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British Foreign Policy During the Seven Years' War (1749-63)

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British Foreign Policy During the Seven Years' War (1749-63) Gale Primary Sources Start at the source. British Foreign Policy During the Seven Years’ War (1749-63) Matt J. Schumann Eastern Michigan University Various source media, State Papers Online EMPOWER™ RESEARCH Both before and during the Seven Years' War (1756-63), allies against France. During and after the peace British foreign policy primarily reflected a strategic negotiations, he sought to contain French ambitions. By rivalry with France. The two powers confronted each 1752, his initiatives had apparently won success other during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740- overseas and brought much of Europe into alignment 48), but British leaders extended the contest into with British aims, but his achievement was illusory: its peacetime. British diplomatic activity made France collapse triggered the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, appear weaker around the globe and isolated in Europe and ultimately the Seven Years' War. by 1752, but crucial missteps soon undermined both The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the War of the the peace and Britain's international standing. By 1756, Austrian Succession in 1748,[1] but conflated European a dramatic reversal of alliances caused contemporaries and colonial issues, and neglected new realities in to proclaim a diplomatic revolution. With allies limited Northern and Eastern Europe. Parisian wits mocked it to Prussia, Hanover and a few smaller German states, with a new phrase: bête comme la paix. Particularly British policy also shifted from extensive alliance “stupid” from their perspective was Louis XV's consent diplomacy to limiting their own commitments. to exile his popular ally and guest, the Jacobite Prince Ministers sold the public on “winning America in Charles Edward Stuart. British agents eagerly tracked Germany,” but Anglo-Spanish and Anglo-Prussian the prince's whereabouts, and pursued rumours that relations suffered as Britain triumphed in the Atlantic the neutral island of Tobago had been deeded to French World. By 1763, the Treaty of Paris formalized the general Maurice de Saxe.[2] Meanwhile, the London largest territorial transfer of the early modern era— Gazette advertised the new settlement at Halifax, which mostly at French expense—while that of Hubertusburg would soon tilt the ethnic and military balance in Nova marked the start of Britain's era of “splendid isolation”. Scotia in favour of British immigrants.[3] Newcastle and I. his allies, in short, pursued peace on British terms. From 1713 to 1744, the Anglo-French rivalry lay That pursuit even exceeded the written scope of the dormant, yet Robert Walpole's fall and the War of the treaty. Anglo-Prussian ties briefly warmed with Henry Austrian Succession combined to reawaken it. Thomas Legge's mission in 1748,[4] but the disgrace of French Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle emerged from envoy Count Jean Armand de l'Estocq heralded an even Walpole's shadow as Britain's leading foreign policy greater triumph for Britain's position in St. voice by the mid-1740s, as British and French forces Petersburg.[5] A Russo-Prussian-Swedish war scare came increasingly into contact. His antigallican streak known as the Northern Crisis invited possibilities for mirrored the British public's, following George II's British intervention, yet Newcastle instructed envoys victory against the French at Dettingen (1743), British Robert Keith and John Carmichael, 3rd Earl Hyndford, to colonists' conquest of Louisbourg, and Hanoverian dampen his allies' enthusiasm for war.[6] The crisis triumph over the last major Jacobite Rebellion (both abated with Britain's limited accession to the Austro- 1745-46). During wartime, Newcastle sought Russian alliance in October 1750, but Newcastle continuously to focus his Austrian, Dutch and Sardinian observed of French subsidy treaties in the Baltic: “France has now wisely found out, that a little money kept vigilant against French settlements in West Africa well applied in peace may save millions in war, (and) and the Caribbean.[13] enable them to continue a peace, or begin a new war… Deadlock in Europe and fluidity overseas undermined whenever her interest, or her ambition, shall incline [7] the apparent British triumph. Keith could not seal the her to it.” Imperial Election, Anglo-Dutch talks stalled on troops He sought to answer this threat with his own scheme in in the Austrian Netherlands, and new French forts Germany. He took an idea from Charles Hanbury panicked Anglo-American colonists.[14] Instructions of 28 Williams, his envoy in Saxony, to build a league of August 1753 called for a vigorous colonial defense, but German princes around the election of Austria's all efforts failed in 1754 while Newcastle's position Archduke Joseph as King of the Romans, or heir- weakened at home.