Year 13, No. 1, June 2020, issn 2335-4194
Academica Turistica Tourism & Innovation Journal – Revija za turizem in inovativnost Year 13, No. 1, June 2020, issn 2335-4194 https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13_1
3 Perceived Threat of COVID-19 and Future Travel Avoidance: Results from an Early Convenient Sample in Slovenia Maja Turnšek, Boštjan Brumen, Marjetka Rangus, Mitja Gorenak, Janez Mekinc, and Tanja Lešnik Štuhec
21 Tourism and Economic Growth Nexus in Latin America and Caribbean Countries: Evidence from an Autoregressive Distributed Lag Panel José Alberto Fuinhas, Matheus Belucio, Daniela Castilho, Joana Mateus, and Rafaela Caetano
35 Erasmus+ Mobility: Empirical Insights into Erasmus+ Tourists’ Behaviour MihaLesjak,EmilJuvan,andEvaPodovšovnik
51 Human Resources in Industrial Tourism Barbara Pavlakovič and Eva Jereb
67 Monitoring of Visitors as a Tool of Protected Areas Management Stanislava Pachrová, Petr Chalupa, Eva Janoušková, Alice Šedivá Neckářová, and Leoš Štefka
81 Congress Destination Attractiveness: The Case of Supply-Side of Business Tourism in Slovenia Marijana Sikošek
97 Integration of Quality, Continuous Improvement, and Innovation in Tourism: The QCII Model Dejan Križaj
111 Hotel Employees and Corporate Social Responsibility: The Case of Portorož, Slovenia Tanja Planinc, Zorana Medarić, and Kristina Bogataj
117 Abstracts in Slovene – Povzetki v slovenščini
121 Instructions for Authors
university of primorska press Executive Editor Marijana Sikošek Suosheng Wang, Indiana University-Purdue Editor-in-Chief Gorazd Sedmak University Indianapolis, usa Associate Editors Metod Šuligoj, Emil Juvan, Indexed in Scopus, Erih Plus, cab Abstracts, Helena Nemec Rudež, and Mitja Gorenak ciret, ebsco, and EconPapers. Technical Editors Mariana Rodela and Peter Kopić Published by University of Primorska Press Production Editor Alen Ježovnik University of Primorska Titov trg 4, si-6000 Koper Editorial Board E-mail: [email protected] Tanja Armenski, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Web: http://www.hippocampus.si Rodolfo Baggio, University di Bocconi, Italy Štefan Bojnec, University of Primorska, Slovenia Editorial Office Academica Turistica Dimitrios Buhalis, Bournemouth University, uk Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica Alan Clarke, Pannonian University, Hungary Obala 11a, si-6320 Portorož, Slovenia Frederic Dimanche, Ryerson University, Canada E-mail: [email protected] Jesse Dixon, San Diego State University, usa Web: http://academica.turistica.si Johan Edelheim, Hokkaido University, Japan Subscriptions The journal is distributed free Felicite Fairer-Wessels, University of Pretoria, of charge. For information about postage South Africa and packaging prices, please contact us at Doris Gomezelj Omerzel, University of Primorska, [email protected]. Slovenia Sotiris Hji-Avgoustis, Ball State University, usa Copy Editor Terry Troy Jackson and Susan Cook Jafar Jafari, University of Wisconsin-Stout, usa, Cover Design Mateja Oblak University of Algarve, Portugal Cover Photo Alen Ježovnik Sandra Jankovič, University of Rijeka, Croatia Printed in Slovenia by Grafika 3000, Dob Anna Karlsdóttir, University of Iceland, Iceland Print Run 100 copies Maja Konečnik Ruzzier, University of Ljubljana, Academica Turistica – Revija za turizem in ino- Slovenia vativnost je znanstvena revija, namenjena med- Sonja Sibila Lebe, University of Maribor, Slovenia narodni znanstveni in strokovni javnosti; izhaja v Mara Manente, Cà Foscari University of Venice, Italy angleščini s povzetki v slovenščini. Izid publikacije Yo el Mansfeld, University of Haifa, Israel je finančno podprla Agencija za raziskovalno de- Tanja Mihalič, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia javnost Republike Slovenije iz sredstev državnega Matjaž Mulej, University of Maribor, Slovenia proračunaiznaslovarazpisazasofinanciranjedo- Milena Peršič, University of Rijeka, Croatia mačih znanstvenih periodičnih publikacij. Jasna Potočnik Topler, University of Maribor, Slovenia Caroline Ritchie, University of Welsh Institute, uk issn 1855-3303 (printed) Vinod Sasidharan, San Diego State University, usa issn 2335-4194 (online) Regina Schlüter, National University of Quilmes, Argentina Marianna Sigala, University of the Aegean, Greece Cristina Roxana Tănăsescu, Lucian Blaga University, Romania Andreja Trdina, University of Maribor, Slovenia John K. Walton, Ikerbasque, Instituto Valentín de Foronda, University of the Basque Country, Spain
2|Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Original Scientific Article
Perceived Threat of COVID-19 and Future Travel Avoidance: Results from an Early Convenient Sample in Slovenia
Maja Turnšek Mitja Gorenak University of Maribor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Slovenia Faculty of Tourism, Slovenia [email protected] [email protected] Boštjan Brumen Janez Mekinc University of Maribor, University of Primorska, Faculty Faculty of Tourism, Slovenia of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia [email protected] [email protected] Marjetka Rangus Tanja Lešnik Štuhec University of Maribor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Slovenia Faculty of Tourism, Slovenia [email protected] [email protected]
The present study provides a snapshot of Slovenian tourists’ perceptions in a his- torically unique point of time – the early days of the covid-19-related lockdown. Based on an online survey performed in March and April 2020 the study provides first insights into Slovenian tourists’ perceived threats of covid-19 on two dimen- sions: severity and susceptibility; how this depends on their demography and past travel experience and what, in this specific point in time, they think about future travel avoidance. The results have shown that age affects the two measured dimen- sions of perceived threat and future travel avoidance, but only with women. Further- more, people who have travelled the most in the past express the least likelihood of avoidancetotravelduetothecovid-19pandemic.Thosewhoaremoreeducated, on the other hand, perceive higher risk, yet education has no role in their expressed future travel avoidance. The results, moreover, show that the moral obligation to- wards taking care of others might be a highly important element in the success fac- tor of covid-19 measures and thus future appeals by the tourism industry. Finally, the results show that we cannot easily predict how the general population will be- have regarding their future travel avoidance since the opinions are not polarised in the extremes. This does indicate, however, that tourists will be susceptible to the context-specific factors of future travel decisions, such as assurances of health safety provided by the tourism industry. Keywords: covid-19, tourism, health threat perception, future travel avoidance, fear appeals https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13.3-19
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |3 Maja Turnšek et al. PerceivedThreat of COVID-19 andFuture Travel Avoidance
Introduction such downturns are not always visible (unwto, 2011). With the declaration of a pandemic, caused by the Since World War ii, the tourism industry has ex- spread of the covid-19 disease, the world is expe- periencedenormousgrowthwhichhasalsocauseda riencing the biggest lock-down in recent decades, change in the character of tourism. The early 20th cen- also affecting the developed countries of the western tury decades were characterised as the infancy period hemisphere. who released the announcement that of mass tourism (Sezgin & Yolal, 2012). The Fordist covid-19 disease is characterised as a pandemic on model of mass production made mass tourism pos- March 11th 2020, thus calling for action on a global sible and turned tourism itself in effect into a Fordist level to fight against the disease. Even though this pan- mode of production and consumption (Torres, 2002). demic is not the first nor the only one of the 21st cen- The after-war period has been marked, among other tury(Mathisetal.,2015),theworldisfacingaglobal factors, by greater prosperity of the population at large, health crisis unlike any in the last 75 years. paid holidays for many European workers, better ed- The travel industry is amongst those first and most ucation, technological development, etc., which have hitbythepandemic(oecd,2020).Countrieshave resulted in greater numbers of tourist arrivals per year, taken different measures to limit the spread of the dis- increasing from 25 million in 1950 to 1,401 million in ease, including total or partial lock-down, strict lim- 2018 (unwto, 2019) and 1.5 billion in 2019. itations on meetings of people in public and closed This form of development has in turn created a public and private places, limited free mobility of res- feeling of existential angst or alienation amongst its idents and execution of services. The latest report by citizens. According to Smith (2003), long working unwto shows that 96 of global destinations have hours, and fragmentations of communities and tra- imposed travel restrictions (unwto, 2020). Public ditions have exacerbated feelings of isolation, depres- and massive modes of mobility (i.e. airplanes, trains, sion, and stress, causing individuals to seek solace and buses, ships, etc.) have been recognised as a primary activities which enhance their physical, mental and threat to the spread of this new disease and thus first spiritual well-being. Within the literature, escapism to be made subject to preventive measures. has been posited as a key motivation factor for travel, Furthermore, experiences vital to the tourism sec- relating to escape from routine, making important de- tor such as cruises, gambling, wellness, beauty and cisions, desire to postpone work or other responsibil- health services, group sport activities, concerts and ities (Cohen, 2010). events, culinary events and many others have been Considering the modern development of tourism hit hardest by governmental restrictions and practi- and the latest events related to the pandemic, the cally shut down for the related period. According to tourism sector is expecting major challenges in the unwto estimation, tourist arrivals on a global level immediatefuture.Comparedtotheusualasymmetric in 2020 will be down by 20 to 30 when compared distribution of the impact of economic recession, the with 2019 figures. This in turn will also affect millions impacts of pandemics are symmetrical. With covid- of tourism jobs and it will take several years to recover 19-related measures, tourism was practically suspen- from the fall. ded. According to unwto (unwto, 2020), 93 of A pandemic is classified in literature as one of destinations in Europe (as of 6 April 2020) have adop- the five major categories of disasters, next to politi- ted covid-19-related restrictions since January 2020. cal events, natural disasters, financial events and man- Europe as a destination alone still represents more made events, and the travel and tourism sector have than 50 of all international tourist arrivals, and the suffered the hardest thus far from the series of pan- Americas an additional 15 (unwto, 2019). demics and epidemics like avian flu and swine flu, The questions of when and how tourism will re- whichhaveoccurredinthe21stcentury(Bhatietal., bound are thus of a highly important focus with not 2016). The tourism industry has proven to be vulnera- enough early information on how potential future ble to national disasters, even though on a global level travelers will respond to the covid-19 crisis. This re-
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search builds on results of an online survey conducted demic has highlighted the extreme vulnerability of the in Slovenia in the first three weeks of covid-19 self- global population, both economically and physically. isolation measures. The sample was a convenient sam- Protective policies are needed to reduce risks to the ple, focusing on catching a specific timeframe of early most vulnerable sections of the population. Moussa responses to the covid-19 pandemic. The research (2001) notes that human security is an acknowledg- aims presented in this paper were threefold: (a) to ment of the right of people and nations to an equal analyse the perceived threat of the covid-19 disease share of global economic, social and political develop- expressed by the survey participants, (b) to analyse ment and protection against threats arising from their thefuturetravelavoidanceexpressedbythesurvey own and other countries. participants, and (c) to analyse how threat perception The consequences of global security crises demon- and future travel avoidance are correlated with age, strate the impact of security on tourism, and on the travel experience, gender and education of the survey other hand, tourism has very little impact on secu- participants. rity at the macro level, as stressed by Mekinc and Theresearchquestionisasfollows:Howdotourists Dobovšek (2011), and that tourism is very dependent in the early phase of lockdown perceive threats related on security, as also claimed by Hall et al. (2003). This to covid-19 and express future travel avoidance with is additionally confirmed by the findings of Mansfeld respect to their age, travel experience, gender, and ed- andKorman(2015),whoemphasisethattheseemingly ucation? The answer to the question could help the safe and developing tourism environment is very frag- industry to address the key segments in the opening- ile since the reason for the restoration of environmen- up phase and identify the issues that potential tourists tal safety is not in the development of tourism, but in care and worry about most. the fields of politics, the economy and society, which together must first create safe conditions for the devel- Literature Review opment of tourism in an environment. The covid-19 Threats, Risks, Security and Tourism pandemic has shown that the global health crisis as a Safety and security have become key criteria in global security threat has hit global tourism and travel par- travel decisions. The global importance and dimen- ticularly hard. When security threats occur at or near sion of tourism as an economic activity have caused tourist destinations, this is generally reflected in a de- safety concerns not only to affect the individual and his cline in the number of tourist arrivals in the wider area or her travel choices, but also the economic and politi- of influence. However, if the security threat is global, cal stability of entire regions. Bajpai (2000) argues that the imbalances in global tourism are even more af- the term ‘human security’ directs the concept of secu- fected. The reason for this is mainly information net- rity towards the survival, well-being, and freedom of working, which can transmit information from one people. Contrary to Bajpai (2000), Inglehart and Nor- end of the world to the other in real-time. Thus, in- ris (2012) refer to the concept of human security as a formation on escalating security threats reached po- security concept that seeks to ensure the security of tential tourists’ homes in real-time and discourages individuals and communities where there is a lack of them from making a travel decision (Kurež, 2011). A agreement on its definition of content between ‘free- characteristic of the covid-19 pandemic, as a global dom from fear’ and ‘freedom from desires.’ security crisis, is also the stringent action taken by In the United Nations Human Development Sur- countries regarding movement, border crossings, and vey (Bajpai, 2000; Oberleitner, 2002; Paris, 2001), hu- closure of service activities, which hinders most tour- man security also refers to the protection of personal ism activities. safety and individual freedom against diseases that Global security threats, such as a pandemic, do not we define as indirect violence and set aside, under- arise on their own but are a product of the security development, environmental degradation, overpopu- environment and its instability, which in covid-19 is lation, wars and refugee crises. The covid-19 pan- reflected in the development of individual health sys-
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |5 Maja Turnšek et al. PerceivedThreat of COVID-19 andFuture Travel Avoidance
tems. International measures and proactive action will As Seabra et al. (2013) point out, the past 50 years needtobetakentopreventandlimitglobalhealth of study on risk perception reveal difficulties in oper- crises. As Kurež (2011) notes, the international com- ationalising this concept, mostly because risk percep- munity has many resources at its disposal to deal with tions are specific to each situation, and should there- security threats in tourism. The risks and threats need fore be evaluated using measurement instruments to be identified first, followed by risk and threat man- appropriate to the decision-making context. Twenty agement. Proposals for security improvements should years ago, Sönmez and Graefe (1998a) tested which be based on an audit of the existing situation, which re- types of risk are most often associated with tourism quires a thorough and in-depth analysis of vulnerabil- to specific destinations. These were financial, psy- ities and security risks exposures, both internally and chological, satisfaction, and time risks. Resinger and externally. Global risk management refers not only to Mavondo (2005) defined perceived risk as one’s per- the coherence of international measures but also to the ceptions of the uncertainty and negative consequences understanding of individual countries’ responsibilities of buying and consuming traveling services and at the tolimitorcounteractthesecuritythreat(Ivanušaetal., destination. 2012). Perceived health risks were measured with one An important element in threat management is item: ‘possibility of becoming sick while travelling or how tourists perceive the threats and what tourists’ at destination’ (measured on a 7-point scale; 1 = none; characteristics affect their threat perception. We will 7=veryhigh).Intheirstudyitshowedtobeapartof turn to this question in the next sub-section. a common factor named ‘health and financial risk’ in- cluding also physical, financial and functional risk per- Perceived Threats and Travel Research ceptions – reflecting the relative lesser importance of In travel research, risk perception has long been recog- health-related risks in the overall perception of travel nised as one of the main predictors of travel intentions, risks and its measurements. with early research focusing on the topic of general Health-related risks were in the past thus analysed risk perception (see e.g. Roehl & Fesenmaier, 1992; primarily through the prism of becoming sick while Sönmez & Graefe, 1998a) and becoming more case- travelling – what Hunter-Jones et al. (2008) termed focused in the last millennium. Risk perception is of- ‘everyday types’ of health hazards while travelling. It ten researched in the context of destination image, was only after the foot and mouth disease outbreak af- with perceived safety being one of the common in- fecting livestock in the uk (Frisby, 2003; Sharpley & dicators of overall destination image measures (e.g. Craven, 2001), and sars and the bird flu epidemics Karl, 2018b; Kim et al., 2019; Tavitiyaman & Qu, 2013; (Mao et al., 2010) that the fear of pandemics, or ‘crisis Tsiotsou et al., 2010). health hazards’ (Hunter-Jones et al., 2008) started to be Health-related risk perception, however, has re- more prominently recognised in travel research. Both ceived a relatively smaller focus in travel research to Seabra et al., (2013) and Yang & Nair (2014), for exam- date. Yang & Nair (2014) performed a content analysis ple, mention ‘fear of pandemics,’ ‘health threats such of 46 articles on risk and perceived risk. Out of the 46 as influenza’ or ‘a number of major tragedies, includ- articles, only one was specifically focused on health ing the sars outbreak’ as main arguments as to why risks: Atherton and Wilks (1994), while not includ- risk perception should be analysed in travel research, ing risk perceptions. From 42 risk factors involved in but do not include any measures in their research. Per- travel identified by Mitchell & Vassos (1998) in their ceived threat is also recognised as one of the main in- ‘classic’ study, none was related to health risks. At the dependent variables affecting one’s risk aversive be- time, the terrorism and sociocultural risk emerged as haviour in relation to the sars pandemic (Brug et al., themostsignificantpredictorsoftravelanxiety,with 2009; Smith, 2006; Vartti et al., 2009). The analysis of health risks remaining in the background (Reisinger sars-specific travel literature (Aro et al., 2009; Mor- & Mavondo, 2005). eira, 2004, 2008; Rittichainuwat & Chakraborty, 2009;
