Honey Bees 101

.Hive Structure and Hygiene .Honey Bee Nutrition .Varroa destructor Mite, Parasites and Pathogens

Dr. Don R Molnar Oklahoma Department of Agricultural, Food and Forestry PREP -- Portland Oregon May 4, 2015 Honey Bees 101

Hive Structure and Hygiene

Bee Hives

. A Bee Hive is where the bees live. It may be in a regular hive. Bee can also live in trees, in the wall of buildings, in the attic of house, seldom are they in the open. Unless it is an Africanized honey bee. Prefer nest sites about 10 gallons and dry.

Wall of House Tree Cabinet Water Meter

Tire in a Barn Unused Grill Ancient Hives

. Bee Skep Ancient Hives . Bee logs Langstroth Hive .The most common hive, used by 75% of beekeepers .Developed by L. L. Langstroth in the USA in 1851. Who discovered that honeybees always allow a 3/8 “ space between combs (bee-space) .Most important thing it has moveable frames A frame is part of a hive where the bees build honey comb. 8 to 10 frames per hive box. Honey comb is where honey is stored and brood is reared. Usually 9 or 10 frames per hive brood body or honey super Frame Parts of Langstroth Hive Parts of Langstroth Hive

. BOTTOM BOARD. It supports the hive at ground level. It must be strong because the hive weight may exceed 300 pounds

. THE HIVE BODY AND SUPERS. Hive bodies and supers are four- sided boxes with standardized inside dimensions. Deep and medium hive bodies are provided to serve as the brood chamber, the part of the hive where the queen lays eggs and the bees care for the larvae Parts of Langstroth Hive

. FRAMES. Frames are removable wood or plastic structures where the comb is hold. Today the 10 frame hive body is considered standard. Plastic frames are an all in one unit that already have the foundation as part of the frame. . QUEEN EXCLUDERS. The queen excluder is a mesh grid, usually made of wire or plastic, sized such that worker bees can pass through but queens generally can not. . INNER COVER AND OUTER COVER. The inner cover provides a dead air space for insulation against heat and cold. It prevents the bees from gluing the top cover to the top bars of the super under it.

Honey Bee Hygiene . Bee Housecleaning . Certain waste material accumulates in a normal colony. Adult bees and immature forms may die. Wax scales, cappings from the cells of emerging bees, particles of pollen, and crystallized bits of honey drop to the floor of the hive. Intruders, such as wax moths, bees from other colonies, and predators, are killed and fall to the floor. Worker bees remove this debris from the hive. . The cleaning behavior of some strains of bees, associated with removal of larvae and pupae that have died of American foulbrood, is genetically controlled by two genes. . Healthy colonies are also a recipe for reducing the disease incidence. Nectar flows, for instance, stimulate hygienic behavior in the brood nest so dead and dying adults and brood are removed more swiftly than if there was no fresh nectar stimulus.

Honey Bee Hygiene --- Beekeeper .Apiary hygiene is key to prevent the spread of pests and diseases. Dirty bee suits and tools risks the spread of infection between each colony and apiary and leaving exposed wax, honey or feed will also increase risks. Sources Of Infection .Infected combs, brood combs .Super combs .Honey (e.g. in exposed combs or drums) .Beekeeping equipment .Beekeepers (e.g. dirty bee suits)

Honey Bee Hygiene And the means of spread as: .Transfer of combs between colonies .Robbing .Drifting .Swarming .The beekeeper through management practices .Purchase of infected stocks of bees

Beekeeper Hygiene .Clean Beekeeping Tools (For Every Hive) .Clean & Disinfect Brood Boxes And Frames If dies. .Cleaning Beekeeping Clothes (Frequently) .Clean Gloves –difficult- may need replacing .Replace Old Combs (At Least Every 3 Years) .Reduce Drifting Between Hives (When Setting Up Apiary) Old brood combs can carry disease and super comb also carries disease though not to the same degree.

Bee Hygienic Behavior and Varroa Sensitive Hygiene (VSH)

. Hygienic Bees are bees that can detect many problems that affect brood (American foulbrood, varroa, chalkbrood, etc.), even if the brood is capped, and remove the affected brood. . Because varroa mites go into cells immediately prior to the cell being capped, hygienic bees are given little time to 'find' varroa before the cell is capped. . As a result, hygienic bees have a refined ability to detect varroa in capped cells, remove the capping, and abort the brood. Often, this behavior can lead to the death of the mite, thus lowering varroa populations. It is interesting to note, a heightened form of hygienic behavior called 'varroa sensitive hygiene' (VSH) has been found in some bees. VSH bees are able to detect varroa in capped cells and remove only those varroa that are reproducing.

