretaceous Proto-Caribbean, 613 Colombia, 615, 623 Cretaceous sedimentary Ecuador, 508 Caribbean nape, 624 granitoids, 9 MSZ, 268 terrane accretion, 515 strata, 637 volcanic rocks, 9 Cretaceous volcanic arc terrane (KVAT), 315, 316 western foot Terrane 4, 498–499 tectonic superposition, 324 Cordillera Central Shear Zone, 522 Cretaceous volcanics, 373 Cordillera de la Costa belt, 624 arc fragments, 496–497 Cordillera Real strata, 637 Cretaceous dextral shear zone, 504–505 terrane, 332 western edge, 515 Cretaceous zone Cordillera-Santa Marta belt, 619 North America-Caribbean Plate boundary zone, Cordilleran terrane migrate, 6 17–20 Coro Formation, 590 South America-Caribbean boundary zone, 13–17 Cosanga Faults, 490 Cretaceous–Paleocene granitoid rocks, 88 Cosoltepec units of Acatla´n complex crinoids, 436 Magdalena migmatites, 279 Crucero Tarafa, 322 Costa Rica Cruz Grande, 241 Caribbean Plate margins, 57–58 crystals cross section of Guanacaste province, 58 diopside marbles, 542 Late Cretaceous to Miocene seamount euhedral prismatic, 725 accretion, 411–450 phlogopite, 535 Limo´n Basin, 9 plagioclase, 712, 722 marine limestone, 108 Cuba, 382 me´lange formation convergent margin episodic arc activity, 71 growth, 411–450 Caribbean Arc, 365–366, 383 Nicoya complexes, 57 Caribbean Plate, 89–90 Santa Elena complexes, 57 Caribbean Plate margins, 60–61 Costa Rica Arc, 22 Cayman Ridge, 89 Costa Rica–Panama´ Trench continental terranes, 619 Ecuador, 520 Cretaceous Arc, 60 Costa Rican margin, 445 cross sectional map, 60 Cretaceous, 592 Cuban northern ophiolites emplacement, 320–322 ages, 275 deep-water continental-margin rocks, 89 carbonates, 506 detachment from South America, 617–621 deformation, 263 generalized geological map, 364 development, 732 Great Arc, 99 formation, 606 Greater Antilles island size, 100 inliers, 341 Hispaniola–North Virgin Islands, 90 metavolcanic rocks, 496 Jurassic volcanic rocks, 98 motions, 2 laminated limestone, 107 plate boundaries, 523 limestone, 105 radiolarian species, 430 Mabujna subduction complex (MU), 61 rift volcanics, 625 mafic lava, 107 sandstones, 637 Mesozoic domains, 316 Cretaceous Arc, 60 metamorphic rocks tectonic settings, 380 Cretaceous Caribbean Arc, 379–383 nappe stacks, 382 Cretaceous Celica-Chignia volcanic rocks, 493 oceanic rocks, 89 Cretaceous island arc lavas, 373 ophiolites, 324–325, 326 basement rock, 368 ophiolitic bodies, 317–320 geochemistry, 339–356 palaeogeographic reconstruction, 332 metamorphic and magmatic rocks, 368 Paleocene–Middle Eocene tectonic setting, 330 tectonomagmatic significance, 339–356 SAC related rocks, 381 Cretaceous primitive island arc series sketch map subduction-related metamorphic circum-Caribbean region, 399–407 rocks, 378 838 INDEX

Cuba (Continued) slab flux responsible for contaminating, 352 subduction-related metamorphic rocks, 383 stratigraphic column, 342 tectonic elements, 317 strontium diagrams, 350 tectonic sketch map, 373, 374 strontium ratios, 348 tectonic unconformities, 108 tectonomagmatic significance, 339–356 territory, 329 thorium cobalt classification, 348 thrust belt components, 60 trace elements, 344 ultramafic rocks, 107 units, 340 volcanic rocks, 89 dextral faulting volcanics, 621 Palestina Fault Zone, 513 Cuba Caribbean Arc related rocks, 376–378 dextral Oca fault Cuba Cretaceous–Palaeogene subduction, 377 Bonaire Block, 570 Cuban anticlinical stack, 367 dextral shear, 519 Cuban arc terranes and adjacent thrust belt, 368 Northern Andes, 487–525 Cuban carbonate platform, 387 offset estimates and rates, 506–507 Cuban collision belt, 386 Palestina Fault Zone, 512 Cuban Cretaceous arc lavas and instrusives, 369 Peru, 505 Cuban island arc-related geological units, 371 dextral slip, 573 Cuban Jarahueca oilfield, 98 dextral thrusts, 642 Cuban Main Thrust, 363, 365 dextral wrenching, 574 Cuban northern ophiolites emplacement, 315–334 dinoflagellates, 697 Cajobabo body, 326 diopside, 538–539 Camaguey, 320–322 carbonate replacement, 542 Campanian, 327–329 crystals in marbles, 542 central Cuba, 320–322 diorites, 92 eastern Cuba ophiolites, 324–325 dolomitic marble, 533, 538–539 Eocene geological history, 315–334 Venezuela high-grade rocks, 535 Gulf of Mexico Campanian, 315–334 Dominican Republic, 464 Holguin ophiolites, 322–325 Dos Hermanas unit, 63 Late Eocene tectonic history of Cuba, 327 double-arc magmatism, 66 Maastrichtian, 327–329 Middle–Late Eocene, 333 Earliest Eocene time northern Ophiolites, 326–328 reconstruction, 774 northwestern Caribbean, 315–334 Early Cenozoic Paleocene–Middle Eocene, 330–332 deformation, 181, 261 SE Gulf of Mexico Campanian, 315–334 evolution Mexico, 193 tectonic setting of northern ophiolites, 315–333 Farallon plates, 182 Western Cuba ophiolitic bodies, 317–320 plate boundaries, 523 Cuban suture zone stranding remnant arc fragments, 523 metamorphic rocks, 369 Xolapa complex, 181 tectonic data, 385 Early Cenozoic Subinal Formation Cuenca, 474 red beds, 265–266 Curac¸ao, 93 structural data, 260–263 CVC. See Cabo de la Vela Complex (CVC) structure and kinematics, 265–266 Early Cretaceous dacites, 92 back-arc basins, 503 deformed olistostromes, 326 Gulf of Mexico, 9 Desempen˜o Conglomerate Formation, 209 opening, 212 detrital zircons analysis, 298 subduction top-to-south emplacement, 280–282 Devils Racecourse Formation, 339–356 trench trans-American plate boundary, 13 geochemistry, 339–356 Early Eocene palaeogeographic map, 628 IAT, 348 Early Middle Eocene, 508 ICP-MS, 344 Early Miocene isotope data, 351 relative motions, 512 Jamaica, 344 Trinidad, 790 lavas, 344–355 Early Oligocene reconstruction, 782 Lower Cretaceous island arc lavas, 351–355 Early Oxfordian time, 8 LREE, 355 Early Proterozoic Caribbean Plate, 214 N-MORB-normalized multi-element plots, 354 Early Tertiary Formation Cenozoic, 262 petrography, 343 earthquakes related arc rocks, 356 focal mechanisms, 200 rocks, 351 histograms, 161 sample location, 343 spatial distribution, 158 samples, 343 spatial distribution analysis, 157–159 INDEX 839

Easter Island hot spots, 23 emeralds eclogite facies rocks, 380 Colombia, 670, 671 Ecuador Encrucijada Formation, 392 Caribbean Plateau, 523 enderbite, 535 Colombia border, 638 Eocene Cosanga Faults, 490 Caribbean Plate, 777 Costa Rica-Panama´ Trench, 520 dextral shear offset estimates and rates, cross section, 515 506–507 El Oro Metamorphic Complex, 495, 497 Macuchi island arc, 477 geological map, 470 palinspastic map, 507 Late Cretaceous oceanic plateau, 480 Eocene–Middle Miocene Pangaea, 502 dextral oblique collision, 38 Pangaean rifting, 514 transcurrence, 35–37 Salado metavolcanic rocks, 495 epidote, 541, 757 San Lorenzo volcanic arc, 515 Barbados, 756 Sub-Andean Faults, 490 East Venezuela, 754 subduction direction, 512 Nariva Formation, 754 successive accretions, 481 Trinidad, 753 Western Cordillera, 508 Equatorial Atlantic margins, 1 Ecuador accreted oceanic terranes erosion Caribbean Plate southern edge, 469–482 apatite fission track studies, 767 COP birth place, 479–480 Camaguey Massif, 373 COP evolution, 480–481 Caribbean Arc, 375–376 Ecuadorian Late Cretaceous–Paleocene evolution, Osa Peninsulas, 447–448 480–481 v. accretion in Central America, 449 geodynamic implications, 479–482 zircon fission track studies, 767 Guaranda terrane, 472–474 Escambray complex, 381, 383 Macuchi island arc, 477–479 Caribbean Arc, 380–383 oceanic evolution, 472–473 terrane, 329 oceanic rocks, 471 zircons, 368 oceanic terranes, 471–479 Esperanza Formation, 207 Pin˜on terrane, 474–476 euhedral prismatic crystals, 725 San Juan terrane, 471–472 Europe syn-accretion deposits, 471–478 oroclines, 140, 141 Ecuador Inter Andean Valley, 471 rifting, 94 El Aguacate, 464 topographical map, 140 El Guayabo, 368 volcanic activity, 141 El Mamo´n oil field, 604 evaporite-related shales, 671 El Oro Metamorphic Belt, 506 EW9501 MCS line, 806 El Oro Metamorphic Complex, 495, 497 multichannel reflection profiles, 800 El Paraiso Formation, 588, 592, 592 EW9501 MCS line (1321), 802, 803 El Pilar Fault, 39, 570, 614 EW9501 MCS line (1325), 804–805 activation fault, 575 total dextral slip, 573 Falco´n Basin, 577, 639 El Sa´balo Formation, 392 cross section, 592 El Salado Granite, 722 digital geological map, 590 El Salado Metagranite, 716–717, 717–719, 719, 721, 729 fold-thrust belt, 625 Margarita Island, 722, 729 Late Miocene Basin, 577 zircon concordia diagrams, 729 Middle Miocene tectonism, 577 El Tambor complex, 280–282 northwestern stratigraphic scheme, 589 allochthons, 271 oil wells, 598 Cretaceous ages, 275 palaeo-transform fault, 627 Cretaceous deformation, 269 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate existing geochronology, 225 boundary, 577 Late Cretaceous, 282–283 schematic structural evolution, 593 MSZ metamorphic-metasomatic rocks, 225 thermal maturity, 598 petrology, 254 Falco´n Pliocene orogeny, 642–643 serpentinites, 246 Farallon Arc models, 26 sinistral transpressions, 276 terranes, 491 structural data, 264 Farallon Hotspots, 512 structure and kinematics, 263–264, 264–266, 270 Farallon Plate, 21, 22, 446, 480, 512, 513 subduction, 282–283 Early Cenozoic, 182 top-to-south emplacement, 280–282 Guadalupe-Nazca spreading ridge, 174, 176 Elzevirian microcontinent, 544 Jurassic magmatism, 504 840 INDEX