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Zeng et al., 2005) shows that more specific measures Travel Intentions and Perceived Threat According regarding perceived threats and pandemics were in- to Age, Travel Experience, Gender and Education cluded, yet remained only at the level of comparing The literature review within tourism studies shows one disease against another. For example, Rittichain- that various individuals perceive travel risk differently uwat and Chakraborty (2009) included questions on and react to it in distinctive ways (Garg & Kumar, 2017; perceived risks for three types of disease: sars, bird Karl, 2018a, 2018b; Yang& Nair, 2014), especially when flu, and anthrax, but did not include a more in-depth from different cultural backgrounds (Le Serre et al., measure of perceived risks related to these types of dis- 2013; Matyas et al., 2011; Park & Reisinger, 2010; Qi et ease. al., 2009; Reisinger & Mavondo, 2006a, 2006b; Vartti What the covid-19 pandemic calls for at the mo- et al., 2009). mentaremorespecificanalysesoftheextenttowhich Furthermore, even within the same nation or age covid-19 is perceived as a health risk and how this group, tourists are heterogeneous in terms of their risk affects travel intentions. In order to analyse risk per- perception (Karl, 2018b; Seabra et al., 2013; Wantono ceptionofcovid-19inmoredepth,weturnedto & McKercher, 2020). While risk is generally studied measures in the promotion of health behaviour. While as a factor that increases risk aversive behaviour, it is travel research recognises the importance of commu- important also to note that for some people risk in- nicating safety information to travellers (Abrams et cludes higher motivation to seek risky behaviour – a al., 2020; Wang & Lopez, 2020), covid-19 reflects point of research covered especially within the area a globally unprecedented need for public health risk of sensation-seeking personality traits and tourism communication of which we are currently witnessing (Lepp & Gibson, 2003, 2008; Pizam et al., 2001, 2004). the first analyses (Abrams et al., 2020; Zhang et al., For example, Gibson and Jordan (1998a, 1998b) found 2020). that solo women tourists take calculated risks while An important area of research is so-called threat traveling in order to gain a sense of empowerment or fear appeals (Dillard & Li, 2020; Yuen et al., 2020) and adventure. with disease being a common threat in public-fears ap- In terms of demographic factors, risk perception is peals such as anti-smoking campaigns (Pechmann et related to factors such as life stage, gender, nationality, al., 2003). Following the protection motivation theory education, and social class (Gibson & Yiannakis, 2002; (Floyd et al., 2000; Rogers, 1975) and the extended par- Karl, 2018b; Lepp & Gibson, 2003, 2008; Matyas et al., allelprocessmodel(Maloneyetal.,2011;Witte,1992) 2011; Park & Reisinger, 2010; Pizam et al., 2014, 2004; we can identify what Seabra et al. (2013) term a more Qi et al., 2009; Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005, 2006a, context-specific, more in-depth definition and mea- 2006b; Roehl & Fesenmaier, 1992; Sönmez & Graefe, surement of risk perception in relation to the covid- 1998a, 1998b). Yang and Nair’s (2014) study deals with 19 pandemic. 15 internal factors that can influence tourists’ risk per- Rogers (1975) was amongst the first to identify the ception, categorised into four dimensions: sociocul- two dimensions of perceived threat: (a) the magnitude tural, socio-demographic, psychographic and biologi- of noxiousness of a depicted event (‘Severity of the cal. Nationality and past experience were found to be threat’) and (b) the probability of that event’s occur- the most significant factors shaping tourists’ risk per- rence (‘Susceptibility or vulnerability to the threat’). In ception. the current research we build on Witte’s (1992) opera- Regarding age, Sönmez and Graefe (1998a) found tionalisation of the two dimensions (see the Methods that age did not influence an individual’s perception section) and are primarily interested in the differences of travel-related risk, which was also confirmed by the of the two dimensions of perceived threat according to work of Garg and Kumar (2017). However, Gibson travel experiences, gender, age, and education and how & Yiannakis (2002) found that preference for risk- this correlates with future travel intentions of Slove- related tourism tended to decrease with age. These nian travellers. were the results of many other researches as well (Ha-
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |7 Maja Turnšek et al. PerceivedThreat of COVID-19 andFuture Travel Avoidance
jibaba et al., 2015; Hallahan et al., 2004; Lepp & Gibson, Regarding gender and risk perception, the results 2003; Pizam et al., 2004; Reisinger & Mavondo, 2006a, are mixed. Although the research of Sönmez and Grae- 2006b; Williams & Baláž, 2013). Williams and Baláž fe (1998a, 1998b) showed no influence, other studies (2013) highlight that the general health and safety fac- concluded that gender does influence travel risk per- tor tended to be significantly more important for older ception and risk-aversive behaviour while travelling people. (Carr, 2001; Darley & Smith, 1995; Elsrud, 2001; Garg With age, riskier travel forms decrease and are & Kumar, 2017; Hawes, 1988; Kinnaird & Hall, 1996; explored within the non-institutionalised forms of Kozak et al., 2007; Lepp & Gibson, 2003; Loker-Mur- tourism, such as travel of ‘explorers and drifters’ (Co- phy & Pearce, 1995; Matyas et al., 2011; McGehee et al., hen, 1973), backpacking (Carr, 2001; Elsrud, 2001) and 1996; Mitchell & Vassos, 1998; Pizam et al., 2004; Qi budget travelling (Riley, 1988). Hajibaba et al. (2015) et al., 2009; Reichel et al., 2007; Squire, 1994; Williams found that tourists who are extremely resistant to & Baláž, 2013; Yang & Nair, 2014). Lepp and Gibson risk are generally younger than other tourists with a (2008) concluded that gender is only significant for more risk-averse behaviour. According to Pizam et al. subcategories of risk that may disrupt a holiday (i.e. (2001, 2004), young males showed more propensity strangeness of food) but not for life-threatening risk for spontaneous vacations and are more adventurous. factors. According to Byrnes et al. (1999) men are Higher age groups are more dominant in risk- and more risk tolerant in 14 out of 16 observed types of uncertainty-averse tourist types (Karl, 2018b). risk behaviour and Boksberger et al. (2007) showed However, there are large differences even within that women have been found to be more likely to be the same age groups, and non-institutionalised tour- concerned about physical risks in tourism. Thus, in ism styles are not homogeneous in terms of risk per- general, women are often shown as not as willing to ceptions. Kozak et al. (2007) found that older ex- takerisksasmenare(Garg&Kumar,2017;Lepp& perienced male travellers were less likely to change Gibson,2003;Matyasetal.,2011;Pizametal.,2004; their travel plans when faced with potential terrorism, Wantono & McKercher, 2020; Williams & Baláž, 2013), health, or natural disaster related risks. Williams and where risk aversion depends on the specific situation. Baláž (2013, pp. 22–23) found that ‘package tourists In Lepp and Gibson’s (2003) study, the results have were more likely to be relatively younger (and there- shown that amongst most travel styles, men generally fore to have young children), while explorers are likely perceived less risk of terrorism than women, with one to be relatively older.’ Organised mass tourists and exception. The so-called ‘drifters’ group of travellers independent mass tourists are generally more con- showed the opposite results – here women perceived cerned about health risks than tourists engaging in less risk than men. On the other hand, Williams and non-institutionalised forms of tourism (Lepp & Gib- Baláž (2013, p. 22) found that ‘drifters were more likely son, 2003). to be men, which is consistent with their greater risk Another important factor affecting travel risk per- and uncertainty tolerance.’ ception is travel experience, with the most experi- With respect to health risks, Mattila et al. (2001) enced tourists perceiving less risk (Hajibaba et al., found gender differences in perceived health risk. Ac- 2015; Karl, 2018b; Kozak et al., 2007; Lepp & Gibson, cording to Kozak et al. (2007), female tourists are 2003, 2008; Park & Reisinger, 2010; Qi et al., 2009; more concerned about risks in terms of infectious dis- Sönmez & Graefe, 1998a, 1998b). The survey of Sön- eases, terrorist attacks and natural disasters than male mez and Graefe (1998a, 1998b) showed that previous tourists. Lepp and Gibson (2003) reported that men visits to a destination considered risky were associated are less concerned about health and food-related risks with greater likelihood of avoiding these in future, but than women. Literature from the field of disease pre- Lepp and Gibson (2003) found positive relationships vention showed that after the sars outbreak, women between travel experience and preference for destina- reported higher perceptions of risk than men (Brug et tions with higher risks. al., 2004). Lau et al.’s (2004) investigation of sars in
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connection to preventive and risk behaviours showed Methods that male travellers were much less likely to be using Questionnaire masksorwashingtheirhandsfrequently. We used an on-line questionnaire (open from 17th An important warning about gender as a factor af- March to 11th April 2020) that addressed variables for fecting risk perception is the fact that it is often only perceived threat, travel experience and future travel representative of other more comprehensive and in- avoidance, and standard demographic variables. We depth differences. Carr (2001), for example, points out adjusted the perceived threat measures from the ex- that other factors, such as personality type, are proba- tended parallel process model (Witte, 1992; Witte & bly more influential on an individual’s travel risk per- Morrison, 2000) with 3 questions measuring per- ception than gender per se. ceived severity dimension and 4 questions measuring Finally, many authors confirm that tourists’ per- susceptibility or vulnerability dimension (see Table ceptions of travel risks vary depending on education 3). The items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (Chang, 2010; Hallahan et al., 2004; Karl, 2018b; Park from strongly disagree to strongly agree. We measured & Reisinger, 2010; Sönmez & Graefe, 1998a; Williams travel experience with three numerical questions, for & Baláž, 2013). Generally, the results show that higher- example ‘How many times a year have you on average educated tourists perceive lower travel risk than less- gone on vacation (for 5 days or more) in the last three educated tourists (Garg & Kumar, 2017; Halek & Eisen- years?’Finally,wemeasuredfuturetravelintentionsor hauer, 2001; Hallahan et al., 2004). Williams and Baláž travel avoidance as the extent to which the participants (2013) concluded that package tourists had relatively express planned travel avoidance after the covid-19 lower educational qualifications, while explorers and lock-down measures. drifters had higher qualifications. The research performed in Germany (Karl, 2018a, Population, Sample and Source of Data 2018b) has shown that high educational levels and high The data were collected from a convenience sample of travel frequencies are distinct characteristics of risk- respondents (N = 428), which is an acceptable form affine tourists. Garg and Kumar (2017) showed that of data collection in tourism (Carr, 2001). The survey tourists’ decision-making is influenced by their risk- was made among residents of Slovenia, asking them perception level in relation with socio-cultural factors about the new sars-cov-2 virus and their perception and media influence. Park and Reisinger (2010) pos- of possibilities of self-isolation and traveling. Table 1 tulate that tourists with low educational attainment representsthesamplewehavecollected;nexttothe perceive a greater influence of social risk than high- information in Table 1 we have also calculated the av- and middle-educated tourists perhaps because they erage age of respondents was 32.7 years, some 10 years have relatively fewer social skills and are less con- lower than the national average. fident about their vacation choice. Higher-educated tourists are likely to be more informed regarding nat- Data Acquisition and Analyses ural disasters and travel risks and hold fewer miscon- We processed the acquired data in Microsoft Excel ceptions about the real risk than less-educated in- 2013 and ibm spss v.23. For simple data analysis we dividuals (Laver et al., 2006). Similarly, Brug et al.’s used Excel’s built-in functions, such as counting in- (2004) survey of sars conducted in the Netherlands dividual responses, calculating percentages, and cal- has shown that people with less education expressed culating mean values. ibm spss version 23 was used more worries about the disease. for statistical analyses. The threshold for rejecting a In the remainder of this study we focus on how null hypothesis was set at α = 0.05. The correlations age, travel experience, gender and education affect between dependent and independent variables were covid-19 threat perceptions and future travel risk calculated using Spearman’s Rho and differences be- avoidanceamongstthesampleoftheSlovenianpopu- tween respondents’ views based on parameters was lation. calculated using the Kruskal-Wallis H test.
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Table 1 Sample Demographic Table 2 Factor Analysis – Total Variance Explained – Perceived Threats Variable n Gender Male . () () () () Female . (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) Level of Secondary education or lower* . . . . . . . . education Higher professional education . . . . . . . . University education . . . . Post graduate education . . . . Donotwanttodisclose . . . . Notes * Post-secondary, pre-university. . . . . ..
Results Notes Extraction method: principal axis factoring. Col- umn headings are as follows: (1) factor, (2) initial eigenval- First, we tested the reliability of the collected data mea- ues, (3) extraction sums of squared loadings, (4) rotation suring the three main variables: perceived susceptibil- sums of squared loadings (when factors are correlated, sums ity of threat, perceived severity of threat and future of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total vari- travelavoidance(see Tables3and5 fortheexact items) ance), (a) total, (b) percentage of variance, (c) cumulative by calculating the value of Cronbach’s alpha. The value percentage. was 0.837 and this represents an acceptable reliability (Cronbach, 1951), which suggests that the ‘measures generally perceiving lesser gravity of the disease. There were free from random error and thus reliability co- is an important exception, though: the indicators mea- efficients estimate the amount of systematic variance’ suring perceived threat to oneself versus the indica- (Churchill, 1979, p. 4). tors measuring perceived threat to one’s loved ones show that survey participants generally perceive the Factor Analysis covid-19moreendangeringthepeoplethatwelove We have performed a factor analysis on both sets rather than ourselves, which is probably also a reflec- of variables (perceived threats, future travel inten- tion of the relatively young sample. These results, how- tions) separately. First, we performed factor analysis ever, indicate that the moral obligation towards taking on variables that have measured perceived threat lev- care of others might be a highly important element els amongst respondents. As seen from Table 2 and in the success factor of covid-19 measures. The re- Table3,therearetwodistinctivefactorsfound.Inline sults are in line with similar research, for example on with past research (Witte, 1994) the first factor was effectiveness of antismoking campaigns (Goldman & ‘susceptibility to threat’ (explains 36.57 of variabil- Glantz, 1998). ity). Again, in line with past research, the second fac- Next,wehaveperformedfactoranalysisonvari- tor was ‘severity of threat’ (explaining an additional ables measuring future travel avoidance. As seen from 13.50 of variability). With both factors together we Table 4 and Table 5, all the variables have positioned were able to explain 50.07 of variability of perceived themselves in one factor, named ‘Future travel avoid- threats. ance.’ With this factor we can explain 40.59 of vari- Theanalysisofthemeanvalueoneachoftheitems abilityoffuturetravelintentions.Theitemsweintro- shows that in general people perceive a relatively high duced to measure future travel avoidance are a rel- probability that they themselves or their loved ones atively reliable scale for measuring this variable. The could fall sick to the covid-19 disease (perceived sus- lowest travel avoidance is somewhat surprisingly mea- ceptibility). Regarding the perceived severity, however, sured with the item ‘In the future I will no longer at- the mean values are lower, with the survey participants tend crowded events due to the fear of the new coron-
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Table 3 Factor Analysis on the Group of Variables Measuring Perceived Threats Factor Variable () () () Perceivedthreat: It is highly likely that I myself will fall sick with the new cor. disease. . . . Susceptibility (. It is highly likely that my loved ones will fall sick with the new cor. disease. . . . variability explained) I myself am at risk of contracting the new coronavirus disease. . . . Perceivedthreat: The new coronavirus disease is extremely dangerous to one’s health. . . . Severity (. The new coronavirus disease has a high mortality rate. . . . variability explained) The new coronavirus disease is not curable. . . . My loved ones are at great risk of dying from the new coronavirus disease. . . . Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) factor value, (2) mean value, (3) standard deviation. Extraction method: principal axis factoring. Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser normalization (rotation converged in 5 iterations).
