Operation of Complex Water Systems

Operation, Planning, and Analysis of Already Developed Water Systems NATO ASI Series Advanced Science Institutes Series

A series presenting the results of activities sponsored by the NATO Science Committee, which aims at the dissemination of advanced scientific and technological knowledge, with a view to strengthening links between scientific communities

The series is published by an international board of publishers in conjunction with NATO Scientific Affairs Division

A Life Sciences Plenum Publishing Corporation B Physics London and New York

C Mathematical and D. Reidel Publishing Company Physical Sciences Dordrecht and Boston

0 Behavioural and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers Social Sciences Boston/The Hague/DordrechtlLancaster E Applied Sciences

F Computer and Springer Verlag Systems Sciences Berlin/Heidelberg/New York G Ecological Sciences

Series E: Applied Sciences - No. 58 Operation of Complex Water Systems Operation, Planning and Analysis of Already Developed Water Systems

edited by Emanuele Guggino Professor and Director of the Institute for Hydraulics, Hydrology, and Water Management at the Catania, Sicily, Giuseppe Rossi Professor at the Institute for Hydraulics, Hydrology, and Water Management at the University of Catania Catana, Sicily, Italy David Hendricks Professor of Civil Engineering at Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado, USA

1983 Martinus NiJhoff Publishers ~. A member of the Kluwer Academic Publishers Group l'1li Boston / The Hague / Dordrecht / Lancaster • Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on "Operation of Complex Water Systems", Erice, Sicily, May 23 - June 2, 1981

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

NATO Advanced Study Institute on "Operation of Complex Water Systems" (1981 : Erice, Italy) Operation of complex water systems.

(NATO advanced study institutes series. Series E, Applied sciences; v. 58) 1. Water supply engineering--Congresses. I. Guggino, Emanuele. II. Rossi, Giuseppe. III. Hendricks, David W. IV. North Atlantic Treaty Organization. V. Title. VI. Series. TD201.N37 1981 628.1 82-22529

ISBN-13: 978-94-009-6809-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-6807-3 DO I: 10.1 007/978-94-009-6807-3

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, P.O. Box 566, 2501 CN The Hague, The Netherlands

Copyright © 1983 by Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1983 v CONTENTS Preface ...... vii Acknowledgments ...... viii Authors...... ix Biographical Notes...... xiv Introduction: THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO WATER MANAGEMENT Giuseppe Rossi xv PART I: OPERATION OF COMPLEX WATER SYSTEMS 1 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX WATER SySTEMS...... 3 Costantino A. Fasso 2. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCE SYSTEM OPERATION 21 Salvatore Indelicato 3. IMPROVED METHODS OF WATER SYSTEM OPERATION...... 2.6 Lloyd C. Fowler

PART II: SYSTEMS ANALYSIS METHODOLOGIES 33 4. DISAGGREGATION AND AGGREGATION OF WATER SYSTEMS... 35 Jose D. Salas and Warren A. Hall, and R. A. Smith 5. APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICAL SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 61 Lucien Duckstein 6. OPTIMAL OPERATION OF RESERVOIRS BY DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING...... 97 Ricardo Harboe 7. SIMULATION MODELING OF A REGIONAL WATER SYSTEM 112 C. Bartolomei, P. Celico, Y. Emsellem, F. Mangano, A. Pecoraro, A. del Treste, and D. Verney 8. WATER QUALITY MODELING 120 David W. Hendricks 9. DESIGN OF OBJECTIVE FUNCTIONS FOR WATER RESOU RCES SYSTEMS ...... 139 Vujica Yevjevich 10. WATER QUALITY MODELING OF GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS. .. . . 156 Marcello Benedini

PART III: DECISION MAKING 173 11. HYDROLOGIC FORECASTING FOR OPERATION...... 175 Vujica Yevjevich 12. WATER DEMAND FORECASTING...... 1~ Luis Veiga da Cunha 13. OPERATING RULES FOR STORAGE RESERVOIRS...... 208 Jose D. Salas and Warren A. Hall 14. APPLICATION OF DECISION THEORY TO OPERATION...... 226 Lucien Duckstein 15. SOCIETAL CONSTRAINTS IN DECISION MAKING...... 261 Norman Wengert VI

PART IV: INSTITUTIONAL AND ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES 275 16. WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS .. " ...... 277 Norman Wengert 17. ORGANIZATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS ...... " ...... 293 Luis Veiga da Cunha 18. LEGAL ASPECTS OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL...... 304 Giovanni Torregrossa 19. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF WATER PROJECTS...... 311 Asit K. Biswas 20. COST SHARING IN MULTI-USER WATER PROJECTS. . . . . •...... 321 A. G. Conybeare Williams 21. EDUCATIONAL NEEDS FOR THE OPERATION OF COMPLEX WATER SYSTEMS...... 348 Emanuele Guggino PART V: CASE STUDIES 353 22. MANAGEMENT OF WATER SERVICES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 355 A. G. Conybeare Williams 23. RESERVOIR OPERATION IN THE WUPPER RIVER SYSTEM ...... 372 Ricardo Harboe 24. OPERATION OF WATER SYSTEMS IN EASTERN SiCiLy ...... 394 Giuseppe Rossi, Emanuele Guggino, and Salvatore Indelicato 25. WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS IN EASTERN SICILY ...... 411 Emilio Giardina and Salvatore E. Battiato 26. WASTEWATER REUSE STUDIES APPLIED TO THE MEZZOGIORNO 418 Fulvio Croce 27. THE SANTA CLARA VALLEY WATER DISTRICT ...... 429 Lloyd C. Fowler 28. INCREASING THE YIELD OF CACHUMA RESERVOIR ...... 442 Lloyd C. Fowler 29. WATER SUPPLY IN ORANGE COUNTy ...... 454 Neil Cline 30. INTERNATIONAL WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF THE RHINE RIVER ...... 472 Vladimir Mandl and H. Vrijhof 31. INSTITUTIONAL PROBLEMS IN THE OPERATION OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ...... 485 Luis S. Pereira 32. THE WATER RESOURCES OF TURKEY ...... 491!i Ibrahim Gurer 33. GENERATION OF RUNOFF DATA FOR UNGAGED STREAMS ..... G. A. Fuller VII

