Comprehensive Crash Mapping REPORT

Home , Accompong, Barking Lodge, Bournemouth Gardens, Cotterwood, Fletchers Land, Highway 2000

COMPREHENSIVE CRASH MAPPING :

A New Analytical Paradigm for

Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Report Prepared by: Dr. Parris Lyew-Ayee Mona GeoInformatics Institute University of the West Indies, Mona Campus Kingston 7

Report Prepared for: Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company

MAY 2012 Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A INTRODUCTION ...... 1

A.1 The Road ...... 3

A.2 The Vehicle ...... 4

A.3 The Driver ...... 5

A.4 The Passenger ...... 7

A.5 The Pedestrian ...... 7

A.6 The Incidental Road Users ...... 8

A.7 Enforcement ...... 9 B A NEW APPROACH ...... 12

C METHODOLOGY ...... 13

C.1 Data Source and Formatting ...... 13

C.2 Mapping Road Crash Locations ...... 14

C.3 Type of Errors ...... 15

C.4 Causes of Errors ...... 17

C.5 Unfixable Errors ...... 17 D RESULTS ...... 18

D.1 Individual Crash Mapping ...... 18

D.2 Parish Scale...... 25

D.3 Roads ...... 36

D.4 Community Scale ...... 41 E CONCLUSIONS ...... 49

E.1 Identification of Priority Areas ...... 49

E.2 Recommendations for Data Collection and Processing ...... 50

E.3 Development of New Analytical Methodology for Calculating Economic Impact of Crashes .... 51

E.4 New Local Innovations...... 54

E.5 Definition of Stakeholders and how they may use this report ...... 54 F BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 57

G APPENDIX ...... 58

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 – List of fields provided with road crash data ...... 14

Table 2 – Severity of crashes ...... 20

Table 3 – Cause of crashes ...... 20

Table 4 - Top 10 Causes of Crashes in Jamaica ...... 21

Table 5 - Top 10 Causes of Fatal Crashes in Jamaica ...... 21

Table 6 – Types of crashes ...... 22

Table 7 – Crash occurrence during the week ...... 22

Table 8 – Crash occurrence during the day ...... 23

Table 9 – Severity of crashes by parish ...... 26

Table 10 – Types of crashes by parish ...... 28

Table 11 - Types of fatal crashes by parish ...... 28

Table 12 – Cause of crashes by parish ...... 29

Table 13 - Cause of fatal crashes by parish ...... 29

Table 14 - Crash occurrence during the week by parish ...... 31

Table 15 – Fatal crash occurrence during the week by parish ...... 32

Table 16 - Crash occurrence during the day by parish ...... 33

Table 17 – Fatal crash occurrence during the day by parish ...... 34

Table 18 – Top crash-prone road stretches ...... 38

Table 19 - Top fatal crash-prone road stretches ...... 39

Table 20 – Crash profile of notable roads (entire stretches) ...... 40

Table 21 - Top crash-prone communities ...... 42

Table 22 - Top fatal crash-prone communities...... 44

Table 23 – Top communities by type of crash ...... 44

Table 24 - Top communities by severity of crash ...... 45

Table 25 – Top communities with most crashes per year ...... 45

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 – Flow diagram showing the various aspects of the road component...... 4

Figure 2 - Flow diagram showing the various aspects of the vehicle component ...... 5

Figure 3 - Flow diagram showing the various aspects of the driver component ...... 6

Figure 4 - Snapshots of poor pedestrian habits...... 7

Figure 5 - Photographs of incidental road hazards...... 9

Figure 6 - Flow diagram showing the various aspects of the enforcement component ...... 10

Figure 7 - All crashes mapped for the period as individual points ...... 19

Figure 8 – Crashes involving public passenger vehicles ...... 23

Figure 9 - Crashes involving motorcycles ...... 24

Figure 10 – Severity of crashes mapped for the period at parish scale ...... 26

Figure 11 – Types of crashes mapped at parish scale ...... 27

Figure 12 - Causes of fatal crashes mapped at parish scale ...... 30

Figure 13 - Crash occurrence during the week at the parish scale ...... 31

Figure 14 – Crash occurrence during the day at parish scale ...... 33

Figure 15 – Crashes over time at parish scale ...... 35

Figure 16 – Line chart showing crashes over time by parish ...... 35

Figure 17 - Line chart showing fatal crashes over time by parish ...... 36

Figure 18 – Crash distribution by road segments ...... 37

Figure 19 – All crashes mapped for the period at community scale...... 42

Figure 20 - Fatal crashes mapped for the period at community scale ...... 43

Figure 21 - Crash:Poverty ratio at community scale ...... 47

Figure 22 – Crash:Point of Interest (POI) ratio at community scale ...... 48

Figure 23 – Formula for calculating the economic impact of crashes ...... 52

Figure 24 – Flow chart for calculating the economic impact of crashes ...... 53

Executive Summary

Road crashes are complex events with many different dimensions, profiles and causes. There are many different components of road safety, ranging from the physical road itself, the vehicles which drive on the roads, the drivers of the vehicles, their passengers, pedestrians, incidental road users (animals, utility companies, vendors, the general public), and enforcement. There are also environmental circumstances which surround the roads and their stakeholders, including the natural and physical environment, but also the policy and legislative environment. This study evaluated 11 years’ worth of crash data, and introduces a mapping and spatial element to the analysis, which allowed for a greater interrogation and presentation of the data. While general statistics could be generated from the complete pool of data, and individual crashes can be further probed since location characteristics can now be factored in, the analyses in this report focused on those elements of road safety which have a spatial component. As such, individual crashes are associated with roads, communities and parishes, each at different scales, and different implications of their interpretations.

Crashes are more than just fatalities; serious and minor injuries also result from crashes, but property-only damage also amounts to significant economic impacts resulting from crashes. In Jamaica, fatal crashes amount to only 3% of the total number of crashes observed during this study. Tailgating was found to be the leading cause of crashes; speeding was the 5 th leading cause of crashes, though speeding was the leading cause of fatal crashes, but not by much.

There was a very different profile of crashes in urban and rural areas, and between fatal and non-fatal crashes. Half Way Tree had the most crashes, while Runaway Bay had the most fatal crashes. Urban areas had relatively high numbers of crashes, but fewer fatal crashes, which tended to occur on major inter-urban highways in rural Jamaica. There tended to be no association between crashes and poverty or population, but rather an association with areas with a high number of activity centres where people would concentrate and serve as the foci of movement, both vehicular and pedestrian.

All of this will inform future road safety policy developments, based on 11 years’ worth of detailed crash analyses at different scales. Law enforcement will be better informed as to how and where to prosecute certain types of road safety violations. It will also benefit the private sector, where general insurers can better calculate their underwriting premiums and analytics exercises, while general businesses can enhance their road safety corporate social responsibility programmes by knowing where to place and target public education messages. The general public, for its part, will be better informed as to the realities of driving in Jamaica, and be better able to adjust to these realities.

Acknowledgments

This report is the result of intensive mapping of more than 70,000 crash data points over 20 months, requiring the efforts of many persons and organizations, who are acknowledged here.

We would like to express our sincere appreciation to the Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company for funding this project, and providing the opportunities to disseminate its findings. We also thank related parties at the Jamaica Automobile Association and FIA Foundation, who have shown an active interest not just in this research, but also in taking these findings and applying them.

We recognize the integral contributions of the Road Safety Unit in providing us with the data that we analyzed here, particularly its Director, Kenute Hare. We also thank the National Road Safety Council, particularly its Vice Chairman Dr. Lucien Jones, and its Managing Director Paula Fletcher.

Finally, we recognize the crucial role of the staff of the Mona GeoInformatics Institute in carrying out the mapping itself, especially Projects Manager Lisa-Gaye Greene, and her technical staff – Luke Buchanan, Walter Williams, Denease Tomlinson, Jennilyn Burrell, Shawna Gray and Tamika Wright. We would also like to recognize Jean-Mark Wright for assisting in the calculation of the cost equation for determining the economic impact of crashes.

A INTRODUCTION

Road safety has always been a complex matter to study, evoking many emotional responses, policy demands, and economic implications. The many different components of road safety include the road itself – its design, material construction, markings, etc. – as well as the more familiar components of the vehicle, drivers, passengers, pedestrians and other elements (stray animals, weather, etc.). Crashes have domino effects across economic and social spectra, with continuous efforts of prevention and mitigation competing against indiscipline and misfortune. The result of all of this is a situation with many dimensions, all requiring proper evaluation and analysis in order to inform action in the form of policies and actions on the part of governments, businesses, and individuals.

Road safety is an international problem, and it is important to place this in an international context, both in terms of the statistics and figures of road safety globally, as well as ways road safety is studied and advances in technologies to ensure road safety.

Globally, nearly 1 million people die each year in crashes, with many more being seriously injured. Eastern European countries account for the most fatalities per 1 million population, led by Latvia, with more than 200 fatalities per 1 million people; Jamaica has roughly 110 fatalities per 1 million people. Invariably, comparisons lead to the United States, the world’s largest automobile market and with the largest number of road users in the world. In 2010, there were nearly 33,000 road fatalities in the US (the US averaged just over 130 fatalities per 1 million people between 2005 and 2010), with drunk driving being the largest contributor, followed closely by speeding. Distracted driving, however, is increasing in its frequency, and is touted as the next big safety threat (Tinson et al., 2011). Car crashes are the fourth largest cause of death in the US, after heart disease, lung cancer and diabetes.

Innovations have emerged, ranging from seat belts (first made mandatory by law in 1984) to air bags (introduced in 1973) and anti-lock braking systems (introduced in 1978), incorporating both technology and legislation to reduce crashes and improve road safety. However, the US Department of Transportation commented that “the past 50 years have been about surviving vehicle crashes; the next 50 years will be about preventing them.” As such, new innovations have developed that will altogether prevent crashes from occurring in the first place, and include systems such as V2V or V2X – vehicle-to-vehicle communication systems – which provide, among other things, collision avoidance systems using radar, blind spot detection systems (avoiding side-swipes - 634,000 crashes of this type occur every year in the US), and

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 1 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica advance warning of vehicles braking ahead (preventing rear-end crashes – there are, on average, 1.6 million rear-end crashes in the US each year, and this is the most common crash type in Jamaica). These would prevent many of the common crashes experienced on Jamaican roads, and would be welcome additions if and when they are phased in to the local market.

The effectiveness of these new innovations, coupled with proper enforcement and driver behaviour, would reduce the overall number of crashes, in the same way the introduction of safety technologies and policies to reduce fatalities have worked in the US, which had 7.2 fatalities per 100 million miles travelled in 1950, and whose statistic now stands at 1.1 fatalities per 100 million miles travelled in 2010, and a reduction in overall fatalities from 33,186 in 1950 (and a peak of 54,589 in 1972) to 32,885 in 2010.

These accomplishments were only possible through dedicated research and the collection and analyses of reams of data, by government officials and the private sector and advocacy groups alike. Policymakers relied on data compiled by different agencies to decide how to enact laws and recommendations, while car manufacturers devised ways to make their vehicles safer, and consumer electronics manufacturers developed new systems to reduce driver distractions (hands-free devices and voice-activated systems). All required a deeper understanding than simple crash statistics, looking at detailed crash profiles, ranging from locations to environmental situations, to time of day and driver conditions.

Jamaica’s National Road Safety Policy (National Road Safety Council, 2004) recognizes the complex and multi-disciplinary focus of road safety, where the issue of road safety is beyond fatalities, and beyond any single government ministry, where matters of road safety affect transport infrastructure, law enforcement, the health services, and business productivity alike. Critically, they advocate a multi-sectoral approach to both defining and addressing the problem of road safety in Jamaica, crystallized around the five Es strategy for the reduction and prevention of crashes:

1. Engineering and Traffic Environment

2. Education and Information

3. Enforcement and Legislation

4. Emergency Response

5. Evaluation and Comprehensive Actions

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These all require fundamental information to drive their actions, and while the policy documents heavily utilize descriptive statistics, this report introduces spatial mapping and analyses to further refine the policy discussions.

Any discussion of road safety invariably requires a proper definition of the different components, particularly to avoid confusion. The general public, often fed by the media, typically associates road crashes with road fatalities, and assumes that these are caused by speeding. In response, policy mechanisms have focused on only a small component of the overall issue, such as reductions in fatalities, stopping speeding, etc. While these are undoubtedly important, there are many more prevalent components to road safety that have been heretofore under-represented. Victims of crashes who are seriously maimed and require lifetime physical therapy and living aids are not considered if victims are equated to fatalities. Similarly, in crashes where there are no injuries, there are still economic costs from motor vehicular and infrastructural repairs. And there are also indirect and consequential impacts of crashes, when damaged or destroyed road infrastructure impairs later drivers, placing them at higher risk.

There are at least seven different components when considering road safety:

A . 1 T h e R o a d

No discussion on road safety can remove the physical road itself from the equation. Many different types of roads exist, depending on the type of traffic they are designed to carry, and, consequently, are composed of different materials and designs. When roads carry out the functions for which they were designed, safety conditions are optimal. However, as roads deteriorate due to a lack of maintenance and repair, or are used contrary to their design function, they become hazards unless the situation is improved through repair or upgrade works. Potholes plague many Jamaican roads, and directly or indirectly contribute to compromised driving conditions. Where road materials are not suitable to environmental conditions, they may become too slick and cause skidding. When road designs do not allow for proper camber on corners, or the adequate runoff of water, safety is also compromised. Finally, signage and painting of roads is absolutely critical to prevent improper changing of lanes, as well as to guide drivers appropriately.

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Figure 1 – Flow diagram showing the various aspects of the road component

A . 2 The Vehicle

As mentioned earlier, the evolution of the motor vehicle over the past few decades has seen some remarkable improvements in technology, especially those aimed at protecting drivers and passengers. Seat belts, air bags and anti-lock braking systems are a few important innovations that have become almost standard in any new automobile. With the development of V2V/V2X systems, cars will be able to help prevent crashes from occurring in the first place.

But there is a wide variety of motor vehicles on the road, ranging from the new models with these technologies, to older makes. Even new models themselves may not be in optimum condition if they are not properly serviced and well-maintained. And there is a wide variety of vehicle body types, ranging from sedans, wagons and hatchbacks, to SUVs and light trucks, to

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 4 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica heavy trucks and buses. Each of these have different handling capabilities and thresholds, not to mention different construction (body-on-frame vs monocoque/unibody) and materials (steel, aluminium, fibreglass) in their compositions.

Figure 2 - Flow diagram showing the various aspects of the vehicle component

A . 3 The Driver

Drivers, like vehicles, vary widely; similar types of drivers in different vehicles, and different types of drivers in similar vehicles also vary. Drivers may be young or old, male or female, daring or conservative. However, in distilling the driver-related aspects of the road safety data assessed in this study, there are two main types of drivers who cause crashes: the primary

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 5 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica driver or another driver in another vehicle. For both cases, there are three main types of causes: recklessness, which includes speeding and improper turning and overtaking; distraction, which includes using a cellular phone (talking, reading or texting), talking to or otherwise distracted by passengers, or handling cargo while driving; and impairment, which includes driving while intoxicated or under the influence of drugs, or fatigued. However, other drivers create hazardous situations when, because of similar factors, they cause other drivers to crash, but are not themselves affected. In addition to recklessness, distraction or impairment on the part of the other driver, they may also deliberately or accidentally blind other drivers through headlight glare, or may stop and/or park without consideration for other road users, and create further hazards.

Figure 3 - Flow diagram showing the various aspects of the driver component

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A . 4 The Passenger

Passengers may themselves create hazards. In addition to distracting drivers, some passengers demand to be picked up or dropped off randomly, and may not wear seat belts, nor wear helmets as passengers on motorbikes. This is important as they are as much an integral component of road safety, and themselves form a significant portion of crash victims, either injured or killed on the roads.