Table 4 Factor Analysis – Total Variance Explained – ance is 2.51 on a 5-point scale. In other words, we can- Future Travel Intentions not easily predict how the general population will be- () () () have regarding their future travel avoidance since at (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) the time of the results there was only a slight tendency for the participants to answer more often that they will . . . . . . not avoid future travel. It is thus important to analyse . . . the differences in travel avoidance according to other . . . variablestobebetterabletopredictwhichgroupsof . . . future travellers are those that will more likely and/or . . . sooner be travelling again. . . . After performing the factor analysis, we have made . . . an index for each of the three variables (the sum of all the items measuring the same variable) and performed Notes Extraction method: principal axis factoring. Col- umn headings are as follows: (1) factor, (2) initial eigenval- basic descriptive statistics on newly formed indexes. In ues, (3) extraction sums of squared loadings, (a) total, (b) Table 6 we can see that the highest mean value (2.83) is percentage of variance, (c) cumulative percentage. for ‘Susceptibility of threat,’ followed by ‘Future travel avoidance’ (mean value 2.51) and ‘Severity of threat’ (mean value 2.22). In the continuation of the paper avirus.’ Gathering with others was something the par- we will analyse the effects of age, gender, education, ticipants perceived as least likely they will give up in and travel experience on the three variables: suscep- the future. This might indicate good news for future tibility of threat, severity of threat and future travel event management. The highest travel avoidance is avoidance. Since distribution is not parametric based measured with the item ‘Once the problems are over, on the Shapiro-Wilk test (p < 0.005), we are further I will travel extensively in order to make up for the treating the variables as non-parametric and using ad- lost time.’ This item, however, next to being reversely equate statistical tests. coded, also had the lowest factor value. A deeper analysis of mean values per item shows Differences Based on Age that on average survey participants’ travel avoidance, We first investigated correlations between the three when calculated in an index (average of all items) per- dependent variables ‘susceptibility of threat,’ ‘sever- forms very similarly to a normal distribution (see Ta- ity of threat’ and ‘future travel avoidance’ and the ble 6). The mean value of index of future travel avoid- independent variable ‘age of respondents.’ We have
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Table 5 Factor Analysis on the Group of Variables Measuring Future Travel Intentions Factor Variable () () () Future I will be avoiding travelling abroad for at least a year. . . . travel I will prefer to stay home this summer as a precaution and not go on any vacations. . . . avoidance If travelling I will avoid public transportation. . . . (. variability In the future I will no longer attend crowded events due to the fear of the new coronav. . . . explained) I will have no prob. about using planes, buses or trains as they will be safe again soon.* . . . This year I will rather look for holiday possibilities within my own country. . . . Once the problems are over, I will travel extensively in order to make up for lost time.* . . . Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) factor value, (2) mean value, (3) standard deviation. * Reversely coded. Extraction method: principal axis factoring. Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser normalization (rotation converged in 5 iterations).
Table 6 Descriptive Statistics of Indexes of the Factors Gained from Factor Analysis Variable () () () () () () () Susceptibility of threat . . . . –. . Severity of threat . . . . –. . Future travel avoidance . . . . . . Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) number, (2) mean, (3) standard deviation, (4) skewness, (5) standard error of skewness, (6) kurtosis, (7) standard error of Kurtosis.
Table 7 Spearman’s Correlation Coefficient of Correlation weak, we have decided to see if there are any addi- between Age and Three Variables tional differences with regards to difference in gender. Variable Correlation with age We have determined that within the group of male Both Man Woman respondents there is no statistically significant corre- lation with any of the three factors; however, within Susceptibility of threat .** . .** (p = .) the group of female respondents correlation is now seen with all three factors. The results are thus only Severity of threat .** . .** partly in line with the literature review. As in previous (p = .) research, both threat perception and travel avoidance Future travel avoidance . –. .** are affected by age – yet in our research this is con- (p = .) (p = .) firmed only for women. Notes ** p ≤ 0.01.
Differences Based on Past Travel Experience used Spearman’s correlation for this analysis. Table 7 We have furthermore analysed correlations between shows that two out of three factors show statistically thevariable‘futuretravelavoidance’afterthecovid- significant correlations to age of respondents. Older 19 crisis (see Table 6 for exact items, index was calcu- respondents evaluate susceptibility to threat higher lated as mean scores) and the three items measuring than younger respondents; they also evaluate severity travel experience (see Table 8 for exact items). We have of threat higher than younger respondents, while age used Spearman’s correlation for this analysis. Results does not correlate with future travel intentions when are shown in Table 8. In accordance with expectations both genders are included in the analysis. Since corre- from the literature review, one of the three items for lations made for both genders together were relatively travel experience showed a statistically significant neg-
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Table 8 Spearman’s Correlation Coefficient among Table 10 Analysis of Differences on Susceptibility and Variables ‘Travel Experience’ and ‘Future Travel Severity of Threat and Future Travel Avoidance Avoidance’ Based on Education Travel exp. in the past years Future travel avoidance Variable Hp() () Number of holiday travels* –.** Susceptibility of threat . . (a) . Number of international travels –. (p = .) (b) . Number of air flights –.p ( = .) (c) . Notes * For 5 days or more. ** p ≤ 0.01. (d) . Severity of threat . . (a) . Table 9 Analysis of Differences among Males and Females on Susceptibility and Severity of Threat and (b) . Future Travel Avoidance (c) . Variable zpMean rank (d) . Male Female Travel avoidance . . (a) . Susceptibility of threat – . . . (b) . . (c) . Severity of threat – . . . (d) . . Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) level of educa- Future travel avoidance – . . . tion, (2) mean rank. Row headings are as follows: (a) sec- . ondary education or lower, (b) higher professional educa- tion, (c) university education, (d) postgraduate education. ative correlation (p ≤ 0.05) with future travel avoid- ance. The results thus show that people who have trav- 10 we can see that there are statistically significant dif- elled the most in the past will be the ones who also ex- ferences on both dimensions of perceived threat. On press the least likelihood of avoidance of travel due to the dimension susceptibility of threat there is a sta- the covid-19 pandemic. tistically significant difference (H =17.083,p =0.001) among various levels of education. The lowest mean Differences between Gender rank has respondents with secondary education or Further, we tested for differences between respon- lower (mean rank 140.02) and the highest those with dents’ views based on gender. As we can see from Ta- post graduate education (mean rank 198.95). Simi- ble 9, even though women evaluate the variable higher larly, severity of threat is also statistically significantly thanmeninallthreecases,thedifferencesarenotsta- different between the differently-educated groups of tistically significant. The results are thus again in line participants (H = 8.566, p = 0.036). The group with with the literature review: while women are often said secondary education or lower has evaluated this fac- to perceive more threat, the differences are not shown tor lowest (mean rank 144.63) whilst the group with in every research and are generally not as significant highest evaluation is the one with Higher professional as they are for age. education (mean rank 179.06). Compared with the lit- erature review, however, these results are surprising. Differences Based on Education Namely, higher-educated persons tend to accept more Finally, we also tested if there are any statistically sig- risk and thus their susceptibility to threat is lower. But nificant differences between respondents’ views based with covid-19, higher-educated people feel that they on their level of education. Results are shown in Ta- are more susceptible to threat, and they also perceive ble10.Regardingfuturetravelavoidance,theresults that the threat is more severe. More future research show no significant differences. However, from Table is needed to analyse the reasons for the differences in
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education. We can only speculate that the differences what people expect about the future, and not a mea- are a result of different information sources between sure of actual future behaviour. Therefore, it cannot be the differently-educated groups. With regards to travel used as a valid predictor of actual future travels. It can, avoidance we did not discover any statistically signifi- however, point to important early considerations. cant differences between education levels. The oecd(2020), World Tourism Organization (2020) and the European Commission (2020) recently Discussion, Limitations and Further Research published guidelines regarding tourism recovery after Recommendations covid-19. Common amongst these are three basic The covid-19 pandemic is an unpreceded event that proposals that seem to be supported by the present shook global tourism industry to its core. It is too early research: providing health assurances to the tourists, to reliably say what kind of effects it will have for the promoting domestic tourism, and targeting younger future of tourism. The present study cannot provide tourists and those who have travelled more in the past. answers to the questions of when and how tourists will First, the Slovenian early sample shows that peo- be willing to travel again. Rather, it provides a snap- ple will be relatively highly susceptible to the context- shot of Slovenian tourists’ perceptions in a historically specific factors that will affect their decisions, such as unique point of time – the early days of the covid-19- assurances of health measures. The European Com- related lockdown. The value of the study is thus pri- mission (2020) highlights the importance of updated marily in its analytical insight in the situation-specific and easily accessible information to travellers in order state of tourists’ perceived threats, how this depends to be reassured that public health and safety rules are on their demography and what they in this specific respected. Our results show that we cannot easily pre- point in time think about their future travel avoidance. dict how the general population will behave regard- As such, the study first has a methodological merit: ing their future travel avoidance since at the time of to our knowledge this was the first study that de- the results most participants were not on either of the veloped a scale of perceived threat of covid-19 on two extremes of the opinion. However, while we can- the two dimensions of severity and vulnerability. Per- not predict whether this means they will be more will- ceived threat is a variable that is very context specific. ing or less willing to travel in the future, it does mean In the past, travel research primarily focused on com- that the general opinion might be highly susceptible to paring several types of threats and providing only very the context of the future. Extreme opinions are those general measures of health-related risks. The covid- that are the most difficult to change. The common sets 19 pandemic, however, is a specific situation that called of health standards and assurances of health safety in for a more in-depth analysis of perceived threat. To the after-covid-19 scenarios are thus likely to fall on achieve this, we have built on literature on health- appreciative ears. related fear appeals in order to develop a scale that Second, a common assumption regarding the re- showed to be context specific, reliable and in-depth. covery of tourism is to focus on domestic tourists. For Similarly, the merit of the present study is the de- Slovenian tourism it is thus of highest importance that velopment of a scale for measuring one’s expressions in general the data shows that the survey participants of future travel avoidance due to covid-19. As with are slightly more inclined to intend travel domestically perceivedthreat,thisvariable,too,showedtoincludea in the near future. Therefore, the support to domestic reliable set of indicators, all showing one dimension of travel such as tourism vouchers, a focus on ‘local gems’ future travel avoidance. However, an important limita- and general short-term localisation of tourism seem to tion of measuring future travel avoidance is its depen- be supported by the current data. dence on actual behaviour control – which is mostly Third, the data supports the general proposals that not in the hands of the tourists but is rather an issue younger tourists and those with more travel experi- of policy regulation and how the disease will spread ence are those who should be primarily targeted in the inthefuture.Futuretravelavoidanceisameasureof recovery attempts. The results have shown that age af-
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fectsthetwodimensionsofperceivedthreatandfuture in later points in time and in other national contexts. travel avoidance, but only with women. Men, on the Specifically, as the restrictions ease and new measures other hand, do not seem to be affected by age differ- are being introduced such as, for example, spatial dis- ences, nor are there significant differences in gender in tancing on beaches and during transportation, more general. The results furthermore unsurprisingly show research is needed on how risk perception is related that people who have travelled the most in the past to perception of pleasure and travel value and to what will be the ones who also express the least likelihood extent these might be perceived as lowered due to the of avoidance of travel due to covid-19 pandemic. covid-19-related measures. Additionally, more re- Contrary to the above three main research results, search is needed on how different generations differ the current data also provides two unexpected and regarding covid-19 threat perception and especially thus important research conclusions: the first is per- why there seem to be generational differences amongst ception of threat in relation to education and the sec- women, while not amongst men. The issue of moral ond is perception of threat in relation to one’s moral stance (taking care of others) in relation to covid-19 position. might have an important role in the future – more re- The results on perception of threat in relation to search is needed on how effective are appeals on safety education are surprising compared to past research on to one’s health and health for one’s loved ones. And risk perception in tourism studies. Past research gen- especially, how this moral stance might relate to the erally showed that higher-educated persons tend to ac- issues of sustainable tourism of the future. Finally, the cept more risk. But with covid-19, higher-educated roles of information sources and social class need to be people in the Slovenian sample feel that they are more analysedinthefutureinordertoprovidetheanswers susceptibletothreat,andtheyalsoperceivethethreat astowhyinrelationtocovid-19themoreeducated is more severe. Future research is needed to analyse perceive more risk than the less educated. the reasons for the differences in education. At the Just as the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United moment, we can only speculate that the differences States forever changed our understanding of security are probably a result of different information sources in international tourism, and we adapted to the conse- between the differently-educated groups. This does quences in the form of increased controls at airports, mean, however, that the higher-educated tourists are so will the covid-19 global health crisis bring forth those who perceive higher risk and are thus those changes in the way international travel and transport who will pay more attention to health standards and are conducted. New security protocols will be imple- health-related assurances. Such standards and assur- mented at airports, hotels, and border crossings. The ances thus need to be prepared with the highest cau- new security protocols will become part of interna- tion and information support for concerned tourists. tional security standards. After every security crisis Finally, the analysis showed that in general the sur- so far tourists returned to their destinations as soon vey participants perceive covid-19 as a disease more as the threat was eliminated. Even with the covid- endangering to the people that they love rather than 19 pandemic, we hopefully expect that ‘tourists have a themselves. More research is needed; however, these bad memory’ about security threats, as claimed (McK- results show that the moral obligation towards taking ercher & Huij, 2003) and that tourism will blossom care of others might be of utmost importance in the againwhenconditionscalmdownandsafetymeasures success factor of covid-19 measures for policy mak- are transformedin a way thatthey allow safe travelling ers and the tourism industry. In future persuasive ap- again. peals on covid-19-related threats, appealing to the safety of one’s loved ones might show to be the most Acknowledgments effective. The research presented in this article has been partly Future research is needed in order to assess how conducted within Interreg Mediterranean medPro- threat perception and future travel avoidance differ gramme Panoramed peoject BestMed project co-financed
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Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |19
Original Scientific Article
Tourism and Economic Growth Nexus in Latin America and Caribbean Countries: Evidence from an Autoregressive Distributed Lag Panel
José Alberto Fuinhas ceber, Faculty of Economics, University of Coimbra, Portugal [email protected] Matheus Belucio isag – European Business School and Research Group of isag (nidisag) and cefage-ue, Department of Economics, University of Évora, Portugal, [email protected] Daniela Castilho Management and Economics Department, University of Beira Interior, Portugal [email protected] Joana Mateus Management and Economics Department, University of Beira Interior, Portugal [email protected] Rafaela Caetano Management and Economics Department, University of Beira Interior, Portugal [email protected]
This research focuses on tourism as a way to stimulate economic growth in Latin America and the Caribbean countries. The impact of tourism on economic growth wasexpectedtohavebothshort-andlong-runeffects.Panelautoregressivedis- tributed lag, an econometric technique that allows for this temporal decomposition, was used. The results for the twenty-two countries revealed that, in the short-run, tourist capital investment per capita, tourist arrivals (number of persons), per capita electricity consumption, and the real exchange rate were statistically significant and had a positive impact on economic growth. In contrast, in the long-run, only tourist arrivals and per capita electricity consumption proved to be positive drivers of per capita economic growth. Policymakers should continue to develop and implement measures to attract as many tourists as possible while promoting investment in the tourism industry. However, they also need to pay attention to other economic sectors so that their countries do not become extremely dependent on tourism activity. Keywords: capital investment, tourism arrivals, economic growth, Latin America and Caribbean, ardl https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13.21-34