Farallon Plate (Continued) Golfo Dulce Late Cretaceous, 182 base rocks, 413 motion, 21, 517, 518 geological map, 413 Rapid Palaeogene subduction, 512 igneous rocks, 413 fault population methods, 157 Gorgona Island Terrane, 508 feldspars, 436 Gorgona komatiites, 823 felsic charnockite, 535 granite Socorro Formation, 368 felsic granulite, 537, 539–540 granitic magma, 726 fission-track thermochronology, 249–250 granitoids, 373 flat slab subduction Caribbean Arc, 374 surface production, 45 Chortı´s Block, 248–249 Florida Jurassic rifts, 7 Cordillera, 9 fluid dominated arcs, 354 magmatism, 71 fluorite, 672 pink to greenish, 297 foraminifera San Pedrillo Unit, 436 Rabinal complex, 221–223, 260 forearcs granodiorites, 92 Benioff zone, 172 granulite-grade metamorphic rocks, 501 exhumation, 169–177 Great Antillean Caribbean Arc, 371–378 subduction, 169–177 Great Arc, 99 Foreland-basin strata, 665 Caribbean, 759 forsterite, 539 Great Bank of Bahamas, 370 diopside-phlogopite marble, 537 Greater Antilles phlogopite-diopside marble, 539 Caribbean Plate, 90 Franja Costera units, 62 Cuba, 100 free-air gravity, 147 island size, 100 French West Indies red chert origins, 457–466 Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands segment, 86 frontal thrust Trinidad, 614 tectonic unconformities, 108 Greater Panama´ Arc, 499–501, 515 gabbroic rocks, 554, 558 island arc fragments, 492 Gabbros, 562, 563 Greater Panama´ Terrane, 492, 500 CVC, 554 greenschist facies belt, 760 geochemistry, 561 greenschist facies periphery, 719–720 intrusions, 553 Grenada Basin, 32, 35, 135, 562, 577, 614 tectonite, 553 Tobago Trough, 33 Galapagos hotspot, 24 Grenville Province, 544 Ganado Unit, 421–422, 429, 439 Grenvillian affinity, 533–547 basalts and gabbros REE diagrams, 420 Grenvillian Orogen, 544 tectono-stratigraphy, 440 Grenvillian Orogenic Belt, 543–547 garnet Late Proterozoic, 543 amphibolite, 253, 267 Grenvillian rocks, 546 Barbados, 756 features, 545 East Venezuela, 754 greywackes Osa Me´lange, 424–425 geothermometer, 253, 254 GRIPS geobarometer, 253 gneiss, 253 GSSP. See Global Standard Section and Point (GSSP) heavy minerals source areas, 759 Guadalupe-Nazca spreading ridge, 174, 176 micaschist foliation, 253 Guaicaramo, 570 Nariva Formation, 754 Guajira Peninsula, 550, 550 Trinidad, 753 Bouguer gravity map, 552 Gavilanes metamorphic unit, 381 geological map, 551 geochronology, 227–251 Guanacaste province, 58 argon, 245–247 Guaniguanico Terrane, 367, 387, 388 fission-track thermochronology, 249–250 Guaranda terrane interpretation, 250–251 accretion, 480–481 rubidium strontium, 245–247 Ecuador accreted oceanic terranes, 472–474 zircon geochronology, 227 Gua´rico Basin, 579, 768 Georgia Jurassic rifts, 7 Gua´rico Formation, 636 geothermal gradient through time, 605 Guatemala Gharib Halite, 676 age v. elevation data, 244 Gibara area, 323 Armas Formation, 210 glaucophane, 615, 631, 752, 757 Campur Formation, 208 source areas, 758 Caribbean Plate margins, 59–60 Global Standard Section and Point (GSSP), 690 Caribe Formation, 209 gneiss pebbles, 368 Cayman Trough, 85 gneissic rocks, 711 Chemal Formation, 208 INDEX 841

Chiocol Formation, 206 Caribbean Plate, 134 Chochal Formation, 207–208 Cuban northern ophiolites emplacement, Chortı´s Block, 487 315–334 Chuacu´s series, 206 Early Cretaceous time, 9 Coba´n Formation, 208 Jurassic opening, 285 Desempen˜o Conglomerate Formation, 209 Late Jurassic time, 9 Esperanza Formation, 207 marine limestone, 108 geological evolution, 211, 211–212 oceanic crust, 6 Herrerı´a Formation, 209 oceanic lithosphere, 2 Icaiche Formation, 209 reconstruction map, 6,7,10–11 Ixcoy Formation, 208 rotational phase of seafloor, 9 LA-ICPMS analyses, 305–309 sequential plate reconstruction, 618–620 Lacandon Formation, 209 tectonic evolution, 1–47 Lacantun Formation, 209 tectonic map, 3 localities, 207 Yucata´n-rotation models, 1–2 Macal Formation, 208 Gulf of Paria, 614, 661 metamorphism, 106 solution basin, 674 Motagua fault zone, 192 Warm Springs Fault, 663 Motagua Suture Zone, 59 Gulf of Tehuantepec, 18 Motagua–Polochic fault zone, 205 Gulf of Venezuela, 614 Neogene motion, 31 halite, 669 north–south rifts, 286 halite solution, 674 northern foreland fold-thrust belt, 265 Miocene block, 639 Pete´n Group, 209 Oligocene block, 639 petrology, 253–254 Guyana Shield, 750 Polochic Fault, 31 gypsum pyrite oxidation, 670 Polochic-Rio Negro faults, 205 Rı´o Dulce Formation, 209 hafnium Sacapulas Formation, 206 diagram, 349, 352 San Lucas Formation, 208 isotope composition, 345 Sepur Formation, 208 isotope geochemistry, 348–351 stratigraphy, 206, 213 isotope systematics, 406 structural geology, 270 halite structure and kinematics, 259–270 depth in Carib Halite Formation, 677 subduction zones, 214 gas reserves, 678 Subinal Formation, 209 Gulf of Venezuela, 669, 674 Tactic Formation, 206–207 oil reserves, 678 temperature-time models, 244 physical model simulating, 672 Todos Santos Formation, 208 rates, 677 Verapaz Group, 208 solution residual shales, 671 Guatemala Pete´n basin, 221 Trinidad, 661 Guayaca´n Gneiss, 716 Haticos Formation, 324 amphiboles compositions, 715 Havana City, 318 magmas, 727 helium thermochronology, 283–284 Margarita Island, 714–716, 721–722, 727 Hercynian tectonic fabric, 83 origin, 730 Herrerı´a Formation, 209 zircons concordia diagram, 728 Herrerı´a turbidites, 790 zircons sample, 725 Himalayan sutures, 545 Guayaca´n Orthogneiss, 714 Hispaniola, 40–41, 90 Guayana Shield, 757, 762, 770, 783 Caribbean Plate margins, 61–62 Caronı´ River, 779 cross section map, 61 igneous rocks, 761–762 Great Arc, 99 Guayaquil area, 476 Greater Antilles island size, 100 Gu¨erra Unit, 420–421, 438–439 Loma Caribe-Ortega (LC) unit, 62 Guerrero Arc, 15 Los Ranchos formations, 46 model, 26 metamorphic belts, 101 Guerrero composite terrane, 280 Samana´-Punta Balandra complex, 61 Guerrero–Morelos platform, 283 tectonic unconformities, 108 Guiana Shield, 543, 545 volcanic quiescence, 330 Guinea Fault, 81 volcanics, 621 Gulf of Barcelona, 614, 754 Water Island formations, 46 halite-solution basins, 663 Holguin Gulf of Mexico, 5–12 geological map, 323 Campanian, 315–334 ophiolites, 322–325 842 INDEX

Hombre Pintado field, 602 island arc tholeiite (IAT) Hondo Fault Zone, 362, 363 average immobile element compositions, 405 Honduras calc-alkaline rocks, 405 age v. elevation data, 244 composition and classification, 400–401 north–south rifts, 286 Cretaceous primitive island arc series, structure and kinematics, 266–269 401–410 temperature–time models, 244 Devils Racecourse, 406 hopane, 595, 599 Kermadec, 405 v. norapane, 596 Marianas, 405 hornblende, 540, 541, 561 sample data, 404 CVC, 554 Scotia intra-oceanic, 405 mica-chlorite schist, 254 series, 399 spectrum, 247 series composition, 401 Huancabamba-Palestina Fault Zone v. primitive island arc, 400–406 boundary, 492–494 Isopach brittle fault traces, 494 Capacho formations, 697 brittle faulting, 505–506 La Luna Formation, 697 dextral faulting, 513 Mito Juan-Colo´n formation, 696 dextral shear, 512 Orocue group, 695 fault traces and basins, 494 isotope. see also specific type lithologic units, 510 comparison PIA and IAT series, 405–406 hydrocarbon saturation, 608 data Devils Racecourse lavas, 351 HYPERCARD program, 748 Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 284 Ixcamilpa suite, 278 IAHS. See Indo-Atlantic hotspot (IAHS) Ixcoy Formation, 208, 215 IAT. See island arc tholeiite (IAT) Izu-Bonin-Mariana forearc, 557 Ibague, 614 Iberia Formation, 322 Jamaica, 41 Icaiche Formation, 209 Chortı´s Block, 215 Iceland Plateau, 93 Devils Racecourse lavas, 344 ICP-MS. See inductively coupled mass geochemistry, 339–356 spectrometry (ICP-MS) geological map, 341 Igneous Complex, 414 limestone, 108 igneous rocks metamorphic belts, 101 Caribbean Plate, 91–92 tectonomagmatic significance, 339–356 Guayana Shield, 761–762 Jarara-Etpana sequence, 564 Indo-Atlantic hotspot (IAHS), 5, 512 Jarillal Formations, 592, 592, 596, 606, motion histories, 42 606, 607 reference frame, 23, 24, 25, 28, 36, 510 fine grained sandstones, 588 Indonesia transformation ratio, 607 active continental margins, 144 jaspers, 464 arc-associated basins, 147–148 Jones Formation, 247 asthenospheric flow, 148 Juan de Paz unit, 59 backthrusting, 151 ophiolite, 254 earthquake hypocentre distribution, 146 Juan Griego Group, 707 internal basins, 149 amalgamation, 729 internal ridges, 150 high-pressure rocks, 759 north-south convergence, 151 metasediments, 735 seismic tomography, 145 rocks, 735 strike-slip provinces, 146–147 type metasedimentary rocks, 718 thrust belts, 143 Juan Griego units, 717–719 topographical map, 144 feldspathic unit, 717 volcanic arc, 145 La Rinconada, 717 inductively coupled mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), 554 lithologies, 716 Devils Racecourse lavas, Jamaica, 344 Margarita Island, 710 internal basins, 149 pressure estimates, 712 internal ridges, 150 temperature estimates, 712 intra-American rifting, 705 Jubones Fault Zone Boundary, 497–498 intra-oceanic island arc, 400 Jurassic clastic rocks, 77 intralava jaspers, 461 Jurassic evolution La De´sirade, 463 Maya and Chortı´s blocks, 280 iron evaporite solution, 672 tectonic model, 280 island arc lavas, 402 Jurassic extensional structures, 281 island arc rocks, 355 Jurassic limestone, 460 INDEX 843

