Through Marriage Marvelously Blended”: Visual Representations of Matrimonial Rituals in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands, 1384 to 1555
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“Through Marriage Marvelously Blended”: Visual Representations of Matrimonial Rituals in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands, 1384 to 1555 by Laura Mitchell A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (History with Specialization in Medieval and Renaissance Studies) University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Submitted October 29th, 2013 © Laura Mitchell, Ottawa, Canada, 2014 Abstract “Through Marriage Marvelously Blended”: Visual Representations of Matrimonial Rituals in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands, 1384 to 1555 Author: Laura Mitchell Supervisor: Professor Kouky J. Fianu Year Submitted: 2013 The Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands constitute an interesting case for studying the function and symbolism of matrimony. This period marked an active time of change in the Low Countries: there was ongoing antagonism between the dukes of Burgundy and their Dutch subjects; shifts in the mercantile industry caused economic flux; the Reformation sparked religious tension; and the rapid expansion of the art market created a Europe-wide demand for Netherlandish fine and decorative art. In the face of upheaval, the act of marriage and the ideology surrounding it remained relatively consistent. Betrothal and marriage ceremonies in the Low Countries were quite formal compared to those in southern Europe; the quintessential northern ceremony customarily involved a priest, witnesses, and symbolic hand gestures. The images discussed in this thesis overwhelmingly reflect the importance of ritualistic behaviour in the late medieval Netherlands; the majority of them depict proper in facie ecclesiae unions, meaning “in the face of the Church.” These images of ideal marriage rituals were most commonly commissioned by members of the court or Church, and were used primarily to display wealth and power, to enhance the pageantry of court life, to draw connections with the mythic or biblical past, to promote canon law, and to reinforce cultural values. ii The fifty-three images studied in this thesis not only relate to discourses on medieval marriage and art history; they also fit into the larger narratives surrounding civic authority, religious tension, economic change, and social mores. In this thesis, I use an interdisciplinary approach to reveal the main functions of matrimonial ceremonies in Early Netherlandish art, and to examine the gap between image and reality. This thesis contributes to a better understanding of ritual and visual expression in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands. iii Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Fianu for her useful feedback, guidance, and patience through the entire process of completing this thesis. I could not have asked for a more dedicated supervisor. Further, I would like to thank University of Ottawa librarian Jennifer Dekker for her advice on using images as primary sources. Thanks as well to all of the institutions that provided me with permission to reproduce their beautiful images. I am also greatly indebted to my family and friends for encouraging me, for proofreading my work, and for keeping me company on countless museum trips. Finally, to Hamish, thank you for being such a wonderful husband; you have been my loyal companion throughout this quest, and I look forward to all of our marvelous adventures ahead. iv Table of Contents Introduction .............................................................................................................1 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................10 VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS OF MARRIAGE RITUALS ............................27 REPRESENTATIONS OF CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL MARRIAGE RITUALS ..............................................................................................................57 REPRESENTATIONS OF HISTORICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL MARRIAGE RITUALS........................................................................................ 77 REPRESENTATIONS OF THE BETROTHAL OR MARRIAGE OF THE VIRGIN ...............................................................................................................105 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................119 Appendix A .........................................................................................................124 Appendix B .........................................................................................................128 Appendix C .........................................................................................................129 Bibliography ........................................................................................................150 v Introduction Austria’s noble house now see Joined with that of Burgundy. For information full and clear Observe the arms that now appear, Royal escutcheons old and splendid, Through marriage marvelously blended.1 On August 18th, 1477, Habsburg prince Maximilian of Austria had the good fortune of marrying one of Europe’s most eligible maidens, Mary, heiress to the wealthy Burgundian territories of the Low Countries.2 Several idealized depictions of the ceremony exist in the form of drawings and woodcut prints, nearly all of them ordered by Maximilian himself to glorify his public image. Maximilian was both an avid self- promoter and an art connoisseur; he combined his interests by commissioning mass- produced woodcuts depicting his betrothal and subsequent marriage to Mary of Burgundy. As a result of this union, Maximilian became co-ruler of the Netherlands along with his new wife. Although Maximilian’s Dutch subjects disliked him, he continued to bombard them with images depicting himself as a strong, authoritative ruler. In the words of Stanley Appelbaum, Maximilian “saw clearly how he could enhance the glory of himself and his Habsburg dynasty through the widest possible dissemination of inspiring words and pictures.”3 Though the real effectiveness of these images is questionable, it is significant that Maximilian chose to advertise himself using visual media. Maximilian’s use of marriage images demonstrates in part how art and 1 Larry Silver, Marketing Maximilian: The Visual Ideology of a Holy Roman Emperor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 200. Text caption describing “The Burgundian Wedding” scene from the Triumphal Procession (fig.1), commissioned by Emperor Maximilian I. 2 Jean Bérenger, A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1273-1700, translated by C.A. Simpson (New York: Longman, 1994), 123. 3 Stanley Appelbaum, The Triumph of Maximilian I: 137 Woodcuts by Hans Burgkmair and Others (New York: Dover Publications, 1964), v. Introduction matrimony were tied to pomp and political reputation in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands.4 First and foremost, medieval marriage was a union of individuals and families, though marriage had several diverse functions. In the case of the dukes of Burgundy, marriage had a political function, but it was also important for expressing religious conviction, for honouring tradition, for maintaining or increasing economic status, and for emphasizing the validity of a union. Medieval marriage was not straightforward: a single marriage involved several intertwining meanings and implications. A couple might choose to marry primarily based on political or economic reasons, but their union would still have spiritual and social significance nonetheless. European marriage laws were dictated by the Catholic Church, though secular forces and local customs sometimes undermined ecclesiastical authority. The period between 1384 and 1555 was characterized by dramatic changes at all levels of Dutch society; there were economic fluctuations, war, civilian uprisings, religious tensions, territorial acquisitions, and cultural outpourings; yet the ideals surrounding marriage and its representation in art remained largely constant in the late medieval Low Countries, perhaps because marriage laws and representations of marriage in art did not entirely reflect reality. Regardless of variation in medium, setting, or the types of figures represented, nearly all images of betrothals and weddings from the Burgundian and Habsburg 4 The Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands refers to the area of the Low Countries (presently Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg) during the period between 1384 and 1555, when it was ruled by the dukes of Burgundy. The Burgundians, members of the house of Valois, ruled over the French duchy of Burgundy and the Low Countries from 1384 until 1477. At this point the duchy of Burgundy reverted to France, and the Habsburgs inherited the Netherlands. The Habsburgs ruled over the Netherlands until 1555 when the area was annexed by the Spanish. The Burgundians were the dukes of Burgundy both in territory and in title, whereas the Habsburg rulers were only titular dukes of Burgundy. In this paper I refer to both the Burgundian and Habsburg rulers as dukes of Burgundy. For a chronological list of rulers of the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands, see Appendix A. For a genealogical table, see Appendix B. 2 Introduction Netherlands follow the same ideal formula: typically, the bride stands to the left of the bridegroom, and the couple joins right hands to physically signify the promise of their union in front of a priest and at least two witnesses. This type of ceremony was a standard prescription of canon law. According to art historian