Hygienic Bees

. Minnesota Hygienic Bee--Minnesota Hygienic Italian Bees. This strain of Italian bees were developed from the research by Dr. Marla Spivak at the University of Minnesota. These bees are bred to have a high degree of hygienic behavior, known to be effective against diseases of the brood such as American foulbrood and chalkbrood.

Bee Nutrition

.Carbohydrates .Nectar .Protein .Pollen .Royal Jelly .Pollen subistutes .Others .Sterols and Lipids .Vitamins .Minerals .Water

.Carbohydrates Like other animals, honey bees need carbohydrates as an energy source. All carbohydrates are first converted to glucose, which enters the Krebs cycle and produces ATP, the fuel in nearly all cells, and carbon dioxide and water as by-products. Aside from being used as an energy source, glucose can also be converted to body fats and stored. .Nectar--Nectar is the main source of carbohydrates in the natural diet of honey bees. Sugar concentration in nectar can vary widely, from 5% to 75%, although most nectars are in the range of 25% to 40%. A honey bee uses her proboscis to suck up nectar from flowers and stores the liquid in her honey crop. ..

. The crop is a specialized part of the digestive system, and has a structure between it and the midgut, where digestion takes place. . This structure, the proventriculus, can let some nectar in when the forager needs energy on its way home, remove pollen inside the nectar, and serve as a one-way valve to prevent backflow from the midgut. . This ensures that no contamination of nectar or honey can take place Conversion of Nectar into Honey .Receiver bees deposit nectar into cells and dry the nectar either on their mouthparts, by forming a large drop between the proboscis and the mandibles, or by fanning over the cells. The moisture has to be reduced to 17%-18% before bees consider the honey “ripe” and then seal the cells.

Conversion of Nectar into Honey . Foragers add enzymes (invertase , glucose oxidase) to nectar during foraging, so some digestion is already occurring before nectar is brought back to the hive. Invertase converts sucrose into two six-carbon sugars, glucose and fructose. A small amount of the glucose is attacked by the second enzyme, glucose oxidase, and gets converted into gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Gluconic acid makes honey acidic, and hydrogen peroxide has germ-killing properties, both contributing to honey’s unfriendly disposition to bacteria, mold, and fungi. . Adult bees can utilize glucose, fructose, sucrose, trehalose, maltose, and melezitose, but bees are unable to digest rhaminose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, lactose, raffinose, melibiose or stachyose. Most of these sugars are also toxic to honey bees. About 40% of sugars found in soybeans are toxic to bees, and therefore care should be taken when using soybeans as a pollen substitute.

Toxic Nectar

. Other plants are toxic to bees due to the presence of alkanoids in nectar. These include: azalea (Rhododendron molle), azure (Aconitum carmichaeli), black hellebore (Veratrum nigrum), California buckeye (Aesculus californica), Chinese alangium (Alangium chinense), Chinese bittersweet (Celastrus angulatus), jimson weed (Datura stramonium), plume poppy (Macleaya cordata), happy tree (Camptotheca acuminate), Summer Titi (Cyrilla racemiflora), tea (Camella sinensis) and oil-tea (C. olelfera). Nectar from these plants is usually toxic to both adult bees and brood, and the majority of them also toxic to humans. . Some honeys are not toxic to bees, but to humans. A good example is honey from tutu (Coriaria arborea), which has caused fatalities in New Zealand.

Protein . Pollen provides bees with protein, minerals, lipids, and vitamins (Herbert and Shimanuki, 1978). All animals need essential amino acids, which must be obtained externally and cannot be synthesized by animals. Honey bees also need the same 10 amino acids (see section 2.5) as other animals (e.g., humans). These amino acids are obtained from pollen only, because honey bees do not have any other sources of protein.