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |21 José Alberto Fuinhas et al. Tourism andEconomic Growth Nexus
Introduction annual data on Gross Domestic Product per capita Although the economic activity of Latin America and (gdppc),whichisourproxyforeconomicgrowth, Caribbean countries is still recovering from the im- and on tourism arrivals per capita (tapc) and tourism pacts of various economic and social crises, the Inter- capital investment per capita (tipc) in order to repre- national Monetary Fund (imf) stated that after 2017 sent the tourism sector. the region’s economic growth increased by 1.3, 1.6 The main goal of this study is to answer the cen- in 2018, and 2019 it is expected to increase by 2.6 (In- tral question: ‘What are the impacts of tourism inten- ternational Monetary Fund, 2018). These results could sity and tourism capital investment on the economic mean that these countries can rapidly increase their growth of Latin America and Caribbean countries?’ growth rates. The primary motivation for the achieve- Given the central question of our study, we can con- ment of this study was the fact that tourism is a sector struct the two following hypotheses. in development and has an essential role in the eco- h1 Tourism intensity has a positive impact on eco- nomic growth of this region. Thus, corroborating with nomic growth, given that it contributes to em- World Travel Market (2018), the number of foreign ployment creation and stimulates the economic tourists arriving in Latin America increased by 6 in activity of the Latin America and Caribbean the previous five years. Moreover, the World Travel countries. and Tourism Council (2018) estimates point to the fact h2 Capital investment has a positive impact on that the travel and tourism sector recently contributed economic growth, giventhatitcontributesto to 15.2 of the Caribbean Gross Domestic Product, re- the construction of new infrastructure, techno- gion which is included in the group of countries that logical progress, and innovation in Latin Amer- we will use in our investigation. ica and Caribbean countries. Given the facts previously stated, the characteris- tics of this region and the particular interest points, In thisresearch,wewill attempttoconfirm(or not) tourism becomes quite relevant. Being a fast-growing the validity of these hypotheses as we simultaneously sector, it is crucial to verify if more tourists and in- attempt to contribute to the enlargement of the litera- vestment (as well as, their efficiency) lead to an in- ture on this field. crease in economic benefits of Latin American and This study is organised as follows. The second sec- Caribbean countries. Thus, this theme should con- tion presents literature reviews about the tourism- tinue to be studied. economic growth nexus. The third describes the data, The impact of tourism on economic growth is an methodology, and preliminary tests. The fourth sec- extensively explored theme in the economic growth tion presents the results and discussion, and the fifth literature. However, few studies use panel methodol- section concludes the study. ogy to study the impacts of this sector on the growth of the Latin America and Caribbean region. Literature Review In our study, we used 22 countries from the Latin In this section, essential aspects will be discussed in America and Caribbean region, with annual data rang- the literature on tourism economics, focusing on the ing from 1995 to 2014. The autoregressive distributed way tourism relates to the economy and addressing lag (ardl) model was used in our empirical investiga- specific aspects of tourism in the Latin American and tion mainly because it supports variables with differ- Caribbean region. ent orders of integration and gives robust results with small samples. Though the ardl model, we evaluate Revisiting Tourism and Economy the impacts that tourism intensity and tourism capi- The relationship between tourism development and tal investment have on the economic growth of Latin economic growth has been studied widely in recent America and Caribbean countries on both the short years (e.g., Cannonier & Burke, 2019; Belucio et al., and that long run. To reach this objective, we used 2018; Brida, Lanzilotta & Pizzolon, 2016; Du et al.,
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2016; Cárdenas-García et al., 2015; Tugcu, 2014) given hypothesis is supported by the majority of the authors that the results from this relationship can help some that focus their works on the assessment of this rela- countries to develop effective growth strategies for tionship (e.g., Shahzad et al., 2017; Tugcu, 2014; Husein their economies. & Kara, 2011; Cortes-Jimenez & Pulina, 2010). The supply of foreign currency, the promotion of Regarding the conservation hypothesis (e.g., Aslan, investment, in both infrastructure and human capi- 2014; Payne & Mervar, 2010), while this hypothesis as- tal, and the jobs that this sector creates are some of serts that the economic output of a country can induce the significant benefits from international tourism tourism development, it also suggests that deteriora- that can produce positive effects on a country’s eco- tion on the economic performance of a country can nomic growth. Moreover, following Blake et al. (2016), significantly reduce its tourism demand. tourism has an essential role on the increase of the Concerning the feedback hypothesis (e.g., Rivera, average income of a country, as well as in the in- 2017;Al-mulalietal.,2014;Massidda&Mattana,2013), crease of both the efficiency and competitiveness of it considers economic growth and tourism develop- the economies. ment to be complementary and strongly dependent. Malta et al. (2019) analysed the context that enabled This hypothesis is the same as saying that economic the creation of a vision that attributes to tourism the growth promotes tourism development as well as the capacity to reduce poverty. According to the World other way around. Tourism Organization (2015), in 2014, one in every Finally, the neutrality hypothesis (e.g., Katircioglu, eleven jobs around the world was created by the tour- 2009) suggests that there is no relationship between ism sector, which demonstrates the weight that this tourism development and economic growth: they are sector has on the worldwide economy. entirely independent. This hypothesis indicates that, Given the facts previously stated, it is natural that for example, strategies for tourism development (e.g., the relationship between tourism and growth has an investing in the tourism sector) do not produce direct extensive branch of literature about it. Lanza and Pigli- effects on economic growth. aru (2000) were the pioneers of the investigation of Besides these four hypotheses, there is an addi- the relationship between these two variables. In their tional one: the curse hypothesis, or the beach disease work, they concluded that the countries specialised in effect (e.g., Holzner, 2011). This hypothesis can be de- tourism shared features, such as tourist destinations of fined as follows: countries in which the tourism sector small geographical size, where the average per capita plays a significant role in their economies (tourism- income proliferated. dependent countries) tend to grow less than the others Moving forward, the analysis of the relationship do. between tourism and economic growth has at least Turning to the methodological part of the works four hypotheses that can be easily identified in the lit- on the tourism-growth nexus, in the literature, many erature: growth hypothesis also called the tourism-led variableswereusedastourismproxies.Themostcom- growth hypothesis (tlgh or tlg): conservation hy- monly used are international tourism revenues (e.g., pothesis; feedback hypothesis; and neutrality hypoth- Durbarry, 2004; Balaguer & Cantavella-Jordà, 2002), esis (e.g., Dogru & Bulut, 2018). These hypotheses ap- number of tourist arrivals (e.g., Zortuk, 2009; Gun- pear in the majority of the causality tests related to duz & Hatemi-J, 2005), tourism specialization (e.g., economic growth, mainly in energy economics. Nev- Algieri, 2006), tourism industries (e.g., Tang & Shawn, ertheless, this group of hypotheses can be reformu- 2009), and tourism spending (e.g., Nissan et al., 2011), lated and used in tourism analysis. for example. As expected, the variable Gross Domestic The tlgh, as the name implies, state that tourism Product is the one that researchers use the most often development stimulates economic growth: the tourist to measure economic growth. arrivalsandtherevenuesgeneratedbythetourismsec- Regarding the empirical methodologies that are tor have a positive impact on economic growth. This used to investigate the relationship between tourism
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and economic growth, it can be emphasized that they output of the countries, the results are far from conclu- differfromauthortoauthor.However,therearetwo sive, and for that reason, we support the idea that this main methodological approaches: panel data estima- relationship should continue to be extensively studied. tions, and time-series estimations. Brida et al. (2016) The assessment of the impacts that tourism have made a detailed review of the empirical methods that on growth is especially crucial for the case of Latin were applied in the literature close to this theme, and America and Caribbean countries because they have a their advantages and disadvantages. set of characteristics (e.g., cultural and natural wealth) The panel data models are frequently preferred that make them a choice destination for tourists from because they allow doing a simultaneous analysis of all over the world. However, tourism safety in Latin the cross-sectional and temporal dimensions. The America has not evolved to the same level in all Latin panel Granger causality techniques (e.g., Belucio et American countries (Maximiliano, 2014). al., 2018; Al-mulali et al., 2014) and the autoregressive Some of the critical factors that can deter tourists distributed lag model (ardl) (e.g., Katircioglu, 2009) from a destination are the security of the destination are some of the estimation methods that are more fre- and the exchange rate. Regarding the safety of tourists quently used in this type of studies. in Latin America, the central issue is related to lo- cal crime (Maximiliano, 2014). However, the devel- The Region opment of sound public regulation can generate eco- Latin America has been experiencing significant chan- nomic growth and benefits for tourism agents, which ges in recent decades (Bianchi et al., 2018). Tourism is reflected in improvements for the population (Belu- has grown in most Latin American and Caribbean cio et al., 2018) and tourists. countries. Researchers and policymakers have long Theexchangerateplaysanessentialroleinthelives recognised the significance of tourism to the Caribbean of underdeveloped or in the development of tourist region (Cannonier & Burke, 2019) destinations. The inflow of foreign capital is responsi- The region has two of the seven natural wonders ble for economic growth, but policymakers often ne- of the world, and three of the seven wonders of the glect the exchange rate policies (Dogru et al., 2019), modern world. Tourism in the region has diversified which can have a significant impact on the trade bal- effects, whether micro or macroeconomics. Garza and ance. It is also known that the real effective exchange Ovalle (2019) argue that tourism-driven development ratehassignificanteffectsoneconomicgrowth(Lee& affects the spatial distribution of prices and increasing Chang, 2008) and that exchange variation can benefit daily transportation difficulties. or hurt a tourist destination. Focusing on the Latin America and Caribbean countries (lac), we can refer that for these countries Data and Methodology the tourism literature is quite extensive (e.g., Belucio Our study is focused on the assessment of the impacts et al., 2018; Risso & Brida, 2008; Brida et al., 2008; of tourism on the economic growth of a group of Latin Eugenio-Martin et al., 2004). The conclusions of the America and Caribbean: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, works focused on the relationship between tourism Chile,Colombia,CostaRica,Cuba,DominicanRe- and growth in this region, or in some countries of public, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Hon- thelac,predominantlysupportthetlgh.Beforewe duras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, conclude, we also should refer that the reasons cited Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay and Venezuela. in the literature to the differences in the study’s results For the present investigation, we will use annual data are mainly the fact that authors usually apply different from 1995 to 2014. Both the time horizon and countries empirical methodologies, and chose different periods were chosen, given the available data. In this study, we and samples to be analysed (e.g., Dogru & Bulut, 2018). used stata 15.0 to perform our econometric analy- Even though most of the studies show that tourism sis. In Table 1 the name, definition, and source of our development has positive impacts on the economic variables are presented.
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Table 1 Variables Description were all retrieved from the World Bank, while ti was Variable Definition Source retrieved from the World Travel & Tourism Council. We will use the autoregressive distributed lag (ar- gdp Gross Domestic Product in World Bank aconstantlocalcurrency dl) model in the form of an Unrestricted Error Cor- unit rection Mechanism (uecm). This methodology gives p The total population in the World Bank the dynamic effects of the variables, allowing us to total number of persons make a distinction between the Granger causality in epc Electric power consumption World Bank short and the long-run. Moreover, it is robust to the in gwh presence of endogeneity, and when a determined co- efficient is statistically significant, it is equivalent to ta Tourism arrivals in the World Bank number of persons the Granger causality testing (Menegaki et al., 2017; Jouini, 2015). Additionally, it deals with cointegration gdp_us Gross Domestic Product in World Bank constant 2010 us$ and supports the inclusion of variables with different orders of integration (I(0), I(1), and fractionally inte- ti Capital Investment in a World Travel & constant local currency unit Tourism Council grated variables) in the same estimation. The variables were transformed into natural logarithms (‘L’) and first tx Real exchange rate Author’s calcu- lation from the differences (‘D’). The ardl model specification isthe World Bank following:
lgdppcit = α1i + δ1itrend + β1i1lgdppcit−1 + β + β The dependent variable will be Gross Domestic 1i2ltapcit 1i3ltapcit−1 Product in constant local currency (gdp), our proxy + β1i4ltipcit + β1i5ltipcit−1 for economic growth. + β1i6lepcit + β1i7lepcit−1 To measure tourism intensity, the ratio of the tour- + β1i8txit + β1i9txit−1 + β1it. (1) ism arrivals (ta), by the total population (p) was used. The tourism capital investment (ti), which represents To explain the dynamic relationships between our the capital investment spending by all industries di- variables, we reparametrized equation (1) into the fol- rectly involved in travel and tourism, is another of our lowing specification: interest variables and will also be divided by the to- dlgdppcit = αi + β2i1dltapc it + β2i2dltipc it talpopulation(p).Wechoosetheelectricpowercon- + β + β sumption (epc) as our control variable because the 2i3dlepcit 2i4dltx it energy use of a country is highly correlated with its + γ2i1lgdppcit−1 + γ2i2ltapcit−1 economic growth (e.g., Santiago et al., 2020); further- + γ2i3ltipcit−1 + γ2i4lepcit−1 more, energy can contribute to the three dimensions + γ2i5txit−1 + ε2it.(2) of development: social, economic and human (e.g., Malaquias et al., 2019). The Gross Domestic Prod- A series of diagnostic tests before the estimation are uctwasalsoretrievedinconstant2010us$,inor- necessaries to validate that the choice of method was der to calculate the real exchange rate (tx) through accurate. In addition, other tests and statistics need to the ratio of Gross Domestic Product in constant local be verified after model estimation to make sure that it currency by the Gross Domestic Product in constant meets mandatory econometric requirements in panel 2010 us$. analysis (e.g., Dogru et al., 2019; Santiago et al., 2020; The transformation of the variables into per capita Marquesetal.,2017;Fuinhas&Marques,2012;Katir- values is essential because it eliminates the dimen- cioglu, 2009). Every test and statistics of the method sional distortions caused in the model’s estimations by used will be presented. the variables in levels. gdp, epc, ta, gdp_us, and p, In sequence, the characteristics of the series through
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Table 2 Descriptive Statistics and Cross-Sectional Dependence Variables Descriptive statistics Cross section dependence (cd) Obs Mean Std. dev. Min. Max. cd-test Corr Abs(corr) lgdppc . . . . .*** . . ltapc –. . –. –. .*** . . ltipc –. . –. –. .*** . . lepc . . . . .*** . . ltx . . –. . –. . . dlgdppc . . –. . .*** . . dltapc . . –. . .*** . . dltipc . . –. . .*** . . dlepc . . –. . .*** . . dltx . . –. . –. –. . Notes To achieve the results of descriptive statistics and to test the presence of cross-section dependence, the Stata com- mands sum and xtcd, respectively, were used. The cdtest has N(0, 1) distribution under the h0: cross-section independence; *** denote statistical significance at 1 level. the descriptive statistics as well as the results from the Table 3 Correlation Matrices and vif Statistics cross-section dependence test are presented. As can be lgdppc ltapc ltipc lepc ltx observed, gdppc has one less observation (data on lgdppc . gdp fails for Haiti in 1995), but that is not a problem, ltapc . . because stata 15.0 can correct this issue and contin- ues to assume the panel to be a strongly balanced one. ltipc . . . It is also possible to observe one less observation on lepc . . . . tx because the variable was calculated using the gdp, ltx . . . . . and it is not a concern due to the same explanation. As vif* n.a. . . . . previously stated, in Table 2, the results from the cross- dlgdppc dltapc dltipc dlepc dltx section dependence test can be observed, where it can dlgdppc . be concluded that cross-section dependence is present dltapc . . in all variables, except in real exchange rate (tx). Next, the correlation matrices and variance infla- dltipc . . . tion factor (vif) statistics are examined. The correla- dlepc . . . . tion matrix was used to check the degree of correla- dltx . –. . . . tion that exists between the variables, while the vif vif** n.a. . . . . statistics was used to test for the presence of multi- Notes *Mean vif 2.12. **Mean vif 1.04. collinearity. The results of the correlation matrix only indicated the existence of a high level of correlation between ltipc and lgdppc, which is not a concern, multicollinearity is not a problem for this paper’s esti- given that the high correlation is with the dependent mation. Details are in the Table 3. variable. A similar situation (high correlation between Because cross-sectional dependence seems not to the ltx and lgdppc) is detected; again, this does not be present on the real exchange rate (tx), the 1st gener- causeaproblemfortheestimationduetothesamerea- ation panel unit root tests will also be computed. Next, son. The lower vif and mean vif values prove that the results of the Maddala and Wu test are presented in
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Table 4 Maddala and Wu Panel Unit Roots Test (mw) Table 5 Panel Unit Root test (cips) Variable w b (Zt-bar) Variable c i p s (Zt-bar) Without trend With trend Without trend With trend lgdppc .*** .*** lgdppc –. . ltapc .* . ltapc –.*** –. ltipc .* .*** ltipc –.*** –.*** lepc . . lepc –. . ltx .*** .*** ltx –.*** –.*** dlgdppc .*** .*** dlgdppc –.*** –.*** dltapc .*** .*** dltapc –.*** –.*** dltipc .*** .*** dltipc –.*** –.*** dlepc .*** .*** dlepc –.*** –.*** dltx .*** .*** dltx –.*** –.*** Notes *, *** denote statistical significance at 10 and 1 Notes *** denote statistical significance at 1 level; Pesaran level, respectively; Maddala and Wu (1999) Panel Unit Root (2007) Panel Unit Root Test (cips) assumes that cross- Test (mw) assumes that cross-sectional independence, and sectional dependence is in the form of a single unobserved h0: series is i(1); to compute this test, the Stata command common factor and h0: series is i(1); to compute this test, multipurt was used. the Stata command multipurt was used.
