T he Tectonically A ctive M argin o f th e W estern U ．S *A .

parallel to a series o f transform faults in the fl oor of the by John C. C row ell G ulf betw een active sea-floor spreading centers. These continental transform s include the Elsinore, San Jacinto and T he m ountainous Pacific m argin of the U .S.A . has been the N ew port- Inglew ood faults of southern , w hich are site of repeated interactions betw een the N orth A m erican subparallel to the San A ndreas fault itself and part of its lithosphere and plates that have com e in against the transform system . The northern end of the Baja Peninsula, continent from Pacific O cean regions to the w est. The therefore, extends well into southern C alifornia w here it is record of these com plex interactions is now overprinted by sliced by these faults betw een w hich the blocks are tilted, the presently active divergent plate m otions at the head of w arped, and folded . For exam ple, betw een the Elsinore the G ulf of C alifornia, along the San A ndreas transform fault and the Pacific O cean, the block has been tilted so belt, and in the C ascadian convergent zone. A ctive tectonic that its w estern m argin is depressed. A s a consequence, a realm s to the east include the extensional Basin and R ange prism of M esozoic and T ertiary strata is preserved along the p r o v in c e . coast, w hereas their equivalents to the east have been eroded aw ay so that only basem ent rocks are exposed at the s u r fa c e . In tr o d u c t io n The Pacific m argin of the U.S.A. today lies along the join T he G ulf o f C a lifo rn ia na rro w s w ith in th e U .S .A . to fo rm betw een the N orth A m erican lithospheric plate and the the , a com plex graben now occupied by the Pacific and Juan de Fuca plates (Fig. I）． T he diverse S alton S ea w ith a su rfa c e ele va tion a t a bo u t 7 0 in b elo w sea topography and along a broad belt w ell over a level. The rugged and steep borders of the trough are h un d red k ilo m etres in la nd fro m th e c oa st is the result o f th e defined by faults w ith large com ponents o f dip slip. T he tectonic interaction betw een these tw o huge plates, sum m its of bordering ranges lie close to the m argins, overprinted upon the products of previous plate interactions reaching heights on the w est of 3293 m and on the east of (see H am ilton, this issue). In fact, along this continental 1163 m . In latest M iocene tim e before the Salton trough m argin, three m ajor styles of plate junction now occur: opened, the crust w as stretched and the surface sagged so convergent, divergent, and transform . that a m arine sea invaded the region. In the Early Pliocene, the Salton trough proper opened, accom panied by regional O n the southeast, plate divergence is responsible for the arching, w hich is interpreted as the result of therm al G ulf of C alifornia, w hich extends into the U .S.A . as the expansion of the crust and upper m antle above the northern Salton Trough. A s the G ulf w idens obliquely, associated c o n t in u a t io n o f t h e E a s t P a c ific R ise . w ith active spreading in its sea floor, the Peninsula of Baja C alifornia m oves relatively northw estw ard. F rom near the R ocks on either side of the Salton trough consist larg ely of b orde r w ith M ex ico on no rth w estw a rd , the Sa n A nd reas ancient granites, gneisses, and schists, now deeply eroded transform boundary takes over, a long w hich lateral and w ell exposed in the desert environm ent. Their structure displacem ents predom inate associated w ith crustal largely reflects geological events of the M esozoic and early splintering and rising and falling of crustal blocks. The San Tertiary, and only sparse shreds of rocks, now m etam or- A ndreas transform belt, w hich includes m ost of w estern phosed, form ed during M esozoic and early Tertiary displace- C alifornia, extends from the Salton Sea region to tha t of the m ents (see H am ilton, this issue). O n the eastern side of the M endocino triple junction (Fig. 1). troug h, m id-Tertiary crustal extension is especially docu- Plate convergence prevails farther north along coastal m ented by low -angle detachm ent faults betw een basem ent C alifornia, O regon, and W ashington. A long this border the and overlying blocks of T ertiary volcanic rocks and non- South G orda and Juan de Fuca pla tes on the w est dip to m arine strata. Late C enzoic faults and folds, w hich form ed depth beneath the C oast R anges, and belts of m ountains