Jurassic magmatism, 504 La Palma Formation, 241, 392 Jurassic metasediments, 91 gneiss pebbles, 368 Jurassic opening, 285 polymictic me´lange, 384 Jurassic Proto-Caribbean oceanic lithosphere, 34 La Pascua Formation, 782 Jurassic radiolarian microfossils, 457 La Picota Formation, 393 Jurassic reconstruction, 5 sheared massive serpentinite, 325 Jurassic rifting, 7, 91, 513 La Rana Formation, 392 arc magmatism, 279 La Rinconada, 731 Jurassic salt layers, 665 amalgamation, 729 Jurassic San Cayetano fluvio-deltaic sandstone, 387 geochemistry, 713 Jurassic sedimentary strata, 637 Juan Griego units, 717 Caribbean nape, 624 lithologies, 716 Jurassic tectonics, 274 metabasalts, 735 Jurassic volcanics metabasic, 715 rocks, 98 metabasic rocks, 718 Siquisique, 625 unit, 712–714, 717–719 strata, 637 La Vela Formations, 590 Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy, 662 platform rock samples, 536 Lacandon Formation, 209 Lacantun Formation, 209 Kermadec Arc Lake Maracaibo, 614 island arc tholeiite and calc-alkaline rocks, 405 Lancones stratigraphic successions, 474 403 404 major and trace elements, – lanthanum Khorat Basin, 678 diagram, 349 KVAT. See Cretaceous volcanic arc terrane (KVAT) thorium ratios in island arc rocks, 355 kyanite, 752 variation diagram, 346 758 source areas, v. samarium ytterbium, 404 Large Igneous Province (LIP), 67 La Concepcion oil fields, 693 Las Aradas Fault, 493 La De´sirade Las Ovejas complex, 225–226, 238–240, 243, 247, basement rocks origin, 458 248, 250 beach, 463 igneous rocks geochronology, 226–227 biogenic components and behaviours, 464 low-temperature thermochronology data, 244 bioturbated siliceous deposits, 465 MSWD, 235 chemical analyses, 461 P–T–t data, 256 chert, 464 petrology, 255 chert v. supralava ribbon chert, 463 pressure–temperature-time diagrams, 252 discussion, 464 structure and kinematics, 266–269, 269–270, 270 geological settings, 458–459 WM(P)A, 235 hydrothermal alternation, 462–463 Las Terrazas, Guaniguanico Cordillera, 320 intralava jasper, 463 Late Aptian–Albian time, 13 intralava red radiolarian chert, 461 Late Campanian accretionary event, 481 intralava sedimentary rocks, 460–464 Late Campanian–Middle Miocene sequence stratigraphy, Jurassic limestone, 460 634 location map, 458 Late Cenozoic palaeoceanography, 459–460 Chuacu´s Orogeny, 216 primary ferruginous hydrothermal sediment, 460 deformation, 262 radiolarian beds, 465 stress field variations, 284–285 radiolarian ribbon chert on oceanic crustal lava, 462 Late Cretaceous radiolarians, 464, 465 deformation, 261 red chert, 457–466, 461, 462, 464 deformations, 183 red chert wedge deposited in bathymetric low, 459 evolution model differences, 69 red coloration palaeogeographic significance, 463 Farallon plates, 182 red coloration significance, 462 kinematics, 69 red siliceous rocks and biogenic components, 460 LIP, 143 sedimentology, 463–464 magmatic rocks, 270 La Luna Formation, 607, 688–689 Maya block–Caribbean arc collisions, 282–283 diachronous nature, 692 Mexico, 183 hydrocarbon saturation, 609 Miocene seamount accretion, 411–450 isopach, 697 North El Tambor complex subduction, 282–283 schematic chronostratigraphic section showing oceanic plateau, 480 variation, 691 Paleocene boundary, 578 top age, 692–695 Paleocene evolution, 480–481 transformation ratio, 607, 608 palinspastic map, 507–508 844 INDEX

Late Cretaceous (Continued) Lesser Antilles Arc, 98–99 recent reconstruction, 2 average immobile element compositions, 405 restored section, 592 CA rocks, 405 sedimentary and magmatic rocks, 270 Caribbean, 508 sedimentary rocks, 270 Caribbean Plate, 489 South America, 511 geological setting, 458 stranding remnant arc fragments, 523 IAT rocks, 405 structural geology, 270 major and trace elements, 403–404 volcanic lithosphere Pin˜on Block, 512 leucocratic rock, 714 Late Cretaceous Radiolaria leucoxene, 541 Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica, 432–433 limestones Late Early Miocene, 594 distribution to accreted terranes, 478 Late Eocene, 445 Osa Me´lange, 424–425 brittle faulting, 494 Venezuela, 668 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate Limo´n Basin, 9 boundary, 578 limonite, 540 recent eastward displacement of Chortı´s block, LIP. See Large Igneous Province (LIP) 283–284 lithostatic pressure restored section, 593 clay diagenesis, 101 shallow-water limestone clasts, 436 mineral transformation, 101 Late Jurassic organic matter, 101 Gulf of Mexico, 9 osmosis, 101 opening, 212 Llanos Basin, 91 rifting, 732 Loma Caribe-Ortega unit, 62 trench trans-American plate boundary, 13 Loma de Hierro unit, 63 Late Maastrichtian Loma Esmeralda, Limonar, 318 tectonic event, 481 Los Bajos, 614 Yucata´n intra-arc basin, 44 Los Cajones olistoliths, 632 Late Middle Eocene palaeogeographic map, 629 Los Jabillos Formation, 782 Late Miocene Basin, 577 Los Pasos Formation, 392 Late Miocene uplift of Eastern Cordillera, 642 Los Ranchos Formation, 46, 374 Late Oligocene reconstruction, 785 Los Robles metavolcanic rocks, 720 Late Paleocene palaeogeographic map, 627 Los Robles phyllites, 720 Late Proterozoic supercontinent, 543 Los Roques Canyon, 570 Laurentia collision, 544 low-grade metasediments, 259 Laventille Formation, 662 Lower Cretaceous island arc lavas, 339–356 lawsonite source areas, 758 analytical techniques, 344–345 lead Aptian–Albian subduction polarity Chortı´s Block, 230 reversal, 355–356 Chortı´s Block granitoids, 241 behaviour of elements in subduction Chuacu´s complex, 229 environment, 346 concentration Margarita Island, 723 Benbow Inlier, 340–343 concordia diagrams, 302–304 Devils Racecourse formation, 351–355 evaporite solution, 672 Devils Racecourse formation related arc rocks, 356 geochronology, 250, 295–311 Devils Racecourse lavas geochemistry, 344–351 geochronology Margarita Island, 721–729 element mobility and classification, 346 ID-TIMS, 302 geochemistry, 339–356 isotope geochemistry, 348–351 geological background, 340–343 isotope systematics, 348 isotope geochemistry, 348–351 isotope values, 348 mantle wedge component, 351–353 isotopes, 346 sample location and petrography, 343–344 Jamaican lavas, 348 slab-related component, 353–355 Palaeozoic units, 295–311 tectonomagmatic significance, 339–356 radiogenic isotopes, 406 trace element geochemistry, 346–348 sample CH0407, 303 Lower Cretaceous salt layers, 665 sample Gt0017, 304 Lower Cretaceous volcanics, 373 sample Gt03122, 304 significant age groups, 241 Maastrichtian Site 1001, 821 boundary, 690–691 TIMS, 301 Cuban northern ophiolites emplacement, Western and Central Guatemala, 295–311 327–329 Leeward Antilles subduction, 570 fossils, 326 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate GSSP age and GSSP location, 690 boundary, 576 Palaeogene expansion, 26–35 INDEX 845