Table 4. As the test of Maddala and Wu (1999) shows Table 6 Hausman Test that there are variables presenting cross-sectional de- Test f e vs r e pendence, the veracity of the results is compromised Hausman test χ2() = .*** for them. Thus, only the order of integration of the tx Notes *** denotes significance at the 1 level; in both mod- variable will be analysed. The result seems to indicate els, the Hausman test was performed with the sigmamore op- that the variable is I(0). tion. h0: random effects are the most appropriate. To see the order of integration of the remaining variables, the 2nd generation unit root tests, namely the augmented cross-sectional ips (cips) test by (Pe- pothesis. This result led us to conclude that the fixed saran, 2007) were computed. This test was used be- effects model is the proper specification for our es- cause the presence of cross-sectional dependence was timation: the countries’ individual effects are signif- registered in most of the variables, and the 1st gen- icant. In this estimation, the sigmamore option was eration panel unit root tests turned out to be ineffi- used, which is a recurrent option in previous studies cient in these cases. The results of the cips test show (e.g., Özokcu & Özdemir, 2017) (Table 6). that some variables are I(1) and others are I(0), which After the Hausman test, with the results pointing to is not a problem because the ardl model supports the use of the fixed effects model, the next step is the these two levels of integration. These results confirm execution of a group of specification tests. The results that the ardl methodology is the best approach for of the pre-tests still reveal details of the nature of the the study (Table 5). variables, information useful for models’ estimation. The Hausman test confronts random and fixed ef- fects, and when the structure of the data is in the panel, Results and Discussion it is necessary to test for the individual effects. In se- To test for the presence of heteroscedasticity, we com- quence, the results of the Hausman test are presented putedthemodifiedWaldTest(nullhypothesis:Ho- and, as we can be observed, the test rejects the null hy- moscedasticity). The Pesaran test (null hypothesis:
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Table 7 Specification Tests Table 8 Estimation Results (Dependent Variable: dlgdppc) Test Statistics Modified Wald test .*** Variable fe fe-dk Pesaran’s test .*** Constant .*** .*** Wooldridge test .*** dltapc .*** .*** Notes h0ofModifiedWaldtest:σ(i)2= σ2 for all i;H0of dltipc .*** .*** Pesaran’s test: residual are not correlated; h0 of Wooldridge dlepc .*** .*** test: no first-order autocorrelation; *** denotes statistical sig- dltx .*** .*** nificance at 1 level. lgdppc (–) –.*** –.*** ltapc (–) .*** .*** residuals are not correlated and follow a normal distri- lepc (–) .*** .* bution) to check for the presence of contemporaneous Diagnostic statistics correlation was used. The Breush-Pagan Lagrangian multipliertestwasalsousedtotestifthevariances N 2 across individuals are not correlated. In the present R . . case, this test could not be applied because the number FF(, ) = .*** F(, ) = .*** of countries in that sample is larger than the number Notes ***, * denote statistical significance at 1 and 10 of years in the study. Lastly, the Wooldridge test was level, respectively; to estimate the models, the Stata com- used for autocorrelation to assess for the presence of mand xtscc was used. serial correlation in our model. The results from the previously mentioned tests Specification tests were remade for the parsimo- are presented in Table 7, showing that heteroscedas- nious model, and the results were in line with the ticity, contemporaneous correlation, and first-order previous ones (presence of heteroscedasticity, auto- autocorrelation are all present in the model. All the correlation. and contemporaneous correlation in the statistics reject the null hypothesis of the respective model). The results of the estimations are presented in specification tests. detail in Table 8. The results show that, in the short- Given these results, the Driscoll and Kraay (1998) run, the tourism intensity, the tourism capital invest- estimator is the most appropriate estimator to use in ment per capita, the electric energy consumption per estimations, because the standard errors produced by capita, and the real exchange rate are all positive and the estimator are robust to disturbances being cross- statistically significant. Table 8 also shows a positive sectional dependent, heteroskedastic and autocorre- and statistically significant impact of both tourism in- lated up to some lag. tensity and electric power consumption on economic In this model, both the trend, the tourism capi- growth in the long-run. As we previously stated, the tal investment per capita, and the real exchange rate tourism capital investment and real exchange rate (both ti and tx on the long-run) were statistically failed to show a statistically significant impact in the insignificant and were thus retrieved from the model. long-run and, for that reason, it was excluded from the After these conclusions, equation (2) was replaced by estimation. equation (3), which represents this more parsimonious The long-run elasticities are not displayed in Ta- model. ble 8 because they had to be calculated through the ra- tio between the variable’s coefficient and the lgdppc dlgdppcit = αi + β3i1dltapc it + β3i2dltipc it coefficient, both lagged once, and this ratio was mul- + β3i3dlepcit + β3i4dltx it tiplied by –1. In Table 9, the impacts (short-run), elas- + γ + γ 3i1lgdppcit−1 3i2ltapcit−1 ticities (long-run), and the adjustment speed of the + γ3i3lepcit−1 + εit.(3)model (ecm) are shown.
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Table 9 Elasticities and Speed of Adjustment Table 10 Estimation Results (Corrected for Shocks, (Dependent Variable: dlgdppc) Dependent Variable: dlgdppc) Variable fe fe-dk Variable fe fe-dk Short-run impacts Constant .*** .*** dltapc .*** .*** dltapc .*** .*** dltipc .*** .*** dltipc .*** .*** dlepc .*** .*** dlepc .*** .*** dltx .*** .*** dltx .*** .*** Long-run (computed) elasticities lgdppc (–) –.*** –.*** ltapc .*** .*** ltapc (–) .*** .*** lepc .*** .*** ltipc (–) . .** Speed of adjustment lepc (–) .*** .** ecm –.*** –.*** arg –.*** –.*** Notes *** denote statistical significance at 1 level, the arg –.*** –.*** ecm denotes the coefficient of the variable lgdppc lagged cb .*** .*** once. cb .*** .*** rd –.*** –.*** From Table 9, it can be seen that the Latin Amer- h –.** –.*** ica and Caribbean countries’ economic growth was mex .** .*** positively affected by the tourism arrivals per capita mex –.*** –.*** (tourism intensity) and by the electric power con- tt .*** .*** sumption per capita, both in the short and long runs, tt .*** .*** while the positive effects of tourism capital investment per capita and real exchange rate were only detected tt –.*** –.*** in the short run. ur –.*** –.*** Latin America and Caribbean countries suffer from ven –.*** –.*** serious political, economic and social problems and ven –.*** –.*** therefore, once these problems had an impact on the ven .*** .*** economic growth of these countries, we considered Diagnostic statistics the relevant shocks, which affected their economies N between 1995 and 2014. R2 . . In 1997, the Mexican government adopted the Na- tional Program for Development Finance (npfdf). In FF(, ) = .*** F(, ) = .*** Uruguay, in 2002, a bank crisis occurred, due to the Notes *** and ** denote statistical significance at 1 or 5 country’s over-dependence on Argentina, which was level, respectively; to estimate the models, the Stata com- also in depression. This depression was mainly due to mand xtscc was used. currency devaluation. In the Dominican Republic, in 2003, a financial crisis was caused by bank failure. instability in the same year, which led to a search for a In Venezuela, the oil strike in 2002–2003 followed new hydrocarbon exporting country, which benefitted in 2004 with an impressive rise in the oil prices. Trini- Trinidad and Tobago. dad and Tobago are very dependent on exports; in In2006,TrinidadandTobago,duetoariseinthe 2003m this country registered a massive increase in oil and gas prices and an increase in the foreign di- gdp, which could be associated with the Venezuelan rect investment (fdi), expanded their energy sector.
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Table 11 Impacts, Elasticities and Speed of Adjustment positively affected by the tourism arrivals per capita (Model Corrected for Shocks, Dependent (tourism intensity) and by the electric power con- Variable: dl g dp p c) sumption per capita, both in the short and long run. Variable fe fe-dk After the correction of the shocks, the tourism invest- Short-run impacts ment per capita has become statistically significant, dltapc .*** .*** not only on the short-run but also in the long-run. In addition, it had a positive impact on economic growth, dltipc .*** .*** becoming one of its main drivers. The real exchange dlepc .*** .*** rate has a significant and positive impact on economic dltx .*** .*** growth but only in the short-run. Long-run (computed) elasticities Regarding the ecm, from Table 11, it can be seen ltapc .*** .*** that its coefficient is negative and statistically signif- ltipc . .** icant, which indicates the presence of long-memory lepc .*** .*** between the variables. This value represents the speed of adjustment of the model, i.e., the speed at which Speed of adjustment the dependent variable returns to equilibrium after ecm –.*** –.*** changes in our independent variables. As can be ob- Notes *** denote statistical significance at 1 level, the served, the speed of adjustment of the model is rela- ecm denotes the coefficient of the variable lgdppc lagged tively slow. once. The positive impacts of the electric power con- sumption per capita on the economic growth of these In 2005, Cuba had a development of the tourism sec- countries, both in the short and long-run, were ex- tor and was registered a reduction in the unemploy- pected, given that energy is seen as a driving force ment rate. In 2006, the highest economic growth in for growth (e.g., Hatemi-J & Irandoust, 2005). Addi- the history of Cuba happened as a result of Cuba’s tionally, it has high explanatory power in empirical so-called energy revolution (e.g., Suárez et al., 2012). growth models. Moreover, many authors consider en- Other shocks that were considered were in Argentina, ergy variables crucial to explain countries’ economic Haiti, Mexico and Trinidad and Tobago (all in 2009) growth (e.g., Toman & Jemelkova, 2003). The real ex- and that can be due to the financial crisis of 2008 fol- change rate, as previously stated, had a positive im- lowed by a global recession. Details in Table 10. pact on the economic growth in the short run. The What was said previously about some economic importance of the exchange rate to the policy and eco- problems in these countries indicates the existence of nomic growth could benefit the countries that were in outliers in Argentina (2002), Cuba (2005, 2006), the the early stages of economic development (Habib et Dominican Republic (2003), Mexico (1997), Trinidad al., 2017). Thus, because the countries used in this in- and Tobago (2003, 2006), and Venezuela (2002, 2003, vestigation are developing countries, this impact was 2004). To control the detected outliers, dummies were expected. In the long run, with countries becoming added on the model to represent these events and cor- more developed and prosperous, the real exchange rect them. Dummies arg2002, arg2009, rd2003, rate could become irrelevant to growth (Aghion et al., h2009, mex2009, tt2009, ur2002, ven2002, and 2009). ven2003 represent a break, while cb2005, cb2006, Given these results, the policymakers from Latin mex1997, tt2003, tt2006 and ven2004 represents America and the Caribbean should be cautious in a peak. In Table 11, the impacts, elasticities and speed the adoption of energy conservation policies, since of adjustment of the model are shown. the economic output of these countries seems to be FromTable11,itcanbeseenthattheLatinAmer- strongly linked with energy consumption, in the pres- ica and Caribbean countries economic growth was ent case, with the electric power consumption per
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capita. Measures that lead to a reduction in its con- the main driver of the growth. In the long-run, all vari- sumption appear to be able to affect the economic ables were shown to be significant and have a positive growth of Latin America and Caribbean countries ad- impact on growth. The tourism arrivals and electric versely. power consumption have been revealed to be the prin- Regarding the central question of the present study, cipal drivers of economic growth in this region. it can be seen that both variables (tourism intensity Therefore, the tourism intensity and capital invest- and tourism capital investment) seem to have had a ment, both on short and long-run, had a positive im- positive impact on growth, which confirms both of pact on the economic growth of the Latin America the hypotheses. The results of this study also corrob- and Caribbean countries, which supports Hypotheses orate those of other authors that studied the relation- 1and2. ship between the tourism sector and economic growth The main finding of this investigation is that once for some countries from this region (e.g., Shahzad et that tourism has a positive impact on the economic al., 2017; Tang & Abosedra, 2014; Amaghionyeodiwe, growth of this region, which means that an increase 2012). on the tourism intensity leads an increase on the eco- Given these results, we think that the countries nomic growth, this region should increase the level from our sample should continue to attract as many of investment in this sector. The policymakers of the tourists as possible at the same time, while the indus- Latin America and Caribbean region should continue tries directly involved in travel and tourism should to develop measures aimed to attract as many tourists continue to increase the levels of their investments, as possible while simultaneously promoting the in- given that both factors have a positive impact on eco- vestment in their travel and tourism industries. The nomic growth. This is congruent with the findings of country’s economies have to invest more in human Du et al. (2016) that tourism’s contribution to the long- capital directly involved with the tourism sector and rungrowthofaneconomycomesthroughitsroleas invest more in marketing to promote the region of an integral part of a broader development strategy. Latin America and the Caribbean in addition to other economic sectors. Conclusion When a tourist chooses one destination, the ma- Inordertoanswertothecentralquestionofthis jority of them (or all of them) do so considering the study, the autoregressive distributed lag (ardl) model economic situation, the level of security, and the pub- wasusedtoassesstheimpacts,inboththeshortand lic health conditions of the region. Consequently, the long-run, of tourism on the economic growth of 22 policymakers should increase the level of the invest- Latin America and Caribbean countries. The specifi- ments in healthcare (both to residents and tourists), cation tests showed that cross-sectional dependence, which could happen through international partner- heteroscedasticity, contemporaneous correlation, and ships with tourism agencies, for example, and should first-order autocorrelation were present in the model, also increase the security in the region. which led to the Discroll Kraay estimator with fixed However, they also must pay attention to the other effects being used. The Error Correction Mechanism economic sectors so that their countries do not be- (ecm) is statistically significant and negative, which come extremely dependent on tourism activity. Exces- indicates the presence of cointegration/long-memory sive investment in the tourism sector, while neglecting relationships between the variables in the study. the other sectors of the economy may lead these coun- From the results, it is possible to observe that, in tries to a ‘deindustrialisation’ situation. the short run, tourism intensity, capital investment, The use of energy consumption or electric power electric power consumption, and real exchange rate consumption directly related to tourism should be in- have a positive and significant impact on the economic cluded in further research because it is a limitation of growth of the Latin America and Caribbean countries, this investigation, as is the temporal horizon that ends with the electric power consumption per capita being in 2014. Another limitation of the study is analysing
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34 | Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Original Scientific Article
Erasmus+ Mobility: Empirical Insights into Erasmus+ Tourists’ Behaviour
Miha Lesjak University of Primorska, Turistica – Faculty of Tourism Studies, Slovenia [email protected] Emil Juvan University of Primorska, Turistica – Faculty of Tourism Studies, Slovenia [email protected] Eva Podovšovnik University of Primorska, Turistica – Faculty of Tourism Studies, Slovenia [email protected]
Erasmus+ students represent a large sub-segment of educational tourists, making this segment an attractive market for universities as well as destination marketing organisations. Unfortunately, very little is known about Erasmus+ students’ travel behaviour; hence the present study aims at extending empirically supported knowl- edge about travel behaviour of students during their Erasmus+ mobility. Data was collected via an online survey among all Erasmus+ enrolling students in the aca- demic year 2016/17 in Slovenia. The results show that 93 of the participants trav- elled during their mobility. The level of studies as well as gender affect students’ travel behaviour, making the two characteristics immediately useful attributes when tar- geting Erasmus+ travellers. Based on perceived destination attributes, male students predominantly seek cities with attractive nightlife but female students look for eas- ily accessible cities, which are safe and offer attractive cultural sites. These findings suggest that tourism providers, destination tourism organisations and universities should work hand in hand when designing personalised tourism experiences and their promotion among Erasmus+ students. This is crucial during the phase of plan- ning Erasmus+ mobility, when students choose their destination and host university, as well as during students’ Erasmus+ mobility, because Erasmus + students travel during their student mobility. Keywords: Erasmus+ mobility, education, international students, destination attributes, tourist behaviour https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13.35-50
Introduction alone, there were 3.5 million international or foreign Student mobility involves an increasingly large pop- students engaged in tertiary educational programmes ulationofstudents.Thevolumeofstudentmobil- in the year 2016. Different mobility programmes sup- ity worldwide exploded from 2 million in 1999 to port students’ mobility and aim at improving students’ 5 million in 2016 (Organization for Economic Co- professional, cultural and language skills as well as stu- operation and Development, 2018). In the oecdarea dents’ international employability. International study
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |35 Miha Lesjak, Emil Juvan, andEva Podovšovnik Erasmus+ Mobility