. More recently certain levels of fat, vitamins and minerals have all been implicated as being necessary to satisfy honey bee nutritional demands Protein . The protein requirements for honey bees have been calculated by a number of researchers with honey bee-collected pollen between 20–25% crude protein being considered the minimum level. . Even better pollens with crude protein percentages (CP%) in the upper 20s and lower 30s guard against any imbalance in the amino acids of the pollen or shortage of pollen. . What is probably more important is the total protein intake of a colony. . It has been demonstrated that the longevity of worker bees is greatly enhanced when they receive a diet of high protein pollen, as compared to diets dominated with pollens with low protein levels. . Pollen collection by a colony ranges from 10-26 kg per year (Wille et al., 1985). When honey bees are provided with insufficient pollen, or pollen with low nutritional value, brood rearing decreases (Turner et al., 1973; Kleinschmidt and Kondos, 1976, 1977) and workers live shorter lives (Knox et al., 1971). These effects ultimately affect colony productivity (reviewed by Keller et al., 2005).

Pollen . Pollen is collected either by pollen foragers, which specialize on pollen collection, or nectar-foragers, which happen to be dusted with pollen. . Pollen is brushed off the worker’s body by the front and middle legs, and transferred to a special structure in the hind leg called the cubicula, or pollen basket. . Pollen foragers unload their pollen by “kicking” the pollen pellets off their legs into a cell, which often already has pollen in it, and then the pollen pellets are “hammered” into a paste-like consistency by other workers. Pollen . Due to the secretions added by bees, the pollens in each cell go through a lactic fermentation. The main effects of fermentation seem to be the reduction of starch (from 2% to 0%), increases in both reducing sugars and fiber, and reduction of ash and pH (Herbert and Shimanuki, 1978). . Three bacteria that might contribute to lactic acid fermentation are found in bee bread: Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, and Saccharomyces.

Pollen

. Shortages of pollen during rainy seasons can cause colony decline or collapse (Neupane and Thapa, 2005). . Recent studies have shown that spring pollen supplement can work as insurance (when spring weather is bad) for faster spring buildup and higher honey yield (Mattila and Otis, 2006a), and can reduce the effects of varroa parasitism (Janmaat and Winston, 2000) and nosema infection (Mattila and Otis, 2006b). . Pollen is mixed with glandular secretions to produce “bee bread,” which is consumed by young bees, considered the “social stomach” for protein digestion (because foragers cannot digest pollen directly, but still need protein (Moritz and Creilsheim, 1987). Rearing one larva requires 25-37.5 mg protein, equivalent to 125-187.5 mg pollen (Hrassnigg and Crailsheim, 2005).

Pollen Quality . Pollen quality can be measured by two methods: crude protein levels or the composition of amino acids. Ten amino acids have been found to be “essential” for honey bees (deGroot, 1953), meaning that bees cannot synthesize or even convert other amino acids to acquire them, and therefore must obtain them directly from food, either as free amino acids or digested from protein. . However, if the 10 amino acids are not balanced, bees cannot fully use what is available in the pollen. . It turns out that almonds, canola, clovers and vetch have both higher percent crude protein and the required amino acid ratio. Royal Jelly . Royal Jelly Composition Royal jelly (RJ) is 67% water and 32% dry matter. The dry matter is composed of 12.1% carbohydrates, 4.0% lipids, 12.9% proteins, and 1.1% ash (Wangchai and Ratanavalacai, 2002). These percentages vary slightly in different seasons. RJ also contains many trace minerals, some enzymes, antibacterial and antibiotic components, and trace amounts of vitamin C.The fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E and K, are absent from royal jelly. Others . Sterols --A sterol, 24-methylene cholesterol, is common in pollen and is the major sterol source for honey bees. Nearly all insects need to obtain sterol from their diet because of their inability to synthesize them directly. Sterol is the precursor for important hormones such as molting hormone, which regulates growth because it is required at the time of each molt. . Vitamins --Nurse bees are thought to need the following vitamin B complex for brood rearing: thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinamide, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and biotin. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) also seems essential for brood rearing. Like sterol and lipids, the vitamin needs of a honey bee colony are satisfied if pollen stores are abundant in the hive or fresh pollen is being brought into the colony. . Minerals--The mineral requirements of honey bees are poorly understood. High amounts of potassium, phosphate, and magnesium are required by all other insects, and so presumably are by honey bees as well. Excessive levels of sodium, sodium chloride, and calcium have been shown to be toxic to honey bees. . Water - - Honey bees forage for water for two purposes. . One is to use it to dilute honey so that honey can be added to brood food. . The second is to use water to cause evaporative cooling by fanning over a thin layer of water when the ambient temperature is over 35° C. During winter time, bees have enough water from condensation over the inner cover, so the issue is usually too much water, which can drip on the cluster and kill bees if there is not adequate ventilation.