palaeogeographic map, 623 location, 706 palaeogeographic reconstruction, 773 Macanao orthogneiss, 710, 721, 724–725 Mabujina subduction complex, 58, 60, 61, 64, 65, 89 Matasiete Metatrondhjemite, 719–720, 722, Macal Formation, 208 727–728 Macanao orthogneiss, 710 metamorphic development, 706–721 isotope data, 724 metamorphic rocks, 706 Margarita Island, 721, 724–725 sample preparation and analytical procedures, zircons concordia diagram, 726, 727 722–724 zircons sample, 725 samples, 721–722 Macuchi island arc South American regional tectonic development Ecuador accreted oceanic terranes, 477–479 implications, 730–731 Eocene age, 477 structural relationships, 706–721 rare earth element and multi-elements, 477 tectonic model, 731 mafic charnockite, 535 timing, 705–736 mafic granulite, 533, 537 ultramafic rocks associated with high-pressure mafic volcanic dykes, 554 metamorphic nucleus, 719 Magdalena migmatites, 241, 249 uranium lead concentration, 723 Chazumba and Cosoltepec units of Acatla´n uranium lead geochronology, 721–729 complex, 279 Venezuela, 705–736 Magdalena Valley, 509 zircon ages, 725 Palestina Fault, 512 Margarita Plate, 736 magma source evolution, 809–824 Margarita terranes, 34 magmatic crystallization, 717 Margarita-Los Testigos Ridge, 33 magmatic rocks Margaritan metamorphic nucleus potassium oxide silicon oxide classification high-pressure subduction, 730 diagram, 714 imprint, 709 streckeisen Q–A–P plots, 713 Mariana Trough, 561 magmatic shift, 370 Marianas Arc, 563 magmatism, 183 major and trace elements, 403–404 magnetic polarity zones, 691 Marianas island arc tholeiite and calc-alkaline rocks, 405 magnetite, 540 Mata Formation, 392 Malaita accretionary prism, 438 Matasiete Metatrondhjemite Manacas Formation, 392 amphiboles compositions, 715 Las Terrazas, Guaniguanico Cordillera, 320 Margarita Island, 719–720, 722, 727–728 mangerite, 535, 539, 539–540 zircons concordia diagram, 728 Maniabon Highlands, 323 Matasiete Trondhjemite, 720 Maniabon Highlands, Holguin, 323 Matatere Formation, 591, 592, 596, 606, 607 Mara La Paz oil fields, 693 Matugua Formation, 392 Maracaibo Basin, 570, 688–690 Maturı´n city, 634 Colo´n Unit, 687 Maya block, 220, 221–223 oil productivity, 602, 668 AFT ages, 251 oil wells, 598 basement complexes, 221–227 petroleum system, 587 Caribbean arc collisions, 282–283 Maracaibo Block, 575 cover, 221–227 Maracaibo Eocene unconformity, 630 existing geochronology, 224 Margarita Island Jurassic evolution, 280 age dating constraints, 729–730 lithostratigraphic and pressure–temperature–time- contact relationships, 717–719 deformation evolution, 222–224 contact relationships between periphery and Permo-Triassic ages, 274 nucleus, 720–721 Rabinal complex, 232 Cretaceous development, 732 sinistral transpressions, 276 El Salado Metagranite, 716–717, 717–719, 722, 729 sinistral transpressive collision, 286 field relationships, 721 structural data, 257, 260–263 geochronological results, 724–727 tectonic-palaeogeographic evolution models, 273 geological setting, 706–721 volcanic activity, 215 geological sketch map, 708 Maya Mountains, 221 greenschist-facies periphery, 719–720 Yucata´n Basin, 82 Guayaca´n Gneiss, 714–716, 721–722, 727 Mediterranean high-pressure metamorphic nucleus, 707–719 oroclines, 140, 141 high-pressure metamorphism occurrence, 705–736 topographical map, 140 high-pressure rocks, 709 Mejillones Complex, 103 Juan Griego high-pressure rocks, 759 Me´lange formation convergent margin episodic growth, Juan Griego unit, 710, 717–719 411–450 La Rinconada unit, 712–714, 717–719 Me´lange Holguin, 381 846 INDEX

Me´lange Las Villas, 381 Mı´cara Formation, 393 Mene de Mauroa, 595 microcline, 539 Mercedes-Can˜o Tomas, 614 Mid American Trench, 442–443 Me´rida Andes Mid Atlantic Ridge, 460 orogeny, 642–643 distance, 83 Rio Negro Fm, 662 Mid-Cretaceous Caribbean, 23 Mescalera oceanic lithosphere, 26 mid-ocean ridge basalt, 221 Mesoproterozoic zircons, 310 Middle America Mesozoic Caribbean Arc, 576–577 Caribbean geology implications, 133–134 Mesozoic clastic distribution patterns, 747 Caribbean Plate, 127–136 Mesozoic continental margins, 65 Cayman Trough, 133 Mesozoic domains, 316 Colombian basins, 135 Mesozoic mixed protoliths, 757 crustal makeup, 127 Mesozoic red cherts, 457 crustal thickness, 87 mesozoic sediments, 761 crustal types, 128 Mesozoic volcanism, 86 drill sites, 135 Mesquito Composite Oceanic Terrane, 22 evolution, 127–136 metabasic rocks, 716 geological evolution, 128–133 metagranodiorite, 368 Grenada basins, 135 metagreywackes, 297 Middle Eocene, 132–133 metamorphic conditions, 381 Motagua Fault Zone (MFZ), 84 metamorphic nucleus, 710 Nazca Plate, 133 metamorphic rocks, 225, 707 oceanic arc, 132 metapelite, 538 oceanic crust, 95 metapsammite, 538 Pangaean reconstruction, 127–128 metaquartz arenites, 297 predictions, 134–135 metasedimentary rocks, 716, 761 schematic Pangaean restoration, 130–131 metasomatic rocks, 225 tectonic fabric, 81, 127, 129 metasomatized southern Chuacu´s complex, 263–264 volcanic arc, 132 Mexico, 241–242, 248–249 volcanism, 136 age v. elevation, 244 Yucata´n basins, 135 analogue models, 185–186 Middle American Trench, 192 arc magmatism, 169–173 Middle Cenozoic, 523 arc reconstructions, 169–173 Middle Eocene Caribbean lithosphere, 21 limestones distribution to accreted terranes, 478 Caribbean tectonics, 191–193 Middle America, 132–133 Cayman Trough, 170 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate boundary, Cenozoic geological record, 169–174 578 Cenozoic reconstructions, 172 reconstruction, 775 Chortı´s Block, 286 Yucata´n intra-arc basin, 44 Cordilleran terrane migrate, 6 Middle Jurassic granite protolith, 245 coupling between plates, 177 Middle Magdalena Basin, 45 cross sections of development, 44 Middle Magdalena Valley Unconformity, 626 crustal blocks, 296 sedimentation, 638 decoupling between plates, 177 Middle Miocene development, 5 palinspastic reconstruction, 764 Early Cenozoic evolution, 193 reconstruction, 788, 789 exhumation, 173 Venezuela, 640 forearc exhumation, 169–177 Middle Miocene tectonism, 577 geochronological data, 171 migmatization, 268 geochronology, 171 Miocene block, 639 geological map, 170 Miocene olistostromes, 634 geology, 169 Miskito Basin, 88 geophysical data, 173–174 Mississippian conodonts, 222 Late Cretaceous deformations, 183 Mito Juan Formation modelling limitations, 186–187 continuity definition, 689 oblique convergence deformation, 189–191 reflection definition, 689 subduction erosion, 174–176 Mito Juan-Colo´n formation, 698 subduction erosion causes, 176 isopach, 696 subduction of forearc, 169–177 Moa-Baracoa and Nipe-Cristal ultrabasic massifs, 376 subsidence, 173 Monagas solution basin, 674 time and space diagram, 175 Monagas thrust belt, 665 tomographic section, 174 Monita Unit, 440 Xolapa complex, 181–192 Morelos platform, 283 INDEX 847

Moreno Formation, 392 niobium Morichito Basin, 675 diagram, 352 Motagua fault, 30, 32, 85, 101, 192, 271, 285 Site 1001, 822 Middle America, 84 variation diagrams, 347 ophiolites, 221 Nipe-Cristal ultrabasic massifs, 376 petrology, 225 NO. See Northern Ophiolites (NO) Motagua Orocline origin, 84 norapane, 596 Motagua Suture Zone (MSZ), 59, 220, 221, 243, 262, 272 North America Cenozoic–Quaternary volcanic rocks, 268 Caribbean Plate boundary, 28 cross section map, 59 Caribbean Plate geology, 127 lithostratigraphy, 222–224 Chortı´s Block, 191–192 metamorphic–metasomatic rocks, 225 continental margin cross section, 95 pressure–temperature–time diagrams, 252 continental margins morphology, 72 pressure–temperature–time-deformation evolution, diffuse triple junction, 29 222–224 Ma (130) reconstruction, 503 sinistral transpressions, 276 palaeopositions, 8 structural data, 264, 267 plate motion histories, 42 structural geology, 270 rifting, 94 Motagua–Polochic fault North America Hotspots, 512 SSE, 199 North American Plate, 197 system, 199 boundary, 219–287 zone, 205 boundary deformation zones, 197 Mount Harris Formation, 780 compression pinning, 202 MSZ. See Motagua Suture Zone (MSZ) Cretaceous zone, 17–20 mudstones Osa Me´lange, 424–425 Early Cenozoic, 182 Murrucucu´, 614 Late Cretaceous, 182 mylonite motions, 41 Chacalapa shear zone, 184 shear stress, 286 marble, 542 North Andean, 570 mylonitization, 185, 246 North Caribbean Suture Zone (NCSZ), 362 Cuban part, 385 Naparima Hill Thrust, 634 geological-tectonic events, 385 nappe, 373 geotectonic model, 384 movement, 624 North Chortı´s–Motagua Fault Zone, 30 overlap, 637 Northern Andes stacking timing, 370–371 allochthonous continental margin fragments, 492 stacks, 382 allochthonous terranes boundary, 504–507 uplift, 636 arcs, 522–524 Nariva Formation, 786 Atrato sutures, 499 apatite, 754 autochthonous South America, 504–507 heavy minerals, 754 back-arc basin floor, 496–497 sandstones, 786 Ban˜os Fault Zone, 495–496 Nariva Formation reinterpretation, 786–787 basin formation, 487–525 Nariva orogenic sandstone blocks, 787 Caribbean Arc fragments, 492 Nazca Plate, 133, 550 Caribbean Plate, 509–522, 524 NCSZ. See North Caribbean Suture Zone (NCSZ) Caribbean Plate motion, 510–511 Neo-Caribbean phase, 37–41 Caribbean terranes forearc trailing edge, 499–501 Neocomian, 659–678 Caribbean–South American motion, 514 neodymium Cauca–Almaguer Fault Zone, 497–498 determinations, 345 Cauca–Patia Valley basement, 498–499 geochemistry, 348–351 Cenozoic Huancabamba-Palestina Fault systematics, 406 Zone, 491 neodymium isotope, 560, 562 Central Cordillera western foot Terrane 4, 498–499 composition, 345 Cimarrona fault boundary, 490–491 Neogene movements, 31 Colombia and Ecuador Western Cordilleras, Banda Sea, 143 498–499 Neogene rocks, 752 Cordillera Real Cretaceous dextral shear zone, Neogene supraorogen basins, 672–673 504–505 Neoproterozoic–Palaeozoic rocks, 495 Cretaceous volcanic arc fragments, 496–497 Nicaragua, 18 dextral shear, 487–525 Nicaragua Rise, 21, 28, 177, 282, 511 dextral shear offset estimates and rates, 506–507 Caribbean Plate, 88–89 dextral strike-slip fault system, 514 Nicoya Complex, 21, 57 displaced terranes, 494–495 components, 58 dissected present day geological map, 494 848 INDEX