PREFACE

Most water systems in the industrial regions of the world are already developed. At the same time they are highly complex. This is true with respect to physical configuration, managment, operation, political goals, environmental interactions, etc. Thus the basic systems are already in place. This realization is the starting point for any new water developments and for operation.

From this we conclude that whatever we do to meet new exigencies requires an understanding of the presently in-place complex water systems. Their operation is the important thing. And how can we adjust their operation to meet the new demands upon the system?

This book deals with complex water systems and their operation. Some chapters are highly theoretical while others are rooted in practical applications. How can we an~lyze the operation of a complex water system and determine how its performance can be improved? Several chapters on mathematical analysis give approaches involving different aspects of this problem. But operation also has political, management, and physical aspects. These problems are addressed in chapters by managers who operate such systems.

The main theme of all chapters is how to deal with the different aspects of a complex water system, already in place. We feel the book, in dealing with this question could be a start for new theoretical premises in water planning.

The book has been developed from the papers presented at the NATO Advanced Study Institute entitled, "Operation of Complex Water Systems," held at Erice, Sicily, May 23-June 2, 1981. The institute was organized by the School of Water Resources Management of the Centre Ettore Majorana, an enterprise headquartered at the Istituto di Idraulica, Idrologia, e Gestione delle Acque and the Istituto di Idraulica Agraria, Universita di Catania. The book is one of the significant accomplishemnts of the first ten years of three-way cooperation in the area of water management between the University of Catania, FORMEZ, and Colorado State University.

Each chapter was edited during a process of continuing refinement to change the style from conference paper to book chapter. Thus the book is more than a collection of seminar papers, it is a document intended for communication with others in the field, and as a beginning of professional thought about operation of already developed complex water systems.

Emanuel Guggino Giuseppe Rossi David Hendricks VIII

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book was developed from the proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Operation of Complex Water Systems, held 23 May to 2 June, 1981 at the Ettore Majorana Centre for Scientific Culture, Erice, Sicily, directed by Antonio Zichichi. The NATO Institute was conceived during two year period which involved the participation of the editors' together with Professor Vujica Yevjevich, and Professor Guido Calenda. Dr. Mario DiLullo, Director of the ASI Program, provided continuing support in helping the development of the institute. The NATO ASI Program provided the major financial support.

Other sponsors for the institute include Centro Formazione e Studi per il Mezzogiorno, Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici, Ministero della Pubblica Isstruzione, Ministero per la Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica, and Regione Siciliana. Dott. Giulio Centemero was instrumental in providing the FORMEZ support.

Several Italian professional organizations were involved. They are: ANIAI, Associazione Nazionale Ingegneri ed Architetti Italiani, ANDIS Associazione Nazionale di Ingegneri Sanitaria, All, Associazione Italiana Idrotecnica.

We appreciate the support of the following persons:

Dott. Gulio Centemero, Manager of Special Projects, FORMEZ, Roma Dott. Alberto DeMaio, Director, FORMEZ, Roma Dott. Ing. Gabriele Di Palma, Ministry of Public Works, Roma Honorable Franco Nicolazzi, Minister of Public Works, Roma. Dott. Giovanni Torregrossa, Advisor to the Government for Public Works, Roma Prof. Antonio Zichichi, Director, Centre Ettore Majorana, Erice Dott. Sergio Zoppi, President of FORMEZ, Roma IX PARTICIPANTS AND AUTHORS

BElGIUM

Dr. Vladimir Mandl* Prof. Salvatore Enrico Battiato* Commission of European Istituto Finanze Communities Facolta di Economia e Commercio Rue de la Loi 200, B Universita di Catania 1049 BRUXELLES Corso Italia, 55 CATANIA Dr. H. Vrijhof Commission of European Communities Prof. Ing. Marcello Benedini* Rue de la Loi 200,B Instituto Ricerca sulle Acque Via Reno, 1 1049 BRUXELLES ROMA CANADA Dott. Domenico Bertucci Dr. G. A. Fuller*, Head FORMEZ Regional Water Systems Via Salaria, 229 Engineering ROMA University of Regina REGINA SASKATCHEWAN S4S OA2 Dott. Ing. Giuseppe Boscarino Consorzio Lisimelie FRANCE Via Siracusa Belvedere SIRACUSA Prof Yves Emsellem* CE.FI.GRE. Sophia Antipolis Prof. lng. Guido Calenda B.P. 15 lstituto Costruzioni ldrauliche VALBONNE (Alpes Maritimes) Facolta di Ingegneria Via Eudossiana, 18 GERMANY ROMA