Nutrient Summary

. Honey bees can obtain all of their nutrients naturally if bees are in a natural setting. Unfortunately, modern agriculture has necessitated large scale mono-cropping which can be harmful to honey bees. . This is mainly because each plant species has a specific nectar or pollen characteristic. Much like humans, a lack of variety in foods can cause problems. . Many studies have shown poly-floral pollen diets are superior to a single species of pollen, with perhaps one exception (rape seed (canola) pollen alone can be excellent). . The principal cause of the loss of honey bee colonies over winter is not the cold temperatures, but starvation. Estimates of the total amount of honey required by a colony during winter vary from 20– 45 kg. . Colonies will rapidly decline in size if adequate pollen or a supplement is not available.

Nutrient Summary

. The management of honey bee colonies should always take into consideration the nutrients available to them. Ultimately a beekeeper may manage a colony with the best material, combs, disease free status and genetically selected queen bees, but if the colony does not have access to nectar and pollen, then the system fails. . Supplemental sugar, sugar syrup and pollen, in form of pollen patties, can be fed to colonies when nectar flows and pollen is in short supply. . This is a subject for another talk.

Bee Parasites and Diseases

Healthy Brood Foulbrood

.American and European Foulbrood .Beekeepers in temperate and sub-tropical regions around the world generally regard American foulbrood (AFB) as possibly the most destructive microbial disease affecting bee brood.

.The disease is contagious and the spore forming pathogenic bacterium can remain dormant for as much as and more than 50 years. American Foul brood

Irregular pattern of sealed brood with sunken and punctured caps, typifying American foulbrood infestation. Rope test American Foulbrood .Oxytetracycline hydrochloride (Terramycin) is one of two chemicals that are approved for use against AFB. Terramycin is a soluble powder that, when combined with brood food, prevents the spores from entering the vegetative stage wherein they multiply. .In October 2005, tylosin tartrate (Tylan) soluble powder was approved by the FDA for use against American foulbrood. Chalkbrood .Chalkbrood is a disease caused by the fungus Ascosphaera apis. As its name implies, it affects honey bee brood. Infection by spores of the fungus is usually observed in larvae that is three to four days old. The spores are absorbed either via food or the body surface. .Initially, the dead larvae swell to the size of the cell and are covered with the whitish mycelia of the fungus. Subsequently, the dead larvae mummify, harden, shrink and appear chalklike.

Chalkbrood Chalkbrood .As with other brood diseases, the bees remove the infested brood with their hygiene behaviour which is especially effective for white mummies. .The beekeeper should ensure that the colony has a strong worker population, and that the hive is well ventilated and free from accumulated moisture. .Currently there is no known successful chemical control against chalkbrood Protozoan Disease --Nosema .Nosema disease (Nosemosis) Nosema disease is generally regarded as one of the most destructive diseases of adult bees, affecting workers, queens and drones alike. .Seriously affected worker bees are unable to fly and may crawl about at the hive entrance or stand trembling on top of the frames. .The bees appear to age physiologically: their life- span is much shortened and their hypopharyngeal glands deteriorate, the result is a rapid dwindling of colony strength. Nosema apis . Cause The disease is caused by the protozoan Nosema apis or , whose 5 to 7 mm spores infest the bees, are absorbed with the food and germinate in the midgut. After penetration into the gut wall the cells multiply forming new spores that infect new gut cells or can be defecated. The nutrition of the bees is impaired, particularly protein metabolism. Nosema may cause dysentery in bees The digestive system and gut of a bee which results in the deposition of feces infected with nosema (Top) and of a on both the outside and inside of a hive. healthy bee. Diseased bees will appear white in color and no rings on the gut will be visible. .Control .Nosema can best be controlled by keeping colonies as strong as possible and removing possible causes of stress. .Colonies and apiaries should receive adequate ventilation and protection from the cold and from humidity. .The bees should have the possibility of foraging regularly in order to defecate. This prevents spreading of the spores within the colony. .Beekeepers should also ensure that their colonies and queens come from disease-free stock. Nosema ceranae—the “new” kid on the block . Nosema ceranae grabbed headlines in the U.S. in April of 2007. . Amazingly, in a few short years N. ceranae appears to have supplanted N. apis throughout much of North America and the world! In many areas, it is now difficult to find the previously common N. apis! . Present through out the year and thrives in Summer N. apis winter –early spring colonies may struggle or collapse in summer. . The take home message is that N. ceranae is a somewhat more virulent parasite, and apparently more heat-adapted than its cousin. We can no longer count on the warmth of summer (or induced fever in the bees) to make nosema disappear. . Perhaps the most noticeable effect of N. ceranae infection is the lack of population buildup of infected colonies, due to the premature death of infected foragers. Viruses