A . 5 The Pedestrian

Pedestrians present unique problems in road safety. Pedestrians may be people who frequently walk along the same roads every day and are familiar with the environment, or people who are new to the location. They may walk alone or in groups, where behavioural dynamics change. Sidewalks, which are purpose-built for pedestrian traffic, may or may not exist, or may be obstructed. Designated road crossings and even overhead bridges are constructed with pedestrian safety in mind. However, in many cases, poor pedestrian habits result in crashes, which may or may not impact the pedestrians themselves (for example, when a driver swerves to avoid a pedestrian in the road). Public education of proper road use by pedestrians is of critical importance.

Figure 4 - Snapshots of poor pedestrian habits. Photo a shows a woman walking in the road against traffic, where a sidewalk is provided, and distracted by using a cellular phone. Photo b shows pedestrians crossing a fixed barrier across Highway 2000. Photo c shows school children walking four abreast in the road, where a sidewalk is available.

(a) (b)

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(c)

A . 6 The Incidental Road Users

Other road stakeholders include utility companies, which are frequently accused of contributing to deteriorating road conditions. However, stray animals present an ever-present danger, as does the general public, when they discard garbage in the streets; solid waste may accumulate and cause driving hazards, or create secondary hazards when they block drains and cause road flooding. Street and sidewalk vendors also create dangers when they block sidewalks, forcing pedestrians to walk in to the street or cause drivers to stop to make enquiries or purchases. Street vendors also physically place themselves in the roadway, and become another road obstacle drivers need to be aware of. It is important that these elements (stray animals and vendors) were specifically mentioned in the National Road Safety Policy document, but utility companies were not mentioned.

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(a) (b)

Figure 5 - Photographs of incidental road hazards. Photo a shows solid waste piled up on a roadside. Photo b shows stray animals along a road. Photo c shows street vendors at a busy intersection. Photo d shows recently completed utility repairs but un-restored road surface.

A . 7 Enforcement

Perhaps the most controversial of all road safety discussions surrounds enforcement matters. Like the road, vehicles and drivers, there are many components of enforcement, some of which directly involve those variables themselves. The physical roads themselves require monitoring and enforcement, to ensure construction standards are kept in terms of quality control and proper execution of road construction and maintenance contracts. Overloading is a perennial problem, and the prevention of overloading of vehicles is important.

Vehicle inspection and road worthiness should be paramount when licensing vehicles, fully taking into consideration the wide variety of vehicles on the market. A one-size-fits-all template for inspecting vehicles should not be carried out, and regulators need to keep abreast of developments in motor vehicle technologies; new cars may not need inspection at the same frequencies as older cars. Similarly, vehicle importation controls are important, especially with

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 9 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica respect to used cars imported from overseas, which may not be adequately designed for the physical conditions of Jamaica.

Driver enforcement is critical, and while all drivers need to be licensed and insured, drivers (who account for the vast majority of crashes) should be identified and prosecuted for traffic violations, not just crashes. These would serve as deterrents against escalation, where drivers who routinely violate traffic regulations would not escalate to a crash.

The National Road Safety Policy document advocates “sensible speed limits,” something which is strongly echoed here. Arbitrary (and anachronistic) speed limits routinely define a 50 km/h zone as any “built-up area,” which results in major thoroughfares such as Hope Road or Constant Spring Road having the same speed limit as Lydia Drive, Grosvenor Terrace or Begonia Drive. This defeats the design requirements of the major roads, to effectively ensure proper traffic flows, given increases in the number of motor vehicles on Jamaican roads. Where speeding is not the leading cause of crashes, as will be examined in detail later, the emphasis on speed limits will not address the real problems, especially when tailgating and overtaking, which are more frequently causes of crashes than speeding, can technically occur without speeding, and often result from reckless driver behaviour stemming from frustrations with traffic flows.

Figure 6 - Flow diagram showing the various aspects of the enforcement component

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All form different stakeholders in any road safety discussion, which would include indirect road users, such as:

1. Traffic engineers and planners

2. Insurance underwriters and claims agents

3. Motor adjustors

4. Automobile service providers

5. Schools and churches

6. Media

7. Politicians

This report acknowledges these complexities when presenting the results of this analysis in order to give context to the findings and recommendations. While the report primarily focuses on the spatial domain, non-spatial elements serve as the real causes of crashes; the spatial realm is only the dimension in which the crash occurs.

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B A NEW APPROACH

This report introduces into the national context for the first time the concept of comprehensive crash mapping, where every crash reported between January 2000 and December 2010, more than 70,000, was mapped and analyzed individually or collectively, by road segment or community, and by the different causes and conditions of the crash. Understanding the spatial distribution of crashes is critical in order to understand the variations in environmental, social and infrastructural conditions and contexts that surround each crash, in order to effect a proper and specific response and strategies to address the problem. Deeper analyses also revealed spatial differences between types and causes of crashes. The integration of secondary data – road data, community information, etc. – also brought greater context to the road safety discussion, where the wider use of this data extends beyond road policies and their implementation, but to the general insurance and automotive sectors, which may use this information for their own internal business processes and marketing, as well as to provide improved and better informed services and prices to customers.

Spatial relationships are critical in determining fundamental analyses such as crashes, whose locations are strongly influenced by spatial circumstances. Most crash analyses focus on statistical relationships and patterns, but these may or may not factor in the spatial realm; the only spatial factor commonly used is when data are filtered by parish. However, different scales exist, which reveal different patterns, and from that, explanations. Parishes may be scaled down to communities, while individual crashes can be analyzed by road sections, or individually on their own merits. It would be from these multi-scale and multi-dimensional analyses that meaningful results can emerge.

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C METHODOLOGY

The Road Safety Unit (RSU), along with the MGI, recognized the need to have road crash locations analyzed spatially and the findings used to influence road safety policies. In September 2010, MGI embarked on a project that sought to present an evidence-based approach to tackling the road crash problem in Jamaica. This project included the mapping of approximately 79,000 road traffic crashes that occurred between 2000 and 2010 and also the spatial analysis of the data at different scales and dimensions. Dimensions such as space, time, typologies and the different components and stakeholders of road safety issues were all factored into the analyses.

While conducting this project, MGI encountered several challenges that impeded the mapping of the crash locations and subsequently influenced the comprehensiveness of the data that was analyzed. The objective of this section is to outline the mapping challenges that were experienced and to later present recommendations on how to best improve efficiencies related to data collation and mapping.

C . 1 Data Source and Formatting

Road crash data is originally collected and recorded by the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF) and later collated by the Road Safety Unit (RSU). The RSU stores this data in Microsoft Access file format. In order for the data to be compatible with the GIS software used by MGI, the data was converted to Microsoft Excel file format.

The data contained codes, for example, the field ‘Day of Week,’ “1” is used to represent Sunday, “2” for Monday, and so on. MGI removed the numerous codes used and replaced them with their actual values. See Table 1 for the list of fields provided in the crash data.

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Table 1 – List of fields provided with road crash data Number of vehicles Fuel spillage Number of casualties Hit and run Division Number Fire resulted Station Number Stolen vehicle Accident Number Private property damaged Highest Severity Weather Investigator Number Road surface Rank Road markings Name Light conditions Date Road character Year Type of Junction Time Pedestrian crossing Day Of Week Control Accident place Type of other location Street name Speed limit at accident site Accident type Area Main code Holiday Main code summary Description of accident Tourist involved

C . 2 Mapping Road Crash Locations

The RSU provided MGI with a list of 79,113 road crashes for the period 2000–2010. With the use of ArcGIS, the crash locations were mapped in-house according to their reported locations, as found in the field ‘Accident Place’ . A total of 70,934 crashes have been mapped. The mapping of these locations was facilitated by using MGI’s spatial base features, such as roads, communities, points of interest and settlements data. Each crash location was assigned an ‘Accident key’ which serves as a unique number for each crash location. This number was attached to each crash location that was mapped. At the end of the mapping process, each crash is represented spatially in a shapefile and its relevant information (fields) tagged. The “Description of accident” field was crucial in decoding location details in circumstances when the primary location descriptor “Accident Place” was vague or inadequate.

It was not possible to GPS-locate crash locations, especially for crashes that occurred in the distant past.

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C . 3 Type of Errors

It is anticipated that the findings from the spatial analysis component of this project will influence the type of campaigns and policies that are required to tackle Jamaica’s road crash problem. Successful analysis is dependent on the input of accurate and comprehensive data. The recording, collation, formatting and mapping of the crash data is therefore very important. Inefficiencies in either task may cause errors in the final analyses. MGI had the task of mapping crash data, a process which was hampered by several issues, which resulted in 8,179 (10%) crashes remaining unmapped.

The inability to decipher the precise locations of some crashes was due to the following:

1. vague crash location information 2. misspelt crash location information 3. unclear crash location descriptions 4. incorrect and missing crash information 5. data duplication

C .3.1 Vague crash location information

Vague locations refer to instances where insufficient information was provided in order for one to know exactly where to map the crash location, for example: ‘Along Toll Gate Main Road’ and ‘Along Old Harbour Main Road.’ There were many references made to roads that are very long, with no mention of a landmark, and so one was unable to pinpoint where on that road the crash occurred. As a result many crashes were not mapped. Examples of precise crash locations that were found in the data include: ‘Hagley Park Road and Omara Road intersection,’ ‘AGR Byfield Highway in the vicinity of Cool Oasis gas station’ and ‘Along Walkerswood Main Road about 100m north of Smith’s Bar.’ In most cases, MGI was able to utilize its points of interest database to identify these locations.

C .3. 2 Misspelt crash location information

Instances of misspellings in the crash location information resulted in several crashes not being mapped or more time taken to map crashes as these locations had to be confirmed by reading the description of the accident. Some examples of misspellings include: ‘Bogle Road’ for Bogue

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Road and ‘Eltham Park Road’ for Waltham Park Road. It is important that data is recorded accurately as this can affect the accuracy of the data that is mapped and later analyzed. In these cases, spelling mistakes were more veiled than obvious errors (‘Hoep Road’ instead of Hope Road, for instance), and what is assumed to be a simple typographical error may in fact be legitimate. As such, referencing the details of the crash sufficed, as well as cross-referencing the location information with MGI’s base dataset, or the crash database’s “Parish” field, which would confirm a location’s details.

C .3.3 Unclear crash location descriptions

Like vague addresses, unclear addresses do not provide sufficient information for a crash location to be deciphered. Locations in this error category tend to include some detail as to where the crash would have occurred along a roadway. However, oftentimes this detail is not unique or known to be an official name or reference to a place and as a result the crash is not mapped. Some examples of unclear locations include: ‘Along Top Grove Place near iron gate,’ ‘Grosvenor Heights in deep corner’ and ‘Along Mineral Heights Boulevard in vicinity of Rasta Man corner.’ These types of errors should include where possible more distinguishable features such as a popular landmark or building. In some cases, a location may be mapped by placing the crash semi-arbitrarily along a road stretch. This is possible when a road name is given, but little else to mark it more definitively.

C .3. 4 Incorrect and missing crash information

Table 1 lists the various fields that accompany each crash location. The spatial analysis of the data looked at road crash distribution across Jamaica at different scales (parish, community and road segment). Crash locations were also analyzed based on various factors, such as type of crash, cause of crash, number of fatalities and even temporal analysis (day of week, time of day). It is therefore important that the additional information for each crash is present and accurate as this will influence the integrity of the analyses conducted. Instances of errors in the data were seen in the date, where crashes were recorded as occurring before year 2000 and after 2010, for example 1900, 2025. There were also cases where the data recorded was not consistent, for example, a crash was recorded as occurring in the parish of Trelawny, but the crash address provided was found in Kingston only. Also, there were several crashes that did not have all the required information in the fields, for example, the police station that the crash was reported at

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 16 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica and the type of crash that occurred. These anomalies rarely affected the ability to map a crash location, but greatly affected subsequent analyses, when anachronisms and strange locations appeared contrary to a dominant pattern being observed.

C . 4 Causes of Errors

In many instances, vague and unclear crash location information is caused by not recording specific or enough information about the crash location. This was noticed primarily in the rural areas across Jamaica. In most cases, though, the main error was in the mode of data collection and entry, which did not focus on the value of the data, nor in how it would be used post-entry for analyses and policy development. In many cases, the spatial aspects of the data were not realized, with more emphasis made on coding crash typologies, rather than location information.

C . 5 Unfixable Errors

In urban areas where most roads have formal names and where landmarks are present, it is usually possible to record the relevant location information. However, in rural areas it is not uncommon to have less detailed location information recorded as many roads are not formally named and in some places prominent landmarks do not exist.

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 17 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

D R E S U L T S

Figure 7 shows all crashes mapped for the period as individual points, distributed across Jamaica. Main arterial roadways are obvious, and show the greatest concentrations of crashes. Areas of Jamaica poorly served by roadways consequently have no or few crashes. Within the city of Kingston, where almost the entire city is served by roads, crashes are pervasive, except in the large urban properties of Up Park Camp, King’s House/Jamaica House, Hope Gardens, and the University of the West Indies’ Mona campus. Crashes show a repeating and consistent pattern over time and space; areas that have had crashes tend to experience more crashes. Main roads, which typically handle more traffic than other roads, have the highest frequency of crashes, and there is no main road in Jamaica that has not had at least one crash over the period. This will be examined in more detail later.

D . 1 Individual Crash Mapping

This section presents the results of individual crash mapping, and is not much different from analysis of the original database itself, except that each record in that database now has a mapped element associated with it. Subsequent sections incorporate more direct spatial components, but utilize the same factors initially reviewed here.

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 18 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Figure 7 - All crashes mapped for the period as individual points

D . 1. 1 Crash RESULT

Four main categories of crash results are recorded, arranged according to severity of the crash, where the most serious result is recorded (a crash that resulted in a fatality and serious injury is reported only as a fatal crash). Fatal crashes account for just over 3% of all crashes reported (and 3,465 fatalities), while property damage-only crashes accounted for the bulk of crashes, with over 51,000, or nearly 73% of crashes. This is significant, with nearly 3 in every 4 crashes resulting in no injuries. Road safety policies designed to prevent fatalities or injuries miss the reality that the bulk of crashes do not result in these occurring. Property damage-only crashes, however, present other risks, mostly economic, as general insurers would typically have to cover claims for damaged motor vehicles, etc., but there are also indirect impacts. Crashes which damage street signs, utility poles or walls create security challenges to other road users and non-road users alike.

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 19 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Table 2 – Severity of crashes Crash Severity Frequency % Fatal Accident 2348 3.31 Serious Accident 7276 10.27 Minor Accident 9792 13.82 Property Damage Only 51446 72.62

D . 1. 2 Crash CAUSE

The vast majority of crashes are directly caused by drivers, with more than 89% of crashes attributed to this. Other drivers may also cause crashes, where a crash may result from another driver’s actions, and not directly from the primary driver. Pedestrians cause the next most number of crashes, with over 3,000, or over 4%, caused directly by pedestrian behaviour (and not by a driver ploughing into an innocent pedestrian).

Table 3 – Cause of crashes Cause of Crash Frequency % Driver - OTHER 255 0.36 Driver - OWN 63189 89.20 Environmental 683 0.96 Other/Not Known 245 0.35 Passenger 1103 1.56 Pedestrian/Cyclist 3038 4.29 Road 1471 2.08 Vehicle - OWN 950 1.34

Ninety-eight different causes of crashes were reviewed (shown in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2), and reveal significant variations in causes of crashes, ranging from driver recklessness (tailgating, overtaking, speeding, etc.), to distraction (passengers, cellular phone use, cargo, etc.), and impairment (drugs, alcohol, fatigue).

In breaking down the causes of crashes, particularly driver-related crashes, tailgating is the leading cause, accounting for nearly 20% of crashes. Like crash results, only the most serious reason for a crash is recorded here; overtaking while speeding would be reported as speeding. Speeding is the fifth leading cause of crashes, at just under 6%. As such, tailgating, failing to stay within the driving lane (9.7%), overtaking (6.6%), and improper crossing at junctions (6.58%), all occurred without driver speeding, and accounted for over 30,000 crashes over the

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 20 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica period. Focusing only on speeding will not resolve other factors resulting in crashes occurring on Jamaican roads. Speeding, however, is the leading cause of fatalities on the roads for the period, accounting for nearly 23% of fatal crashes, though it is by no means the only or singularly dominant cause for fatal crashes.