[15] British hopes rose in March 1755, apparent as Holy Roman Emperor. Votes from Austria as Austrian State Chancellor Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz (Bohemia) and George II's Electorate of Hanover would requested direct Anglo-Russian talks. Williams took up be automatic, and with Anglo-Dutch funds and backing the task in April, and concluded a treaty in September from Austrian and Russian troops, Newcastle for £100,000 in peacetime subsidies, £500,000 for anticipated a coalition featuring Bavaria, Cologne and wartime.[16] Yet Frederick II of Prussia sought to end Saxony.[8] Needing only Trier and Mainz for a super- Anglo-Prussian tensions, and concluded a convention majority, he foresaw a pliant Prussia and a quiet, of neutrality at Westminster, signed 16 January isolated France. By 1753, Franco-Prussian strains were 1756.[17] Both sides believed they had allayed their evident even in London, yet Newcastle failed to address partners' concerns; in fact, they had laid the broader concerns about British meddling in German groundwork for a reversal of European alliances.[18] politics, and fears of Prussian aggression ultimately The Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 is often remarked for ended serious thought about an early Imperial [9] the sudden emergence of new coalitions, particularly election. the Austro-French alliance. The two powers announced The Election Plan was, however, only the centerpiece of the First Treaty of Versailles in June, stunning a larger effort. Commodore Augustus Keppel renewed contemporaries with the news, in effect, of British and treaties with the Barbary States in 1751, while British Prussian isolation.[19] Newcastle proposed one last ambassador to Spain Benjamin Keene capitalized on scheme: a vast counter-coalition. Joseph Yorke the friendly attitude of Spain's King Ferdinand VI.[10] A answered from The Hague that Britain had more to gain treaty in October 1750 greatly reduced tensions over from watching, waiting, and building an alliance with the Asiento[11] and Gibraltar, and British diplomats aided Prussia.[20] Spanish reconciliation with Sardinia and Austria, sealed [12] The Anglo-Prussian alliance was not yet secure, but by the 1752 Treaty of Aranjuez. British ascendancy in was quickly becoming so. In May, Frederick welcomed India also seemed assured after victory at Arcot, British the British envoy Andrew Mitchell and the opportunity settlers and traders advanced in several regions of for closer ties. As the Treaty of Versailles became North America, and British mariners and commissaries known, he anticipated Yorke's insights about reducing Henry highlighted imminent threats to the American British commitments, and he took British advice to colonies.[28] Prussian triumphs at Rossbach and Leuthen clarify Austrian intentions before starting his own war.[21] arguably saved the entire war effort late in 1757, and British and Prussian envoys worked together in Vienna spurred serious reconsideration of Britain's role in the as early as February, and Frederick advised the British German theatre.[29] in May of a new French envoy in St. Petersburg.[22] By Foremost among Britain's commitments was the August, Walter Titley received orders to work with Prussian alliance itself, undergirding Pitt's vision of Johann August von Haessler, his Prussian counterpart “winning America in Germany.” Joseph Yorke and the in Copenhagen, and to use the three states' shared Prussian Baron Heinrich Dodo von Knyphausen joined official Protestantism as a pretext for closer [23] talks for an official treaty, signed 11 April 1758, ties. Finally, commenting on Frederick's invasion of featuring a wartime subsidy of £670,000 per Saxony in September, Northern Secretary Robert [30] th year. Meanwhile, British leaders nullified Hanover's d'Arcy, 4 Earl Holdernesse, accurately represented neutrality and remobilized “His Britannic Majesty's Britain's new diplomatic position: “There is nothing left [24] Army in Germany,” with all but 5,000 electoral troops for us but to wish success to our ally.” funded from British coffers. Frederick offered some II. cavalry and a new commander for the army—Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick—and British soldiers entered Entering the Seven Years' War, British alliances were the theatre through Emden in Prussian more informal than official, resting heavily on Prussia [31] Ostfriesland. British ministers kept a regular and a treaty with Hesse-Cassel signed in 1755.[25] The correspondence with Prince Ferdinand throughout his war effort stalled until 1757, enabling Prussia and campaigns, and Anglo-Prussian relations arguably Hanover to emerge as key partners; yet despite the peaked with a marriage proposal for Frederick's collapse of Newcastle's ministry, the focus on France nephew, the future King Frederick
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