. At least 10 honey bee viruses have been reported to infect honey bees in the U.S., including . Kashmir bee virus (KBV), . acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), . sacbrood virus (SBV), . black queen cell virus (BQCV) and . deformed wing virus (DWV). . Most honey bee viruses are single stranded RNA viruses and are very similar in size and shape, making them difficult to distinguish from each other using physical characteristics. Furthermore, with the exception of SBV (top) and DWV (bottom), most honey bee viruses do not cause noticeable symptoms, making it difficult to assess their importance.

. Since the parasitic mite Varroa feeds and moves regularly between brood and adult bees, these mites have the potential to act as either biological or mechanical vectors of bee viruses. We have recently used molecular techniques to measure the role of Varroa in transmitting bee viruses. We have demonstrated that Varroa mites are not only efficient vectors of virus, but that uninfected mites can acquire virus by sharing a brood cell with infected mites. Parasites - Mites

. Tracheal Mite - Bee colonies were first discovered with tracheal mites (Acarapis woodi) in the U.S. (Texas) in 1984 . The life cycle of the tracheal mite is relatively well known. The mites live in the tracheal tubes (breathing airways) of all 3 honey bee castes. Heavy mite populations result in sick bees that don’t work as hard nor live as long as healthy bees. . Tracheal mites have become less of a problem . Varroa Mite The varroa mite, Varroa destructor Anderson and Truemann, is the world's most devastating pest of Western honey bees, Apis mellifera. . Varroa mites are ectoparasites that feed on the hemolymph of immature and adult honey bees. Apis mellifera, the Western honey bee, is not the mite's natural host. In fact, the mite is native to Asia where it parasitizes another cavity-dwelling honey bee, A. cerana (the eastern or Asian honey bee). . Until 2000, it was believed that V. jacobsoni Oudemans was the mite responsible for widespread honey bee colony losses. . The varroa mite is the toughest challenge ever faced by American beekeepers. Randy Oliver Scientific Beekeeper

Distribution of Varroa destructor The adult female mites are reddish-brown to dark brown and oval in shape, measuring 1.00 to 1.77 mm long and 1.50 to 1.99 mm wide. Their curved bodies fit into the abdominal folds of the adult bee and are held there by the shape and arrangement of ventral setae. .Adult females undergo two phases in their life cycle, the phoretic and reproductive phases. .During the phoretic phase, female varroa feed on adult bees and are passed from bee to bee as bees walk past one another in the colony. .During phoresy, the female varroa mites live on adult bees and usually can be found between the abdominal segments of the bees. .Varroa puncture the soft tissue between the segments and feed on bee hemolymph through the punctures.

. Phoretic varroa mites also can be passed between colonies of bees when infested bees drift into another colony. This happens frequently in managed honey bee situations where individual bee colonies are located within meters of one another. It is common for bees in this situation to return (drift) to the wrong colony.

. Adult female varroa mites can be found either on adult or immature honey bees. They must, however, reproduce on honey bee brood (developing larvae or pupae). Immature varroa can be found only on capped brood and male varroa mites will never leave these brood cells.

A female adult varroa mite, Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman, feeds on the hemolymph of a honey bee pupa. Photograph by Jason Graham, University of Florida.

. Economic Importance . “The varroa mite is the toughest challenge ever faced by American beekeepers”. Randy Oliver - Scientific Beekeeper . Varroa mites have affected the apiculture industry negatively in every country that it has been introduced. . Accurate estimates of the effect of varroa on the apiculture industry are hard to find, but it is safe to assume that the mites have killed hundreds of thousands of colonies worldwide, resulting in billions of dollars of economic loss. . Varroa mites also have affected the feral (wild) population of bees in many areas. Since feral colonies were not managed for varroa mites, the loss of feral colonies quickly resulted as varroa continued to spread. . Feral bees are returning as a result of resistance to the varroa mite. . Even though varroa mites can be detected visually on adult and immature bees, the number of mites on each only gives one an index rather than an accurate measurement of varroa mite populations in the hive.