mobility has become a key differentiating experience fect tourist behaviour (Moutinho, 1993; Pearce, 2015), for students, and has gained increased policy atten- and thus differentiate tourist segments, the most inter- tion (oecd, 2017). Students engage in study mobility esting for the industry are the factors which are easily for various reasons, predominantly to improve their identified with the specific market segment (Dolničar, professional skills and for personal growth (Juvan & 2008); for example, among the student population Lesjak, 2011). Nevertheless, recent research (for exam- these would be gender, age and the level of studies. ple, Lesjak et al., 2015) shows that factors specific to Investigating students’ travel behaviour is not new, leisure travel play a highly important role in pursuing however, understanding leisure travel behaviour of student mobility. Namely, being a tourist helps Eras- Erasmus+ students is still relatively unexplored. Exist- mus mobility students to grow personally (for exam- ing studies predominantly investigate travel behaviour ple, improve their understanding of a foreign culture of a general student population, typically involving or of nature, improve their ability to survive in a dif- long-term international students, which differentiate ferent environment, improve language skills, etc.). from Erasmus+ students. The key differentiating vari- The Erasmus+ mobility programme is a lot about able is that Erasmus+ students reside in a host country travel. For example, Erasmus+ mobility students need for up to 6 months and their high interest in leisure to travel to a foreign country and, once in the host travel (Lesjak et al., 2015). Following this conceptual- country, they explore the host as well as neighbour- isation, Erasmus+ students represent longer-staying ing countries (for example, Martinez-Roget et al., 2013; tourists, engaged in studying as well as leisure travel. Gardiner et al., 2013; Pavlič & Koderman, 2014); they As such, Erasmus+ students should represent an in- pursue the role of tourists. Given the volume of travel ternational travel market of high interest to univer- involved during Erasmus+ mobility it is inevitable that sities and tourism organisations, because both strive not only educational but also travel-related attributes to attract this educational international market seg- of host countries play an important role in students’ ment. decisions to pursue mobility (Lesjak et al., 2015). The The present study aims at extending our current empiricalevidenceaboutthesizeoftheErasmus+mo- understanding of Erasmus+ students’ travel behaviour bility programme and the fact that Erasmus+ students by investigating the most typical travel decisions and do travel while at the host destination, makes them their association with most evident and easily identi- an interesting travel market. However, little is known fied characteristics of students (gender and level of about the travel behaviour and drivers of Erasmus+ studies). The theoretical contribution of this study students’ travel behaviour during their mobility. lies in improving the theory of tourist behaviour in There is no doubt that hospitality is focused on the context of a medium-term international student’s nurturing of guests, providing them the best possible travel. Practically, this study informs (1) educational experience while they are our guests (Gorenak, 2019). institutions about key destinations attributes impor- That is why understanding travel behaviour and its tant for attracting Erasmus+ mobility students and key drivers improves the ability of destination mar- (2) destination marketing organisations and tourism keting organisations as well as educational host insti- providers about how to personalise typical tourism tutions to personalise tourist experiences and inform servicesandinfrastructureaswellashowtocom- approaches, thus improving destination competitive- municate leisure travel opportunities to the Erasmus+ ness. More specifically, destination organisations can student travel segment. increase the attractiveness of places and educational The manuscript continues by explaining the speci- institutions. Additionally, they can inform tourism fics of the Erasmus+ student mobility and drivers of providers about the Erasmus+ student’s characteris- students’ travel behaviour. We then proceed by ex- tics that effectively differentiate various segments and plaining the methodology of the empirical research segment specific travel decisions (for example, choice and data analysis. The manuscript concludes with the of accommodation). While many different factors af- discussion and key recommendations on how tourism
36 | Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Miha Lesjak, Emil Juvan, andEva Podovšovnik Erasmus+ Mobility
industry and educational institutions can benefit by new, personal growth, to have fun and relax, visiting catering to the Erasmus+ student travel segment. new places, learning about different cultures, meet- ing new people, spending a semester abroad, improv- Drivers of Students’ Mobility and Tourist ing foreign language skills, experience a different ed- Behaviour ucation system, improve academic knowledge and in- Formal and informal learning are recognized as im- crease job opportunities (Lesjak et al., 2015; Heung & portant behaviour drivers for young travellers, in- Leong, 2006; Kim, 2007). cluding students (unwto, 2008; 2016), who typically Students consider a number of university and des- travel for more than 24 hours but less than one year, tination related attributes when making their mobility for the purpose of education. During such travels, stu- choices, for example welcoming attitudes of the local dents engage in different forms of tourism, for exam- population, tuition fees and scholarships, security and ple volunteering, work and travel, cultural exchange, quality of life in the host country, political instabil- sports and adrenaline tourism; however, education re- ity in the home country, access to visas and proximity mains their main motive (Moisa, 2010). More specif- to the homeland (Juvan & Lesjak, 2011; Abubakar et ically, students can choose between various forms al., 2014). When choosing their mobility destination, of educational tourism, such as study mobility ex- students also look at the non-academic attributes of changes, excursions, international research projects their host country. More specifically those perceived and international internships (van ’t Klooster et al., destination attributes are connected to rich natural 2008). Studying abroad has become an important per- attractions, safety and security, novelty, rich culture sonal investment as it brings an important competi- and history, a large number of different events, a high tive advantage once students enter the labour market standard of living, nightlife, accessibility and others (Moreira & Gomes, 2019). Additionally, international (Lesjaketal.,2015;Buffa,2015).Duringtheirstudy, students represent an important source of income for mobility students travel within and outside their host host destinations with everyday living expenses con- country and typically consider fun, costs and safety at- tributing to the local economy (oecd, 2017; Amaro et tributes of the tourism products and services (Vukić et al., 2019). al., 2015; Pavlič & Koderman, 2014) as the key drivers Different reasons drive students’ decisions for stu- of choices. North American and European students dy mobility; the prevailing ones are improving em- typically stay in cheaper forms of accommodation, ployment opportunities, access to higher quality of while Chinese and Indian students opt more for tra- education, learning about culture, improving foreign ditional accommodations, such as hotels or motels language skills and ensuring higher economic or so- (Michael et al., 2004). cial status in the future (Abubakar et al., 2014; Mor- Tourist behaviour typically involves tourists’ choi- eira & Gomez, 2019). Several authors (for example, ces of destination, accommodation infrastructure, and Ajanovic et al., 2016; Sova, 2017; Stone & Petrick 2013; destination activities as well as booking tools. Be- Vossensteyn et al., 2010) conceptualise students’ mo- sides that, tourists seek tourism services that make bility motives as personal and professional skills de- them feel at ease and relaxed (Gorenak et al., 2019). velopment, career opportunities, leisure, relaxation These choices greatly depend on the travel budget. and other drivers. Juvan and Lesjak (2011) report that Students, and in particular Erasmus+ students, pursue Slovenian student outgoing mobility is driven by a de- their tourist travel through the Erasmus+ exchange sire to gain international experience, a change of ev- mobility system which supports students in evaluat- eryday environment, interesting study programmes ing tourist-related alternatives (one example of such offered by the host universities, improvement of lan- support is the Erasmus+ grant, which financially sup- guage skills, recommendations from friends, and by ports students’ travel-related choices). Students are a the Erasmus grant. In general, international Erasmus heterogeneous travel market, yet with some common travel is driven by the desire to experience something characteristics (Richards & Wilson, 2003). Prior stud-
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |37 Miha Lesjak, Emil Juvan, andEva Podovšovnik Erasmus+ Mobility
ies (Table 1) provide a wide range of, yet inconclusive, students’ capabilities and skills and enhancing the Eu- knowledge about how to attract and cater to the inter- ropean status of a knowledge-based economy (Gon- national Erasmus+ students travel market. zalez et al., 2011). Since its foundation, the Erasmus Based on the existing literature, it can be con- programme has supported educational travel for over cluded that a number of easily identifiable character- 9 million individuals, of which over 5 million were istics of student travellers affect students’ travel be- students (European Commission, 2017). haviour. More specifically, age (Hsu & Sung, 1997; In Slovenia, Erasmus+ and other student mobil- Kim & Jogaratnam, 2003; Michael et al., 2004; Payne, ity programmes are managed by cmepius (Center 2009; Shoham et al., 2004; Varasteh et al., 2015), gen- rs for Mobility and European Education and Train- der (Shoham et al., 2004; Kim & Jogaratnam, 2003) ing Programs) and movit, the two national agencies and the level of study degree (Glover, 2011; Shoham responsible for the implementation of the program in etal.,2004;Payne,2009;Varastehetal.,2015).These the period 2014. Table 2 demonstrates numbers of in- characteristics typically drive the choices of accom- coming and outgoing Erasmus+ students in Slovenia modation (Michael et al., 2004; Kim & Jogaratnam, in the last decade. From the table it can be seen that 2003;Shohametal.,2004)orinfluencetravelmotives the number of incoming students has more than dou- and students’ expenditure during the mobility (Payne, bled, while the number of outgoing students has risen 2009;Varastehetal.,2015).Maritalstatus,national- by 30 from 2007 to 2017. ity and sources of income affect travel preferences of international postgraduate students in Malaysia Methodology (Varasteh et al., 2015). The present study investigates tourist behaviour (des- tination choice, accommodation choice, travel expen- Student Mobility: Erasmus+ Programme diture, transport choices, booking behaviour and per- Student mobility is a form of educational mobility ceived importance of destinations’ attributes) of Eras- aimed at supporting enriching formal education by mus+ students in Slovenia. A web survey was sent to travelling to a foreign country and university. It en- all Erasmus+ enrolling students in the 2016/17 aca- ablesstudentstogrowprofessionallyandpersonally, demic year, both to incoming and outgoing Erasmus+ but also provides them with opportunities for leisure students. The survey questionnaire was developed to travel and escape from everyday life (Lesjak et al., measure tourist behaviour of Erasmus+ tourists. The 2015). Erasmus+ is a successor of the Erasmus pro- survey questionnaire was developed in the English gramme (founded in 1987) for the period 2014–2020, language and administered via the online survey tool which promotes education, training and sports in all 1ka. Prior to finalizing the instrument, questions and sectors of a lifelong learning programme (European items were reviewed and discussed by a pilot group Commission, 2017). It was developed to provide easy of 40 Erasmus+ students in order to justify and val- access to a quality educational and multicultural expe- idate the items and to amend the wording so as to rience for knowledge seekers and to modernise edu- ensure the reliability and understanding of the queries cation, training and sport for youth across the Europe. and answer options for the Erasmus+ students’ differ- It (1) offers a unique global educational experience ent levels of English language skills. As a result of this catered to students seeking atypical ways of complet- process, some unreliable statements were rephrased ing their formal education, at various levels of degree, or excluded from the final version of the question- (2) aims at increasing a sense of global citizenship naire. Questions used closed type binary and single in each participant, and (3) provides students with or multi category answer options. The total popula- the opportunity to experience novel educational ap- tion involved approximately 2500 Erasmus+ students proaches for studying an already-chosen professional from three major Slovenian universities (University of discipline. The Erasmus+ programme’s aim is also to Ljubljana (uni lju), University of Maribor (uni mb) help develop a highly-skilled labour force, improving and University of Primorska (up)). The final sample
38 | Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Miha Lesjak, Emil Juvan, andEva Podovšovnik Erasmus+ Mobility
Table 1 A Brief Bibliographic Study about Students’ Tourism Behaviour and Its Drivers Reference () () () () () () () Gardiner et qual, International Australia Hostel () – au – al. () quan students studying Holiday app () in Australia (N = Hotels & Motels () ) Camps () Varasteh et al. quan Malaysian stu- Malaysia – – – Touring () dents (N = ) Attending events Sports Recreation Resting Lantai & Mei, qual Mainland Chi- Norway Homestays ––– X. Y. () nese international Airbnb students (N = ) Hostels Michael et al. quan International Australia – – a Sightseeing (nat- () students studying ural, manmade in Melbourne (N attractions) = ) Shopping Monteiro qual Erasmus students Portugal Youthhostel() ––– & Pereira (N = ) Hotel (.) () Housing with families (.) Glover () qual Domestic & In- Australia Friends & Relatives –– ternational stud. (.) (N = ) Backpacking (.) Payne () quan International stu- New Backpacking & Hostel –nzEating out (.) dents on holidays Zealand (.) .– Beaches (.) (N = ) Family & Friends . Shopping (.) (.) Shoham et al. quan Students (N = usa, Hotels ––Entertainment () ) South Friends/family Sport Africa & b&b Culture Israel Camps Nature Hotels Weaver quan International Within Motel () Package –Sightseeing () students (Hong Australia Hotel () tours Recreation Kong, India, In- Private home () Socialising donesia, Japan, Hostel () and Singapore) b&b, guesthouse () (N = ) Camping (). Xu et al. quan Students from the uk & Hostels ––Outdoor () uk (N = ) and China Self-catering Sightseeing China (N = ) Shopping Entertainment Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) methodology, (2) respondents, (3) destination, (4) accommodation, (5) booking tool, (6) expenditure, (7) activities.
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Table 2 Number of Incoming and Outgoing Erasmus+ Students 2007–2017, for Slovenia Year Total Incoming Outgoing Notes Based on data from cmepius (http://statistike.cmepius.si). included 546 valid responses. In December 2017, re- degree influence the importance of the destina- searchers contacted the three Erasmus+ coordinators tion attributes for the interviewed erasmus+ at the Slovenian universities with the request to send a students. survey invitation via email with the link to all their in- Frequency distributions were used to analyse Eras- coming and outgoing Erasmus+ students in academic mus+ students’ tourist behaviour. Chi square tests year 2016/2017. were used to infer relationships between tourist be- Building on existing youth travel, and specifically haviour and socio-demographic characteristics (gen- students’ travel-related literature, the survey measured der and type of degree) of students. Kramer’s V test typical tourist choices of Erasmus+ students. More was used to indicate the strength of the association specifically, students were asked if they took any trip between the variables (Field, 2013). Given the use of during their mobility (dichotomous variable; Yes, No), the chi-square test, only responses with N =30(the where they took the trip (nominal variable; domestic, assumption of at least 5 units in each cell is needed international or domestic and international destina- in order for the test to be valid, thus, having at least tion), where they typically stayed during their trip 6 cells in each analysis, 30 units is the minimum as- (nominal variable; hotel, motel, bed and breakfast, sumption) or above on a single response option were holiday apartment/holiday house/holiday cabin, pri- included in statistical analysis to limit the effect of vate room, camping site, youth hostel/backpacker, hol- sample size (McHugh, 2013). A t-test was employed iday home owned by my family, other), how they typi- to infer differences between destination attributes and cally booked their accommodation (nominal variable; socio-demographic variables. couch surfing, AirBnB, online travel agent, walk-in travel agent, friends and relatives, directly with the Results provider, other), how much they spent on average per 72 of the interviewed students were female, the rest trip (ordinal variable; up to 310 €, between 311 and 620 were male students. 47.8 of participating students €, more than 621 €), how they typically travelled to were undergraduate, while 52.2 of them were post- their destination (nominal variable; by air, by sea, by graduate (master or doctoral) students. More than half coach/bus, by car, by train, by motorbike, by bike) and (51.6) of the surveyed students were incoming and how they typically booked their transportation (nom- 48.4 were outgoing students. The participating stu- inal variable; online travel agent, walk-in travel agent, dents’ average age was just short of 24 years. When other). Students were asked about the importance of testing the associations between the gender and the destination attributes (interval variable; 1 meaning the degree of study (using the chi-square test) no statisti- attribute is not important at all, 5 meaning the motive cal differences at the 0.05 level were found (χ2 =0.119, is very important) in their choice of a travel destina- p = 0.730). Table 3 demonstrates that Erasmus+ mobil- tion. The following research hypotheses were built: ity students actively engage in travelling during their student mobility. hypothesis 1 The gender and the type of study degree influence the tourist behaviour of the in- Students’ Travel Behaviour and Its Drivers terviewed erasmus+ students. The following section demonstrates the existing statis- hypothesis 2 The gender and the type of study tically significant differences between students’ tourist
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Table 3 Erasmus+ Students Travel Behaviour Question Answer ff Do Erasmus+ students make Yes . leisure related travel? No . Where Erasmus+ students travel? Only within Erasmus+ country . Only outside Erasmus+ country . Both, within and outside Erasmus+ country . Where Erasmus+ students stay? Hotel, motel, bed & breakfast . Holiday apartment/holiday house/holiday cabin, private room/Airbnb . Camping site . Youth hostel/backpacker . Holidayhomeownedbymyfamilyorfriends/couchsurfing . How Erasmus+ students book Couch surfing . their accommodation? Airbnb . Online travel agent . Friends and relatives . How much Erasmus+ students Up to . spend per trip? Between and . and above . How Erasmus+ students travel By air (e.g. airplane, helicopter, etc.) . to the trip destination? By sea (e.g. ship, boat, etc.) . By coach/bus . By car . By train . By bike . How Erasmus+ student book Online travel agents/sites . their transportation for trips? Walk-intravelagents . Other .
behaviour and their demographics. Table 4 demon- stayed in private accommodation). On the other hand, strates significant association between gender, type of a significantly higher number of the interviewed fe- degree and typical students’ travel-related behaviour male students reported staying in dwellings typical for (detailed outputs are available in Tables 5 and 6). young travellers (e.g. youth hostels; 64) compared A significantly higher number of the interviewed to the interviewed male Erasmus+ students (46.7). male students reported staying in hotels and simi- As a means of transportation to the destination, a sig- lar establishments (26.7) as well as in private types nificantly higher proportion of the interviewed male of dwellings (e.g. apartments, holiday houses; 26.7) students reported using cars (42.4) compared to compared to the interviewed female students (13.8 the interviewed female students (28.6), while the of the interviewed female students reported staying higher proportion of the interviewed female students in hotels, motels or bed and breakfast; 22.3 of them reported using coaches or buses (36.8) compared
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Table 4 Students’ Tourist Behaviour by Gender and Type of Study Degree Behaviour/choices Gender Degree of study χ2 p Cramer V χ2 p Cramer V Accommodation . . . . . . Destination . . . . . . Booking the accommodation . . . . . . Expenditure . . . . . . Transportation . . . . . . Booking the transportation . . . . . .