Dr. Ricardo Harboe* Dott. Amedeo Calenzo Ruhr Universitat Bochum FORMEZ Lehrstuhl fur Wasserwirtschaft Via Salaria, 229 und Umwelttechnik I ROMA Postfach 102148 4630 BOCHUM - QUERENBURG Dott. Giulio Centemero FORMEZ Via Salaria, 229 ITALY ROMA

Dott. Giuseppe Angelo Dr.ssa Lucia De Anna Ente Acquedotti Siciliani FORMEZ Via Torino Via Salaria, 229 PARTANNA ROMA

*Author x

Dott. Alberto De Maio, Direttore Prof. lng. Emanuele Guggino* FORMEZ Istituto di Idraulica ldrologia Via Salaria, 229 e Gestione delle Acque ROMA Facolta di Ingegneria Viale Andrea Doria, 6 Dott. lng. Gabriele Di Palma CATANIA Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici P.le Porta Pia Prof. Ing. Salvatore lndelicato* ROMA Direttore Istituto di Idraulica Agraria Dott. lng. Maurizio Di Stefano Facolta di Scienze Agrarie Scuola di lngegneria Aerospaziale Via Valdisavoia, 5 lstituto di Aerodinamica CATANIA Via Eudossiana, 16 ROMA Dr.ssa Lisa Kholchtchevnikova Dagh Watson S.p.a. Prof. lng. Costantino Fasso* Piazza Amendola, 3 lstituto di ldraulica e 20149 Milano Costruzioni ldrauliche Facolta di lngegneria Prof. Paolo Leon V.le Merello, 92 A.R.P.E.S. 09100 - CAGLIARI Via XX Settembre, 98 ROMA Dott. lng. Massimo Ferraresi IDROSER Prof. lng. Gianmarco Margaritora Via Alessandrini, 13 lstituto di Costruzioni BOLOGNA Idrauliche Facolta di lngegneria Prof. lng. Mario Gallati Via Eudossiana, 18 lstituto di ldraulica 00184 ROMA Facolta di lngegneria Piazza Leonardo da Vinci Prof. Benedetto Matarazzo PAVIA Facolta Economia e Commercio Corso ltalia, 55 Prof. Emilio Giardina* CATANIA lstituto Finanze Facolta di Economia e Commercio Dott. Ing. Mario Rosario Mazzola C.so ltalia, 55 Istituto di ldraulica CATANIA Facolta di lngegneria Viale delle Scienze Prof. lng. Mario Gramignani PALERMO lstituto di ldraulica ldrologia e Gestione delle Acque Dr.ssa Vanna Messora Facolta di lngegneria Via Roncobonoldo, 20 Viale Andrea Doria, 6 46020 PALIDANO (MN) CATANIA XI

Dott. Ing. Carlo Modica Dott. Ing. Paolo Serraglini Istituto di Idraulica Idrologia Ripartizone VI - Divisione 6 e Gestione delle Acque Cassa per il Mezzogiorno Facolta di Ingegneria Piazza Kennedy, 20 Viale Andrea Doria, 6 ROMA CATANIA Dott. Ing. Augusto Sbraccia Prof. Alberto Petaccia Capo Divisione Progetto Speciale 30 Istituto di Costruzioni Cassa per il Mezzogiorno Idrauliche Piazza Kennedy, 20 Facolta di Ingegneria ROMA Via Eudossiana, 18 00184 ROMA Dott. Giovanni Torregrossa Consigliere di Stato Dott. Ing. Bartolomeo Reitano Ministero Lavori Pubblici Istituto di Idraulica Idrologia P.le Porta Pia e Gestione delle Acque ROMA Facolta di Ingegneria Viale Andrea Doria, 6 Dott. Ing. Roberto Viviani CATANIA Capo Ufficio Progetto Speciale 30 Cassa per il Mezzogiorno Prof. Francesco Rizzo Piazza Kennedy, 20 Istituto di Idraulica Idrologia ROMA e Gestione delle Acque Facolta di Ingegneria Geom. Francesco Vasque Viale Andrea Doria, 6 Studio Boscarino CATANIA Consorzio Lisimelie Via Siracusa Belvedere Dott. Giuseppe Rossetto SIRACUSA FORMEZ Via Salaria, 229 PORTUGAL ROMA Dr. Luis Veiga da Cunha* Head of Hydrology and River Prof. Ing Giuseppe Rossi* Hydraulic Division Istituto di Idraulica, Idrologia, Laboratorio Nacional de e Gestione delle Acque Engenharia Civil Universita di Catania Avenida do Brasil, 101 Viale Andrea Doria, 6 1799 LISBOA CODEX 95125 CATANIA Dr.ssa Vitoria Mira Da Silva Dott. Giovanni Sarnataro Secreta ria de Estado do Ripartizione VI - Divisione 6 Ordenamento e Ambiente Cassa per il Mezzogiorno Presidencia do Conselho de Piazza Kennedy, 20 Ministros ROMA-EUR Rua Prof. Gomes Teixeira 1300 LISBOA XII