and during the opening of the G ulf of California and the Salton valleys and the row of volcanoes surm ounting the C ascade Trough, overprint these M iocene and older structures. R ange are the result. W ithin the Salton trough itself, Pleistocene and Recent The active coastal m argin m erges eastw ard w ith several strata consist largely of alluvial and playa deposits and are other tectonic realm s. T hese include the still-deform ing folded and faulted, attesting to ongoing deform a tion. C olum bia Plateau, consisting m ainly of thick flow s of Sedim ent carried into the grow ing trough from the ancestral M iocene basalt, and the Basin and Range province that C olorado R ivers (Fig. 1,) form s the bulk of the fill, w hich reaches all the w ay into northern M exico and that is beneath the Salton Sea is over 6 km thick, as show n by deep characterized by extensional tectonics. Previous plate seism ic profiling. A ctive spreading centers are inferred to tectonics regim es have left their im print upon the geology lie at depth, because volcanoes have erupted here during the of the Pacific m argin and adjacent regions, how ever, and last few hundred years. G ravity studies indicate dense their effects shine through the recent tectonic overprintings rocks, probably upper m antle m aterial, at relatively high (see H am ilton, this issue). c ru s ta l le v e ls .

D ivergence in the G ulf o f C alifornia: the Salton Trough The region is now hot, w ith therm al gradients so high that at places there are geotherm al pow er plants. Pleistocene B eginning about 5 M a ago, the Last Pacific R ise beca m e so sedim ents are undergoing m eta m orphism , and greenschist positioned benea th w estern M exico that the peninsula of facies m inerals, including sulfides, are recovered from Baja C alifornia, consisting of thick continental rocks, w as deeper w ells. G eodetic m easurem ents and first-m otions on broken from the North A m erican lithospheric plate. This frequently recurring earthquakes also docum ent the oblique block (Fig. 1) began to m ove obliquely northw estward w idening of the trough. Several recent earthquakes (1940,

2 7 8 E PISO D ES, Vol. 10, N o. 4, D ecem ber 1987 12 0 , C A N A D A 吮，～ 半一 ．一UNI花。妥矛履犷 一 一厂oults , a ctiv e and late Cenozoic, including S'N AS H I N G T 0 IN 飞tr a n s fo r m fa u lts ‘，兰. T. RANIER. 439 M Spreading center w ith J U A N mt 针 bordering transform faults D E F U C A fa u lts I0 胖 O 洛 大、一芦了 ︸A c tiv e s u b d u c tio n z o n e o 士 d 厂 z o n e PLA0%TE ﹃In a c tiv e o r fo s s il

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1979) have occurred along faults, breaking the surface and continent. Earlier, the intervening and previously existing offsetting highw ays and irrigation ditches. Ag ricultural Farallon plate w as being subducted eastw ard beneath th(} areas have sagged so that irrigation w ater has becom e N orth A m erican plate (see H am ilton, this issue, Fig. 3). T hc ponded. The com bination of topographic, geological, and sea r o f this a n cien t an d no w a ba nd o ned subd uc tio n zo n e lie s geophysical observations docum ent the concept that pull- near the base of the continental slope south of the apart basins are actively form ing today as the Salton trough M endocino triple junction (Fig. 1). w id e n s . W hen the Pacific plate reached the N orth A m erican plate it The Farallon Plate and the Transverse R anges split into tw o, and the San A ndreas transform w as born. N ear the end of the Oligocene Epoch, the Pacific Through tim e, as the tw o triple junctions m oved apa rt, the lithospheric plate had m oved relatively eastw ard to im pinge San A ndreas transform system both lengthened anc against the m argin of the North A m erican plate. The event w idened. T he northern part of the Farallon plate rem ains w as heralded by the thinning and fragm entation of a w ide today as the South G orda and Juan de F uca plates, and the region as the East Pacific R ise abutted against the southern as the R ivera plate (Fig. 1). M uch of the