Other results of note include alcohol (#63 – 35 crashes/0.05%), fatigue (#30 – 268 crashes/0.38%), and cellular phones (#83 – 6 crashes/0.01%). There is a category reported as “inattention/diverted attention”, with 1,557 crashes, or 2.2% at #13, but this may or may not include alcohol or cellular phone usage as contributing causes. At any rate, this component is not a spatial element, and is secondary to the primary objectives of this report.

Table 4 - Top 10 Causes of Crashes in Jamaica Cause Breakout Frequency % Following too closely behind another vehicle 14126 19.94 Failing to keep to the near side or to the proper traffic lane 6884 9.72 Overtaking improperly on off side 4676 6.60 Crossing without due care at road junction 4661 6.58 Proceeding at excessive speed with no regard to conditions 4021 5.68 Swerving 3906 5.51 Failing to comply with traffic signs or signals 3710 5.24 Turning to the right without due care 3613 5.10 Changing from one traffic lane to another without due care 2487 3.51 Reverse negligently 2358 3.33

Table 5 - Top 10 Causes of Fatal Crashes in Jamaica Cause Breakout Frequency % Proceeding at excessive speed with no regard to conditions 533 22.76 Pedestrian stepping/walking/running/verging into the road off footpath 217 9.27 Failing to keep to the near side or to the proper traffic lane 187 7.98 Overtaking improperly on off side 173 7.39 Losing control 163 6.96 Pedestrian crossing road from nearside 127 5.42 Swerving 120 5.12 Crossing without due care at road junction 63 2.69 Pedestrian crossing road off nearside 51 2.18 Failing to comply with traffic signs or signals 45 1.92

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 21 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

D . 1. 3 Crash PROFILE

Perhaps unsurprisingly, given that tailgating is a leading cause of crashes, rear-end accidents are the most common crash type, with nearly 25%, or over 17,000 crashes, for the period. “Other Accidents” include side-swiping and “T-Bone” crashes, and amount to just over 20% of crashes. Head-on and crossing crashes are the only other crash types that account for more than 10% of the crash total.

Table 6 – Types of crashes Crash Type Frequency % Bicycle Accident 1460 2.06 Crossing Accident 7977 11.26 Head On Accident 8719 12.31 Other Accident 14473 20.43 Overtaking Accident 5318 7.51 Pedestrian Accident 4705 6.64 Rear End Accident 17618 24.87 Single Accident 4849 6.84 Turning Accident 5449 7.69

D . 1. 4 Day of Week of Crash

Crashes are fairly uniformly distributed throughout the week and not, as commonly believed, more likely on weekends. While Friday has the highest percentage of crashes, with 16.44%, Monday is the next-most common day, with 16.1%. Sunday has the lowest percentage, but not by much, with 9.5%.

Table 7 – Crash occurrence during the week Day of Week Frequency % Sunday 6731 9.50 Monday 11426 16.13 Tuesday 10982 15.50 Wednesday 10314 14.56 Thursday 10272 14.50 Friday 11646 16.44 Saturday 9416 13.29

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 22 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

D . 1. 5 Time of Day of Crash

Crashes overwhelmingly occur in the daytime, when more people are on the road, thereby statistically increasing the probability of a crash. Nearly 74% of crashes occur in the daytime, with the next-most occurring at night in areas lit by streetlights (10.75%). In other words, nearly 85% of crashes occur when natural or artificial illumination is available.

Table 8 – Crash occurrence during the day Time of Day Frequency % Darkness 6182 8.73 Dawn 1066 1.50 Daylight 52262 73.77 Dusk 2788 3.94 Night/Lit 7616 10.75 Not Known 990 1.40 Other 17 0.02

D . 1. 6 PPV-Involved Crashes

Figure 8 – Crashes involving public passenger vehicles

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Public passenger vehicles form an important component of road users, and are frequently blamed, fairly or not, for many of the road safety problems faced on Jamaican roads. A total of 5,839 crashes involved PPVs – taxis or buses – either caused by these, or as secondary victims. This amounted to roughly 8% of the total crashes for the period. Of this number, 253 (4%) were fatal crashes, resulting in 374 deaths.

Most of these are concentrated in the urban centres of Jamaica, but also along the major inter- urban corridors. The PPV-involved crash pattern is broadly similar to the overall island crash profile. The vast majority of PPV-involved crashes were caused by the primary driver, amounting to over 86% of total PPV crashes, with the majority being tailgating, followed by overtaking – similar to the national profile.

D . 1. 7 Motorcycle-Involved Crashes

Figure 9 - Crashes involving motorcycles

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 24 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Motorcycle drivers and passengers are a particularly vulnerable group of road users, and are also highlighted in this section. A total of 476 crashes over the period involved motorcycles, whether caused by their drivers or passengers, or as secondary victims; 46 of these were fatal. Nearly 10% of all motorcycle crashes are fatal, higher than the total fatal crash percentage, as well as the fatal crash percentage for PPVs.

Overwhelmingly, the concentration of motorcycle crashes is in Kingston and St Andrew, and the vast majority of crashes were caused by primary driver error, particularly overtaking and improper turning; riding without headlights was also frequently reported.

D . 2 Parish Scale

Crashes can be analyzed by parish in order to give a different perspective on the crash database, and introducing the first of three spatial perspectives used in this analysis. National-scale analyses distort local realities, and do not give practical data for addressing the crash problems that affect individual parishes. Parishes are locally administered by parish councils, and understanding the nature of crashes at parish scales would help these councils operate more effectively. This is important since parish councils receive over 60% of the government’s road maintenance budget, and includes measures aimed at improving road safety. Further, most police administrative divisions cover entire parishes (only the Kingston and St Andrew region is divided into six divisions). Since police have a very strong enforcement role in road safety, this level of analyses would also be beneficial to them.

D . 2. 1 Crash RESULT

As with the national profile, the parish profile of crash results is similar for all parishes, with frequencies consistently reducing from the most common crash result – property-only damage – to the most serious – fatalities.

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 25 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Figure 10 – Severity of crashes mapped for the period at parish scale

Table 9 – Severity of crashes by parish Fatal Minor Property Damage Serious Grand Parish Accident Accident Only Accident Total Clarendon 204 606 1592 402 2804 Hanover 147 110 300 316 873 Kingston 113 718 4992 676 6499 Manchester 161 629 2550 299 3639 Portland 66 332 1202 316 1916 St. Andrew 302 2509 23282 1192 27285 St. Ann 266 922 5693 1263 8144 St. Catherine 355 1562 4927 1066 7910 St. Elizabeth 117 270 824 211 1422 St. James 188 634 1947 364 3133 St. Mary 82 721 2195 393 3391 St. Thomas 52 213 546 165 976 Trelawny 95 154 501 205 955 Westmoreland 193 378 754 383 1708

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 26 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

D . 2. 2 Crash PROFILE

The profiles of crashes vary between parishes. In St Andrew, rear-end collisions account for the bulk of crashes, followed by other crashes and crossing crashes. In St Ann, however, the profile is different, with head-on collisions being the most frequent, followed by other crashes and rear- ending. Turning crashes are more frequent in St Andrew than in St Catherine, while other parishes have a more even spread across different profiles.

Figure 11 – Types of crashes mapped at parish scale

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 27 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Table 10 – Types of crashes by parish Bicycle Crossing Head On Other Overtaking Pedestrian Rear End Single Turning Grand Parish Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Total Clarendon 116 206 438 453 251 279 595 330 131 2799 Hanover 43 34 195 143 51 140 88 146 28 868 Kingston 115 1218 143 1788 439 522 1375 208 602 6410 Manchester 39 416 612 591 255 250 867 333 267 3630 Portland 106 39 592 263 102 215 281 261 54 1913 St. Andrew 389 3878 1524 6285 2203 1219 8236 601 2826 27161 St. Ann 95 484 2070 1469 527 415 1576 1064 424 8124 St. Catherine 257 1033 523 1465 633 641 2273 512 569 7906 St. Elizabeth 38 91 366 192 84 116 289 171 67 1414 St. James 37 336 423 646 198 284 776 193 230 3123 St. Mary 74 58 1121 444 278 241 612 480 72 3380 St. Thomas 39 35 190 172 97 87 184 125 44 973 Trelawny 20 58 182 190 64 77 135 189 32 947 Westmoreland 88 89 312 319 120 206 278 202 99 1713

D.2.2.1 Fatalities Table 11 - Types of fatal crashes by parish Bicycle Crossing Head On Other Overtaking Pedestrian Rear End Single Turning Grand Parish Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Accident Total Clarendon 30 7 39 10 5 75 4 31 3 204 Hanover 12 0 32 18 7 37 6 32 2 146 Kingston 8 8 9 10 5 45 5 18 5 113 Manchester 5 4 23 14 14 58 5 38 0 161 Portland 8 0 7 4 0 27 2 17 1 66 St. Andrew 30 16 19 18 11 152 10 28 18 302 St. Ann 19 0 60 18 19 78 4 67 1 266 St. Catherine 46 13 35 31 16 152 7 47 7 354 St. Elizabeth 15 0 25 8 3 34 4 27 1 117 St. James 9 6 45 7 6 64 4 43 4 188 St. Mary 6 2 11 1 1 37 1 21 2 82 St. Thomas 6 1 12 4 3 11 2 12 1 52 Trelawny 2 3 20 9 6 17 3 29 2 91 Westmoreland 32 4 24 25 10 57 5 30 6 193

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D . 2. 3 Crash CAUSE Direct driver-caused crashes account for the bulk of crashes across all parishes, as is the case with the national profile.

Table 12 – Cause of crashes by parish Driver Driver Other/Not Pedestrian/ Vehicle Grand Parish Environmental Passenger Road OTHER OWN Known Cyclist OWN Total Clarendon 19 2344 109 2 35 179 47 71 2806 Hanover 5 711 17 0 8 93 16 23 873 Kingston 22 5861 17 15 151 325 45 67 6503 Manchester 20 3101 14 13 68 150 195 87 3648 Portland 18 1601 36 7 35 126 46 48 1917 St. Andrew 74 25395 53 124 377 921 148 223 27315 St. Ann 25 6871 121 23 163 269 504 172 8148 St. Catherine 10 7176 80 5 122 371 78 72 7914 St. Elizabeth 12 1163 64 6 23 78 54 26 1426 St. James 7 2799 10 5 48 172 49 44 3134 St. Mary 27 2887 65 13 32 124 190 56 3394 St. Thomas 8 819 51 3 11 47 17 20 976 Trelawny 4 839 9 3 8 41 36 15 955 Westmoreland 3 1441 32 23 21 133 41 24 1718

D.2.3.1 Fatalities Table 13 - Cause of fatal crashes by parish Driver Driver Other/Not Pedestrian/ Vehicle Grand Parish Environmental Passenger Road OTHER OWN Known Cyclist OWN Total Clarendon 2 142 2 0 4 49 0 5 204 Hanover 0 109 1 0 1 24 5 7 147 Kingston 0 78 0 0 0 32 1 2 113 Manchester 2 99 0 0 1 46 5 8 161 Portland 0 43 1 0 4 13 0 5 66 St. Andrew 3 182 1 3 3 105 1 4 302 St. Ann 0 192 0 2 2 54 7 9 266 St. Catherine 0 231 2 0 2 114 0 6 355 St. Elizabeth 0 85 0 0 2 26 1 3 117 St. James 1 139 1 0 1 42 0 4 188 St. Mary 2 54 0 1 0 21 2 2 82 St. Thomas 1 41 1 0 0 7 0 2 52 Trelawny 0 82 0 0 1 9 1 2 95 Westmoreland 0 148 3 2 2 32 4 2 193

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 29 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

When primary driver-caused crashes are removed from the analyses, pedestrian-caused crashes dominate, being the leading cause of crashes in 13 parishes; only St Ann has road conditions being the dominant non-driver factor for crashes. However, the profiles of individual parishes vary. St Mary and Manchester have high proportions of road-caused crashes, while Kingston, St Andrew and St Catherine have relatively higher proportions of passenger-caused crashes. Environmental factors account for a greater relative proportion in St Elizabeth, Clarendon and St Thomas.

Figure 12 - Causes of fatal crashes mapped at parish scale

D . 2. 4 Day of Week As is the case with the national profile, crashes are fairly uniform across the days of the week for all 14 parishes, although Kingston and St Andrew have a relatively lower proportion of Sunday crashes, compared to most other parishes.

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Figure 13 - Crash occurrence during the week at the parish scale

Grand Parish Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Total Clarendon 362 407 385 356 369 457 466 2802 Hanover 93 133 107 133 129 139 138 872 Kingston 413 1191 1042 907 1052 1125 761 6491 Manchester 321 589 605 478 517 608 519 3637 Portland 262 279 276 273 264 278 282 1914 St. Andrew 2113 4586 4468 4179 4196 4537 3173 27252 St. Ann 937 1196 1198 1192 1094 1263 1255 8135 St. Catherine 890 1263 1209 1066 1031 1324 1122 7905 St. Elizabeth 174 219 192 184 187 214 249 1419 St. James 279 497 492 500 495 521 343 3127 St. Mary 441 494 487 468 423 541 534 3388 St. Thomas 120 166 132 137 141 142 138 976 Trelawny 110 125 120 160 141 156 143 955 Westmoreland 198 249 239 248 203 302 268 1707 Table 14 - Crash occurrence during the week by parish

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D.2.4.1 Fatalities

Parish Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Grand Total Clarendon 31 37 15 36 22 29 34 204 Hanover 18 25 15 21 17 27 24 147 Kingston 18 8 20 11 18 16 21 112 Manchester 32 15 19 22 19 26 28 161 Portland 15 7 13 9 4 6 12 66 St. Andrew 54 40 37 32 39 51 49 302 St. Ann 42 36 23 34 33 51 46 265 St. Catherine 52 51 61 34 50 47 59 354 St. Elizabeth 17 16 13 17 16 18 20 117 St. James 26 25 24 33 23 27 28 186 St. Mary 7 10 7 9 13 13 23 82 St. Thomas 8 8 8 7 7 5 9 52 Trelawny 13 12 7 13 13 14 23 95 Westmoreland 32 24 24 24 22 32 35 193 Table 15 – Fatal crash occurrence during the week by parish

D . 2. 5 Crashes by Time of Day

As is the case with the national profile, crashes overwhelmingly occur in the daytime across all parishes. However, different parishes have different relative profiles of crashes during different times of the day. St Ann has a higher proportion of crashes occurring in darkness, as opposed to St Andrew, which has its second-highest proportion of crashes occurring at night on lit roads. The implication here is that whether or not a street is lit may not matter in determining road safety. St Catherine has an almost-equal proportion of crashes occurring in darkness and on streets that are lit.

This pattern generally holds the same for fatalities, though fatalities attributed to streets in darkness is typically higher than fatalities on lit streets. Daytime fatal crashes, though, are still the most common across all parishes.

