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Violence, Identity, and Alterity Post-War Rhetoric of Sri Lanka’S Bodu Bala Sena

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Violence, Identity, and Alterity Post-War Rhetoric of Sri Lanka’S Bodu Bala Sena Violence, Identity, and Alterity Post-War Rhetoric of Sri Lanka’s Bodu Bala Sena By Bruno Marshall Shirley A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Religious Studies Victoria University of Wellington Te Whare Wānanga o te Ūpoko o te Ika a Māui 2015 ABSTRACT The Bodu Bala Sena (Buddhist Strength Army) is a Sinhalese nationalist movement led by Buddhist monks that recently came to international prominence following a 2014 anti-Muslim rally that erupted into deadly violence. The Bodu Bala Sena is set apart from earlier nationalist movements in that its hostility is primarily directed towards Sri Lankan Muslims instead of Tamil separatists. Despite this difference I argue that the Bodu Bala Sena is best considered as a new development in this existing tradition of Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism, and that the re-orientation of the Bodu Bala Sena’s hostility from Tamils to Muslims reveals the extent to which Sinhalese nationalist conceptions of their own identity are built around various interpretations of a particular “identity narrative.” This identity narrative, which has its genesis in anti-colonial interpretations of the Mahavamsa, casts the Sinhalese people as defenders of a sacred island (the dhammadipa) against impious foreign invaders who threaten its unity and sanctity. The case of the Bodu Bala Sena demonstrates both the ongoing relevance of this identity narrative in the post-war era and, importantly, the availability of the narrative for contextual re- interpretation. The identity narrative model, which incorporates both mythic origins and contextual interpretation, helps to bridge some of the existing debates on the nature and origins of Buddhist nationalism in Sri Lanka which tend to favour either one or the other. i namo tassa bhagavato arahato samma sambuddhassa. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge the following people for their support and assistance, without which this thesis would not have been possible: My supervisors, Rick Weiss and Michael Radich, who tirelessly encouraged my improvement, who served as exemplars of what scholarship could be, and to whom I will always be grateful; Aliki Kalliabetsos, the rock upon whom our programme is built; Philip Fountain, for the many enjoyable hours spent discussing pedagogy, pop culture, and everything in between; The faculty members who kindly gave feedback and suggestions on my proposal; Michael K. Jerryman, for generously sharing transcripts of his interviews with leaders of the Bodu Bala Sena, as well as slides from a Bodu Bala Sena presentation he attended; Ben Schonthal, for generously providing material then unpublished, and for patiently answering my various questions; My fellow postgraduates, who provided feedback on my research seminar midway through the project; My officemates, Benno, Emma, Devon, Milan, Sophie S., Thomas, Comfort, Sue Ann, David, Sophie F., and the various cats we adopted, for providing entertainment and support throughout; Finally, my family, Geoff, Carolyn, and Ella, for whom I have nothing but love and gratitude. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... iv List of Illustrations ................................................................................................................................. vi List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ vii Glossary of Pali and Sinhala Terms ............................................................................................... viii 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Limitations of the Study .................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Methodology of the Study ................................................................................................. 6 1.4 Outline of the Study ............................................................................................................. 7 1.5 Three Themes: Violence, Identity, and Alterity ....................................................... 8 1.6 The Bodu Bala Sena: A Brief Overview ...................................................................... 10 1.7 Terminology ......................................................................................................................... 14 2 Narrative, Identity, and Empowerment.............................................................................. 17 2.1 Narrative and Identity ...................................................................................................... 18 2.2 Identity Narratives in Sri Lanka ................................................................................... 21 2.2.1 Pre-Colonial Identity ............................................................................................... 23 2.2.2 The Portuguese and Dutch Narratives ............................................................. 24 2.2.3 The British Narrative .............................................................................................. 28 2.2.4 The Sinhalese Counter-Narrative....................................................................... 31 2.3 Identity and Violence ........................................................................................................ 34 2.4 Conclusions to Chapter Two .......................................................................................... 38 3 Change and Continuity: Buddhist Nationalism in Sri Lanka ...................................... 40 3.1 The Mahavamsa in Nationalist Ideology ................................................................... 41 3.2 Reforming and Restoring the Sasana ......................................................................... 48 3.3 Conclusions to Chapter Three ....................................................................................... 56 4 Constructing The New Threat................................................................................................. 57 4.1 Methodological Framework: Securitisation Analysis.......................................... 58 4.2 Muslims as a Demographic Threat .............................................................................. 63 4.3 Muslims as a Cultural Threat ......................................................................................... 71 4.4 Muslims as an Economic Threat .................................................................................. 80 4.5 Muslims as a Political Threat ......................................................................................... 85 4.6 Conclusions to Chapter Four ......................................................................................... 90 5 Beyond “Cause” or “Epiphenomenon:” A Post-Secularist Approach ...................... 93 5.1 Religion as Cause of or Epiphenomenon to Violence .......................................... 94 5.2 Problematizing Secularist Theories of Religious Violence ................................ 99 iv 5.3 Religion as Identity; Identity as Political ............................................................... 104 5.4 Conclusions to Chapter Five ....................................................................................... 108 6 General Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 110 6.1 Summary of the Argument .......................................................................................... 110 6.2 Avenues for Further Study .......................................................................................... 112 6.2.1 Peacebuilding Movements in the Post-War Era ........................................ 113 6.2.2 Reception of the Bodu Bala Sena by Sinhalese Buddhists .................... 113 6.2.3 The Political Response to Religion in Sri Lanka ........................................ 114 6.2.4 Buddhist Nationalism as a Non-Secular Phenomenon ........................... 114 6.2.5 Religious Authorities in Securitisation Analysis ....................................... 115 6.3 Policy Implications.......................................................................................................... 115 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 119 v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1: Monks in the audience of the Bodu Bala Sena's 2014 conference. ................ 11 Figure 2: From "One Country, One Law," published by Dilanthe Withanage on a now-defunct Bodu Bala Sena website. .......................................................................................... 67 Figure 3: Slide 10 from Withanage's presentation to the ICES. Reproduced
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