E PISO D ES, Vol. 10, N o. 4, D ecem ber 1987 2 7 9 topographic and tectonic style o f w estern C aliforn ia is th e as the Santa Ynez (Fig. 1), are involved in the tectonic and consequence of this w idening of the m obile belt through topographic pattern in the offshore region near Santa tim e . Barbara w here the structures plung e b e ne a th the o c ea n. T ec to n ic bloc ks w ithin th e T ra nsv erse The Salton trough narrow s on the north w here it m eets the R anges, and som e in bordering regions, have been rotated Transverse R anges (Fig. 1), w hich consist of a set of m ore than 900 clockw ise, as show n by studies of paleo- m ountains, largely w ith east-w est trends, lying athw art the prevailing trend of topographic and tectonic units of m agnetism reinforced by geological observations. The rotations occurred m ainly during the M iddle and Late westernm ost No rth A m erica. Long faults w ithin the M iocene as the tectonic blocks and slices w ere caught up Peninsular R anges, such as the N ew port-Inglew ood and Elsinore, reach northw ard and im pinge against them . and spun about in the sim ple-shear schem e of the San A n drea s tra n sfo rm b elt. The rocks w ithin the Transverse R anges reveal a co m plex and long but discontinous history, extending back in tim e The C alifornia Borderland (Fig. 1) lies w est of the Peninsular R anges, the Transverse Ranges, and the southern even into the Proterozoic Era. It is only w ithin the last m illion years or so, how ever, that these m ountains, w hich part of the C alifornia C oast R anges. The bathy m etry in this consist largely of continental rocks of N orth A m erica, have offshore region is irregular and the tectonics fragm ented. been uplifted . D eep erosion now exposes the older rocks T he region consists of deep isolated basins w ith a few including tectono-stratigraphic terranes that are exotic w ith islands protruding above sea level. Faults o f both dip-slip respect to adjacent terranes on the east. M any of the and strike-slip displacem ents outline high-standing lenticu- form er are interpreted as having travelled long distances by larand rhom boid blocks and separate them from basins. A sim ilar tectonic style and topographic character extends to sea-floor spreading processes and as now accreted to the nearby onshore regions. H ere basins are filled w ith sedi- continent. H ow ever, an adequate tectonic explanation for m ent because they are close to high-standing source areas in the anom alous trend o f the T ransverse R anges is still lacking. the m ountain ranges along the continental m argin. The Los A ngeles basin, for exa m ple, is interpreted as a deep pull-apart basin w ith com plex substructure, sim ilar in origin to the Salton trough. In its deepest part, the top of the M iocene lies at a dep th of 6 km . It is now filled to form a broad plain upon w hich Los A ngeles spraw ls. The predom inantly m arine sedim ents w ithin it are N eogene and Q uaternary in age, and w ere first d eposited as the basin opened in the Early M iocene and then com pressed and deform ed during the Pleistocene at the sam e tim e as the Transverse Ranges w ere uplifted. T he Los A ngeles basin contains about 12 billion barrels of recoverable petroleum , and is one of the m ost prolific oil provinces for its size in the w orld. O ther oil basins in C alifornia, both onshore and offshore, have a sim ilar evolution, developing concurrently w ith bo th sed im en ta tio n a nd de fo rm a tion . Through the Transverse R anges and central C alifornia, the San A ndreas system consists o f m any subparallel faults, several of w hich are now active. H ow ever, others, such as the San G abriel fault (Fig. 1) w ere born in M iocene tim e, and have now been abandoned as m ajor m ovem ent zones responding to the present plate-tectonic schem e. T ectonic blocks and slices betw een the faults have been jostled, tipped and rotated, w ith som e long blocks squeezed upw ards to form m ountain ranges and others depressed to form valleys. Studies of the rock m ism atches and correlations a c ro ss fa ults sh o w tha t so m e b lo cks ha v e b ee n m o v ed laterally for m any kilom etres w ithin the m obile schem e. Figure 2: Fault scarps and displaced drainage N onetheless, the tectonic pattern tha t prevailed in a lon g th e S an A n dr ea s f au l t zon e , C ar r izo P la in , C alifornia before fragm entation and dispersal w ithin the San cen tral California looking eastward . Photo by R .E . A ndreas transform belt can largely be reconstructed. W a l l a c e . C alifornia is earthquake country, and m any o f the earthquakes occur along faults w ithin the broad San A ndreas T h e San A nd rea s T ra nsfo rm B e lt transform belt. A m ong these are the San Francisco M any faults bordering and w ithin the Transverse R anges are Earthquake of 1906 and several of lesser severity that can active ; these include m em bers o f the San A ndreas system . be related