Table 5 Students’ Tourist Behaviour by Gender Item Behaviour/choices Percentage Test Male Female χ2 p Cramer V Destination Domestic . . . . . Domestic and international . . Accommodation Hotel, motel, bed & breakfast . . . . . Holiday apartment* . . Youth hostel/backpacker . . Booking the accommodation AirBnB . . . . . Online travel agent . . Friends and relatives . . Expenditure Up to . . . . . From to . . and above . . Transportation By air . . . . . By coach/bus . . By car . . By train . . Booking the transportation Online travel agent . . . . . Walk-intravelagent . . Other . . Notes * Or holiday house, holiday cabin, private room or AirBnB. to the interviewed male students (21.2). No statis- associated only with the trip expenditure of Erasmus+ tically significant associations exist between gender students and the choice of transportation to the des- and other investigated forms of travel behaviour (e.g. tination. A significantly higher proportion of the in- destination choice, booking the accommodation, type terviewed undergraduate students, compared to the of transportation and expenditure). interviewed postgraduate students, reported spend- Thetypeofstudydegreeappearstobesignificantly ing 610 eur or more. 70 of the interviewed under-
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Table 6 Students’ Tourist Behaviour by the Type of Study Degree Item Behaviour/choices Percentage Test () () χ2 p Cramer V Destination Domestic . . . . . Domestic and international . . Accommodaton Hotel, motel, bed & breakfast . . . . . Holiday apartment* . . Youth hostel/backpacker . . Booking the accommodation Airbnb . . . . . Online travel agent . . Friends and relatives . . Expenditure Up to . . . . . From to . . and above . . Transportation By air . . . . . By coach/bus . . By car . . By train . . Booking the transportation Online travel agent . . . . . Walk-intravelagent . . Other . . Notes * Or holiday house, holiday cabin, private room or AirBnB; (1) undergraduate, (2) postgraduate. graduate students spent more than 310 eur per trip, of the transportation at the destination, while the de- while just 10 less interviewed postgraduate students gree of study statistically significant influences the to- reported similar expenditure per trip. tal expenditure at the destination and the type of trans- Statistically significant differences exist between portation at the destination. the level of studies and the choice of transportation to the destination. More specifically, a significantly Destination Attributes and its Drivers higher proportion of the interviewed undergraduate The following section reports the association of per- students reported using air transportation and cars ceived importance of destination attributes with the to reach their travel destination. In contrast, a sig- gender and the type of the degree (see Tables 8 and nificantly higher proportion of the interviewed post- 9 for detailed outputs). The most important desti- graduate students reported using coaches or buses and nation attributes overall (Table 7) are the natural (m trains. = 4.18) and cultural (m = 4.14) attractions and sites. Empirical evidence shows no significant associa- Other important attributes for choosing the destina- tions between the type of degree and other measured tion are safety and security (m = 3.84), cheap to visit forms of the Erasmus+ students’ tourist behaviour. (m = 3.76), easily accessible (m = 3.68) and cheap to Results partially support Hypothesis 1. The gender live in (m = 3.57). Attributes less important to the stu- of the interviewed students statistically significant in- dents are the destination’s popularity (m = 2.57), high fluences only the choice of the destination and the type living standard (m = 2.61) and familiar lifestyle (m =
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Table 7 Perceived Destination Attributes by Gender and Type of Study Degree Item Gender Degree of study t sig. t sig. Destination is very popular . . . . Destination offers cultural attractions and sites –. . –. . Destination offers events . . . . Destination is cheap to visit . . . . Destination is yet to be discovered by tourists –. . . . Destination is easy accessible –. . . . Destination is safe and secure –. . . . Destination offers interesting night life . . . . At destination they speak language which I know . . –. . Destination is sustainably oriented –. . . . Destination has high living standard . . –. . Destination is cheap to live in . . . . Destination offers a lifestyle which I am familiar with . . –. .
2.68). In almost all cases of the variable destination masters and PhD students placed significantly higher attributes the skewness and kurtosis statistics show a importance on familiar lifestyle (m = 2.77, p = 0.047). distribution similar to the normal one (in the interval No other significant differences exist between the type ±). Responses on the importance of ‘destination offers ofdegreeandtheperceivedimportanceofthedesti- natural attractions and sites’ suggest distribution that nation’s attributes. is not close to a normal one (kurtosis = 2.319); hence Hypothesis 2 claims that the gender and the de- we decided to omit this attribute from further statisti- gree of study of the interviewed students influence cal analysis. the perceived importance of destination attributes. Four of the measured 13 destination attributes are Results just partially support the stated hypothesis. significantly different by gender. More specifically, The gender of the interviewed students statistically the interviewed female students placed significantly significant influences some of the above-mentioned higher importance on cultural attractions (m = 4.21, p perceived importance of destination attributes, such = 0.01), ease of access (m = 3.74, p =0.02),andsafety as the fact that the destination offers cultural attrac- and security (m = 3.90, p = 0.04) than the interviewed tions and sites, that the destination is easy accessible, male students. However, the interviewed male stu- that it is safe and secure and that it offers an interesting dents placed significantly higher importance on in- nightlife. The degree of study of the interviewed stu- teresting nightlife (m = 3.18, p = 0.03) than the inter- dents statistically significant influences the perceived viewed female students. The gender of the interviewed importance of destination attribute that the destina- students does not significantly affect other measured tion offers an interesting nightlife and that the desti- destination attributes. nation offers a lifestyle they are familiar with. Only two destination attributes appear to be signif- icantly different by the type of the study degree. The Discussion interviewed bachelor Erasmus+ students placed sig- Erasmus+ students generate an important share of the nificantly higher importance on destinations’ interest- international tourist market, and studying abroad ap- ing nightlife (m = 3.22, p = 0.001) but the interviewed pears among the top travel motives of the younger
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Table 8 Associations between Destinations Attributes and Gender Item Gender N Mean t sig. Destination is very popular Male . . . Female . Destination offers cultural attractions and sites Male . –. . Female . Destination offers events Male . . . Female . Destination is cheap to visit Male . . . Female . Destination is yet to be discovered by tourists Male . –. . Female . Destination is easy accessible Male . –. . Female . Destination is safe and secure Male . –. . Female . Destination offers interesting night life Male . . . Female . At destination they speak language which I know Male . . . Female . Destination is sustainably oriented Male . –. . Female . Destination has high living standard Male . . . Female . Destination is cheap to live in Male . . . Female . Destination offers a lifestyle which I am familiar with Male . . . Female . generation. Youth travel (both study and educational mus+ students’ tourist behaviour and infer factors sig- travel) is becoming a stable ongoing industry, con- nificantly associated with typical tourist behaviour. tributing over 20 of international travel flow, which The present study empirically supports that Eras- is equal to 207 million arrivals and $194 billion ex- mus+ students are an active and large travelling seg- penditure in the year 2012 (see http://www.student- ment, with over 90 of respondents reporting trav- market.com/youth-travel). The number of interna- elling during their mobility. The travel industry sec- tional trips of young people based on the unwto tor sells most of its products and services via the in- forecast might increase to almost 370 million by 2020 ternet (Abou-Shouk et al., 2013) and millennials are for a total expenditure of over 400 billion dollars the first generation born to be living continuously (Global Report on The Power of Youth Travel, 2016). with various technology options every day. There- Consequently,it is deemed relevant to investigate Eras- fore, they could be described as e-travellers who are
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Table 9 Associations between Destinations Attributes and Type of Study Degree Item Level of degree N Mean t sig. Destination is very popular () . . . () . Destination offers cultural attractions and sites () . –. . () . Destination offers events () . . . () . Destination is cheap to visit () . . . () . Destination is yet to be discovered by tourists () . . . () . Destination is easy accessible () . . . () . Destination is safe and secure () . . . () . Destination offers interesting night life () . . . () . At destination they speak language which I know () . –. . () . Destination is sustainably oriented () . . . () . Destination has high living standard () . –. . () . Destination is cheap to live in () . . . () . Destination offers a lifestyle which I am familiar with () . –. . () . Notes (1) Bachelor degree, (2) Master/PhD/doctoral degree. constantly connected to the internet via their gad- der and type of the degree, making these attributes gets (smart phones, tablets, etc.) either searching for the most suitable for identifying and targeting Eras- travel information or booking holidays (Huang & Pet- mus travellers with personalised tourism offerings. rick,2010).TravellingErasmus+studentsareexten- More specifically, the choices of accommodation de- sive users of e-tourism infrastructure, both to inform pend solely on gender, but transportation choices de- and purchase travel services. About 40 of respon- pend on the gender and the type of degree. In ad- dents book their accommodation through an online dition, the type of the degree demonstrates signifi- travel agency and 36.8 of respondents book accom- cant association with the student’s destination-based modation using the Airbnb p2p platform. Erasmus+ travel expenditure. More specifically, the interviewed students’ travel choices significantly depend on gen- femaleErasmus+studentsaremorelikelytostayin
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youth hostels, backpackers, family homes and with to develop and communicate relevant destination at- friends and relatives. However, the interviewed male tributes. Overall, Erasmus+ travellers find cultural and Erasmus+ students prefer traditional commercial ac- natural attractions as well as safety to be the most im- commodation dwellings such as hotels, motels, bed portant attributes of their chosen destinations. These andbreakfast,andprivaterooms.Thesefindingssug- attributes are followed by costs of visiting and living; gest that universities as well as destinations’ market- thus rounding up the most typical attributes important ing organisations should work together in developing to the mainstream travel market (Um & Crompton, and promoting gender-customized accommodation 1992). Familiar lifestyle, living standard and familiar infrastructure and their promotion as well as distribu- langue seem to have less importance when evaluating tion channels. For example, they could promote and destination alternatives. provide typical tourism accommodation to male stu- The perceived importance for some of the attributes dents, but low-budget types of dwellings for female changes between gender and the type of degree; hence students. suggesting different approaches when targeting stu- Moreover, undergraduate students appear to be dents of different gender and type of degree. More more lucrative to the tourism industry than their grad- specifically, having cultural attractions and sites makes uate counterparts are; the latter segment has signif- a destination significantly more attractive to female, icantly fewer students spending over 610 Eur. Every than to male students. Compared to male students, Erasmus+ student receives a living allowance for their female students place significantly higher importance stay in a foreign country; however, it may be that on destination transport accessibility and to the level undergraduate students receive higher financial sup- of safety and security. In contrast, male students rate port from their parents as they predominantly de- interesting nightlife opportunities significantly higher pend on them (Souto-Otero, 2008). The Erasmus+ al- than female students. Looking at gender, a typical fe- lowance and their parents’ financial support improve male Erasmus+ student prefers a destination that is undergraduate disposable income, which students can easily accessible, is safe and has attractive cultural sites use for tourism purposes. In addition, graduate stu- and attractions. A typical male Erasmus+ student pre- dents predominantly seek fulfilment of professional dominantly seeks destinations with attractive nightlife rather than personal goals, and thus have lower de- opportunities. sire for leisure travel (Brooks & Waters, 2009), which Two research hypotheses were tested in this pa- may result in lower spending for vacations. The find- per. The first one states that the gender and the de- ings about expenditure usefully contribute to exist- gree of study of the interviewed students influences ing knowledge about students’ travel expenditure and the students’ travel behaviour. Results just partially more specifically, our findings suggest that Erasmus+ support the above-mentioned research hypotheses. students may be better spenders than other types of More interviewed male students reported staying in international students (for example, Payne, 2009; Gar- hotels and similar establishments (26.7) as well as diner et al., 2013). in private types of dwellings (e.g. apartments, holiday Destination attributes play an important role in houses; 26.7), while a higher number of the inter- leisure travel, as they represent characteristics of tourist viewed female students reported staying in dwellings places that tourists find most important when mak- typical for young travellers (e.g. youth hostels; 64). ing travel-related decisions; yet, tourist segments differ A higher proportion of the interviewed male students in the perceived importance of destination attributes reported using cars (42.4), while a higher propor- (Um & Crompton, 1992; Meng & Uysal, 2008). Un- tion of the interviewed female students reported using derstanding what Erasmus+ travellers find important coaches or buses (36.8). A higher proportion of the at the destination and how this importance depends interviewed undergraduate students, compared to the on students’ personal characteristics allows destina- interviewed postgraduate students, reported spend- tion marketing organisations as well as universities ing 610 eur or more. 70 of the interviewed under-
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |47 Miha Lesjak, Emil Juvan, andEva Podovšovnik Erasmus+ Mobility
graduate students spent more than 310 eur per trip, cultural attractions or interesting nightlife). This calls while just 10 less interviewed postgraduate students for increased collaboration between universities, as reported similar expenditure per trip. A higher pro- knowledge providers, and destination marketing or- portion of the interviewed undergraduate students ganisations, as tourist opportunity providers. reported using air transportation and cars to reach Two key conclusions derive from the present re- their travel destination, while a higher proportion of search. First, the Erasmus+ travel market is growing the interviewed postgraduate students reported using and is distinct from the mainstream travel market and coaches or buses and trains. Hypothesis 2 claims that second, at least gender and level of degree make the the gender and the degree of study of the interviewed Erasmus+ travel market heterogenic. The first conclu- students influences their perception of the destina- sion points to the need for the travel industry and uni- tion attributes. The research hypothesis can be just versities to collaborate in marketing destinations and partially supported by the results. The interviewed fe- universities. The second conclusion suggests a per- male students placed significantly higher importance sonalised destination marketing mix when catering on cultural attractions (m = 4.21, p = 0.01), ease of to travel planning and destination-based behaviour access (m = 3.74, p =0.02),safetyandsecurity(m= of Erasmus+ students. In addition, the study offers an 3.90, p = 0.04) than the interviewed male students. important insight for the future research on Erasmus+ However, the interviewed male students placed signif- students. While educational aspects of Erasmus+ stu- icantly higher importance on interesting nightlife (m dents’ mobility are well covered in scientific literature, =3.18,p = 0.03) than the interviewed female students. a lack of empirical evidence about Erasmus+ students’ The interviewed bachelor Erasmus+ students placed travel behaviour exists. The present study extends significantly higher importance on destinations’ in- our empirically-derived knowledge on Erasmus+ stu- teresting nightlife (m = 3.22, p =0.001)buttheinter- dents’ typical tourism behaviour and characteristics viewed masters and PhD students placed significantly of the Erasmus+ travel market that warrant distinc- higher importance on familiar lifestyle (m = 2.77, p = tive tourism development and promotion approaches 0.047). when catering to Erasmus+ travellers. The key limitation of the study lies in the geo- Conclusions graphic dimension of the study sample. Conclusions Educational tourism is one of the fastest-growing that could be more generalisable would require a ge- forms of tourism and has become a multimillion- ographically more diverse and representative sample dollar industry (Payne, 2009); however, the tourism of Erasmus+ students. Thus, we recommend expand- professionals and destination organisation marketers ing the research to all countries participating in the too often overlook it. Erasmus+ travellers, especially Erasmus+ programme. Further, we advocate more re- students,engageintourismwhileontheirmobility search focused on the leisure travel aspects of Eras- and they need personalised infrastructure and re- mus+ mobility, not only direct travel by the Erasmus+ sources for successful engagement in tourism. This mobility students, but also the travel behaviour of in- requires that the tourism industry collaborates with dividuals socialising with Erasmus+ mobility students. various educational institutions to understand stu- dents’ needs, their capabilities and tourism-related be- References haviour. Thus, universities are an important player for Abou-Shouk, M., Lim, W. M., & Megicks, P. (2013). Internet destination-based tourism, because they provide the adoption by travel agents: A case of Egypt. International Journal of Tourism Research, 15(3), 298–312. tourism demand. Even more, it appears that knowl- Abubakar,A.M.,Shneikat,B.H.T.,&Oday,A.(2014).Mo- edge provision is no longer the most important com- tivational factors for educational tourism: A case study petitive product of universities (Juvan & Lesjak, 2011) in Northern Cyprus. Tourism Management Perspectives, and that universities must collaborate with providers 11, 58–62. of other attributes within their places (for example, Ajanovic,E.,Çizel,B.,&Çizel,R.(2016).Effectivenessof