Northern Andes (Continued) Oaxaxa (Oaxaca), 241 Eocene dextral shear offset estimates and rates, oblique convergence deformation, 189–191 506–507 Oca-Anco´n Fault, 570 Eocene palinspastic map, 507 dextral slip, 573 geological elements interpretative outline, 490–501 Early-to-Middle Miocene boundary, 575 geological map, 491 system, 571 Greater Panama´ Arc, 499–501 ocean floor basalts, 713 Greater Panama´ island arc fragments, 492 ocean subduction zone, 564 hotspot reference frame, 510–511, 512 ocean-continent convergence, 68 Huancabamba–Palestina Fault Zone boundary, oceanic arc, 132 492–494 oceanic crust Huancabamba–Palestina Fault Zone brittle faulting, Colombian Marginal Seaway, 12 505–506 Gulf of Mexico, 6 Jubones Fault Zone Boundary, 497–498 oceanic evolution, 472–473 large-scale plate reconstructions constraints, oceanic large igneous provinces, 139 509–510 oceanic magnetic anomalies, 79–80 Late Cretaceous palinspastic map, 507–508 oceanic plateau, 92 Ma (100) reconstruction, 518–520 Pin˜on Formation, 475 Ma (120) reconstruction, 520–522 red cherts, 473 Ma (46) reconstruction, 511–514, 512 subduction erosion, 176 Ma (56) reconstruction, 514–515 oceanic slabs, 69 Ma (71) reconstruction, 515–516 oceanization, 65 Ma (84) reconstruction, 516–518 oceanside transtensional basin complex, 623 mixed blueschists, 496–497 oil generation, 587–611 northwestern South America palinspastic oil well, 598 palaeotectonic, 507–508 burial history, 599, 600, 601 northwestern South America reconstructions, oils with evaporitic signatures, 671 509–522 Oligocene, 186 northwestern South American observations, basins, 577 522–524 block, 639 ophiolitic sutures, 491 Early Miocene, 578–579 origin inter-American models, 524 exhumation, 191 Pacific origin Caribbean model testable Jocota´n fault activity, 247 predictions, 525 jump in deposition, 784–786 Pacific-origin Caribbean model uncertainties, 524 relative motions, 512 palinspastic latitude-longitude grid, 508 volcanic rocks, 181 Pallatanga Fault Zone Boundary, 499 zircon fission track, 784 para-autochthonous continental margin fragments, 492 Olinala´ units, 281 para-autochthonous terranes, 490–491 olistoliths plate boundaries, 489–490 Caribbean-South America oblique collision model, plateau basalts, 492 632–633, 634–636 plates and plate boundaries, 489 Los Cajones, 632 pre-Cretaceous history, 501–504 Lower Cretaceous shelly limestones, 635 Pujili me´lange-Pallatanga Fault Zone, 497–498 olistostrome reconstruction, 511–522 belt, 626 regional context, 488–489 deposits, 316 San Jeronimo Fault, 495–496 olivine analyses, 556 sheared terranes, 494–495 omphacite, 253 sketch map, 489 opaques, 539, 540, 541 stacking order, 494 ophiolite sub-Andean fault, 490–491 bodies with olistostromes, 328 terrane accretion, 487–525 Caribbean Plate, 549 terrane map, 492 Caribbean Plate margins, 67 terrane stacking order importance, 489–490 Caribbean region, 550 terrane sutures, 494 Cuba, 324–325 Urumita sutures, 499 deformed olistostromes, 326 v. Central Andes, 504 rocks, 549 west of Huancabamba–Palestina Fault terranes, units, 68 494–495 Ordovician–Early Devonian granitoids, 222 Zanjon-Naranjo Fault Zone, 495–496 Orient ophiolite, 377 northern foreland fold-thrust belt, 271 ultrabasic massifs, 376 structure and kinematics, 265 Oriente, 614 Northern Ophiolites (NO), 315, 316, 371 fault zone position, 333 Nuezalito Formation, 534 Orinoco Delta overlap assemblage, 789–790 INDEX 849 oroclines me´lange definition, 416 basin, 139–152 me´lange formation convergent margin episodic examples, 139 growth, 411–450 orthopyroxene, 540 me´lange origin recognition, 416–417 Osa Group, 415 melanges nature and origins, 416–417 Osa Igneous Complex, 414 Osa Igneous Complex, 414, 417–420, 428 basalts and gabbros REE diagrams, 420 construction, 440 lava flows and sediments, 419 discussion and interpretation, 431–441 major sutures, 433 radiolaria, 429 origin and significance, 437 Osa Me´lange, 414–415, 423–428 Osa Peninsulas, 428 construction, 441–447 potassium argon ages, 437 contact, 428 radiometric v. biochronological ages of igneous field work, 417 samples, 437 overlap sequences, 415 rocks deformation, 429 results, 417–431 sediment accretion, 448 Riyito Unit, 422, 439 seismic and on-land interpretations, 419 Salsipuedes units accretion, 447 tectono-stratigraphy, 417 San Pedrillo Unit, 429, 436 Osa Me´lange, 414–415 accretion, 446 basalt, 424–425 larger benthic foraminifera, 431 calciturbidite, 424–425 margin collapse in response to seamount contact, 428 subduction, 446–447 field work, 417 planktonic foraminifera, 431 greywackes, 424–425 radiolarian chert, 429 limestone, 424–425 unusual polygenetic me´lange, 441–443 mudstones, 424–425 sedimentary deposits containing shallow-water Osa Peninsulas, 423–428 limestones, 425–426 radiolarian chert, 429 sedimentary fabric, 423 radiometric v. biochronological ages of igneous southern Central American margin, 447–449 samples, 437 tectonic fabric, 423 rock types, 424–425 tectono-stratigraphy, 440 seismic and on-land interpretations, 419 trench sediments emplacement, 444–445 structural fabric, 446 units origin and significance, 437–438 structural model, 425 Vaquedano Unit, 422, 439–440 Osa Peninsula well-organized highly composite complex, 431, 433 accreted rock bodies size and arrangement, 433, 435 Otu´-Pericos Fault, 492 accretion triggered by catastrophic sediment overthrusting, 578 supply, 446 accretion v. erosion in southern Central American Pacific hotspots, 5 margin, 449 Pacific Model of Caribbean Plate evolution, 339 accretionary complexes along intra-oceanic Pacific Ocean, 139 subduction systems, 448–449 Caribbean Plate, 92 accretionary margins, 447–448 plates, 2, 220 argon loss induced by tectonics, 435, 437 Pacific origin Caribbean model testable predictions, 525 Azuero Complex western Panama´, 429 Pacific Origin Model, 698 basaltic olistoliths, 428 Pacific subduction zone, 72 biostratigraphy, 428–430 Pacific-arc magmatism, 283 Cabo Matapalo, 447 Pacific-derived Caribbean plate, 2 debris flow deposits dominated by igneous Pacific-origin Caribbean model uncertainties, 524 olistoliths, 426 Pacific-origin Inter-American models, 362 deformation, 445–446 terrane stacking order sketch map, 489 erosive margins, 447–448 Pacifico forearc basin, 500 fine-grain detrital sediments, 426–427 Palaeo-Osa Igneous Complex, 447 Ganado Unit, 421–422, 429, 439 Palaeogene geological setting, 413–415 forearc basins, 491 Gu¨erra Unit, 420–421, 438–439 Gua´rico flysch, 534 igneous olistoliths geochemistry, 427–428 Matatere flysch, 534 Inner Osa Igneous Complex, 417–420, 429, 438 Radiolaria, 432–433 Inner Osa Me´lange Complex, 429 radiolarian species, 430 unusual polygenetic me´lange, 441–443 terrigenous turbidtes, 755 Late Cretaceous Radiolaria, 432–433 Xolapa complex, 186 Late Cretaceous to Miocene seamount accretion, Palaeozoic Cajamarca Complex, 519 411–450 Palaeozoic core, 518 lithologies, 423–424 Palaeozoic rocks, 495 850 INDEX