directly to displacem ent on the San A ndreas fault The trend of the San A ndreas itself is m ore w esterly through itself. The Parkfield Earthquake of 1966 occurred on this the ranges than elsew here, and in the north-central part of fault, and a recurrence of another m oderate-m agnitude the Transverse R anges it has an east-w est course in the earthauake is expected in this sam e region w ithin the next region know n as the "big bend" near its intersection w ith the year or so (see Filson, tnis issue). u tner eartnquaKes, (Fig. 1). The San A ndreas and San Jacinto how ever, are along deeper faults, w hich do not crop out. faults cut into the R ange on the south, but the Elsinore and The C oalinga Earthquake of 1983 resulted from displace- N ew port-Inglew ood do not; they abut against it. m ents on hidden faults at depth, w ith m otions athw art those T he M alibu C oastal fault zone, one of the m ost com plex and o f San A ndreas displace m ents. In this region of the central enigm atic in C alifornia, form s the boundary betw een the C alifornia C oast R anges, shortening across the transform Transverse R anges and the Peninsular R anges on the south. belt is taking place nearly at right angles to the trend of the This belt, w hich is inferred to have been reactivated at least San A ndreas. This is show n not only by the first m otions on three tim es since the m id-Tertiary, is now largely a thrust earthquakes, but also by the orientation of grow ing folds. or reverse fault zone along w hich the m ountain ranges have The San Fernando Ea rthquake of 1971 is conceptually been recently uplifted. it and faults of sim ilar trend, such related to the im pingem ent northw ard of the Peninsular

2 8 0 E P ISO D ES, Vol. 10, No. 4, D ecem ber 1987 R anges against the T ransverse R anges. Farther afield from of M esozoic and early Tertiary thrusting and associated the San A ndreas belt, earthquakes, such as the severe O w ens deform ed rocks. These belong to Jurassic system s, and to Valley Earthquake of 1872, w as related tectonically to the the C retaceous Sevier, and the C retaceous- Paleogene obliquely w idening Basin and R anges Province. Fault land- Laram ide system s. form s are conspicuous along m any of C alifornia's faults and not only those of the San A ndreas system (Fig. 2 and see Evidence is now com ing to light supporting the concept of Fig 1, Filson, of this issue). far-travelled blocks, carried into the Pacific m argin of N o rth A m eric a fro m d ista nt sou rc es w ith in the P ac ific The C ascadian C onvergent Belt O cean and from around its borders, and sutured to the continent. Blocks are now annealed to the continental plate N orth of the M endocino triple junction, the South G orda and along sutures that are either m ylonitic fault zones or Juan de Fuca plates are m oving relatively eastw ard and collision belts. Paleom agnetic and stratigraphic data d o w n w a rd b en ea th th e co n tin en ta l ro c ks o f N o rth A m e rica . support the concept that som e terranes now adjacent Tectonic and topograp hic features on the continent to the originated at vast distance and have subsequently been east o f th e subsea s ubd u ctio n zo n e a re re la ted to this brought into juxtaposition by seaf loor- spreading and tectonic style. The uplifted Coast R anges of northernm ost transform processes. R esearch is focused on docum enting California, O regon, and W ashington and the broad depression these tectonostratigraphic terranes and in tracking their occupied by the W illam ette Valley 一Seattle L ow land (Fig. paths through geological tim e to their present docking 1), and especially the row of high volcanoes surm ounting the positions as part of North A m erica. Today these terranes, Cascade R ange, fit into this pattern. M t. R ainier, the joined to the continent by ancient suturing processes, are highest dorm ant volcano (4392 m ), and M t. St. H elens, b eing slic ed o ff a g ain w ith in the a c tive te c to nic b elt a nd a re violently active in 1980, are m em bers of this group. A s the being carried northw estward by transform displacem ents M endocino triple junction m oved northw ard during late re la ted to th e inte ra c tion be tw ee n th e P ac ific a nd N o rth Cenozoic tim e, the belt of convergence m oved w ith it so A m erican lithospheric plates (see Stone and W allace, this that the track of volcanic centers cut off in their activity issue). by these m ovem ents is recognized to the south in California.