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 32 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Figure 14 – Crash occurrence during the day at parish scale

Parish Darkness Dawn Daylight Dusk Night/Lit Not Known Other Grand Total Clarendon 432 77 1942 112 218 25 0 2806 Hanover 169 6 587 48 62 1 0 873 Kingston 174 81 5286 193 550 216 1 6501 Manchester 340 54 2771 145 307 29 1 3647 Portland 264 36 1352 90 166 9 0 1917 St. Andrew 979 285 20949 1015 3691 391 1 27311 St. Ann 1312 111 5551 423 577 168 6 8148 St. Catherine 976 199 5371 292 1037 35 2 7912 St. Elizabeth 174 24 1036 68 104 17 1 1424 St. James 241 54 2420 72 330 14 2 3133 St. Mary 536 57 2332 163 237 66 3 3394 St. Thomas 137 16 699 31 86 6 0 975 Trelawny 175 19 681 37 40 3 0 955 Westmoreland 249 41 1144 90 185 9 0 1718 Table 16 - Crash occurrence during the day by parish

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D.2.5.1 Fatalities

Parish Darkness Dawn Daylight Dusk Night/Lit Not Known Grand Total Clarendon 53 12 115 14 10 0 204 Hanover 44 2 77 8 15 1 147 Kingston 10 3 61 4 34 1 113 Manchester 34 1 90 8 26 2 161 Portland 20 0 36 4 6 0 66 St. Andrew 34 11 159 12 84 2 302 St. Ann 83 10 132 14 26 1 266 St. Catherine 74 15 198 12 55 1 355 St. Elizabeth 20 2 69 7 19 0 117 St. James 45 6 102 7 27 1 188

St. Mary 28 2 37 5 10 0 82

St. Thomas 9 2 32 2 7 0 52 Trelawny 26 4 57 4 4 0 95 Westmoreland 42 7 102 8 33 1 193 Table 17 – Fatal crash occurrence during the day by parish

D . 2. 6 Crashes over Time

St Andrew consistently has the highest number of crashes over the time period, though temporal variations exist with all parishes, in keeping with a general national profile of crashes over the decade. Several parishes flip-flop in terms of the number of crashes per year, with no parish other than St Andrew maintaining a consistent pattern through the distribution.

Fatalities, however, show a different pattern, with St Catherine beginning the series with the highest number of fatal crashes, but being overtaken by St Andrew, before reclaiming the highest spot over the last two years in the series.

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 34 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Figure 15 – Crashes over time at parish scale

Figure 16 – Line chart showing crashes over time by parish

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 35 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

D.2.6.1 Fatalities

Figure 17 - Line chart showing fatal crashes over time by parish

D . 3 R o a d s

Analyzing crashes by road segments presents a new perspective in looking at road safety, particularly from a road engineering and design perspective. By evaluating road segments, analyses of crashes move beyond looking at results, frequencies and occurrence of crashes, but also at a finer detail of the road itself. Where a particular road has a particular frequency of a particular type of crash, analysts can look at whether the road design itself is to blame, at least partially, for the crashes, and how this may be addressed.

For this analysis, it should be noted that entire roads are not counted for their crash frequencies. This is not feasible, as some roads are longer than others, and would yield unreasonable and uncomparable results. As such, segments are used, which normalize the analyses. Selected roadways, however, were chosen for wholesale analyses.

Urban roads and main inter-urban thoroughfares have the highest frequencies of crashes. These roads carry higher levels of traffic, but also have different physical profiles. Some are dual- carriageways (Spanish Town Road), while others are two-lane main roads with side roads adjoining them (Hagley Park Road). Some are suburban (Constant Spring Road, Braeton Parkway), while others are extremely urban (West Parade and South Parade), and others are rural main roads (Ewarton and Faith’s Pen). Each of these, on the basis of both geography and engineering, has different specifications and design requirements, yet crashes are most common on these roads.

A total of 1,975 km of roads in Jamaica were associated with at least one crash, out of a total of nearly 17,000 km of roads analyzed (agricultural roads were excluded from the modelling), while 766 km of roads were associated with at least one fatal crash. As such, all crashes in

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 36 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Jamaica are occurring along just over 11% of the total road network, with fatalities occuring along just 4.5%.

Engineers can now focus on particular stretches of road which show higher frequencies of crashes, rather than the entire roadway, and determine what, if anything, can be done there. Police and law enforcement personnel can focus their activities along those stretches, while civic-minded individuals and companies can focus their road safety awareness campaigns along those particular stretches.

Figure 18 – Crash distribution by road segments

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Table 18 – Top crash-prone road stretches LENGTH FATAL RANK ROAD NAME COMMUNITY CRASHES FATALITIES (m) CRASHES Constant Spring Gardens St. 1 Constant Spring Rd 1614.658 906 4 4 Andrew

2 North Coast Hwy Ocho Rios St. Ann 8180.905 800 23 36

3 Constant Spring Rd Constant Spring St. Andrew 1948.851 775 5 5

4 Mandela Hwy Central Village St. Catherine 6415.018 587 24 30

5 Constant Spring Rd Half-Way-Tree St. Andrew 860.91 538 6 7

6 North Coast Hwy Runaway Bay St. Ann 12207.681 521 39 65

7 Hope Rd Half-Way-Tree St. Andrew 1524.758 492 1 2

8 Major Hwy Faith's Pen St. Ann 7456.631 447 4 7

9 Spanish Town Rd Majestic Gardens St. Andrew 3084.753 426 11 15

10 Junction Rd Castleton St. Mary 6462.367 423 6 6

11 Hagley Park Rd Cockburn Gardens St. Andrew 1133.431 406 2 2

12 North Coast Hwy Prospect St. Mary 7132.343 374 17 27

13 Caledonia Rd Mandeville Proper Manchester 2622.882 371 1 2

14 Old Hope Rd Liguanea St. Andrew 3824.3 363 8 8

15 Half Way Tree Rd Kencot St. Andrew 965.395 360 4 6

Molynes Four Roads St. 16 Hagley Park Rd 1760.053 347 5 10 Andrew

17 Eastwood Park Rd Half-Way-Tree St. Andrew 743.047 328 1 1

Greenwich Town/ Newport 18 Marcus Garvey Dr 5344.542 328 2 4 West St. Andrew

19 Duke St Central Down Town Kingston 1185.759 320 0 0

Sir Florizel Glaspole D'Aguilar Town/ Rennock 20 4149.018 308 11 16 Blvd Lodge Kingston

21 Spanish Town Rd Newport East Kingston 1787.989 298 9 13

22 North Coast Hwy Discovery Bay St. Ann 10453.331 290 23 38

23 Half Way Tree Rd Half-Way-Tree St. Andrew 600.098 289 2 3

24 Mandela Hwy Caymanas St. Catherine 8041.234 288 32 52

25 Spanish Town Rd Seaview Gardens St. Andrew 1796.719 284 7 10

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 38 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

The road segment with the most crashes in Jamaica is a 1.6 km stretch of Constant Spring Road at Constant Spring Gardens, where 906 crashes have occurred over the period. This is followed by an 8.2 km stretch in Ocho Rios, with 800 crashes. Constant Spring Road accounts for 3 of the top 5 crash-prone road stretches in Jamaica, with another 1.9 km stretch in the community of Constant Spring, with 775 crashes (#3), and an 860m stretch at Half Way Tree, with 538 crashes (#5). Mandela Highway, at Central Village, with 587 crashes, rounds out the top 5. Sixteen of the top 25 crash stretches in Jamaica are within the Kingston and St Andrew region.

D.3.1.1 Fatalities

Table 19 - Top fatal crash-prone road stretches LENGTH FATAL RANK ROAD NAME COMMUNITY CRASHES FATALITIES (m) CRASHES 1 North Coast Hwy Runaway Bay St. Ann 12207.681 521 39 65 2 Mandela Hwy Caymanas St. Catherine 8041.234 288 32 52 3 North Coast Hwy Rose Hall St. James 3755.246 120 27 41 Old Harbour Road St. 4 Old Harbour Rd 8294.099 212 25 36 Catherine 5 Mandela Hwy Central Village St. Catherine 6415.018 587 24 30 6 North Coast Hwy Ocho Rios St. Ann 8180.905 800 23 36 7 North Coast Hwy Discovery Bay St. Ann 10453.331 290 23 38 8 Major Hwy Little London Westmoreland 9948.992 103 23 38 9 Arterial Rd Hayes Clarendon 11572.456 119 20 37 10 Norman Manley Blvd Negril Westmoreland 4632.386 212 19 30 11 North Coast Hwy Green Island Hanover 10612.708 52 19 27 12 Melrose Hill Bypass Williamsfield Manchester 10337.808 97 18 29 13 North Coast Hwy Prospect St. Mary 7132.343 374 17 27 Bull Bay/ Seven Mile St. 14 Bull Bay Main Rd 5730.067 263 17 24 Andrew 15 Bog Walk Gorge Rd Bog Walk St. Catherine 6749.161 85 16 31 16 North Coast Hwy Hopewell Hanover 5360.062 75 16 31 17 Porus Main Rd Porus Manchester 3496.436 159 15 20 18 North Coast Hwy Orange Bay Hanover 11535.841 87 15 27 19 Major Hwy Ewarton St. Catherine 10878.603 268 14 22 20 North Coast Hwy Priory St. Ann 5102.238 235 14 22 Sir Alexander Bustamante 21 Palmers Cross Clarendon 4159.905 118 14 17 Hwy 22 Major Hwy Lacovia St. Elizabeth 7957.964 95 14 25 23 Spanish Town Rd Riverton City St. Andrew 2717.669 263 13 21 24 Highway Two Thousand Edgewater St. Catherine 6932.668 139 13 20 25 Major Hwy Osbourne Store Clarendon 3756.698 130 13 22

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 39 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Fatalities show a different road segment profile, which includes many more rural roadways, indicating that fatalities and crashes in general show different spatial profiles; only 2 of the top 25 fatal crash road segments are within St Andrew; none are within Kingston. A 12 km stretch of the North Coast Highway at Runaway Bay, which ranked #6 in the overall crash rankings described earlier, is the deadliest stretch of road in Jamaica, with 39 fatal crashes, accounting for 65 fatalities, for the period. This is followed by an 8 km stretch of the Mandela Highway (#24 in the overall crash ranking), at Caymanas, with 32 fatal crashes, accounting for 52 fatalities. The North Coast Highway at Rose Hall ranks third in fatalities, with a 3 km stretch accounting for 27 fatal crashes and 41 fatalities for the period, followed by an 8 km stretch of the Old Harbour main road in St Catherine, with 25 fatal crashes and 36 fatalities, and the Mandela Highway at Central Village, with a 6 km stretch accounting for 24 fatal crashes and 30 fatalities.

The crash profiles of the entire stretches of some notable roads are reported below. It should be noted that the North Coast Highway includes the full length of the Highway, across six parishes, from Hanover to Portland. Highway 2000 also includes the Portmore Causeway segment of the toll road, as well as all access points to the main highway itself. In all cases, these roadways cross different communities, and the results shown are the total crash/fatal crash statistic for the entire length of the road, not individual segments.

Road Way Total Crashes Total Fatal Crashes Mandela Highway 1,029 63 Constant Spring Rd 2,409 15 Spanish Town Rd 1,940 52 Marcus Garvey Drive 736 8 North Coast Highway 5,614 363 Highway 2000 502 29 Hagley Park Rd 1,010 10 Old Hope Rd 777 12 Hope Rd 842 5 Table 20 – Crash profile of notable roads (entire stretches)

This table also supports the argument made in this report that entire stretches of roads should not be analyzed without proper context, but was included in order to illustrate some general characteristics of some important roads in Jamaica. It also illustrated the stark differences between total crashes and fatal crashes, where a high number of crashes does not necessarily mean a proportional increase in fatal crashes, as illustrated by the crash/fatal crash profiles of Constant Spring Road and Mandela Highway.

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D . 4 Community Scale

The analysis of crashes by community further downscales the results into more discernible areal units, and narrows the focus further. Looking at 830 communities across Jamaica, defined by the Planning Institute of Jamaica, allows for a more detailed analysis than from studying crashes across 14 parishes. Communities, as effective subdivisions of the larger parishes, allow for easier referencing of general crash locations. Unlike road segment crash analyses, which utilize the existing road network to determine crash frequencies, community analyses can look at a wider contextual picture, looking not just at road segments, but also feeder roads to a main road as part of a wider road network. It also assists planning and development of additional roads in an area not served by the road network (and thereby free from crashes), as well as the implications of improving and/or upgrading road networks in communities.

Most crashes occurred in communities served by at least one major road. Where major roads intersected, there were significantly more crashes, as is the case with several major Kingston intersections (Half Way Tree, Central Downtown Kingston/Parade, and Constant Spring Gardens at the Dunrobin Road/Constant Spring Road intersection). Eight community hot-spots were defined, with more than 1,000 crashes for the period, of which 6 were in Kingston and St Andrew, with Ocho Rios and Mandeville accounting for the other 2. See Appendix 3 for the number of crashes per community.

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Figure 19 – All crashes mapped for the period at community scale

Table 21 - Top crash-prone communities COMMUNITY CRASHES FATAL CRASHES FATALITIES Half-Way-Tree St. Andrew 3674 25 36 Central Down Town Kingston 2458 14 18 Constant Spring St. Andrew 2273 12 15 Constant Spring Gardens St. Andrew 1737 5 5 Ocho Rios St. Ann 1736 40 54 Mandeville Proper Manchester 1729 18 24 Spanish Town Central St. Catherine 1184 31 43 Cross Roads St. Andrew 1183 13 16 Down Town Montego Bay St. James 972 15 18 Central Village St. Catherine 950 37 50

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Half Way Tree had the most crashes for the period, with 3,674 crashes, followed by Central Downtown Kingston. Kingston and St Andrew accounted for 4 of the top 5 crash communities in Jamaica, while 78 of Jamaica’s 830 communities had no crashes for the period.

D.4.1.1 Fatalities

Figure 20 - Fatal crashes mapped for the period at community scale

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Table 22 - Top fatal crash-prone communities COMMUNITY CRASHES FATAL CRASHES FATALITIES Runaway Bay St. Ann 656 46 75 Ocho Rios St. Ann 1736 40 54 Central Village St. Catherine 950 37 50 Caymanas St. Catherine 354 34 54 Negril Westmoreland 419 31 48 Little London Westmoreland 133 31 53 Spanish Town Central St. Catherine 1184 31 43 Williamsfield Manchester 212 29 52 Old Harbour Road St. Catherine 265 28 40 Rose Hall St. James 123 27 41

Runaway Bay, St Ann, had the most fatal crashes, with 46, leading to the deaths of 75 people, for the period. This was followed by Ocho Rios, with 40 fatal crashes and 54 fatalities. Again, the disparity between general crashes and fatal crashes is pointed to here, where Ocho Rios has the fifth most crashes in Jamaica but was second in fatal crashes, while Runaway Bay was not among the top 10 crash communities. See Appendix 4 for the number of fatal crashes per community.

None of the top 10 fatal crash communities were in Kingston or St Andrew, while 4 were in St Catherine. Of Jamaica’s 830 communities, 345 had no fatal crashes.

A deeper profile of the types of crashes revealed different types of crashes in different communities. Half Way Tree had the most overall crashes, but also the most pedestrian-, bicycle-, turning- and property-only crashes, while Ocho Rios had the most passenger-related crashes, Faith’s Pen the most road-factor related crashes, and Runaway Bay the most environmentally-related crashes.

Table 23 – Top communities by type of crash Type of Crash Community Number Most Pedestrian-Related Half Way Tree 221 Most Passenger-Related Ocho Rios 76 Most Bicycle-Related Half Way Tree 56 Most Road-Factor-Related Faith's Pen 93 Most Property Damage-Only Half Way Tree 3142 Most Turning-Related Half Way Tree 365 Most Environmental-Related Runaway Bay 23

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A further breakdown revealed the different severity profiles. Runaway Bay and Half Way Tree were already described as the communities having the most fatal and property-only crashes, respectively. Half Way Tree also had the crashes with the most minor injuries, while Central Downtown Kingston had the most crashes with serious injuries.

Table 24 - Top communities by severity of crash Severity of Crash Community Number

Most Fatalities Runaway Bay 46

Most Serious Injuries Central Downtown Kingston 240

Most Minor Injuries Half Way Tree 351

Most Property-Only Half Way Tree 3142

An analysis of the communities with the most crashes each year for the period revealed the changing nature and distributions of crashes. Half Way Tree had the most crashes of any community for the first three years of the period, while Central Downtown Kingston was the top community for 5 of the 10 years, including the last 3 years. In years when the number of crashes in the top community was low, there was a greater spread of crashes across the different communities for that period.