Palaeozoic–Mesozoic igneous and sedimentary Permian limestone, 265 protoliths, 757 Permian modified, 274 Palaeozoic–Mesozoic Oaxaca shear zone, 190 Permo-Carboniferous, 726 Palanda Fault, 493 Permo-Triassic arc on Maya and Chortı´s blocks, Paleocene boundary, 578 278–279 Paleocene fossiliferous limestone, 635 Permo-Triassic granitoids, 279 Paleocene olistostromes, 634 perthitic potassium feldspar, 711 Paleocene relative motion change effect, 626 Peru Paleocene-Early Eocene, 579 Caribbean Plate motion, 517 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate Costa Rica-Panama´ Trench, 520 boundary, 578 dextral shear zone, 505 Paleocene–Early Middle Eocene, 331 Farallon Plate motion, 517 Paleocene–Eocene Maracaibo foredeep, 626–630 trans-American plate boundary, 12 Paleocene–Middle Eocene tectonic setting, 330 Peru Bank, 524 Palestina Fault, 492 Pete´n Group, 209 Atlantic-type margin, 504 petroleum system, 587 brittle fault traces, 494 petrology, 251–256 brittle faulting, 505–506 central Guatemala, 253–254 dextral faulting, 513 Chiquimula batholith within Las Ovejas dextral shear, 512 complex, 255 fault traces and basins, 494 Chuacu´s complex, 253–254 lithologic units, 510 interpretation, 255 Middle Magdalena Valley, 512 intrusive sequence, 254 zone boundary, 492–494 Juan de Pax ophiolite, 254 Pallatanga Fault zone boundary, 499 Las Ovejas complex, 255 Panama´, 570 Motagua fault, 225 andesites, 92 North El Tambor complex, 254 Caribbean Plate, 40 Sanarate complex, 255 Colombia collision, 36 phengites dacites, 92 aluminum contents, 712 deformation belt, 570 geobarometry, 254 diorites, 92 silicon contents, 712 granodiorites, 92 phlogopite, 539 triple junction, 513 crystals, 535 Panama´ Arc, 641 forsterite-diopside marble, 537 Caribbean Plate, 490 marbles, 533 Panama´ Arc Terranes, 22, 491, 509, 510 PIA. See primitive island arc (PIA) Panama´ Block, 40 pillow lavas, 464 Pangaea, 5–12, 502 Pinar Fault Zone, 363 amalgamation, 285 pinning, 199 assembly, 772 Pin˜on Block, 512 breakup, 502 Pin˜on Formation, 474 fragmentation, 617 andesitic breccias, 475 Jurassic reconstruction, 5 basaltic lavas, 475 Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous opening, 212 basement, 474, 475 microcontinental blocks, 545 multi-elements, 475 reconstruction, 1, 127–128 oceanic plateau, 475 restoration, 130–131 rare earth elements, 475 tectonic reconstructions, 613 tuffs, 475 Triassic–Early Jurassic rifting, 212 Pin˜on terrane, 477 Pangaean rifting, 514 COP, 481 para-autochthonous continental margin fragments, 492 Ecuador accreted oceanic terranes, 474–476 para-autochthonous terranes, 490–491 stratigraphic successions, 476 parautochthonous greenschist, 760–761 Pinos complex, 381 facies, 761 Caribbean Arc, 383 Pavones Formation, 415 Placetas Belt, 387 Pecaya Formation, 592, 592, 596, 606, 608 plagioclase, 254, 540, 554 stereonet plot, 591 crystals, 712, 722 synsedimentary structure, 589 saussuritization, 558 transformation ratio, 607 plagiogranite magma, 716 pelagic limestones, 426 Plaisance Conglomerate pelagic–hemipelagic sediments, 444 removal, 779 peri-Caribbean collisional belts, 71 San Fernando Formation, 778 peri-Caribbean tectonic units, 58 Trinidad, 778 INDEX 851 plate reconstructions, 2–5 Proto-Caribbean, 362 plate-boundary jump, 642 back-bulge depozone, 623 plateau basalts, 492 basin, 390 Pliocene crust, 81 Caribbean–South America oblique collision driven sinistral transpression, 625 model, 622–637 foreland basin, 623, 625–626, 630, 634 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate interaction, 622–637 boundary, 579 ridge volcanism, 616 Polochic Belt, 215 rift, 280 Polochic Fault, 31, 243 spreading, 502 Polochic-Motagua-Chameleco´n-La Ceiba fault subduction, 637 system, 297 Proto-Caribbean Inversion Zone, 743, 767, 772–781, 791 Polochic-Rio Negro faults, 205 Proto-Caribbean Ocean, 387 polymictic me´lange, 384 crust, 624 pooled fractional melt modeling, 823 polarity reversal, 621 porphyroclasts, 721 Proto-Caribbean Plate, 328, 623, 627, 628, 629, 630 post-Mesozoic Southern Caribbean Plate arc, 576–577 boundary, 569–582 Proto-Caribbean Seaway, 5–12, 9, 488, 503, 770, 772 Caribbean nappes and rotation, 575–576 Proto-Pacific arc formation, 280–282 Cenozoic South Caribbean boundary, 571 Proto-Yucata´n Basin, 362 current boundary, 575 Provincial Formation, 372, 392 Falco´n-Bonaire and Oligocene basins, 577 Puerto Plata complex, 61 former motion, 572 Puerto Rico geodynamic evolution at lithospheric scale, 577–581 Caribbean Plate margins, 62 Late Cretaceous–Paleocene, 577–578 Great Arc, 99 Late Eocene, 578 Greater Antilles island size, 100 lateral-slip onset, 575 Virgin Islands boundary, 643 leeward Antilles subduction, 576 Virgin Islands segment, 86 major tectonic phases, 575–577 Puerto Rico Trench, 100 Middle Eocene, 578 Pujili me´lange-Pallatanga Fault Zone, 497–498 middle-later Miocene boundary, 579 Punta Alegre Formation, 368, 392 Oligocene–Early Miocene, 578–579 Punta Balandra complex, 61 Paleocene–Early Eocene, 578 Purial Complex, 377, 383 Pliocene, 579 Purial meta-arc complex, 377 present-day South Caribbean boundary, 569–571 pyrite cubes, 535 proto-boundary, 575 pyrite oxidation, 670 Proto-Caribbean Plate arc, 576–577 pyroxenes, 537 South American-Caribbean Plate boundary zone analyses, 556 defined, 569–571 CVC, 555–557 total dextral slip on Bocono´ Fault, 573 ultramafic rocks, 555 total dextral slip on El Pilar Fault, 573 total dextral slip on Oca-Anco´n Fault, 573 total slip along South America-Caribbean boundary, quartz, 539, 540, 541 539 572–573 diopside marble, feldspatic rock, 537 total strike-slip along South America-Caribbean Plate phyllite, 242 boundary zone, 573–575 potassium, 562 recrystallization mechanism, 258 574 Chortı´s Block granitoids and significant Quaternary time dextral wrenching, Quebradagrande volcanic rocks, 11 age groups, 241 Querales Formation, 589, 597 CVC, 555, 558 geochronology, 555, 558 Osa Igneous Complex ages, 437 Rabinal complex, 221–223, 245, 250, 273 pre-Mesozoic terrains, 545 AFT ages, 251 Precambrian metamorphosed sedimentary, 761–762 argon mineral spectra, 236 Precambrian–Paleozoic protoliths, 757 Chuacu´s complex, 232 primitive island arc (PIA) geochronology, 224 Cretaceous primitive island arc series, 401–410 granite intruded, 279 incompatible element abundances, 404 granitoids, 221–223, 259, 260 rocks alteration, 402 Maya Block, 232 series, 399, 404 MSWD, 235 v. island arc tholeiite compositions, 400–406 P–T–t data, 256 prismatic amphibole, 255 rubidium strontium whole rock-feldspar-mica Progreso Basin, 509 isochrons, 236 Proterozoic zircons, 243 structure and kinematics, 256–259, 259 852 INDEX

Rabinal complex (Continued) Roques Canyon, 614 western Guatemala, 251–252 Rosario, 370 WM(P)A, 235 rubidium, 562 zircon data and age interpretation, 228 Chortı´s Block granitoids and significant zircon geochronology, 227 age groups, 241 zircons cathodoluminescence images, 232 geochronology, 245–247 radiolarians whole rock-feldspar-mica isochrons, 236–238 and pelagic limestones, 426 rudists, 102 Central America, 102 rutile chert lenses, 461 Barbados, 756 La De´sirade, 465, 465 East Venezuela, 754 La De´sirade red cherts, 464 Nariva Formation, 754 ribbon chert on oceanic crustal lava, 462 Trinidad, 753 radiometric dating, 220 Rauhwackes, 670 SAC. See subduction-accretionary complex (SAC) reconnaissance petrology, 256 Sacapulas Formation, 206, 222 red algae, 436 Salado metavolcanic rocks, 495 red beds, 265–266 Salama´ red cherts quartz phyllite, 242 Jurassic radiolarian microfossils, 457 schists, 221–223 La De´sirade, 461, 462 saline fluid inclusions, 671 oceanic plateau basement, 473 saline springs, 663 origins, 457–466, 461, 462 Salsipuedes Unit, 414 radiolarians, 464 accretion, 447 silicon Iron ratio, 464 tectono-stratigraphy, 440 wedge deposited in bathymetric low, 459 Salt Mountain, 95–97 red coloration SAM. See South American Plate (SAM) palaeogeographic significance, 462, 463 Samana´ complex, 61 red ironstone clasts, 791 samarium, 562 red radiolarian chert, 465 Devils Racecourse lavas, 355 Circum-Pacific, 459–460 variation diagram, 346 La De´sirade, 461 v. lanthanum ytterbium, 404 red ribbon chert, 464 San Cayetano Formation, 392 Red Sea rift, 676 San Diego metamorphic rocks, 226 red siliceous rocks, 460 San Diego phyllite, 225–226 ribbon chert, 462 igneous rocks geochronology, 226–227 rifting structure and kinematics, 266–269, 270 Caribbean sediment pile, 370 San Fernando Formation Caribbean-South America oblique collision Plaisance Conglomerate, 778 model, 614–617 Plaisance Conglomerate removal, 779 Chortı´s Block, 286 San Fernando olistolith, 636 continental margin, 65 San Francisco, 614 duration, 617 San Gabriel sequence, 302 Guatemala, 286 San Gabriel unit, 221–223 Jurassic, 513 San Jeronimo Fault, 492, 495–496 Late Cretaceous time, 616 San Juan terrane Late Jurassic, 732 Ecuador accreted oceanic terranes, 471–472 magmatism, 623 stratigraphic succession, 472 non-volcanic style, 8 San Lorenzo marble, 246 Pangaean, 514 San Lorenzo volcanic arc phase, 662 Ecuador, 515 Rio Claro, 418 San Lucas Formation, 208 Rı´o Dulce Formation, 209 San Pedrillo Unit, 414, 419, 423–428 Rı´o Guache flysch, 534 accretion, 446 Rio Jicaya gneiss, 368 clast size, 418 Rio Negro Formation, 662 crinoids, 436 Rio Nuevo Formation, 343 feldspars, 436 Rio San Juan complex, 61 foraminifera, 436 Riobamba-Guaranda terrane, 472 geological map, 419 Riyito Unit, 422, 439 margin collapse in response to seamount subduction, basalts and gabbros REE diagrams, 420 446–447 tectono-stratigraphy, 440 Osa Peninsula, 436 Rock Eval pyrolysis, 604 Osa Peninsulas, 429 Rodinia reconstruction, 543 pelagic–hemipelagic sediments, 444 Romeral, 570, 614 red algae, 436 INDEX 853