Dr. Ing. Antonio Goncalves UNITED KINGDOM Henriques Laboratorio Nacional de Dr. Asit K. Biswas* Engenharia Civil International Water Resources Av. do Brasil, 101 Association 1799 LISBOA 76 Woodstock Close OXFORD OX2 8DD Prof. Luis A. Santos Pereira* Instituto Superior de Agronomia Dr. Eng. R. P. Jones Technical University of Lisbon Control Theory Centre Tapada da Ayuda Department of Engineering 1399 LISBOA University of Warwick CONVENTRY CVA 7AL ROUMANIA Dr. Andrew Spink Dr. Ing. Mihaela Jonescu Department of Civil Engineering Istitutul Politehnic University of Birmingham Traian Vuia P.O. Box 363 TIl1ISOARA BIRMINGHAM B15 2TT

SPAIN Dr. Eng. K. Vijayaratnam 164, Clensham Lane Dr. Amable Sanchez SUTTON, SURREY SMI 2NG Servicio Geologico del l1inisterio de Obras Publicas Dr. Geoffrey Conybeare Wi 11 i ams'" Avenida de Portugal, 81 Chief Executive MADRID - 11 South West Water Authority 3.5. Barnfield Road TURKEY EXETER EXl IRE DEVON Dr. Hilmi Dogan Altinbilek King Abdulaziz University U.S.A. Civil Engineering Department P.O. Box 9027 JEDDAH Dr. Neil Cline~'r l1anager Prof. Dr. Mehmeticik Bayazit Orange County Water District Teknit Universite 10500 Ellis Avenue Insaat Fakiiltesi P.O. Box 8300 INSTANBUL Fountain Valleys CALIFORNIA 92708 Dr. Ibrahim Giirer* Hacettepe Universitesi Dr. Fulvio Croce* Verbilimleri Enstitiisii Hydro-Triad Ltd BEYTEPE - ANKARA 12687, W. Cedar Dr. LAKEWOOD, COLORADO 80228 Dr. Eng. Ferhat Turkman Dept. of Civil Engineering Prof. Lucien Duckstein* Civil Engineering Faculty The University of Arizona Ege University Systems and Industrial IZMIR Engineering Department TUCSON, ARIZONA 85721 XIII

Dr. Lloyd Fowler* YUGOSLAVIA Manager Goleta County Water District Dr. Eng. Milan Andjelic P.O. Box 788 Institute Mihailo Pupin GOLETA, CALIFORNIA 93116 11000 BELGRADE, VOLGINA, 15

Prof. Warren A. Hall* Dr. Eng. Boris Berakovic Civil Engineering Department Elektroprojekt Colorado State University 37 Proleterskih Brigada FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 80523 41000 ZAGREB

Prof. David W. Hendricks* Dr. Eng. Branko Karan Civil Engineering Department Mihailo Pupin Institute Colorado State University 11000 BELGRADE, VOLGINA, 15 FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 80523 Dr. Eng. Milden Petricec Prof. Jose D. Salas* Institute Za Elektroprivredu Civil Engineering Department 37 Proleterskih Brigada Colorado State University 41000 ZAGREB FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 80523 Dr. Vladimir Todorovic Prof. Vujica Yevjevich* Institute Mihailo Pupin Director 11000 BELGRADE, VOLGINA, 15 International Water Resources Institute George Washington University 2000 L Street N.W. Suite 301 WASHINGTON D.C. 20037

Prof. Norman Wengert* Department of Political Science Colorado State University FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 80523 XN BIOGRAPH ICAl NOTES

Emanuele Guggino is Professor and Director of the Institute for Hydraulics, Hydrology, and Water Management at the University of Catania in Sicily. He is also principal in his own engineering consulting firm in Palermo, having a long history of important water projects. For more than two decades he has been one of the major leaders involved in the economic development of Sicily and southern Italy, recognizing water mangement as one of the key factors.

Guiseppe Rossi is Professor at the Institute for Hydraulics, Hydrology, and Water Management, University of Catania. He has been in charge of numerous basic and applied water research pro• jects at the Institute in the areas of flood hydrology, systems analysis, and water planning, working in collaboration with Italian water planning agencies. His teaching at the Institute is in hydrology and water planning. He has worked on numerous consulting assignments with firms in Sicily, for the national government, and internationally.

David Hendricks is Professor of Civil Engineering at Colorado State University. He began his career with the California Depart• ment of Water Resources and since has had twenty-five years I experience in irrigation, water planning, water quality modeling, environmental assessment, water reuse, and sanitary engineering. He has been principal investigator for some twenty government• funded research projects, and has had consulting assignments for various government agencies, consulting firms, and international organizations.

The three editors have had a collective experience of nearly eighty years as engineers in the water business. They have had continuing associations with each other on previous projects and in activities which have dated back several years.

The authors also are experienced water professionals. They have expertise in a variety of discipline backgrounds including law, political science, agronomy, sociology, and engineering, and come from academia, consulting firms, government agencies, and local and regional water agencies. Many have associated with each other and with the editors from previous joint activities. xv Introduction: THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO WATER MANAGEMENT Giuseppe Rossi

1. INTRODUCTION

One of the major characteristics of the post-industrial age is complexity. Social, economic and political phenomena are not restricted within isolated systems; they each mutually interact causing secondary impacts which often are more important than primary effects. The finite size of our world increases this level of complexity, as decisions made within one system rebound and impact upon others. This idea, outlined in the 1978 report "Science and Rebirth in Europe" to the CODHllission of the European Communities by Dr. Andre Danzin, President of the European Research and Development Committee (1), was a central theme in a proposal to develop a political orientation for scientific and applied research in Europe. Dr. Danzin suggested two approaches for "complexity control:" (1) reduce the nonessential complexity, (2) increase the effectiveness of services. With this perspective the methods of "system analysis" have a role. We must recognize, however, the difficulty of having these ideas used by decision makers. In another part Danzin states that a complex system needs a device for internal control. System analysis is now applied to solve an increasing number of applied problems. But of equal importance the "systems approach" has become an item of cultural debate.

2. THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

The difficulty of finding a definition for "system" which is universally accepted by experts from various fields is well known (2). It is generally accepted however, that a system is an assembly of interconnected parts to be considered as a whole rather than an agglomerate of elements, and whose essential characteristics are feedback and a structure oriented to achieve a common objective.

Despite the differences in meaning, the concept of system and the methods proposed to study systems (system analysis, system

(1) Danzin A., Scienza e rinascita dell 'Europa. Scienza e Technica 1979. Mondadori, Milano, 1979.

(2) Machol, R., Methodology of system engineering in "System Engineering Handbook," McGraw Hill, New York, 1965. XVI engineering, system theory) have become increasingly widespread during the last thirty years. There has been no lack of opposition and suspicion, however. Very often "the instinctive reaction of the scientific community to a new discipline is to say that if it is really new then it is not science, and if it is really science, then it is not 'new" (3). In the case of "system analysis" which not only claimed to be a new development of a well tried and tested conceptual framework, but also introduced new scientific criteria, the most common reaction was to relegate the innovations out of the scientific orthodoxy.

One of the fathers of a general system theory, Bertalanffy (4), summed up the emerging findings from biological research originating prior to World War II, which expanded the conceptual outline of classical physics. According to Bertalanffy, up to only a short time ago, the field of science, seen as the attempt to discover the laws describing phenomena and to forecast their future behavior, was identified with theoretical physics. Classical physics, however, basically dealt with problems with only a few variables: in the simplest case unidirectional causal ty, i. e., the relationships between one cause and effect. It found adequate solutions to these problems (e.g., mechanics to explain the movement of the celestial bodies). However in many fields of science (physics, biology, behavioral and social science) new problems have arisen, with organized complexity, a high number of variables, far more complex structures than the simple cause-effect relationship, and needing new conceptual instruments, or rather an enlargement of the science itself. As a matter of fact, every science can be considered a model of reality, i.e., a conceptual structure capable of describing some aspects of reality. Hence the growing conviction that the mechanistic methodology of classical physics, apart from the undeniable merits, is not the only model for dealing with reality. Modern biology has helped to break the "monopoly" of a single, wholly comprehensive model of reality by stressing the need to take into account the concepts of organization, intention and finality, which were considered illusory or metaphysical by classical physics. The main role played by biology in creating and developing the system theory is based on the analysis of the living organism as an organized body evolving to ever more complex states, and which needs to be treated as an open system, capable of rece1v1ng material containing free energy, in order to compensate the increase of entropy caused by irreversable processes within the system itself.

(3) Agazzi, E., I sistemi tra scienza e filosofia, S.E.I., Torino, 1978

(4) Bertalannffy, von L., "General System Theory," Braziller, New York, 1968. XVII

The system theory, however, does not only derive from biology: it is a result of parallel developments in many disciplines, e.g., automatic control and cybernetic procedures (to study complex artificial systems with feedback), contributions form information theory, economic analysis, and management science, and the latest developments in the decision making theory to analyze rational decisions within human organizations.

The variety of scientific fields from which "system analysis" derives, plus the variety of phenomena which system concepts and methods are used to describe, forecast the control have rapidly given rise to a consequence which at first sight may seem paradoxical. The system theory, which proposed an inter• disciplinary point of view as opposed to a widespread tendency towards excessive specialization, has itself come to be a highly specialized discipline.

Yet this is less paradoxical than may seem. Above all, because interdisciplinarity does not eliminate disciplines but presupposes them: a work method can automatically be considered interdisciplinary when a typical problem from one discipline can be dealt with using theoretical and technical means from other disciplines. And the stimulus not to bury oneself within the limits of one's own discipline, but to consider the globality of the system does not eliminate the need to deepen and develop concepts and techniques to find a solution.

Second, the relationship between the system theory and both natural and social sciences is analogous to the role of applied mathematics in the various disciplines.

Like mathematics, also the system theory is a1m1ng to develop its own content matter and its own logical structure which do not specifically belong to any other discipline, despite their being applicable to many sectors of science. In this respect the system theory has a significant and advantageous difference (5). The system approach tries to develop methods aimed at solving problems rather than "adjusting" the problems to the methods to be applied, i.e., it tends to respect the original formulation without assuming highly simplifying hypotheses, which do make the problem manageable while introducing profound distortions in the meantime. The tools used to solve the problem in a sense become secondary; as regards the nature of the problem, they may be not only mathe• matical, but can also be of a combination of mathematical, heuristic, experimental or other kinds of aspects.

However, the system theory recognizes that most problems contain, besides the component depending on the specific context

(5) Klir, G., Applied General Systems Research. Plenum Press, New York, 1978. XVIII of the system examined, also a component which is in some way independent. This latter can be treated with a considerable saving in time and work by applying a suitable model for that category of processes, even though it may have been developed in a completely different kind of discipline. To go deeper into the models suited to different process categories in different science thus becomes the field of research of system theory in its strict sense.