Table 25 – Top communities with most crashes per year Year Community with Most Crashes Number 2000 Half Way Tree 422 2001 Half Way Tree 1124 2002 Half Way Tree 407 2003 Mandeville 42 2004 Central Downtown Kingston 351 2005 Central Downtown Kingston 97 2006 Downtown Montego Bay 131 2007 Central Downtown Kingston 335 2008 Central Downtown Kingston 415 2009 Central Downtown Kingston 325

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D . 4. 2 Community Social Profiles

The ability to analyze crashes by community also allows for cross-referencing with other socio- economic variables. Poverty data are available for all communities in Jamaica, and activity centres – places where people go to other than their homes, including places of work, worship, school, shopping, eating, entertainment, etc. – are also available from MGI’s internal mapping database, and summarized by community. The latter illustrate convergence and divergence zones of people movement, and are the foci of traffic activities. Population factors were not considered here, as this is a measure of residential population, and has a different implication when considering road safety.

D.4.2.1 Poverty and Deprivation

The United Kingdom reported that crashes were common in poorer and deprived areas, and that wider social policies targeted at these places would positively affect those areas’ road safety profiles. This does not appear to be the case in Jamaica, where New Kingston has the highest crash:poverty ratio (1088.15); New Kingston has one of the lowest poverty rates in Jamaica, but has a relatively high frequency of crashes (852, or 13 th highest in Jamaica). Half Way Tree has the second highest ratio, and while Half Way Tree is the community with the highest number of crashes in Jamaica, it is not considered to be among the poorest communities. Mandeville, Constant Spring Gardens, and Greater Portmore round out the top 5 communities with the highest crash:poverty ratios, none of which are considered poor communities.

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Figure 21 - Crash:Poverty ratio at community scale

There is no statistical relationship between crashes and poverty (r 2 = 0.05); any increases or reductions in poverty in the communities would not necessarily result in any changes in any community’s crash profile.

D.4.2.2 Activity Centres

As foci of both vehicular and people movement, activity centres may present a better opportunity to look at relationships between crashes and socio-economic variables. Normalizing for communities with more than 10 activity centres (thereby removing the odd community with just a corner shop or bar), Majestic Gardens has the highest crash:activity centre ratio (37.1), followed by Moneague (33.7), Castleton (32.2), Prospect, St Mary (27.9), and Priory, St Ann (27.1). Half Way Tree has a ratio of just 4.1 owing to the fact that there are so

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 47 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica many activity centres there; Half Way Tree, in fact, has the highest number of activity centres in Jamaica, at 915.

Figure 22 – Crash:Point of Interest (POI) ratio at community scale

There is a positive statistical relationship between crashes and the number activity centres (r 2 = 0.67); with increases in the number of activity centres in communities, there is likely to be an increase in crashes. However, the addition of an additional activity centre, all things being equal, would result in more crashes in higher-ratio communities such as Majestic Gardens than in lower-ratio communities like Half Way Tree.

This methodology of crash analysis will be further explored and refined, including developing a weighted index of activity centres, scoring places like banks and other businesses that draw more attention higher than other places (cemeteries, etc.).

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E CONCLUSIONS

This study has revealed the many different and complex dimensions of road safety analyses, and that these have different scales and scopes across both time and space. This report primarily focused on the spatial components and derivations of the original data provided by the RSU. Conventional statistical analyses, such as leading causes of crashes, etc., now augmented by spatial elements ranging from individual rows in the crash database, now have a coordinate reference to a breakdown of crash causes by parish, community or street.

E . 1 Identification of Priority Areas

The identification of priority areas is determined by assessing the different scopes and causes of crashes, and priorities may vary depending on the responsible and interested agencies or parties. In terms of fatalities, the community of Runaway Bay has the highest number of crashes, and the stretch of the North Coast Highway that passes through that community is also the most fatal stretch of road in Jamaica. The North Coast Highway, in its entirety, is the deadliest road in Jamaica, but it is also the longest single stretch of road in Jamaica, crossing six parishes. When focusing on fatal crashes, Runaway Bay, as such, would be the area of highest priority.

Half Way Tree, however, had the most crashes overall, and Constant Spring Road, in the vicinity of Constant Spring Gardens, was the road stretch with the most crashes. Overall, Kingston and St Andrew have the most crashes, an unsurprising fact given that it has both the largest population as well as the highest number of activity centres and motor vehicle traffic.

Law enforcement officers may use this general information to assist and coordinate their deployment, but could also prioritize different areas based on crash profiles. In areas where pedestrian- or bicycle-related crashes occur, walking patrols may be more useful, especially in Downtown Kingston. Road and traffic engineers would focus on road-factor crashes, where road design or maintenance issues were the primary causes of crashes, and can prioritize accordingly. This was particularly the case in St Ann.

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E . 2 Recommendations for Data Collection and Processing

It is MGI’s plan to continue mapping crash locations in the future, and so we make the following recommendations so that the mapping process can be smoother and more accurate in the future. Ideally, the precise location of a crash would include all of the following: street number, street name, community, and parish name. Where this is not possible, for example, in the rural areas, police officers recording the information at points of entry should endeavour to include some locational reference or landmark, for example, a church, post office, bridge, etc., to associate with each incident. This could help narrow down a possible location for a crash. This is especially useful in areas where road names are non-existent. In cases where persons involved in crashes report the incident at a police station, police officers should ensure that all relevant information is collected, preferably through the use of standardized forms.

To tackle the issues of misspelt, incorrect and missing crash information, it is critical that police officers take the time to accurately transcribe all the relevant information about each crash. MGI recommends that a standard tabular form be used to record crash details instead of narrative recording of crashes. This approach will likely prevent necessary data from being overlooked. The data should be reviewed to ensure that it is accurate and comprehensive before being handed over to the RSU.

E . 2 .1 Collection of Additional Crash Data

Table 1 listed the type of information that is currently being recorded for each crash. MGI, in doing its analyses, recognized the need to, where possible, record more information. It is recommended that the following information be collected as well:

1. gender and age of the person(s) involved in each crash 2. years of experience of the driver(s) who caused the crash 3. whether the drivers who caused the crash were involved in previous crashes 4. age and type of the vehicles involved in each crash 5. condition of vehicles involved in each crash

Collecting the information listed above will provide more insight into the profile of drivers who are involved in crashes. Driver age, gender and experience are used internationally as

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 50 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica components of licensing and insurance requirements. Analysis of this data can, for example, prove or disprove the notion that young drivers are inexperienced and thus more vulnerable to crashes.

The use of GPS mapping devices on the scene will also greatly improve the accuracy of crash mapping, though this may not be feasible in all cases, particularly minor crashes, and those with just property-only damage.

E . 3 Development of New Analytical Methodology for Calculating Economic Impact of Crashes

Fully understanding that the economic cost of any crash varies depending on the circumstances and details of individual crashes, an attempt is made here to appreciate the different components of any crash, factoring in the human and property components, and introducing a location component to an equation to determine the economic costs of all crashes.

Many different crash profiles were observed in this study, where three human factors were used in determining severity of crashes: fatal, and serious or minor injuries. This can be further broken down by determining, in the case of a fatal crash, if the driver, passenger(s), or pedestrians were killed, their ages (and the productive years of their lives lost), and other crash details. In the case of injuries, this can be broken down whether primary care is satisfactory, or if the individual will require lifelong care as a result of the crash.

For property damage, calculating primary costs is fairly routine and simple, especially for general insurers and valuators and adjustors. However, costs associated with the repairs to road infrastructure, as well as factoring the length of time to do this, and the associated temporal risk of crashes occurring before repairs are effected, all incur secondary costs, which have to be factored in.

Location costs of crashes, however, have not been used before. Crashes occurring on major highways have economic impacts on people and industries totally unrelated to the crash itself, especially when a crash causes traffic delays. Similar crashes occurring on relatively minor roads, in contrast, do not have the same economic impact. This is a component recognized by the United Kingdom’s Department of Transport’s Strategic Framework for Road Safety (May 2011). By calculating the frequency of crashes on major highways and thoroughfares, a location score can be determined.

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In all cases, scores can be qualitatively determined pending further research, and will be conducted as further work emanating from this exercise.

Figure 23 – Formula for calculating the economic impact of crashes

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Cost of human Property damage Location cost injury / fatality cost association

Figure 24 – Flow chart for calculating the economic impact of crashes

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E . 4 New Local Innovations

Several technologies are in various stages of development and testing as it relates to road safety in Jamaica. Passive camera systems are already being tested at some traffic intersections to identify drivers with outstanding traffic warrants. While radar guns are routinely used by traffic police, there are plans to develop traffic speed averaging systems to regulate driver speeds over entire stretches of roads, and not just at the point of a speed trap. However, as this report has shown, this will not resolve non-speeding threats to road safety.

In the commercial private sector, technologies are being developed by MGI, in partnership with the Jamaica Automobile Association and Hawkeye Electronic Security, to develop a Vehicle Concierge Service (VCS), akin to GM’s OnStar service in the US auto market. This will provide two-way communication between a service provider and a driver, and can automatically detect crashes and dispatch assistance, as well as provide traffic information to drivers, including alerting them to disturbances caused by social unrest or natural hazards.

A product that is already on the market is MGI’s own GPS navigation system, which features real-time speed limit warnings, which alert drivers when they are exceeding the speed limit. The navigation system is also used to improve driver security when travelling unknown routes, but also serves as an augmented-reality driver aid during periods of heavy rainfall or darkness, as well as providing heads-up situational awareness for drivers navigating hairpin turns or blind corners.

E . 5 Definition of Stakeholders and how they may use this report

With many different dimensions and components, road safety has many different stakeholders. Road construction engineers are concerned with everything from materials selection to design and features such as sidewalks and signage. They need to understand how the road will be used in order to design and build it, taking into consideration the neighbourhood population and natural environment, as well as the presence of existing or planned infrastructure. They may also be responsible for routine maintenance of the road infrastructure, which may need to be accelerated when poor road safety practices result in a quicker deterioration of the road condition, which may domino into more crashes. Traffic planners need to determine if current traffic and safety conditions require an intervention in order to address certain and specific problems, through, for example, the addition of a stop sign or stop light, conversion to a one-

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 54 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica way street, or addition or removal of a roundabout in order to streamline traffic flow. Traffic planners need information like this even in the event of temporary occasions, such as official government events, festivities, or national emergencies, when they will need to assess traffic flows and the potential for hazards.

Road safety officials extend beyond dedicated road engineers. The most prominent of these are the traffic police, who, in their law enforcement capacities, have a critical function in ensuring compliance to regulations aimed at promoting road safety. However, in order to do their jobs effectively, they need to be properly informed about the nature of the problem they are addressing, and become proactive – as opposed to reactive – in carrying out their job functions. The police are also the primary mechanism for data collection on road safety, and this is also a critical component of road safety analysis that they need to appreciate.

Broader units such as the Road Safety Unit at the Ministry of Transport, Works and Housing and the National Road Safety Council have national mandates, and directly and actively use this information to drive and inform road safety policies. Currently, much of the analysis done uses descriptive statistics; this report introduces the spatial component to help these agencies direct and focus their initiatives in a more targeted manner.

This information can be handled at a national level through Ministries, the Cabinet, and concerned private sector bodies in a general way. However, this report has shown the different scales of road safety, and how patterns change at local scales. Members of Parliament, local government councillors, and even neighbourhood watch organizations can take this information as it pertains to their areas, and use it to drive their policies and programme initiatives.

The health sector is heavily affected by crashes, especially serious injuries, where lifelong care may be required. The health services are among the primary responders to a major crash, and understanding crash distributions can help them pre-distribute their resources. They would also be able, depending on the pattern of certain crash causes, to recommend certain policy directives with this in mind.

The private sector has direct and indirect interests in this report and its findings. General insurers can use this information to drive their underwriting and claims programmes, but also to assist in their business analytics which can inform their broader business planning, as well as in their customer service and marketing programmes. Motor adjustors can also use this information to determine the situational context in which crashes they are investigating occurred, while automobile repairers and service providers can use this information to better

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 55 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica understand the road safety environment in which they operate. More broadly, the different private sector corporate social responsibility programmes can use information such as crash/fatal crash hot spots to earmark road safety public educational campaigns.

Ultimately, the most effective road safety campaign will require a strong public education component. Schools, churches, driving schools, activists and advocates, and the media themselves all have critical roles in promoting road safety. These programmes need to be fundamentally underpinned by data and information, especially with the spatial dimension provided here, which would help individuals immediately spatially relate to crashes and their profiles occurring in their own communities, and not just focusing on national averages and statistics. This creates a different level of understanding, where the same information can be used at different levels and different scales, all towards the same objective of promoting road safety.

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F BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anon. April 2012. Stopping Crashes with Smarter Cars, Consumer Reports Magazine .

Department of Transport, 2011. Strategic Framework for Road Safety . London: Department of Transport.

Ford, A., March 12, 2012. Safer Passage, TIME Magazine U.S. vol. 179, no. 10.

National Road Safety Council , 2004. National Road Safety Policy . Kingston.

Tison, J., Chaudhary, N., & Cosgrove, L. 2011. National phone survey on distracted driving attitudes and behaviors . (Report No. DOT HS 811 555). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

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G A P P E N D I X

Appendix 1 - Causes of Crashes (detailed listing)

Cause of Crash Crashes % Following too closely behind another vehicle 14126 19.94 Failing to keep to the near side or to the proper traffic lane 6884 9.72 Overtaking improperly on off side 4676 6.60 Crossing without due care at road junction 4661 6.58 Proceeding at excessive speed with no regard to conditions 4021 5.68 Swerving 3906 5.51 Failing to comply with traffic signs or signals 3710 5.24 Turning to the right without due care 3613 5.10 Changing from one traffic lane to another without due care 2487 3.51 Reverse negligently 2358 3.33 Misjudging clearance and/or distance speed (vehicle or object) 1770 2.50 Losing control 1717 2.42 Inattention or diverted attention 1557 2.20 Moving off without taking proper precautions 1439 2.03 Pedestrian stepping/walking/running/verging into the road off footpath 1250 1.76 Skidding (all vehicles) 1167 1.65 Turning to the left without due care 951 1.34 Apparent error of judgement /negligence 922 1.30 Pulling out from nearside without due care 859 1.21 Overtaking improperly on the inside 829 1.17 Negligence when opening vehicle door 780 1.10 Turning around on the road negligently 624 0.88 Other animal in the carriageway, inclusive bolting horses 615 0.87 Cutting in 562 0.79 Pedestrian crossing road from nearside 451 0.64 Pulling out from offside without due care 355 0.50 Mechanical defects or failure of tyres or wheels 340 0.48 Mechanical defects or failure of brakes 315 0.44 Pedestrian crossed road, masked by stationary vehicle 284 0.40 Fatigue /asleep 268 0.38 Stopping suddenly 230 0.32 Failing to stop to afford the free passage of pedestrians 228 0.32 Pedestrian crossing road off nearside 218 0.31 Cyclist riding with head down 175 0.25 Pothole 157 0.22 Pedestrian walking or standing in road 156 0.22

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Cause of Crash Crashes % Passenger opened door without due care 151 0.21 Pedestrian crossed road, masked by moving vehicle 147 0.21 Pedestrian apparent error of judgement / negligence, other than above 123 0.17 Dazzled by light of another vehicle 108 0.15 Illness 91 0.13 Stationary vehicle dangerously placed 88 0.12 Not Known 82 0.12 Not Known / N/A 73 0.10 Failing to signal or giving incorrect signal 72 0.10 Inexperienced with the vehicle in use at the time 72 0.10 Negligence when opening rear door 65 0.09 Mechanical defects or failure of steering 63 0.09 Any other feature of the vehicle or the equipment, which contributed to the accident 61 0.09 Insecure load 57 0.08 Pedestrian playing in road 54 0.08 Other factors 48 0.07 Pedestrian crossed road, not masked by mow vehicle 48 0.07 Driver influenced by drinks / drugs 47 0.07 Falling inside vehicle or from vehicle 44 0.06 Hampered by passenger or animal in or by luggage on vehicle 43 0.06 Slippery road surface due to other features than the weather 41 0.06 Unattended vehicle running away 39 0.06 Dog in the carriageway 36 0.05 Learner driver 36 0.05 Pedestrian slipping or falling 36 0.05 Other obstructions 35 0.05 Pedestrian influenced by drinks / drugs 35 0.05 Pedestrian holding onto vehicle 28 0.04 Mechanical defects or failure of frame 27 0.04 Vehicle overloaded, shifted or defected load 27 0.04 Physical defects 26 0.04 Boarding or alighting other vehicle than PPV without due care 22 0.03 Other road surface condition 22 0.03 Boarding or alighting public passenger vehicle without due care 21 0.03 Not traced 21 0.03 Heavy rain 18 0.03 Other road condition etc? 18 0.03 Road work in progress 16 0.02 Driver view obstructed by equipment, load or obscured windscreen 14 0.02 Other negligence on part of passenger 14 0.02