tectono-stratigraphy, 440 Sierra Maestra, 325 tuffites, 436 Sierra Santa Cruz (SSC), 59 unusual polygenetic me´lange, 441–443 Sigu¨enza, Spain, 705 San Pedro Formation, 392 siliceous melt, 351 San Sebastian Fault, 570, 614, 641 silicon Iron ratio, 464 Sanarate complex, 226, 240, 248, 280 sillimanite source areas, 758 Cenozoic deformation, 269 siltstone, 744 Cretaceous ages, 275 Silurian–Carboniferous subduction, 278 lithology metamorphism, 272 silver evaporite solution, 672 P–T–t data, 256 sinistral transpression, 265, 276 petrology, 255 Siquisique pressure–temperature–time diagrams, 252 Cretaceous rift volcanics, 625 structural data, 264 Jurassic volcanics, 625 structure and kinematics, 266 Sistema Montanoso del Caribe SAND. See Sandwich Plate (SAND) cross section, 63 Sandino Basin, 31 Site 1001, 820 sandstones basaltic units stratigraphic section through, 812 rock crushing, 748 basalts, 815–816, 823 South America, 744 element, trace element data, 815–816 Sandwich Islands, 562 lead, 821 Sandwich Plate (SAND), 155 magnesium oxide v. Zr, 817 geographic location, 156 N-MORB normalized multi-element plot, 818 spatial location of focal mechanisms, 160 pooled fractional melt modeling, 823 tectonic configuration, 166 radiogenic isotope data, 815–816 vertical distribution of seismicity, 158 zirconium niobium, 822 Sandwich subduction system, 165 zirconium yttrium v. niobium yttrium, 819 Sandwich Trench, 162 Site 152 Santa Clara, 321 N-MORB normalized multi-element plot, 818 Santa Elena complex, 57 Siuna Belt, 18, 28 Santa Marta, 570, 614 Siuna terrane, 282 Santa Rita Formations, 592, 592, 596, 606, 607 slab break-off, 45 fine grained sandstones, 588 SMT. See southern metamorphic terranes (SMT) Santa Rosa Group, 310 Socorro complex, 369 Santa Teresa Formation, 392 Socorro Formation, 590, 592, 606, 609 Santo Domingo Formation, 377, 392 geological scenarios, 609 Scotia Arc, 403–404 granite, 368 Scotia intra-oceanic island arc tholeiite, 405 hydrocarbon accumulation, 610 Scotia Plate, 85–86 South America SAND, 155 amphibolite facies belt, 760 Scotland, 784 Bocono´ Fault, 572 Scotland Group, 104, 107 Bolivar Block, 133 Scotland Group members, 752 Caribbean boundary zone, 13–17 sea drilling, 127 Caribbean motion, 28 seaward dripping wedges, 94 Caribbean Orogen, 791 sedimentary rocks, 460–464 Caribbean Plate, 90–91, 134, 507, 524, 780 seismic refraction, 660 Caribbean Plate boundary zone defined, 569–571 Senado Formation, 392 Caribbean-South America oblique collision model, Sepur Formation, 208 622–637 serpentinite Cenozoic clastic distribution patterns, 747 continuous basaltic andesite dyke, 553 continental margins morphology, 72 Cuban Jarahueca oilfield, 98 Cretaceous zone, 13–17 El Tambor complex, 246 crust, 510 serpentinitic me´lange, 373, 374 Early Eocene palaeogeographic map, 628 Serranı´a Oriental, 776 Early Miocene palaeogeographic map, 631 Caribbean accretionary belt, 792 Early Oligocene palaeogeographic map, 630 Shackleton Fracture Zone, 13 Early Pliocene palaeogeographic map, 633 shear stress, 286 Eocene–Middle Miocene transcurrence, 35–37 shear zones, 183–185 greenschist facies belt, 760 sheared continental margin, 492 Gulf of Barcelona, 754 sheared granitoids, 761 intra-oceanic plate boundaries cartoon, 522 Sierra de los Organos, 370 Late Cretaceous, 511 Sierra del Convento, 381 Late Maastrichtian palaeogeographic map, 623 blueschists and eclogite facies rocks, 380 Late Middle Eocene palaeogeographic map, 629 Sierra Guaniguanico, 367 Late Middle Miocene, 632 Sierra Madre del Sur, 186 Late Paleocene palaeogeographic map, 627 854 INDEX

South America (Continued) CVC, 555 Ma (190) reconstruction, 502 determinations, 345 major faults location map, 614 Devils Racecourse lavas, 348 margin, 733 diagrams, 350 Mesozoic clastic distribution patterns, 747 geochemistry, 348–351 motion, 518, 519 geochronology, 245–247 motion histories, 42 Rabinal complex, 236 North America motion (Late Paleocene time), 626 systematics of Jamaican lavas, 348 Palaeogene terrigenous turbidtes, 755 whole rock-feldspar-mica isochrons, 236–238 palaeopositions, 8 structural geology interpretation, 270–272 palinspastic map construction, 762 Sub-Andean Faults, 490–491 palinspastic palaeotectonic, 507–508 subduction erosion, 176 plate motions, 41 subduction zones pre-Mesozoic terrains, 545 development, 216 reconstructions, 509–522 two-way transport of material, 379 rocks, 499 subduction-accretionary complex (SAC), 282, 379 sandstones, 744 subduction-related granitoids, 372 schematic north–south palaeo-section, 624 subduction-related metamorphic rocks, 383 slab strain, 155 Subinal Formation, 209 tectonic elements, 763 red bed deformation, 266 tectonic evolution, 1–47 Sula garben, 248 tectonic evolution models, 743 syenitic charnockite, 539–540 Urica Fault, 754 syn- to postorogenic sediments, 373, 374 Venezuela high-grade rocks, 545–547 volcanic components, 563 Tacajo, Holguin province, 324 westward drift, 129 Tachira Trough, 696 South America Hotspots, 512 Taconic-Acadian orogeny, 272–278 South American Plate (SAM), 155 Tactic Formation, 206–207 Antarctica plate, 164 Talara Basin, 510 earthquake spatial distribution analysis, 157–159 tantalum diagram, 401, 402 focal mechanism analyses, 162 Taxco-Viejo units, 281 focal mechanism analysis solutions, 163 tectonic environment, 331 methods, 156–157 tectonic erosion, 66 rationale, 156–157 tectonic evolution reverse focal mechanism solutions, 165 Caribbean, 1–47 seismicity regional analysis, 160–162 Gulf of Mexico, 1–47 strain analysis, 159–160 northern South America, 1–47 stress analysis, 159–160 tectonic fabric strike-slip solutions, 165 Caribbean Plate, 82, 83–84 tectonic complexity, 164 Middle America, 81 tectonic configuration, 166 tectonic indenter model, 362 tectonic setting, 155–156 tectonic mechanism, 19 South Sandwich Fracture Zone (SSFZ), 155, 156 tectonic settings, 19 southern metamorphic terranes (SMT), 315, 316 Teloloapan units, 281 sphene, 759 temperature spinel correlation for Rock Eval pyrolysis, 604 analyses, 556 data maximum erosion evaluation, 605 peridotites, 557 Te´neme Formation, 377, 392 SSC. See Sierra Santa Cruz (SSC) terrane. See also specific name SSFZ. See South Sandwich Fracture Zone (SSFZ) Cordillera accretion, 515 stacking order, 494 Farallon Arc models, 491 staurolite, 615, 631, 752 nomenclature and geological summary, 493 Barbados, 756 Northern Andes accretion, 487–525 East Venezuela, 754 stacking, 489–490 Nariva Formation, 754 sutures, 494 source areas, 758 Testigos, 614 Trinidad, 753 Thailand, 678 stress field variations, 284–285 thermal evolution, 187 stress inversion technique, 157 thermal ionization mass spectrometers (TIMS), 724 strike-slip earthquakes, 202 thorium strontium, 562 Chuacu´s complex, 229 Chortı´s Block granitoids and significant cobalt classification, 348 age groups, 241 Devils Racecourse lavas, 355 composition, 345 diagram, 349, 352 INDEX 855

lanthanum ratios, 355 frontal thrust, 614 thermochronology, 283–284 Gulf of Paria, 661 variation diagram, 346 halite, 661 ytterbium, 402 heavy minerals, 749, 752–753 thrust belt hot wells, 663 Banda Sea, 143 hypersaline formation water, 671 Caribbean, 144 Inner Nappe uplift, 636 Cuba, 60 interpreted sketch section, 666 Trinidad, 614 Jurassic rifts, 7 thrusting, 640 Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy, 662 Caribbean Arc, 370–371 Laventille Fm, 662 indications, 376 Miocene olistostromes, 634 Tierra Colorada, 181, 281 Mount Harris Formation, 780 schematic geological sections, 184 mountains and basins location map, 661 Tiguaje field, 602 mud volcanoes, 667 fragmentogram, 597 mud-volcano fluids, 664 Tiguaje oils, 601 Naparima Hill, 634 TIMS. See thermal ionization mass spectrometers (TIMS) Nariva Formation reinterpretation, 786–787 Tinajitas limestone, 635, 780 northern nappe mountains, 622–625 titanite, 539, 540 palaeoshape, 765 Tobago Basin, 32, 35 Paleocene olistostromes, 634 Tobago terranes, 34 Pangaean rifting, 514 Tobago Trough, 33 Plaisance Conglomerate, 778 Todos Santos Formation, 208 pre-deformation configuration, 574 Tonala shear zone, 249 Proto-Caribbean nappe advance, 644 tonalitic arc magmatism, 69 salt basin, 659 tonalitic magmatism, 71 sediment source regions, 756 Top La Luna stratigraphic chart, 745 reflector fault trace pattern, 694 tectonic features, 744 seismic line segment, 698 Venezuela, 748–752, 784–786 Top of Colo´n-Mito Juan, 692 volcanism, 676 total alkali-silica diagram, 400 Warm Spring Fault, 572 tourmaline wildflysch, 631 Barbados, 756 Trocha Fault zone, 372, 373 East Venezuela, 754 tuffites, 436 Nariva Formation, 754 tuffs, 475 Trinidad, 753 Tumbes Basin, 509 Tournaisian conodonts, 222 turbidites, 636 trace elements, 344. See also specific name Turonian-Santonian basalt, 28 track-length distributions, 250 Turquino-Cayman Ridge arc, 332–333 Trans-American Arc, 497 two-stage mantle melting, 822 Trans-American Plate boundary, 12, 26 conversion, 12–13 ubiquitous marbles, 546 Early Cretaceous trench, 13 ultramafic rocks, 558, 716 Late Jurassic trench, 13 CVC, 551–554 Trans-American subduction zone, 503 pyroxene, 555 Trans-American volcanic arc, 524 Upper Magdalena Valley, 509 Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, 9, 30, 171 Uralian sutures, 545 Benioff zone, 173 uranium forearc, 176 Chortı´s Block, 230 volcanism, 172 Chortı´s Block granitoids and significant Tres Esquinas Member, 688–689 age groups, 241 Triassic clastic rocks, 77 Chuacu´s complex, 229 Triassic deformation, 261 concentration Margarita Island, 723 Triassic magmatism, 89 concordia diagrams Triassic–Early Jurassic rifting, 212 ID-TIMS, 302 Trinidad sample CH0407, 303 apatite, 753 sample Gt0017, 304 Caribbean-South America oblique sample Gt03122, 304 collision model, 626 evaporite solution, 672 clastic sandstone domains, 743–793 geochronology, 250, 721–729 Columbus Basin, 101 thermochronology, 283–284 Early Miocene, 790 TIMS, 301 evaporites, 661–662 zircon geochronology of Palaeozoic units, 295–311 856 INDEX