Up to now we have examined the disciplines where system analysis initiated and has been developed. But now let's examine which classes of problems where system analysis can be applied significantly. A first level is the application to the various discipline in which there is a practical objective, the need for solution of a particular problem, or the need to evaluate the alternatives open to the decision maker. Here, too, belong the growing applications of system engineering to problems of large• scale system: communication system, urban systems, transport systems and large-scale water systems (6). There is, also a second level in which the system theory is beginning to be recog• nized: the philosophy of science or epistemology. Here, systems theory is being considered as a cognitive methodology unifying different sciences, or rather as an element crossing the divide between scientific and humanistic culture (7).

Today the position has been consolidated in the scientific cuI ture, that the concept of system can be viewed as a new "paradigm, " i. e., a set of new basic principles capable of attracting steady support and offering the opportunities for the development of specific applications to actual problems. Kuhn (8), in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, has challenged the premise that scientific progress is the steady accumulation of knowledge, theoretical development, and research. He has pointed out the importance of the "scientific revolutions" which upset accepted principles and establish a new paradigm. The systems approach is becoming such a paradigm. It allows to address the problem of complexity. It is becoming a useful tool for the

(6) An excellent presentation of very significant applications in the last two categories of civil engineering problems is provided for example by De Neufville, R., Marks, D., Systems planning and design, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, 1974

(7) This position emerged especially at the Convention of the Society for General System Research held at the University of Maryland (USA) in 1973. (cfr. Dechert, C. R., Sistemi, Paradigimi, sociota, France, Angeli, Milano, 1978).

(8) Khun, T. S., "The stru.cture of scientific revolution," University of Chicago Press, 2nd Ed., Chicago, 1970. XIX physical and biological sciences in the analysis of natural systems, just as it is now accepted in the engineering sciences and the social sciences in applications to human oriented systems.

Finally, in the most recent development a new need has arisen: to apply the systems approach as an overall model to solve problems which are at the same time scientific, techno• logical, economic, social, and human. The first overall models, which are set up by the Club of and developed by M.I.T. from 1971 onwards, were based on the conviction that the world is a system which can be represented by a model. These overall models were useful, because minds were drawn to sit up and notice the seriousness of the situation, and the need to do something about it. However, they also raised a storm of controversy, rightly I feel, since errors and omissions in describing the system probably distorted future forecasts.

Today there is a tendency to limit analysis to less vast systems, but at the same time to examine more thoroughly the points of view from which to study the systems considered. Thus the position taken up by Checkland at a recent meeting (9) is significant. In affirming the need to "rethink the system approach," he maintained that most of the past applications of system engineering were directed towards well structured systems with fairly clear goals, and in which time and effort were to be spent in finding the optimum solution for the prefixed goal. He added that the new frontier in applying the system approach is represented by problems in which the goals to be reached are themselves problematical (e.g., problems relating to urbanization, to the delicate balance between industrialization and environ• mental conservation, risk levels for nuclear power stations, etc. ) . Rather than find a so called optimum solution for these problems, the system approach can help to explore the perceptions of a situation, i.e., it can help to understand the problem.

3. THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO WATER MANAGEMENT

There is a long tradition of applying systems approach to water resource systems, in particular at the planning level. But despite the two decades of experience with the systems approach in water resources two main attitudes still remain. These are: prejudicial mistrust, and blind enthusiasm. The prejudicial mistrust about the possiblity of improving the decisions through the systems engineering is based upon various factors. These

(9) Checkland, P. B., Rethinking a systems approach, Meeting on "Systems Analysis in Urban Policy Making," organized through the Systems Science Programme of NATO, New College Oxford, Sept. 1980. xx include: (1) a SUSP1C10US attitude toward the logical processes and the mathematical techniques which are viewed as academic exercises without links with the reality; (2) the lack of sufficient data, which would lead to doubt of the results even if powerful computers are employed; (3) the preoccupation that the spreading of the computer science could lead to neglect of the value of the professional experience and common sense, and that the concentration of the decision making in the hands of few experts would limit democratic participation.

On the other side a blind enthusiasm toward the new methodologies derives from the tendency, which is largely estab• lished in university circles, to believe that the current pro• cedures are irrational and lack the strict logic of theoretical solutions. It is significant that the same persons, who two decades ago participated in the Harvard Water Resources Program and tried to demonstrate the convenience of the systems approach and techniques, today tend to criticize the worship of optimi• zation and warn against the fragility of the so called optimal solutions which may be derived from simplified hypotheses (10). A more balanced attitude is needed. It should be op~n to accept the value of the systems approach as an aid in addressing the problems of complex systems, but tempered by the realization that the procedures should be designed to help decision makers and not replace them.

The management of water resource systems has evolved substantially in the last decades. The reasons for this include the development of engineering techniques generated by the increase in water demands, an increasing attention to the environ• mental problems and to the environmental empact of the water related facilities and the evolution of laws and institutions which govern our society. Amont major changes, at least the following should be remembered (11):

(1) to substitute single-source facilities to supply a single use sector with multisource and multipurpose facility systems;

(10) Fiering, M. B., Reservoir planning and operation. In "Stochastic Approaches to Water Resources" by H. W. Shen (editor), Fort Collins, 1976.