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Cause of Crash Crashes % Stealing ride 13 0.02 Collision with vehicle involved in previous accident 11 0.02 View obscure by layout in the road, inclusive object off carriageway 11 0.02 Pedestrian physical defects / sudden illness 9 0.01 Glaring sun 8 0.01 No rear light 7 0.01 Cellular phone 6 0.01 Cyclist holding to another vehicle 6 0.01 No front light 6 0.01 Fog or mist 4 0.01 Negligence on the part of conductor or goods vehicle attendant 4 0.01 Cyclist riding more than two abreast 3 0.00 Pillion passenger wearing crash helmet 3 0.00 Inadequate front lights 2 0.00 Mechanical defects or failure of chain 2 0.00 Strong wind 2 0.00 Tracks in bad repair 2 0.00 Wheels of the vehicle catching in tramways or in the railway track 2 0.00 Defect manhole cover 1 0.00 Motorcyclist not wearing crash helmet 1 0.00 Passenger influenced by drinks / drugs 1 0.00

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Appendix 2 - Causes of Fatal Crashes (detailed listing)

Cause of Crash Crashes % Proceeding at excessive speed with no regard to conditions 533 22.70 Pedestrian stepping/walking/running/verging into the road off footpath 217 9.24 Failing to keep to the near side or to the proper traffic lane 187 7.96 Overtaking improperly on off side 173 7.37 Losing control 163 6.94 Pedestrian crossing road from nearside 127 5.41 Swerving 120 5.11 Crossing without due care at road junction 63 2.68 Pedestrian crossing road off nearside 51 2.17 Failing to comply with traffic signs or signals 45 1.92 Turning to the right without due care 45 1.92 Pedestrian crossed road, masked by stationary vehicle 41 1.75 Inattention or diverted attention 35 1.49 Following too closely behind another vehicle 31 1.32 Apparent error of judgement /negligence 29 1.24 Pedestrian walking or standing in road 29 1.24 Mechanical defects or failure of tyres or wheels 25 1.06 Reverse negligently 25 1.06 Misjudging clearance and/or distance speed (vehicle or object) 24 1.02 Mechanical defects or failure of brakes 21 0.89 Pedestrian apparent error of judgement / negligence, other than above 20 0.85 Pedestrian crossed road, masked by moving vehicle 20 0.85 Skidding (all vehicles) 20 0.85 Falling inside vehicle or from vehicle 18 0.77 Overtaking improperly on the inside 17 0.72 Pedestrian influenced by drinks / drugs 17 0.72 Failing to stop to afford the free passage of pedestrians 15 0.64 Pedestrian holding onto vehicle 14 0.60 Turning around on the road negligently 14 0.60 Changing from one traffic lane to another without due care 13 0.55 Fatigue /asleep 13 0.55 Pedestrian crossed road, not masked by mow vehicle 13 0.55 Negligence when opening vehicle door 12 0.51 Other animal in the carriageway, inclusive bolting horses 11 0.47 Pedestrian slipping or falling 11 0.47 Moving off without taking proper precautions 10 0.43 Illness 9 0.38 Pulling out from nearside without due care 9 0.38

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Cause of Crash Crashes % Driver influenced by drinks / drugs 7 0.30 Inexperienced with the vehicle in use at the time 7 0.30 Pothole 6 0.26 Pulling out from offside without due care 6 0.26 6 0.26 Cutting in 5 0.21 Not Known 5 0.21 Pedestrian playing in road 5 0.21 Stealing ride 5 0.21 Mechanical defects or failure of steering 4 0.17 Unattended vehicle running away 4 0.17 Cyclist riding with head down 3 0.13 Dazzled by light of another vehicle 3 0.13 Learner driver 3 0.13 Other factors 3 0.13 Passenger opened door without due care 3 0.13 Stationary vehicle dangerously placed 3 0.13 Turning to the left without due care 3 0.13 Any other feature of the vehicle or the equipment, which contributed to the accident 2 0.09 Boarding or alighting other vehicle than PPV without due care 2 0.09 Failing to signal or giving incorrect signal 2 0.09 Mechanical defects or failure of frame 2 0.09 Negligence when opening rear door 2 0.09 Pedestrian physical defects / sudden illness 2 0.09 Vehicle overloaded, shifted or defected load 2 0.09 Boarding or alighting public passenger vehicle without due care 1 0.04 Collision with vehicle involved in previous accident 1 0.04 Dog in the carriageway 1 0.04 Driver view obstructed by equipment, load or obscured windscreen 1 0.04 Fog or mist 1 0.04 Hampered by passenger or animal in or by luggage on vehicle 1 0.04 Inadequate front lights 1 0.04 Insecure load 1 0.04 No front light 1 0.04 Other negligence on part of passenger 1 0.04 Other road surface condition 1 0.04 Pillion passenger wearing crash helmet 1 0.04 Stopping suddenly 1 0.04

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Appendix 3 – Crashes by Community

Community Crashes Community Crashes Aberdeen St. Elizabeth 3 Lilliput St. James 66 Aboukir St. Ann 35 Lime Hall St. Ann 365 Above Rocks St. Catherine 4 Lime Tree Gardens St. Ann 29 Accompong St. Elizabeth 1 Linstead St. Catherine 245 Adelphi St. James 13 Lionel Town Clarendon 19 Aenon Town Clarendon 8 Litchfield Manchester 3 Airy Castle St. Thomas 4 Lititz St. Elizabeth 23 Albert Town Trelawny 8 Little London Westmoreland 133 Albion St. James 44 Llandewey St. Thomas 5 Albion St. Thomas 158 Llandilo Westmoreland 18 Alderton St. Ann 17 Lloyds St. Thomas 10 Alexandria St. Ann 74 Lluidas Vale St. Catherine 14 Alley Clarendon 4 Logwood Hanover 13 Alligator Pond Manchester 19 Long Bay Portland 45 Allman Town Kingston 59 Long Road Portland 10 Alps Trelawny 2 Long Road St. Mary 3 Alston Clarendon 18 Longville Park Clarendon 61 Alva St. Ann 11 Lorrimers Trelawny 14 Amiel Town St. Mary 2 Lottery St. James 3 Amity Hall St. Thomas 9 Lucea East Hanover 94 Amity Westmoreland 9 Lucea West Hanover 158 Anchovy St. James 40 Lucky Hill St. Mary 4 Annotto Bay St. Mary 273 Lyssons St. Thomas 38 Arcadia St. Andrew 117 Mackfield Westmoreland 18 Arcadia St. Thomas 4 Macknie St. Ann 3 Arlene Gardens St. Andrew 303 Maggotty St. Elizabeth 15 Arnett Gardens St. Andrew 135 Maidstone Manchester 23 Ashley Clarendon 5 Majestic Gardens St. Andrew 742 Asia/Pratville Manchester 20 Malvern St. Elizabeth 7 Askenish Hanover 11 Manchioneal Portland 24 Auchtembeddie Manchester 1 Mandeville Proper Manchester 1735 August Town St. Andrew 2 Mango Valley St. Mary 1 Baileys Vale St. Mary 51 Manley Meadows Kingston 124 Balaclava St. Elizabeth 31 Mannings Hill (Rural) St. Andrew 8 Balcarres Portland 3 Mannings Hill St. Andrew 49 Ballards Valley St. Elizabeth 13 Mansfield St. Ann 103 Bamboo St. Ann 93 March Town Hanover 8 Bangor Ridge Portland 11 Marlie Hill Manchester 2

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Banks Clarendon 2 Maroon Town St. James 1 Baptist St. Thomas 44 Martha Brae Trelawny 2 Barbary Hall St. Elizabeth 6 Martin St. Mary 132 Barbican St. Andrew 506 Marverley St. Andrew 255 Barking Lodge St. Thomas 6 Maryland Hanover 3 Barneyside Westmoreland 1 Maryland St. Andrew 1 Barrett Town St. James 24 Mason Hall St. Mary 17 Bartons St. Catherine 7 Mavis Bank St. Andrew 9 Bath Mountain Westmoreland 1 Maxfield Park St. Andrew 81 Bath St. Thomas 5 May Day Manchester 16 Bath Westmoreland 12 May Pen Proper Clarendon 303 Beaufort Westmoreland 4 Meadowbrook Estate St. Andrew 19 Beckford Kraal Clarendon 6 Meadowbrook St. Andrew 224 Beecher Town St. Ann 2 Mearnsville Westmoreland 33 Beeston Spring Westmoreland 3 Middle Quarters St. Elizabeth 87 Belfield St. Mary 49 Middleton St. Thomas 1 Bellefield Manchester 2 Mike Town Manchester 21 Belvedere Portland 8 Mile Gully Manchester 29 Belvedere Westmoreland 1 Mile Gully St. Mary 4 Bensonton St. Ann 12 Milk River Clarendon 5 Bethany Manchester 2 Mineral Heights Clarendon 114 Bethel St. Thomas 1 Mitchell Town Clarendon 3 Bethel Town Westmoreland 11 Molynes Four Roads St. Andrew 572 Beverley Hills St. Andrew 99 Molynes Gardens St. Andrew 339 Bickersteth St. James 32 Mona Heights St. Andrew 36 Big Bridge Westmoreland 46 Moneague St. Ann 404 Bigwoods St. Elizabeth 3 Montego Hill St. James 2 Black Hill Portland 97 Montpelier St. James 14 Black River St. Elizabeth 125 Moore Town Portland 4 Blackstonedge St. Ann 9 Morant Bay St. Thomas 70 Bluefields Westmoreland 98 Morgans Forest Clarendon 1 Bogue St. Elizabeth 6 Morgans Pass Clarendon 5 Bogue St. James 670 Mount Airy Westmoreland 15 Bogwalk St. Catherine 155 Mount Carey St. James 38 Bohemia St. Ann 3 Mount Horeb St. James 2 Bombay Manchester 1 Mount James St. Andrew 22 Bonnygate St. Mary 14 Mount Lebanus St. Thomas 2 Borobridge St. Ann 14 Mount Moriah St. Ann 16 Boucher Park St. Andrew 108 Mount Peto Hanover 7 Boundbrook Portland 37 Mount Pleasant Portland 7

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Bounty Hall Trelawny 16 Mount Salem St. James 145 Bournemouth Gardens Kingston 177 Mount Stewart Westmoreland 1 Braes River St. Elizabeth 16 Mount Zion St. Ann 10 Braeton St. Catherine 647 Mountain View Gardens St. Andrew 65 Brainerd St. Mary 1 Mountainside St. Elizabeth 25 Brampton Trelawny 1 Myersville St. Elizabeth 2 Brandon Hill Clarendon 2 Naggo Head St. Catherine 222 Brandon Hill St. Andrew 129 Nain St. Elizabeth 23 Brandon Hill St. James 3 Nannyville St. Andrew 33 Breastworks Portland 20 Negril Westmoreland 421 Bridgeport St. Catherine 69 New Denbigh Clarendon 7 Brighton St. Elizabeth 6 New Forest Manchester 8 Brixton Hill Clarendon 14 New Green Manchester 87 Broadgate St. Mary 174 New Haven St. Andrew 111 Brompton St. Elizabeth 45 New Kingston St. Andrew 853 Broughton Westmoreland 17 New Longsville Clarendon 10 Browns Hill St. Catherine 14 New Market Oval Westmoreland 3 Browns Town St. Ann 535 New Market St. Elizabeth 21 Bucknor Clarendon 25 New Monkland St. Thomas 2 Bucks Common Clarendon 8 New Works Westmoreland 5 Buff Bay Portland 96 Newell St. Elizabeth 11 Bull Bay/ Seven Mile St. Andrew 300 Newport East Kingston 896 Bull Savannah St. Elizabeth 9 Newport Manchester 27 Bunkers Hill Trelawny 1 Newton Square Kingston 60 Burnt Savannah St. Elizabeth 5 Newton St. Elizabeth 11 Burnt Savannah Westmoreland 3 Niagara St. James 1 Bushy Park Clarendon 14 Nonsuch Portland 24 Butt-Up Manchester 5 Norbrook St. Andrew 167 Bybrook Portland 5 Norman Gardens Kingston 103 Cacoon Castle Hanover 1 Norwich Portland 113 Cacoon Hanover 17 Norwood St. James 1 Calderwood St. Ann 16 Oaklands St. Andrew 18 Caledonia Westmoreland 11 Ocho Rios St. Ann 1738 Camberwell St. Mary 55 Old Denbigh Clarendon 89 Cambridge St. James 17 Old England Manchester 24 Campbell Town Kingston 236 Old Harbour Bay St. Catherine 2 Canterbury St. James 1 Old Harbour Road St. Catherine 265 Carisbrook St. Elizabeth 17 Old Harbour St. Catherine 630 Carron Hall St. Mary 15 Oracabessa St. Mary 362 Cascade Hanover 2 Orange Bay Hanover 94

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Cascade Portland 4 Orange Bay Portland 133 Cascade St. Ann 1 Orange Hill Westmoreland 1 Cassia Park St. Andrew 186 Orange St. James 19 Castle Comfort Portland 44 Osbourne Store Clarendon 148 Castleton St. Mary 419 Paisley Clarendon 7 Catadupa St. James 1 Palmers Cross Clarendon 179 Catherine Hall St. James 8 Pamphret St. Thomas 45 Catherine Mount St. James 21 Papine St. Andrew 5 Cauldwell Hanover 2 Paradise St. James 109 Cavaliers St. Andrew 6 Parks Road St. Andrew 2 Cave Valley St. Ann 71 Parottee St. Elizabeth 8 Cave Westmoreland 19 Parry Town St. Ann 36 Caymanas St. Catherine 354 Part of Douglas Castle Clarendon 4 Cedar Grove Manchester 61 Part Of Gutters Manchester 191 Central Down Town Kingston 2458 Part of Guys Hill St. Catherine 29 Central Port Antonio Portland 249 Part of Kellits Clarendon 12 Central Village St. Catherine 951 Part of Keystone St. Catherine 10 Chalky Hill St. Ann 243 Part of Spaldings Manchester 39 Chambers Pen Hanover 3 Passage Fort St. Catherine 44 Chantilly Manchester 2 Passmore Town Kingston 26 Chantilly Westmoreland 12 Patrick City St. Andrew 285 Chapelton Clarendon 21 Pear Tree Grove St. Catherine 2 Charles Town Portland 38 Pear Tree St. Thomas 9 Charles Town St. Mary 58 Peckham Clarendon 4 Chateau Clarendon 3 Pedro Plains St. Elizabeth 11 Cherry Gardens St. Andrew 128 Pembroke Hall St. Andrew 156 Chester Castle Hanover 20 Pennants Clarendon 8 Chester St. Ann 235 Penwood St. Andrew 47 Christiana Manchester 70 Pepper St. Elizabeth 64 Chudleigh Manchester 34 Perth Town Trelawny 12 Church Corner St. Thomas 61 Petersfield Westmoreland 37 Claremont St. Ann 220 Petersville Westmoreland 1 Clarks Town Trelawny 13 Philadelphia St. Ann 19 Clonmel St. Mary 181 Pike Manchester 2 Cobbla Manchester 12 Pimento Walk St. Ann 3 Cockburn Gardens St. Andrew 676 Pleasant Valley Clarendon 4 Cockpit Clarendon 9 Plowden Manchester 11 Coffee Piece Clarendon 2 Point Hill St. Catherine 25 Cole Gate St. Ann 201 Pondside Hanover 1 Coleyville Manchester 32 Pondside St. Elizabeth 20