. Varroa mites weaken and ultimately kill colonies by out- reproducing their host. Typically, bee populations peak in late spring/mid summer with a steady decline in population occurring in mid-late summer.

. Varroa mite population increase is similar to that of the bees but is offset by a number of weeks. Therefore, varroa mite populations are just beginning to peak when bee colony populations typically begin to decline. This is usually the start of significant varroa mite problems.

Varroa control

. The control of V. destructor is one of the most difficult tasks facing apiculturists and beekeepers throughout the world. The mite is a highly successful parasite, whose life history is well synchronized with that of its host. . Chemical . Hive manipulation- Drone removal, screen bottom boards (latest research they are not effective in long term), Sticky pads . Hygienic bees Varroa Control . Chemical . Formic acid -Formic acid can kill some of the mites in the sealed brood cells. . Oxalic acid - Contrary to formic acid oxalic acid does not act via evaporation but through contact with the bees. . Lactic acid - Lactic acid is clearly better tolerated by bees and does not cause problems in warmer climatic zones. The disadvantage is that every single comb must be extracted to spray the bees with the acid. . Essential Oil -Thymol – Apilife and apiguad . Pyrethroids Apistan and Bayvarol Synthetic . pyrethroids are highly effective, although there is the disadvantage that mites may rapidly develop resistance to them. . Amitraz - Taktic and Mitac are trade names of products containing amitraz at different concentrations. . Note that amitraz can kill bees. A major disadvantage of amitraz is that it has an ovicidal effect: when used as a hive spray it will kill eggs. Varroa Control

. However, varroa mites have a demonstrated ability to become quickly resistant to this and other synthetic acaricides. . Hive manipulation or Non Chemical or . Since varroa are attracted disproportionately to drone brood. This has led some beekeepers to practice selective removal of drone brood from bee colonies after it has been capped. . Also popular is the use of screened bottom boards to lower varroa mite populations. Although its level of efficacy is debated, replacing solid bottom boards of a bee colony with screen mesh can reduce varroa populations as much as 14%. Varroa Control

. Without question, the most significant advancement toward controlling varroa non-chemically has come in the realm of bee breeding. . Grooming -- Bees that exhibit grooming behavior use their legs to comb themselves. They do this both to themselves and to other bees in the colony. This behavior can increase the number of varroa that fall off of the bees, thus lowering the number of varroa in a colony. . Bees that are hygienic can detect many problems that affect brood (American foulbrood, varroa, chalkbrood, etc.), even if the brood is capped, and remove the affected brood. Because varroa mites go into cells immediately prior to the cell being capped, hygienic bees are given little time to 'find' varroa before the cell is capped. . As a result, hygienic bees have a refined ability to detect varroa in capped cells, remove the capping, and abort the brood. Often, this behavior can lead to the death of the mite, thus lowering varroa populations. It is interesting to note, a heightened form of hygienic behavior called 'varroa sensitive hygiene' (VSH) has been found in some bees. VSH bees are able to detect varroa in capped cells and remove only those varroa that are reproducing.

Hygienic Bees

. Russian Bee - Russian bees are a European subspecies of honey bee introduced into eastern Russia 100+ years ago. Because varroa mites are native to the area, Russian bees have developed a general resistance or tolerance to the mite. Russian bee queens were introduced into the U.S. in 1997 through a USDA program and are gaining popularity among beekeepers. Small Hive Beetle Small Hive Beetle . Originally, this beetle (Aethina tumida), was only found in Africa, south of the Sahara. It first appeared in the southern United States of America in 1998 and has continued to spread north as far as Canada.

. This beetle lives and multiplies within and outside bee colonies. The beetle deposits larger deposits of nests of eggs within a bee colony, in fissures and recesses out of reach of the bees.

. Currently, a successful control is made possible using a preparation named Checkmate’, produced by Bayer (a.i. Cournaphos).

. Can ruin a honey crop if the honey supers are not extracted soon after harvest.

. Use of traps of fruit and oil and micro fibers are being by hobby beekeepers. .Food for thought

.Native Americans survived without the European Honey bee which was imported into North America in 1622

.Any Questions ???????