Urica, 614 laboratory methods, 747–748 Urica Fault, 754, 776 limestone, 668 Urumaco Formation, 606 Llanos Basin, 91 Urumita sutures, 499 Loma de Hierro unit, 63 lower-grade metamorphic terranes, 760, 761 van den Boom Sacapulas Formation, 222 lowstand wedges, 777–781 vanishing Carib Halite Formation, 659–678 magmatic regional correlations, 64 Vaquedano Unit, 422–423, 439–440 Margarita Island, 705–736 basalts and gabbros REE diagrams, 420 mesozoic sediments, 761 Vega Alta Formation metamorphic regional correlations, 64 Crucero Tarafa, 322 metamorphic terranes, 759–760 velocity discontinuity, 185 metasedimentary units, 622 deformation view, 189 microscopy, 748 Vema Wedge Middle Miocene, 640 Caribbean Plate, 81 mountains and basins location map, 661 latitudes, 82 mud volcanoes, 667 Venezuela, 743–793, 752–755 northeastern South American margin, 777 amphibolite facies metamorphic terranes, 760–761 northern nappe mountains, 622–625 amphibolite-grade metamorphic terranes, 757–759 Oca-Ancon system, 571 authochthonous greenschist, 760–761 Oligocene jump in deposition, 784–786 axial feed along Caribbean Foredeep, 783–787 olistostrome belt, 626 Barbados, 755–756, 784–786 olistostromes, 627–630 Barbados as downstream eastern continuation, 784 Orinoco Delta overlap assemblage, 789–790 Barcelona Trough, 772–781 palaeogene clastics association, 772–781 Caribbean forearc, 641 palinspastic reconstruction, 762–770 Caribbean foredeep, 781–783 Pangaean rifting, 514 Caribbean Plate margin, 70 parautochthonous greenschist, 760–761 Caribbean Plate margins, 62–65 parautochthonous greenschist-facies, 761 Caribbean-South America oblique piggyback deposits on evolving orogen, 787–790 collision model, 626 plate boundary/thrust belt evolution, 762–770 Cenozoic uplift and unroofing ages, 761 Proto-Caribbean nappe advance, 644 clastic domains, 770–791 proximal deposits on evolving orogen, 787–790 clastic sandstone domains, 743–793 salt basin, 659 Cretaceous passive margin, 770–772 sample preparation, 748 Cretaceous Proto-Caribbean, 613 sediment source regions, 756 deformational regional correlations, 64 sedimentary regional correlations, 64 dextral, 582 siltstone, 744 diachronous Caribbean basal foredeep southern onlap assemblage, 781–783 unconformity, 777 stratigraphic chart, 746 distal syn-orogenic detritus, 783–787 syn-orogenic wedgetop on evolving orogen, 787–790 Dos Hermanas (DH) unit, 63 tectonic elements, 762–770 El Pilar Fault, 39 tectonic features, 744 evolving orogen, 787–790 tectonics, 580 Franja Costera units, 62 Trinidad, 748–752, 784–786 frontal thrust, 614 Trinidad Nariva Formation reinterpretation, graphic phyllite, 668 786–787 halite, 661 unmetamorphosed, 761 heavy minerals, 750, 751, 754 Urica Fault, 776 data, 748–756 VC units, 63 potential source areas, 756–762 volcanism, 676 source areas, 758–759 wildflysch, 631 studies background, 747 Venezuela Falco´n Basin polyphase development study rationale, 747–748 biodegradation, 599–600 heterogeneous Precambrian metamorphosed digital geological map, 591 sedimentary, 761–762 gravimetric model for subduction, 610 high-pressure metamorphism, 705–736 maturity, 602–604 high-pressure, low -temperature metamorphic oil fields and seeps, 594 terranes, 759 oil generation, 587–611 hot wells, 663 oil well burial history, 599, 600, 601 hypersaline formation water, 671 petroleum system modeling, 608–610 igneous rocks in Guayana Shield, 761–762 pseudowell burial history, 602 Jurassic metasediments, 91 source rock, 599 Jurassic rifts, 7 predominance, 602 Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy, 662 transformation ratio, 607 INDEX 857

stratigraphy, 588–590 palaeontological data, 687–700 structural evolution, 592–599 palaeontological evidence, 690–698 structure, 590–592 seismic data, 687–700 tectonic implications, 610–611 seismic evidence, 690 tectonography, 588–590 Tres Esquinas Member, 688–689 temperature and maximum depth synthesis, 606 vitrinite and fission track data, 698 thermal calibration, 604–608 Venezuelan Basin, 79 thermal maturity, 599 volcanic activity, 802 Venezuela high-grade rocks Venezuelan Plate, 96 alkali feldspar, 539 Verapaz Group, 208 anorthosite, 535 Via Blanca Formation, 392 apatite, 540 Villa de Cura biotite, 541 klippe, 632 carbonate, 538 terranes, 34 cataclastic and hydrothermal effects, 542–543 units, 63 clinopyroxene, 540, 541 Vin˜ales tectonic window, 367 clinopyroxenite, 538, 538, 540–541 Virgin Islands, 90 diopside, 538–539 boundary, 643 dolomitic marble, 535, 538–539 segment, 86 enderbite, 535 volcanic arc complexes, 68 epidote, 541 volcanic arc magmatism, 328 felsic charnockite, 535 volcanic arc rock chemistry, 106 felsic granulite, 539–540 volcanic arcs forsterite, 539 clastic rocks, 506 geotectonic map, 534 cretaceous carbonates, 506 Grenvillian affinity, 533–547 zircons, 100 Grenvillian Orogenic Belt, 543–547 volcanic island arc-derived rocks, 399 high- to medium-grade rocks lithology, 535–538 volcanic quiescence, 330 high- to medium-grade rocks location, 533–535 volcanic rock hornblende, 540, 541 Caribbean Arc, 374 location maps, 534 Cordillera, 9 mafic charnockite, 535 geochemistry, 171 mangerite, 539–540 sequence data, 376 medium- to high-grade basement, 543–546 volcanic seamounts, 96 metamorphic petrogenesis, 541–543 volcanism metapelite and metapsammite, 538 Caribbean Arc time, 13 microcline, 539 Late Aptian–Albian time, 13 northern South America, 546–547 Lesser Antilles, 98–99 Nuezalito Formation, 534 volcano-ophiolitic me´lange, 318 opaques, 539, 540, 541 orthopyroxene, 540 wagwater group, 341 Palaeogene Gua´rico flysch, 534 Warm Spring Fault, 572 Palaeogene Matatere flysch, 534 Warm Springs Fault, 663 petrography, 538–546 Water Island formations, 46 phlogopite, 539 Weber Basin, 148 plagioclase, 540 white limestone group, 341 pre-Cenozoic sedimentary, 534 white mica, 246 quartz, 539, 540, 541 Rı´o Guache flysch, 534 X-ray fluorescence, 554 syenitic charnockite, 539–540 xenoblastic quartz, 540, 541 Cenozoic-quaternary sedimentary rocks, 534 xenoblastic titanite, 540 titanite, 539, 540 xenoliths of dolomitic marble, 533 Venezuela Plateau, 93 xenotime, 540 Venezuela structuring event Xolapa complex, 280, 281, 284 Barinas Basin, 690 basal velocity discontinuity, 188 biostratigraphic evidence, 697–698 block diagrams, 190 Campanian age interpretation, 687–700 deformation view, 189 Campanian-Maastrichtian boundary, 690–691 Early Cenozoic deformation, 181 Colo´n Formation, 695–697 experiment parameters, 186 geological setting, 687–689 geological evolution, 191 hydrocarbon implications, 699 Mexico, 181–192 La Luna Formation, 688–689 migmatite, 241 La Luna Formation top age, 692–695 model deformation evolution, 187 Maracaibo Basin, 688–690 modelling results, 187–189 858 INDEX

Xolapa complex (Continued) crystallization age, 728 oblique convergence deformation, data and age interpretation, 228 189–191 dating, 374 Oligocene, 186 East Venezuela, 754 Oligocene exhumation, 191 Escambray complex, 368 Palaeogene, 186 geochronology, 227, 250, 295–311 resulting deformation photograph, 188 Margarita Island, 725 shear zones, 183–185 Nariva Formation, 754 Sierra Madre del Sur, 186 Palaeozoic units, 295–311 strike-slip faults, 188 photomicrographs, 299 structure varieties, 193 sample CH0402, 300 thermal evolution, 187 sample CH0407, 302 Xolapa Terrane, 181 sample Gt03122, 302 sample Gt0417, 303, 310 TIMS, 301 Yaguaneque limestones, 393 Trinidad, 753 yellow limestone group volcanic arc rocks, 100 Jamaica, 341 Western and Central Guatemala, 295–311 ytterbium xenotime, 540 basalts, 562 zircon concordia diagram diagram, 349, 401 Guayaca´n Gneiss, 728 thorium, 402 Macanao orthogneiss, 726, 727 variation diagram, 346 zircon fission track (ZFT), 698 yttrium diagram, 352 Oligocene, 784 Yucata´n studies, 767 collisions, 43 zircon geochronology continental margin, 387–388 Altos Cuchumatanes, 300–302 continental margin sediments, 366 Altos Cuchumatanes and Western Chuacu´s Group, generalized stratigraphic profile, 366 297–298 intra-arc basin, 44 analytical procedures, 300 Jurassic rifts, 7 Central Guatemala, 298 Late Maastrichtian–Middle Eocene, 44 Chuacu´s Complex metasediment, 302–303 margin, 365–366 Guatemala, 295–311 marginal basement, 370 ID-TIMS, 300 rotation, 2 LA-ICPMS, 300 rotation models, 1 Palaeozoic units in Western and Central Guatemala, triangle, 362 295–311 Yucata´n Basin, 135 Rabinal suite, 298 geotectonic framework, 363 regional geology and sample descriptions, Maya Mountains, 82 297–300 subducted metasediments, 389 results, 300–303 Yucata´n Block, 619 sample CH0402, 300–302 rotational motions, 4 sample CH0403, 302 Yucata´n Massif, 30 sample CH0407, 302 Yucata´n Platform, 370–371, 733 sample Gt03122, 302–303 Yunguilla Formation, 472 sample Gt0417, 303 San Diego Phyllite, 298–300, 303 Zanjon-Naranjo Fault Zone, 495–496 San Gabriel sequence, 298, 302 ZFT. See zircon fission track (ZFT) southern Guatemala, 298–300 Zihuatanejo terrane, 274 zircon, tourmaline, and rutile (ZTR) minerals, 748 zinc evaporite solution, 672 Palaeogene strata, 750 zircon, 712, 727–728 zirconium Barbados, 756 diagram, 352 cathodoluminescence images, 232, 725 Site 1001, 822 concordia diagrams, 729 ZTR. See zircon, tourmaline, and rutile (ZTR) minerals