(11) A more detailed presentation of the recent trends in water management is given by Guggiono, E., Hendricks, D., and Reitano, B., (editors) "Conjunctive use of multiple source of water" F. P. M. Catania, 1980. In particular, the evo• lution of water systems is treated by Vevjevich, V., Con• junctive water use, and an examination of methods is in Rossi, G., Metodologie di approccio all' uso congiunto di risorse idriche superficiali sotterranee e non convenzionali. XXI

(2) to abandon the concept of planning, designing and operating the water supply facilities as entities which are separate and independent from the pollution and flood control facilities;

(3) to consider using "demand limiting measures" (e.g., recycle in the same use sector, reuse of treated wastewater, consumption-increasing billing rates, etc.) as an alternative to constructing new facilities (e.g., new reservoirs);

(4) to evaluate the alternatives by multiobjective criteria rather than a single economic criterion (usually minimum cost or maximum benefit);

(5) to make the water law a tool to use water resources within the perspective of social goals (including protection of the environment) rather than to satisfy the needs of the individual users (with little regard for the environment).

We can briefly state that water resource management is becoming increasingly complex. Above all it is a quantitative complexity, owing to the huge size of the water plant systems which are also made up of formerly independent subsystems. It is also a quali tative complexity, however, which does not only derive from structural interventions (engineering works) but also from nonstructural measures (economic and legal tools).

Three groups of consideration seem particularly relevant. First of all the water laws are generally inadequate: for example they do not include in an unitary context the problems of water supply, flood control and pollution control, that often occur in a single complex water system: they frequently cause constraints regarding new possibilities offered by technological development (e.g., water reuse) or the new needs arising from conjunctive operation (e. g., flexibility of water rights). An appropriate reform of the water law could produce major benefits in water management.

Second, it is necessary to reform a management structure with too many organizations sharing responsibility in the various supply sectors (municipal, agricultural, industrial) and even in the same supply sector itself. This can be achieved by coordinating the agencies regarding their functions and territorial jurisdiction. The coordination of this management ~tructure appears a priority requisite in order to effectively operate a complex water system, as the British experience has already shown.

Finally the use of system engineering techniques and methodologies, and in general the system approach is required by XXII

the growing complexity of the water systems in order to improve the decisions taken by the management throughout every single phase of water system planning, designing, construction, operation and control.

This use seems to be particularly urgent with reference to operational problems. As long as there was only a low percentage of water resources used, competition among the various uses was limited and systems were fairly simple, the lack of interest in operational problems could be justified. Now, however, the situation has greatly changed and it has become ever more necessary to use the appropriate tools to solve the technical, organizational and institutional problems in order to ensure a more efficient operation of the present or still developing complex water resource systems.

4. APPLICATION TO OPERATION OF WATER SYSTEMS

The value of the systems approach in handling complex systems and the increasing importance of operation in the management of complex water systems could lead to an easy consensus about the helpfulness of system approach to the solution of the operation problems of water systems. Most of the methodologies and their actual implementation relate, however, to planning problems of the water systems. Then, the analysis of the actual decision process in operation of water systems, which is affected significantly by the legal constraints and by the organization of the management structure, seems to confirm the need of orienting the efforts toward the development of appropriate system approach procedures which could be employed at the operation stage while being acceptable by the decision makers.

Then, the following needs arise:

(1) to define which particular sector of system approach should be developed in order to provide a tool for facing success• fully the operation problems;

(2) to define the lines of activity which could help to bridge the gap between the practitioners of water system operation and the specialists in the related areas (water resource management, system engineering, decision thoery).

About the first point, it is a general view that system approach, or at least its part oriented to the engineering and management problems, include three main aspects:

(1) definition of objectives and formulation of measures of effectiveness, i.e., the quantitative indices for evaluating the degree of attainment of the objectives; XXIII

(2) modeling of the systems, i.e., construction of models describing system, inputs, . outputs and control and feedback mechanism;

(3) evaluation of the alternatives by the application of search techniques for the identification of the most convenient range of solutions in order to facilitate the choices in the decision-making process.

In particular a few requisities seems to be related to the first point:

the presence of multiple objectives is a common situation in the actual operation of many water systems;

a complete description of the systems from the operation point of view cannot neglect the particular features of the input data (e.g., hydrological and demand forecasts) and the relevant role of the control and feedback mechanisms;

the choice of the techniques for evaluation of alternatives (optimization and/or simulation) should take into account the sequential nature of the operation decisions.

The above example of requisities give some insight even into the second point.

It is advisable that the contribution of a large range of expertise about the specific methodologies of system approach and decision theory be integrated with the contribution of other aspects which often were neglected (e.g., legal, institutional and environmental) and with the contribution of the personnel involved in the operation of the actual systems. In order to overcome such gap, the comparison of the various aspects should give equai value to the experiences of those persons who manage the solution tech• niques but lack in information about the real systems and to those who know the problems but ignore tha appropriate tools.

5. PRESENTATION OF THE NASI

In order to face the methodological and the substantial problems which delay a larger diffusion of the systems approach in the operation of water systems, the "School of Water Resource Management," in continuation of the line of activity which was initiated since 1971, dedicates its 12th course, in form of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, to "operation of Complex Water Systems." The objectives of the course were: XXN

(1) to discuss the broadest applications of the systems approach to the oepration of water resource systems includi.ng engineering, the socioeconomic, institutional and educational implications;

(2) to provide an international. forum to bring together those concerned with the solution of the main problems of the operation of complex water resources in the developed as well as in the developing countries;

(3) to establish and reinforce the necessary conditions for a speedy transfer of useful criteria and methods arising from scientific research to the operation of water resource systems.