In lan d T ec to n ic R ea lm s A ctive tectonic and older belts occupy the central and eastern parts of W ashington, O regon, and California and adjoin and o verlap w ith the active plate divergence, covergent, and transform displacem ents (see also H am ilton, this issue). The Sierra N evada, the highest range in the U nited States, consists of an uplifted and tilted com posite fault block at the eastern border of the Basin and R ange province (Fig. 1). T he latter is a broad reg ion of extension, consisting of tilted blocks betw een predom inantly dip-slip faults, m any of w hich have significant co m ponents of strike slip. D eath Valley, w ith an elevation o f 86 in below sea level, and the low est place in No rth A m erica, lies w ithin a rugged region only 150 km from M t. W hitney (4418 in ), the highest peak in the conterm inous U .S.A . (Fig. 3). O ther in la n d te cton ic rea lm s inc lud e th e C olu m b ia P la te a u a nd the C olorado Plateau (Fig. 1).

T ectonic D evelopm ent of the W esternm ost U .S.A . R ocks of these tectonic realm s, both inland and along the Pacific m argin, reveal several distinct deform ations and Figure 3: Mt 。Whitney and crest of , orogenies (see H am ilton, this issue). Late Precam brian east-central California lookin g westward . Photo by rifting is w ell exposed in southeastern C alifornia in the J .C . C r o w e l l a n d J . S . S h e l t o n . D eath Valley region, associated w ith thickening w estw ard of deposits of passive-m a rgin type. Paleozoic events, such as the D evono-C arboniferous A ntler o rogeny and the Perm o- In M iocene tim e, m uch of the Basin and R ange province and T riassic Sonom a orogeny have left their m ark, especially in w este rn N eva da . F ro m the L a te T riassic to the L a te adjacent areas w as extended and dism em bered. Lo w-angle detachm ent faults are conspicuous in the desert regions of Jurassic, subduction accom panied by the em placem ent of southeastern C alifo rnia and nearby parts of N evada and m agm atic arcs took place in California and adjacent regions A rizona. B locks above detachm ent faults, consisting m ainly and is now under investigation in the northern Sierra N evada o f n on -m a rine stra ta an d vo lc a nic a nd K la m a th M o un ta ins. ro c ks, are tipped and ro ta ted . m uc h lik e fallen d o m ino es. T h e s e faults are gently The record from Late Triassic tim e onw ard into the early undulatory on a regional scale, and several pass into Tertiary is particularly com plete. This is the tim e of b ase m e nt te rra ne be ne a th the displaced Tertiary rocks Fransciscan subduction w hen m 6langes, now w idely uplifted a b o v e . and exposed in coastal ranges, w ere em placed; these are now associated w ith accretionary slices and deposits. D eep reflection seism ic studies docum ent regional extension Synchronously w ith these subduction inglanges are fore-arc betw een lensoid blocks separated vertically by thick basin deposits of the G reat Valley sequence of California, m ylonitic zones. A t places extension has p roceeded to the and sim ilar deposits in O regon and Baja California. In a belt extent that m id-crustal rocks are exposed in gneissic core cast of the fore-arc deposits, lie rem nants of m agm atic co m plexes. Shallow er rocks above these have been carried arcs, now largely uplifted and deeply disected. In the Sierra aw ay laterally to their m argins and the deeper rocks N evada, for exam ple, the prevailing rock type is C retaceous uplifted to view . Extension in m uch of the B asin and Range granitic rock em placed originally as the foundations of these province is still continuing today. In the D eath Valley arcs. F arther east, and trending obliquely into the San region, and farther to the south and w est, strike-slip A ndreas system in southeastern C alifornia, are several belts displacem ents w ith orientations sim ilar to those of the San