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Colonels Ridge Clarendon 3 Poormans Corner St. Thomas 38 Comfort Castle Portland 4 Port Maria St. Mary 213 Comfort Hall Manchester 17 Port Morant St. Thomas 17 Comfort Hall St. James 5 Port Royal Kingston 159 Constant Spring Gardens St. Andrew 1739 Porters Mountain Westmoreland 2 Constant Spring St. Andrew 2277 Portland Cottage Clarendon 1 Constitution Hill St. Andrew 2 Porus Clarendon 8 Content Garden St. Ann 67 Porus Manchester 208 Content Manchester 4 Potsdam St. Elizabeth 4 Content Westmoreland 7 Priory St. Ann 337 Cooreville Gardens St. Andrew 138 Prospect Manchester 15 Copse Hanover 3 Prospect Portland 209 Coral Gardens St. James 67 Prospect St. Mary 419 Cornwall Mountian Westmoreland 1 Prospect St. Thomas 30 Cornwall St. James 1 Queensborough/ Tunbridge St. Andrew 252 Cotterwood St. Elizabeth 1 Quick Step St. Elizabeth 1 Cousins Cove Hanover 29 Race Course Clarendon 21 Coxswain Clarendon 2 Rae Town Kingston 369 Craig Head Manchester 7 Ramble Hanover 24 Crawford St. Elizabeth 69 Ramble St. Thomas 3 Crescent St. Catherine 106 Reading St. James 159 Crofts Hill Clarendon 13 Red Bank St. Elizabeth 1 Cromarty St. Catherine 161 Red Hills (Rural) St. Andrew 8 Crooked River Clarendon 10 Red Hills Gardens St. Andrew 408 Cross Keys Manchester 11 Red Hills Westmoreland 6 Cross Roads St. Andrew 1183 Red Hills/ Sterling Castle St. Andrew 8 Cuffie Ridge St. Ann 5 Redwood St. Catherine 3 Cumberland Clarendon 2 Refuge Trelawny 24 Cumberland St. Catherine 31 Retirement St. Elizabeth 2 Curatoe Hill Clarendon 218 Retirement St. James 10 D'Aguilar Town/ Rennock Lodge Kingston 396 Retreat St. Mary 53 Dallas St. Andrew 1 Retreat St. Thomas 28 Dalvey St. Thomas 8 Revival Westmoreland 5 Daniel Town Trelawny 75 Richmond Manchester 3 Danvers Pen St. Thomas 2 Richmond Park Clarendon 1 Darliston Westmoreland 14 Richmond Park St. Andrew 319 Dawkins Clarendon 9 Richmond St. Mary 53 Deeside Trelawny 6 Rio Bueno Trelawny 68 Delacree Park/ Union Gardens St. Andrew 489 Ritchies Clarendon 1 Delacree Pen St. Andrew 319 River Head St. Ann 3

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Delveland Westmoreland 4 River Head St. Thomas 2 Denham Town Kingston 27 Riversdale St. Catherine 5 Devon Manchester 6 Riverton City St. Andrew 263 Dias Hanover 6 Roaring River Westmoreland 1 Discovery Bay St. Ann 426 Robins Bay St. Mary 7 Dover St. Mary 54 Robins Hall Manchester 2 Down Town Montego Bay St. James 973 Rock Clarendon 2 Downs Manchester 15 Rock River Clarendon 7 Drapers Portland 64 Rock Spring Hanover 6 Drewsland St. Andrew 239 Rocky Point Clarendon 5 Drumblair St. Andrew 360 Roehampton St. Andrew 105 Duanvale Trelawny 5 Roehampton St. James 4 Duckenfield St. Thomas 6 Rollington Town Kingston 189 Duhaney Park St. Andrew 205 Rose Hall St. Elizabeth 3 Duhaney Pen St. Thomas 27 Rose Hall St. James 124 Dumfries St. James 6 Rose Heights St. James 3 Duncans Trelawny 143 Rose Hill Manchester 5 Durham Portland 2 Rose Mount Garden St. James 3 Easington St. Thomas 2 Rose Town St. Andrew 7 East Down Town Kingston 508 Rosemount St. James 16 Eastwood Park Gardens St. Andrew 626 Rowlandsfield St. Thomas 4 Edgewater St. Catherine 288 Royal Flat Manchester 24 Effortville Clarendon 7 Runaway Bay St. Ann 656 Elderslie St. Elizabeth 6 Russels St. Elizabeth 5 Eleven Miles St. Thomas 107 Salt Marsh Trelawny 109 Ellen Street Manchester 2 Salt River Clarendon 20 Enfield St. Mary 28 Salt Spring St. James 10 Enfield Westmoreland 9 Samuels Prospect Trelawny 5 Ensom St. Catherine 61 Sandside St. Mary 66 Epson St. Mary 34 Sandy Bay Clarendon 97 Epworth St. Ann 6 Sandy Bay Hanover 73 Ewarton St. Catherine 292 Sanguinetti Clarendon 35 Exchange St. Ann 145 Santa Cruz St. Elizabeth 229 Fairfield Manchester 3 Santoy Hanover 7 Fairfield St. James 47 Savannah-la-mar Business Dist. Westmoreland 137 Fairy Hill Portland 28 Sawyers Trelawny 6 Faith's Pen St. Ann 449 Scholefield St. Elizabeth 5 Falmouth Trelawny 270 Scotts Hall St. Mary 2 Farm Heights St. James 3 Scotts Pass Manchester 14 Fellowship Portland 7 Seaford Town Westmoreland 3

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Ferris Westmoreland 25 Seaforth St. Thomas 11 Ferry St. Andrew 179 Seaton Crescent Westmoreland 2 Flagstaff St. James 1 Seaview Gardens St. Andrew 303 Flamstead St. James 1 Seaward Pen St. Andrew 57 Flankers St. James 83 Sedgepond Clarendon 6 Fletchers Land Kingston 105 Seven Rivers St. James 7 Flint River St. Mary 10 Seymour Lands St. Andrew 475 Flower Hill St. James 3 Shefield Westmoreland 102 Font Hill St. Thomas 4 Sherwood Content Trelawny 6 Forest Hills Gardens St. Andrew 85 Sherwood Forest Portland 49 Forest Hills/ Plantation Height St. Andrew 85 Shoalin Grotto Westmoreland 10 Fort Williams Westmoreland 8 Silent Hill Clarendon 2 Four Paths Clarendon 209 Siloah St. Elizabeth 7 Frankfield Clarendon 18 Skibo Portland 5 Franklyn Town Kingston 17 Sligoville St. Catherine 11 Free Hill St. Mary 8 Slipe St. Elizabeth 10 Freetown Clarendon 15 Smithfield Westmoreland 106 French Park Manchester 2 Smithville Clarendon 3 Friendship Gap St. Mary 158 Snow Hill Portland 143 Friendship St. James 3 Snowdon Manchester 6 Frome Westmoreland 31 Somerset Manchester 8 Fruitfulvale Portland 10 Somerset St. Thomas 1 Fullersfield Westmoreland 3 Somerton St. James 3 Fullerswood St. Elizabeth 5 Southfield St. Elizabeth 25 Galina St. Mary 97 Southside Kingston 131 Garlands St. James 1 Spaldings Clarendon 63 Gayle St. Mary 29 Spanish Town Central St. Catherine 1185 Georges Plain Westmoreland 27 Spicy Hill Trelawny 6 George's Valley Manchester 13 Spring Garden St. Thomas 2 Gibraltar St. Ann 134 Spring Garden Trelawny 3 Giddy Hall St. Elizabeth 43 Spring Ground Manchester 2 Gimme-me-bit Clarendon 5 Spring Hill Portland 9 Ginger Hill St. Elizabeth 5 Springfield Kingston 88 Ginger Ridge St. Catherine 1 Spur Tree Manchester 69 Glendevon St. James 16 St. Ann's Bay St. Ann 583 Glengoffe St. Catherine 1 St. D'Acre St. Ann 54 Glenmuir Clarendon 176 St. John's East St. Catherine 195 Golden Acres St. Catherine 143 St. John's West St. Catherine 62 Golden Grove St. Ann 128 St. Leonards Westmoreland 1 Golden Grove St. Thomas 3 St. Margaret's Bay Portland 129

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Golden Spring St. Andrew 95 St. Paul's Manchester 7 Good Intent Manchester 3 St. Vincent Trelawny 3 Gooden's River Westmoreland 1 Stadium Gardens St. Andrew 51 Goodwill St. James 2 Steer Town St. Ann 273 Gordon Town St. Andrew 11 Stettin Trelawny 5 Goshen St. Elizabeth 94 Stewart Town Trelawny 21 Grange Hill Westmoreland 32 Stonehenge St. James 2 Grange Westmoreland 2 Stony Hill St. Andrew 315 Grantham Clarendon 3 Strathbogie Westmoreland 25 Grants Pen St. Andrew 316 Strawberry Westmoreland 2 Granville St. James 2 Struie Westmoreland 3 Granville Trelawny 39 Summer Hill St. James 2 Great Pond St. Ann 9 Summerfield Clarendon 13 Great Valley Hanover 5 Sunderland St. James 2 Greater Portmore St. Catherine 759 Swaby's Hope Manchester 35 Green Island Hanover 61 Swallowfield St. Andrew 52 Greendale St. Catherine 85 Swift River Portland 5 Greenvale Manchester 146 Tangle River St. James 5 Greenwich Town/ Newport West St. Andrew 937 Temple Hall St. Andrew 78 Greenwood St. James 44 Thompson Town Clarendon 4 Gregory Park St. Catherine 77 Thornton St. Elizabeth 4 Grove Place Manchester 19 Three Mile River Westmoreland 33 Grove Town Manchester 3 Three Oaks/ Glendale St. Andrew 50 Guys Hill St. Mary 9 Tivoli Gardens Kingston 50 Haddo Westmoreland 14 Tollgate Clarendon 283 Half-Way-Tree St. Andrew 3674 Top Hill Manchester 2 Hampstead St. Mary 10 Top Hill St. Elizabeth 20 Hampton Green St. Catherine 214 Tower Hill St. Andrew 58 Hannah Town/ Craig Town Kingston 128 Tower Hill/Moy Hall St. James 7 Harbour View St. Andrew 374 Town Head Westmoreland 2 Harewood St. Catherine 4 Trafalgar Park St. Andrew 95 Harkers Hall St. Catherine 4 Tranquility Portland 8 Harmons Manchester 4 Treasure Beach St. Elizabeth 13 Harmony Town Westmoreland 1 Trench Town St. Andrew 10 Harry Watch Manchester 11 Trinityville St. Thomas 19 Hatfield Manchester 103 Trout Hall Clarendon 14 Havendale St. Andrew 372 Troy Trelawny 6 Hayes Clarendon 142 Truro Westmoreland 3 Hayfield St. Thomas 1 Tucker St. James 6 Hazard Clarendon 89 Turners Clarendon 12

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Heartease Manchester 24 Ulster Spring Trelawny 13 Hectors River Portland 7 Unity Hall St. James 41 Hellshire St. Catherine 160 University St. Andrew 31 Hermitage St. Andrew 3 Victoria Town Manchester 2 Hertford Westmoreland 9 Vineyard Town St. Andrew 445 Hibernia Manchester 4 Wait-A-Bit Trelawny 8 Higgin Land St. Ann 12 Wakefield Trelawny 18 Highgate St. Mary 171 Walderston Manchester 77 Hillside St. Thomas 1 Walkers Wood St. Ann 200 Hinds Town St. Ann 110 Waltham Gardens St. Andrew 126 Holland St. Elizabeth 38 Warminister St. Elizabeth 5 Hope Bay Portland 101 Warsop Trelawny 5 Hope Pastures/ UTECH St. Andrew 139 Washington Gardens St. Andrew 109 Hopeton St. James 9 Watchwell St. Elizabeth 6 Hopewell Hanover 95 Water Lane Clarendon 10 Hughenden St. Andrew 359 Water Works Westmoreland 45 Huntley Manchester 8 Waterford St. Catherine 87 Independence City St. Catherine 46 Waterhouse St. Andrew 33 Inverness Clarendon 75 Watermount St. Catherine 5 Inverness St. Ann 27 Watham Manchester 10 Ironshore St. James 116 Watt Town St. Ann 4 Irwin St. James 3 Welcome Hall St. James 21 Islington St. Mary 87 West Cumberland St. Catherine 45 Jacks Hill St. Andrew 6 West Down Town Kingston 161 Jacks River St. Mary 22 West Green St. James 26 Jackson Town Trelawny 20 Wheelerfield St. Thomas 1 James Hill Clarendon 11 White Hall St. Thomas 1 Jeffery Town St. Mary 9 White Hill St. Elizabeth 26 Jericho Hanover 87 White Horses St. Thomas 83 Jerusalem Westmoreland 1 Whitehall St. Andrew 535 John's Hall St. James 22 Whitehouse Westmoreland 61 Johns Town St. Thomas 10 Whitfield Town St. Andrew 179 Johnson Town Kingston 15 Whithorn Westmoreland 24 Jones Pen St. Thomas 2 Williamsfield Manchester 213 Jones Town St. Andrew 41 Williamsfield Westmoreland 1 Junction St. Elizabeth 38 Willowdene St. Catherine 163 Kencot St. Andrew 699 Wilmington St. Thomas 3 Kendal Hanover 2 Wilson's Run Trelawny 4 Kendal Manchester 28 Wilton Gardens/ Rema St. Andrew 11 Kensington Portland 15 Winchester St. Thomas 8

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Community Crashes Community Crashes Keystone St. Catherine 7 Windsor Castle Portland 105 Kingston Gardens Kingston 21 Windsor Forest Portland 37 Kingsvale Hanover 6 Windsor Portland 8 Kinloss Trelawny 10 Wirefence Trelawny 8 Kintyre St. Andrew 1 Woodford Park St. Andrew 152 Kitson Town St. Catherine 24 Woodford St. Andrew 4 Knockpatrick Manchester 29 Woodhall Clarendon 18 Labyrinth St. Mary 29 Woodlands Hanover 2 Lacovia St. Elizabeth 132 Woodpark St. Mary 11 Lancaster Manchester 5 Woodsville Hanover 2 Lances Bay Hanover 31 Yallahs St. Thomas 50 Lawrence Tavern St. Andrew 107 York Castle St. Ann 2 Leeds St. Elizabeth 15 York St. Thomas 15 Leith Hall St. Thomas 13 York Town Clarendon 49 Liguanea St. Andrew 711 Zaidie Gardens St. Andrew 210

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Appendix 4 - Fatal Crashes by Community