The institute theme was developed through twenty-one lectures, eight Case Studies and three Pannels.

The Institute was for scholars, researchers and experts from public and private agencies operating in the sector of water resource management, coming from both technical and socioeconomic studies. Particular attention was paid to the following participants:

experts from universities and research organizations (both public and private) with authority in the following fields: hydrology, water resources, mathematics, computer science, , law, etc.;

decision makers from complex water resource system management agencies (engineeris responsible for operation, administrators, etc.).

Participants from eight NATO countries plus Spain and Yugoslavia took part in the Institute.

Many observers from public agencies in Italy attended the course. The inaugural meeting was opened by Mr. F. Nicolazzi, the Minister of Public Works, and Mr. S. Zoppi, the President of the FORMEZ (Agency for Education and Studies in the South of Italy).

The papers duscussed at the Institute, and here edited and published, can be divided into the following four main groups:

(1) An introduction, including three lectures, pr~ented the characteristics of complex water resource systems and analyzed the main operational problems and the ways of improving it. C. Fasso reviewed the possible definitions of a complex system (large-scale systems, multiobjective systems, 'natural systems as opposed to artificial systems) xxv

and examined their applicability to the water systems. He also presented the basic criteria of some techniques which have been proposed for large-scale and multiobjective systems. S. Indelicato discussed the kinds of alternatives open to water system operators and showed the specific objectives and criteria with reference to three different situations involving the balance between resources and demands within each system (i. e., water resources superior, equal or inferior to demand). Finally L. Fowler reviewed several strategies to improve the operation of existing complex water systems (i. e., from reducing consumption and losses, to increasing recycled and reused water, to getting a more widespread coordination in using surface and ground• waters). He also stressed that the key factors in introducing such methods are operator training and institutional arrangements.

(2) In another group of lectures the applications of the tools of systems analysis to the problems of water management were discussed. J. Salas and W. Hall dealt with three fundamental principles and standard techniques to disaggregate and aggregate water systems. Moreover they examined in detail the problem of determining the optimum operation of a system of reservoirs by using the concept of "equivalent reservoir." L. Duckstein showed how some recent techniques of the system theory (e.g., the catastrophe theory) are used to study the structure of complex water resource systems and the operation of subsystems (in particular those devoted to water quality control). V. Yevjevich discussed the definition of the objective function for the case when economic may be considered the main objective (and a trade-off can be looked for among the cost benefits, on the one hand, and amoung the risks and uncertainties on the other), and the case when several objectives must be considered using the multicriteria optimization technique. The other lectures dealt with specific models, developed ato help in the solution of operational problems of various categories of water systems. They included reservoir systems (R. Harboe); groundwater (Y. Emsellem); quality of water courses (D. Hendricks); and pollution in aquifers, particularly coastal aquifers (M. Benedini).

(3) A third group of lectures dealt more specifically with the decision-making processes in the operation of water resource systems. They included hydrological forecasting methods (V. Yevjevich); demand forecasting (L. Cunha); idenfication of operational rules for mUltipurpose reservoirs systems (J. Salas and W. Hall); application of decision-theory methods in the form of an Information Response System, either in the case of perfect or imperfect information, or in ,the case of optimum or nonoptimum response (L. Duckstein); XXVI

and the analysis of decision constraints including those not quantified (N. Wengert).

(4) The fourth group of lectures was devoted to the institutional aspects· of the operation of water systems (N. Wengert and L. Cunha); to the legal persepctives of pollution control (G. Torregrossa); to the environmental implications (A. Biswas); to the criteria of sharing operational costs (A. Williams); and to the educational requirements related to a greater awareness of the complexity of water systems (E . Guggino).

Besides these lectures which gave a state-of-the-art view of the main aspects of the operation of water systems, some case studies were discussed concerning different physical and socio• economic situations in various countries; U.K. (A. Williams); FRG (R. Harboe); Italy (G. Rossi, E. Guggino, S. Indelicato, E. Giardina, S. E. Battiato, F. Croce); USA (N. Cline, L. Fowler); The Rhine, International River (V. Mandl and H. Vrijhof); Turkey (I. Gurer); Portugal (L. Periera); and California (N. Cline).

Case studies have a special role in this book. The editors believe that case studies provide the link between theory and practice, and will encourage us to make use of the latest scientific developments in modeling water systems, in carrying out the decision-making process, and in other relevant aspects of operation. The mixture of case studies and theory attempts to find an appropriate mixture of actual experiences of water managers and the latest theory.

While the topic of this book may appear to be very specific at first glance, the theme, which we should not miss, is the application of the systems approach and attitude. Also we should realize that our problem is one of the most vital in human organization, i.e, the management of water resources. My wish is that this book lead to new developments in various countries. Also we should hope that the methods of the systems approach and decision theory will be viewed in the proper perspective. They are not instruments able to produce magic solutions, but they are advanced tools to be used to aid in the development and operation of human systems. Just as we adapt nature and organize society to fulfill the human needs, we should try to orient the technology toward improving human welfare.