E PISO D ES, Vol. 10, N o. 4, D ecem ber 1987 281 A nd re as tran sfo rm b elt suggest t ra n sit io n s a n d in te r- A dditional R eading rela tio ns b etw e en th e extensional province a n d t h e tra n sform b elt. A rm entrout, J.M ., C ole, M .R . and T erB est, H ., Jr. (eds.), 1979. C enozoic paleogeography of the w estern United S u m m ary States. Pacific Section, Society of Econom ic Paleontol- ogists and M ineralologists, Los A ngeles, C alifornia, 335p. T he geology and topog raphy of W ashington, O regon, and California are the result of a long history of tectonic D rum m ond, K .J. et al., 1981. Plate-tectonic m ap of the activity along the w estern m argin of the N orth A m erican C ircum -Pacific region, northeast quadrant. A m erican lithospheric plate. The piecem eal record shows that m any A ssociation of Petroleum G eologists. plates from Pacific O cean regions have interacted w ith this Ernst, W .G . (ed.), 1981. The geotectonic develop m ent of m argin in m any w ays. The present tectonic activity and the California. Prentice-H all, Inc., Englew ood Cliffs, N ew shape of the landform s, how ever, are the result of plate Jersey, 706p. divergence in the G ulf of California reaching into California on the southeast, of the San A ndreas transform belt continu- Frost, E.G . and M artin, D .L . (eds.), 1982. M esozoic- ing northw est to the M endocino triple junction, and the C enozoic tectonic evolution of the Colorado R iver R egion, Cascadian convergent belt that extends on north to C anada. California, A rizona, and N evada. Cordilleran Publishers, San D iego, C alifornia, 608p. Farther inland, and especially in the Basin and Range prov- Ho w ell, D .G . (ed.), 1985. Tectonostratigraphic terranes of ince, extensional deform ation is also conspicuous in the landform s today . Throughout the w esternm ost U .S.A ., the Circu m -Pacific R egion. Circum -Pacific Council for earthquakes and active crustal deform ation overprint a Energy and M ineral R esources, Earth Sciences Series, N o. 1, H ouston, Texas, 585p. com plex record of continental accretion, and fragm entation and distortion, associated w ith ancient episodes of conver- H ow ell, D .G . and M cD ougall, K .A . (eds.), 1978. M esozoic gent, divergent and transform displacem ents. Recent defor- paleogeography of the w estern U nited States: Pacific C oast m ations overprint older, and sim ilar overprintings have Paleographic Sym posium , No. 2. Pacific Section, Society of occurred again and again back in tim e as far as the record Econo m ic Paleontologists and M ineralogists, Los A ngeles, can be deciphered . California, 573p. Ingersoll, R .V. and E rnst, W .G . (eds.), 1987. C enozoic basin D r. J. C . C row ell, is Professor develop m ent of coastal C alifornia. Prentice-Hall, Inc., E m e ritus a t th e In stitu te fo r Englew ood C liffs, N ew Jersey, 496p. C rustal Studies, U niversity of C alifornia, (Santa Barbara, C A 93106, U .S.A .) He has studied the displacem ent history of the San A ndreas fault system , the tecton- ics of , the sedim entation history of transform basins, turbidity current deposits, and the global record of ancient glaciations.

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2 8 2 E PISO D ES, Vol. 10, No. 4, D ecem ber 1987