Fatal Fatal Community Community Crashes Crashes Aberdeen St. Elizabeth 1 Kensington Portland 1 Aboukir St. Ann 1 Keystone St. Catherine 1 Above Rocks St. Catherine 1 Kinloss Trelawny 1 Adelphi St. James 1 Kintyre St. Andrew 1 Albion St. Thomas 8 Kitson Town St. Catherine 3 Alderton St. Ann 1 Knockpatrick Manchester 4 Alexandria St. Ann 3 Labyrinth St. Mary 1 Alley Clarendon 1 Lacovia St. Elizabeth 16 Alligator Pond Manchester 1 Lances Bay Hanover 6 Allman Town Kingston 2 Lawrence Tavern St. Andrew 4 Alps Trelawny 1 Leeds St. Elizabeth 1 Amity Hall St. Thomas 3 Leith Hall St. Thomas 1 Amity Westmoreland 2 Liguanea St. Andrew 10 Anchovy St. James 1 Lilliput St. James 8 Annotto Bay St. Mary 6 Lime Hall St. Ann 11 Arcadia St. Thomas 1 Linstead St. Catherine 26 Arlene Gardens St. Andrew 2 Lionel Town Clarendon 4 Arnett Gardens St. Andrew 4 Lititz St. Elizabeth 2 Asia/Pratville Manchester 4 Little London Westmoreland 31 Baileys Vale St. Mary 3 Llandewey St. Thomas 2 Balaclava St. Elizabeth 4 Llandilo Westmoreland 3 Ballards Valley St. Elizabeth 1 Lluidas Vale St. Catherine 3 Bamboo St. Ann 1 Logwood Hanover 7 Baptist St. Thomas 3 Long Bay Portland 2 Barbary Hall St. Elizabeth 1 Long Road Portland 1 Barbican St. Andrew 2 Longville Park Clarendon 1 Barking Lodge St. Thomas 1 Lorrimers Trelawny 1 Barrett Town St. James 3 Lottery St. James 1 Bartons St. Catherine 1 Lucea East Hanover 8 Bath Westmoreland 1 Lucea West Hanover 11 Beaufort Westmoreland 1 Mackfield Westmoreland 1 Beckford Kraal Clarendon 1 Macknie St. Ann 1 Beeston Spring Westmoreland 2 Maggotty St. Elizabeth 2 Belfield St. Mary 1 Majestic Gardens St. Andrew 10 Bensonton St. Ann 1 Manchioneal Portland 1 Bethel Town Westmoreland 2 Mandeville Proper Manchester 18 Beverley Hills St. Andrew 3 Manley Meadows Kingston 8 Bickersteth St. James 4 Mansfield St. Ann 6 Big Bridge Westmoreland 4 March Town Hanover 3 Black Hill Portland 3 Martin St. Mary 2 Black River St. Elizabeth 8 Marverley St. Andrew 6 Bluefields Westmoreland 9 Mavis Bank St. Andrew 2 Bogue St. Elizabeth 1 Maxfield Park St. Andrew 2

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Fatal Fatal Community Community Crashes Crashes Bogue St. James 13 May Pen Proper Clarendon 4 Bogwalk St. Catherine 25 Mearnsville Westmoreland 2 Boucher Park St. Andrew 1 Middle Quarters St. Elizabeth 2 Boundbrook Portland 2 Mile Gully Manchester 1 Bounty Hall Trelawny 1 Mineral Heights Clarendon 9 Bournemouth Gardens Kingston 9 Molynes Four Roads St. Andrew 6 Braes River St. Elizabeth 2 Molynes Gardens St. Andrew 5 Braeton St. Catherine 10 Mona Heights St. Andrew 2 Brandon Hill St. Andrew 1 Moneague St. Ann 14 Bridgeport St. Catherine 5 Montpelier St. James 1 Brighton St. Elizabeth 1 Morant Bay St. Thomas 3 Broadgate St. Mary 2 Mount Carey St. James 8 Brompton St. Elizabeth 2 Mount Peto Hanover 1 Broughton Westmoreland 5 Mount Salem St. James 4 Browns Hill St. Catherine 1 Mountain View Gardens St. Andrew 1 Browns Town St. Ann 12 Mountainside St. Elizabeth 1 Bucknor Clarendon 2 Naggo Head St. Catherine 6 Buff Bay Portland 6 Nain St. Elizabeth 1 Bull Bay/ Seven Mile St. Andrew 18 Negril Westmoreland 31 Bunkers Hill Trelawny 1 New Denbigh Clarendon 1 Burnt Savannah St. Elizabeth 1 New Green Manchester 5 Bushy Park Clarendon 3 New Haven St. Andrew 1 Butt-Up Manchester 1 New Kingston St. Andrew 3 Bybrook Portland 1 New Market St. Elizabeth 2 Calderwood St. Ann 1 New Works Westmoreland 1 Cambridge St. James 2 Newell St. Elizabeth 1 Campbell Town Kingston 3 Newport East Kingston 20 Carisbrook St. Elizabeth 1 Newport Manchester 1 Carron Hall St. Mary 1 Newton Square Kingston 2 Cascade Hanover 1 Newton St. Elizabeth 3 Cassia Park St. Andrew 3 Norman Gardens Kingston 2 Castle Comfort Portland 2 Norwich Portland 3 Castleton St. Mary 6 Ocho Rios St. Ann 41 Catherine Hall St. James 1 Old Denbigh Clarendon 5 Catherine Mount St. James 2 Old England Manchester 2 Cauldwell Hanover 1 Old Harbour Road St. Catherine 29 Cave Valley St. Ann 3 Old Harbour St. Catherine 20 Caymanas St. Catherine 32 Oracabessa St. Mary 7 Cedar Grove Manchester 2 Orange Bay Hanover 20 Central Down Town Kingston 14 Orange Bay Portland 8 Central Port Antonio Portland 3 Orange St. James 4 Central Village St. Catherine 39 Osbourne Store Clarendon 13 Chalky Hill St. Ann 9 Paisley Clarendon 1 Chantilly Manchester 1 Palmers Cross Clarendon 22 Chantilly Westmoreland 1 Paradise St. James 5 Chapelton Clarendon 2 Parottee St. Elizabeth 1 Charles Town Portland 2 Part of Douglas Castle Clarendon 1

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 74 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Fatal Fatal Community Community Crashes Crashes Chateau Clarendon 1 Part Of Gutters Manchester 10 Chester Castle Hanover 6 Part of Kellits Clarendon 1 Chester St. Ann 20 Part of Keystone St. Catherine 1 Christiana Manchester 6 Part of Spaldings Manchester 1 Chudleigh Manchester 9 Patrick City St. Andrew 4 Church Corner St. Thomas 3 Pembroke Hall St. Andrew 2 Claremont St. Ann 7 Penwood St. Andrew 2 Clarks Town Trelawny 2 Pepper St. Elizabeth 10 Clonmel St. Mary 4 Perth Town Trelawny 1 Cobbla Manchester 2 Petersfield Westmoreland 6 Cockburn Gardens St. Andrew 6 Philadelphia St. Ann 1 Cockpit Clarendon 2 Pleasant Valley Clarendon 1 Cole Gate St. Ann 1 Plowden Manchester 1 Coleyville Manchester 2 Pondside St. Elizabeth 1 Comfort Castle Portland 1 Port Maria St. Mary 2 Comfort Hall Manchester 2 Port Morant St. Thomas 1 Constant Spring Gardens St. Andrew 5 Port Royal Kingston 8 Constant Spring St. Andrew 12 Porters Mountain Westmoreland 1 Content Garden St. Ann 1 Porus Manchester 20 Cooreville Gardens St. Andrew 3 Potsdam St. Elizabeth 2 Copse Hanover 1 Priory St. Ann 15 Coral Gardens St. James 7 Prospect Portland 6 Cornwall St. James 1 Prospect St. Mary 19 Cousins Cove Hanover 9 Prospect St. Thomas 3 Craig Head Manchester 2 Queensborough/ Tunbridge St. Andrew 3 Crawford St. Elizabeth 3 Race Course Clarendon 3 Crescent St. Catherine 4 Rae Town Kingston 7 Crofts Hill Clarendon 2 Ramble Hanover 5 Cromarty St. Catherine 5 Reading St. James 8 Crooked River Clarendon 1 Red Hills (Rural) St. Andrew 2 Cross Keys Manchester 1 Red Hills Gardens St. Andrew 1 Cross Roads St. Andrew 13 Red Hills Westmoreland 1 Cuffie Ridge St. Ann 1 Refuge Trelawny 4 Cumberland St. Catherine 1 Retirement St. James 1 Curatoe Hill Clarendon 16 Retreat St. Thomas 1 D'Aguilar Town/ Rennock Lodge Kingston 13 Richmond Park Clarendon 1 Dalvey St. Thomas 2 Richmond Park St. Andrew 1 Daniel Town Trelawny 5 Richmond St. Mary 2 Dawkins Clarendon 1 Rio Bueno Trelawny 8 Deeside Trelawny 1 Riversdale St. Catherine 1 Delacree Park/ Union Gardens St. Andrew 6 Riverton City St. Andrew 13 Delacree Pen St. Andrew 2 Rock River Clarendon 1 Delveland Westmoreland 1 Rock Spring Hanover 3 Denham Town Kingston 1 Roehampton St. Andrew 1 Discovery Bay St. Ann 27 Roehampton St. James 2 Dover St. Mary 7 Rollington Town Kingston 7 Down Town Montego Bay St. James 14 Rose Hall St. James 27

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 75 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Fatal Fatal Community Community Crashes Crashes Drapers Portland 2 Rose Mount Garden St. James 1 Drewsland St. Andrew 2 Rosemount St. James 4 Drumblair St. Andrew 2 Runaway Bay St. Ann 46 Duanvale Trelawny 2 Salt Marsh Trelawny 4 Duckenfield St. Thomas 2 Salt River Clarendon 3 Duhaney Park St. Andrew 5 Samuels Prospect Trelawny 1 Duhaney Pen St. Thomas 5 Sandside St. Mary 3 Duncans Trelawny 27 Sandy Bay Clarendon 9 Durham Portland 1 Sandy Bay Hanover 8 East Down Town Kingston 5 Sanguinetti Clarendon 1 Eastwood Park Gardens St. Andrew 2 Santa Cruz St. Elizabeth 18 Edgewater St. Catherine 21 Santoy Hanover 4 Elderslie St. Elizabeth 1 Savannah-la-mar Business Dist. Westmoreland 8 Eleven Miles St. Thomas 1 Sawyers Trelawny 2 Enfield Westmoreland 1 Scotts Pass Manchester 1 Ensom St. Catherine 2 Seaview Gardens St. Andrew 8 Epson St. Mary 1 Seaward Pen St. Andrew 1 Ewarton St. Catherine 15 Sedgepond Clarendon 2 Exchange St. Ann 3 Seven Rivers St. James 3 Fairfield St. James 2 Seymour Lands St. Andrew 9 Fairy Hill Portland 3 Shefield Westmoreland 10 Faith's Pen St. Ann 4 Sherwood Content Trelawny 1 Falmouth Trelawny 16 Sherwood Forest Portland 1 Ferris Westmoreland 2 Shoalin Grotto Westmoreland 1 Ferry St. Andrew 8 Siloah St. Elizabeth 2 Flamstead St. James 1 Sligoville St. Catherine 1 Flankers St. James 9 Slipe St. Elizabeth 1 Fletchers Land Kingston 2 Smithfield Westmoreland 4 Forest Hills Gardens St. Andrew 1 Somerset Manchester 1 Forest Hills/ Plantation Height St. Andrew 2 Southfield St. Elizabeth 1 Fort Williams Westmoreland 3 Southside Kingston 1 Four Paths Clarendon 16 Spaldings Clarendon 2 Frankfield Clarendon 3 Spanish Town Central St. Catherine 32 Free Hill St. Mary 1 Spring Hill Portland 2 Freetown Clarendon 2 Springfield Kingston 2 Friendship Gap St. Mary 2 Spur Tree Manchester 2 Friendship St. James 1 St. Ann's Bay St. Ann 12 Frome Westmoreland 7 St. D'Acre St. Ann 2 Georges Plain Westmoreland 7 St. John's East St. Catherine 11 George's Valley Manchester 1 St. John's West St. Catherine 4 Gibraltar St. Ann 3 St. Margaret's Bay Portland 7 Giddy Hall St. Elizabeth 3 Stadium Gardens St. Andrew 1 Gimme-me-bit Clarendon 1 Steer Town St. Ann 7 Ginger Hill St. Elizabeth 1 Stettin Trelawny 1 Glendevon St. James 1 Stewart Town Trelawny 1 Glenmuir Clarendon 3 Stony Hill St. Andrew 3 Golden Acres St. Catherine 9 Strathbogie Westmoreland 4

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 76 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Fatal Fatal Community Community Crashes Crashes Golden Grove St. Ann 1 Strawberry Westmoreland 1 Golden Grove St. Thomas 1 Struie Westmoreland 1 Golden Spring St. Andrew 2 Summerfield Clarendon 1 Good Intent Manchester 1 Sunderland St. James 1 Goodwill St. James 2 Swaby's Hope Manchester 1 Gordon Town St. Andrew 1 Tangle River St. James 1 Goshen St. Elizabeth 8 Temple Hall St. Andrew 1 Grange Hill Westmoreland 13 Three Mile River Westmoreland 4 Grantham Clarendon 1 Tivoli Gardens Kingston 1 Grants Pen St. Andrew 3 Tollgate Clarendon 12 Granville Trelawny 1 Top Hill St. Elizabeth 1 Great Pond St. Ann 1 Tower Hill St. Andrew 2 Greater Portmore St. Catherine 13 Tower Hill/Moy Hall St. James 1 Green Island Hanover 21 Town Head Westmoreland 2 Greendale St. Catherine 5 Tranquility Portland 1 Greenvale Manchester 3 Treasure Beach St. Elizabeth 1 Greenwich Town/ Newport West St. Andrew 13 Trench Town St. Andrew 2 Greenwood St. James 11 Trout Hall Clarendon 4 Gregory Park St. Catherine 3 Truro Westmoreland 3 Grove Place Manchester 1 Turners Clarendon 1 Guys Hill St. Mary 1 Ulster Spring Trelawny 2 Half-Way-Tree St. Andrew 25 Unity Hall St. James 9 Hampstead St. Mary 1 Victoria Town Manchester 1 Hampton Green St. Catherine 4 Vineyard Town St. Andrew 7 Hannah Town/ Craig Town Kingston 5 Wait-A-Bit Trelawny 1 Harbour View St. Andrew 9 Wakefield Trelawny 1 Harewood St. Catherine 1 Walderston Manchester 9 Hatfield Manchester 9 Walkers Wood St. Ann 5 Hayes Clarendon 25 Waltham Gardens St. Andrew 4 Hazard Clarendon 2 Warsop Trelawny 1 Heartease Manchester 3 Washington Gardens St. Andrew 2 Hectors River Portland 1 Water Lane Clarendon 4 Hellshire St. Catherine 6 Water Works Westmoreland 4 Hertford Westmoreland 1 Waterford St. Catherine 3 Hibernia Manchester 1 Waterhouse St. Andrew 1 Highgate St. Mary 5 Watermount St. Catherine 1 Hinds Town St. Ann 3 Welcome Hall St. James 1 Holland St. Elizabeth 4 West Green St. James 2 Hope Bay Portland 4 White Hill St. Elizabeth 2 Hope Pastures/ UTECH St. Andrew 3 White Horses St. Thomas 7 Hopeton St. James 1 Whitehall St. Andrew 3 Hopewell Hanover 16 Whitehouse Westmoreland 9 Hughenden St. Andrew 2 Whitfield Town St. Andrew 1 Independence City St. Catherine 5 Whithorn Westmoreland 3 Inverness Clarendon 2 Williamsfield Manchester 30 Inverness St. Ann 1 Willowdene St. Catherine 5 Ironshore St. James 16 Wilmington St. Thomas 1

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 77 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company Comprehensive Crash Mapping: A New Analytical Paradigm for Addressing Road Safety in Jamaica

Fatal Fatal Community Community Crashes Crashes Islington St. Mary 4 Wilson's Run Trelawny 1 Jackson Town Trelawny 5 Winchester St. Thomas 1 James Hill Clarendon 2 Windsor Castle Portland 1 Jericho Hanover 15 Windsor Portland 1 John's Hall St. James 3 Wirefence Trelawny 2 Johnson Town Kingston 1 Woodford Park St. Andrew 2 Jones Town St. Andrew 1 Woodhall Clarendon 2 Junction St. Elizabeth 3 Woodpark St. Mary 1 Kencot St. Andrew 9 Yallahs St. Thomas 2 Kendal Hanover 1 York Town Clarendon 6 Kendal Manchester 1 Zaidie Gardens St. Andrew 2

Report prepared by: Mona GeoInformatics Institute 78 Report prepared for : Jamaica National Foundation and JN General Insurance Company