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50 | Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Original Scientific Article
Human Resources in Industrial Tourism
Barbara Pavlakovič FacultyofTourism,UniversityofMaribor,Slovenia [email protected] Eva Jereb Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Maribor, Slovenia [email protected]
Industrial tourism, as a specific type of tourism, emerged over a century ago but was not studied widely until recently. However, most of the current research is focused either on heritage industrial tourism or on several aspects, such as visitor charac- teristics, relation to the local economy, and similar. This paper attempts to highlight the human resources aspect of industrial tourism in different organisations. Our pri- mary research methods were observation with participation (joining factory tours) and semi-structured interviews with company representatives. We define various ex- isting categories of industrial tourism human resources models of organisations that carry out industrial tourism, the necessary competences for the workplace, and the methods of educating industrial tourism employees. Based on the gathered results, we propose some guidelines for companies to follow in forming their products of industrial tourism. Keywords: hr, competence, education, industrial tourism, hr model https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13.51-65
Introduction sition, and then to ensure that these competences are Human resources are the basis of an organisation’s ac- further upgraded in the process of education or train- tivities, since the organisation does not exist without ing. them. One of the most critical aspects of hr manage- In this research, we focused on the study of the nec- ment is the concern for the development of employee essary competences and the practice of developing the knowledge, that is, the implementation of education knowledge of employees in companies that carry out and training. With this, the organisation ensures con- industrial tourism. Industrial tourism, as a particular tinuous development and progress and maintains and tourist product, is distinct from the production pro- strengthens its value on the market (Armstrong, 2012; cess itself and, as such, does not provide added value in Bratton & Gold, 2012). Education and training take the creation of a factory’s primary product. However, place in various forms and are adjusted to the posi- with a thoughtful strategy, the product of industrial tion of an employee within the organisation, to his/her tourism can become a powerful marketing tool and, previous knowledge and abilities. Here we encounter at a very developed stage, it can be a new product of another essential aspect of hr management. Employ- an organisation that can be marketed independently. ees must have the appropriate competences to perform Employees involved in the implementation of indus- the work efficiently and effectively (Svetlik, 2005). The trial tourism become the first representative of the or- task of the supervisor is to recognise the capabilities of ganisation, before visitors and potential buyers of the employees and, firstly, to place them in a specific po- company’s primary product. Therefore, they must be
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properly selected, have the appropriate competences, cultural sites and is a form of cultural tourism (Ya- and take care of the development of their knowledge. mashita, 2014). Cultural tourism places particular em- The purpose of the research was to present a hu- phasis on education and entertainment components man resources model for industrial tourism. To achie- (Frank Orel & Medarić, 2018) and industrial tourism ve this purpose, several research objectives were devel- offers precisely that: education about industry and en- oped. First, we wanted to define the types of employ- tertainment while observing production processes or ees that carry out industrial tourism. We were inter- participating in interactive displays. ested in whether there are any differences between the As a form of cultural tourism, industrial tourism is companies engaged in industrial tourism. The second an important factor in European countries, especially objective was to identify competences that are neces- for those with long industrial traditions, such as Great sary for the implementation of industrial tourism. The Britain, Spain or Germany. However, more and more third objective was to outline the modes of the educa- central and east European countries are recognising tion of industrial tourism employees.’ In the research, the benefits of industrial tourism, since they also built we examined how Slovenian companies carry out in- their economy on different industries and are nowa- dustrial tourism and how they take care of the person- days still strongly dependent on them. For example, nel involved in this product. the Czech Republic and its town Ostrava are build- ing their tourism on industrial tourism (Kajzar & Vá- Literature Review clavínková, 2016). However, other countries with rich Industrial Tourism industrial heritage still lack further industrial tourism The concept of industrial tourism can be defined as development; for example, Hungary only has heritage a type of tourism that includes visits to operating industrial tourism (Boros et al., 2013), and Croatia has companies and industrial heritage sites. Visitors can some initiatives about power plant and mining visits taste edible products, view production processes, try (Gržinić et al., 2009). Industrial tourism and its offer out interactive applications, and experience histori- of factory tours and visits to industrial heritage sites cal insights into the company (Otgaar et al., 2010; is also present in Slovenia. However, the local scien- Rodríguez-Zulaica, 2017). According to Ifko (2010) tific research is primarily focused on industrial her- and Vargas-Sánchez et al. (2014), industrial tourism itage (e.g., mines) (Ifko, 2010). canbeconsideredtobeaviewingofindustrialheritage Meanwhile, industrial tourism can be an appropri- or operating processes, although it is not necessarily ate alternative to the existing tourism services, since in considered as a type of tourism but as a marketing Slovenia and abroad there are many operating plants, activity (Chow et al., 2016; Otgaar, 2012). There is ev- well-organised companies with innovative business idence that tourists have been visiting companies for processes, and interesting service activities that tour- over a hundred years (Frew, 2000; Page & Connell, ists would visit. Thus, industrial tourism becomes a 2014). For example, in France, they visited vineyards critical socio-economic phenomenon for which in- and chocolate factories, in the United States whiskey terest is growing. As stated by Xie (2006) and Mac- distilleries, and elsewhere in the world anything from Cannell (2013), one of the reasons for the popular- tobacco factories to mines and stock exchanges. In this ity of industrial tourism is that society is in the de- regard, industrial tourism is perceived as a tourist at- industrialisation phase in which we are beginning traction; such attractions (Edelheim, 2015) are a strong to forget the traditional methods of production and motivator for travel and can be divided into several aremoreinvolvedintheserviceindustry.Byview- groups, including cultural attractions, natural sights, ing traditional production processes, we nostalgically events, recreation and entertainment; they can also look upon our technical heritage and regain forgotten be categorised as being natural or manmade (Goeld- knowledge. ner & Ritchie, 2003; Holloway & Humphreys, 2016). Since industrial tourism is a relatively less explored Industrial tourism can be placed in the category of field of tourism, education in this area is particularly
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important. Organisations need to provide suitable ity, satisfaction, ability to adapt to changes, and similar and qualified personnel for implementing industrial (Moustaghfir, 2014; Armstrong, 2012). Human capital tourism. Training at work and continuous improve- creates the value of an organisation and, therefore, it is ments are particularly important for maintaining the necessary to manage it strategically. Moreover, recent competitiveness of the organisation (Salas & Cannon- studies emphasise that sustainable human resource Bowers,2001;Rakowska,2014;Bratton&Gold,2012). management (Baum et al., 2016; Baum, 2019; Robinson There are several essential points in performing indus- et al., 2019) will replace strategic human resource man- trial tourism that relate to the skills and knowledge of agement. Thus, a higher level of quality and practices employees. First, as stated by Otgaar et al. (2010), there that are responsible toward the environment, local so- are numerous contact points of employees with visi- ciety, culture, and economy should be also introduced tors. The company must provide an appropriate and in human resources management. This includes jus- qualified guide that will lead the group around the tice and equality, transparent hr practices, profitabil- company and present the operation of the organisa- ity, and employee well-being (Wikhamn, 2019). tion (Marsh, 2008). Furthermore, the company must Mihalič (2006) summarises Ulrich, stating that also arrange the contact points of visitors with em- human capital management represents overall edu- ployees within the regular working process. In doing cation and training of employees, developing their so, viewing should not interfere with the work pro- skillsforthemtocontributetothegoalsandneeds cess, and employees should not feel pressured by the of the company in which they work, and create added visitors (Otgaar, 2010). There are also positive effects value. Similarly, Nickson (2013) states that successful of such tourist visits, since employees are much more human resources management leads to the organisa- motivated, productive, and proud of their work in the tion’s success via appropriate recruiting, introducing presence of the public. new employees to their work, education and train- ing, rewarding, and motivating employees. Human Human Resources and the Tourism Sector resourcesdevelopmenttakesplacethroughtheed- Employees are one of the basic pillars of the organisa- ucation and training processes, which represent the tion, since the success and the survival of it depends acquisition of new skills through various training pro- on their performance. This is particularly so in the grammes, courses and workshops (Heery & Noon, tourism sector, which is a service activity and is based 2008; Wilton, 2016). This is particularly important in on the interaction of employees with tourists (Madera the tourism sector, in which employees have constant et al., 2017). Employees are defined as human resources contact with customers and are continuously under orpeoplewhoinanyformparticipateinanorganised the tourist gaze (Urry & Larsen, 2012) of their cus- form of human work and, therefore, work in an eco- tomers. In the case of industrial tourism, employees nomic, political, sports, or similar organisation (Flor- in production organisations also become visible. The jančič et al., 2004). They are also presented as work most visible to visitors are the factory tour guides, force that can be regarded as macro-meso-micro con- which are representatives of the organisation. They ceptualisations of the tourism workforce phenomena must represent organisational values (Gorenak, 2019) (Baum et al., 2016). Employees are the most essential and the organisation itself at its best with their knowl- element of each organisation, and they are involved in edge, behaviour, and attitude. However, this requires the process of achieving a group or individual goals proper education and training. (Bratton & Gold, 2012). Thus, employees represent the human capital of the Education and Training of Tourism Personnel organisation deriving from their knowledge and expe- The process of permanent education within the or- rience, education, professional competence, psycho- ganisation can be defined as a network of events and metric features, personality characters and abilities, activities for the development of the person’s distinct entrepreneurial enthusiasm, innovation and creativ- abilities (Florjančič et al., 2004). We can also use the
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term ‘training’ for a systematic and planned prepa- of acquiring knowledge are highly diverse: lectures, ration of the learning process, acquiring the knowl- discussions, demonstrations, conferences, case stud- edge and skills necessary to achieve the goals of the ies, teamwork, role-playing (simulation), computer- organisation (Boštjančič, 2011). Nickson (2013) defines assisted learning (cai), simulations, manager games, training as activities with a focus on immediately im- e-learning, video lectures, courses, seminars, work- proving employee performance by developing certain shops, symposiums, meetings, and consultations (Flor- skills, acquiring knowledge and competences. Nick- jančič et al., 2004; Mihalič, 2006). However, organi- son (2013) also states that organisations in the tourism sations are currently increasingly less inclined to use and transport sectors allocate the most resources for classical education methods. Modern forms of knowl- education and training to improve customer service edge acquisition, such as e-learning, coaching, men- and at the same time follow strict legal regulations on toring, simulation learning, job shadowing, rotational safety, health and nutrition standards. Another reason education, independent learning and other similar is the high rate of employee turnover, which requires forms of new employee training methods are increas- the organisations to continuously educate new and in- ingly in use (Marchington & Wilkinson, 2013). Re- experienced staff. search shows that advanced foreign organisations use According to Mihalič (2006) and Bratton and Gold only ten per cent of classical forms of acquiring knowl- (2012), the goal of education and training is to increase edge to educate their employees (Mihalič, 2006). As the competency of employees for the work they do, Bhattacharya and Cohen (2017) write, English-langua- and consequently increase their efficiency and effec- ge literature indicates the characteristics of a worker tiveness at work. In doing so, employees effectively that can be acquired through learning with the abbre- develop their ability to adapt quickly and respond viation ksa: knowledge – skills – abilities/attitudes. to changes that have occurred and to learn for the Likewise, we can label all of these characteristics as contemporary and future increasingly turbulent en- an employee’s competence. We follow the definition of vironment of modern organisations (Wojtczuk-Turek competences as a pool of knowledge, abilities, skills, & Turek, 2015). This promotes innovation, productiv- experiences and values of the individual collected dur- ity, and employee satisfaction, their affiliation to the ing education and career (Gorenak, 2013). organisation, personal career development, the pro- motion of individuals and the organisation as a whole. Competences All of this is also essential in the tourism sector, which Competences have been studied and defined by sev- requires educated, well-trained, intelligent, energetic eral authors. The beginnings of the use of this term employees with entrepreneurship skills and knowl- date back to the early 1970s, when David McClelland edge of several foreign languages in order to provide introduced the concept to improve the process of se- high-quality customer service, and hence efficiency lecting personnel (Thanopoulos et al., 2011; Brophy and profitability of the tourist services (Gupta, 2011). & Kiely, 2002; Gelhard, 2017). McClelland has identi- The acquisition of knowledge can be divided into fied competences as knowledge, skills, traits, attitudes, external (implemented outside the organisation) and self-concepts, values or motives directly related to job internal (implemented within the organisation) (Mi- performance or critical life outcomes and shown to halič, 2006), but we can also define formal and in- differentiate between superior and average perform- formal acquisition of knowledge. Formal education ers (Thanopoulos et al., 2011). Svetlik (2005) proposes and training of workers usually takes place outside a definition according to which competences are de- the workplace (Florjančič & Vukovič, 1999), is pre- fined as the ability of the individual to activate, use, planned and structured. Informal acquisition of knowl- andconnecttheacquiredknowledgeincomplex,di- edge takes place in the form of information exchange, verse, and unpredictable situations. Rozman and Ko- mutual assistance and joint problem solving (Frazis vač (2012), Jauhari (2006), Kohont (2005) and others et al. in Rozman & Kovač, 2012). Methods and forms also cite similar definitions.
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The literature presents several approaches to the basic competences that are crucial for all employ- concept of competences. Competences are considered ees and the additional competences that employees to be an individual’s capacity, as an organisation’s abil- need in certain positions or departments of the or- ity, and as a tool for better communication between ganisation (Moustaghfir, 2014; Stevens, 2012; West- the education system and the labour market (Kalargy- eren, 2017). In the tourism sector, high-quality staff rou & Woods, 2011; Fominiene et al., 2015). In human is of key importance, as tourism is a service activity resources, competences are used primarily to describe that largely depends on the capable and hospitable employees and estimate their ability to perform pro- employees (Gupta, 2011; Nickson, 2013). Gorenak and fessional duties in different situations; according to Gorenak (2012) analysed the competences needed by employee competence, we can distinguish between tour guides while performing a guided tour. There average and above average employees; organisations are different requirements among the European coun- can better achieve their strategic goals when recruit- tries, since some emphasise theoretical knowledge of ing employees with appropriate competences (Judrups history and geography while others emphasise com- et al., 2015). munication skills, managerial skills, foreign language To recognise the capabilities of employees more ef- knowledge, planning and problem-solving skills. As ficiently, competence models were designed. Swiderski the basic competence of tourist guides, they cite ex- (1987 in Thanopoulos et al., 2011) proposed three ba- cellence in tour-guiding techniques and communica- sic clusters: hard, soft, and conceptual competences. tion competences. Fominiene et al. (2015) also confirm The first one includes technical and administrative that the developed personality characteristics and in- skills; soft competences are also known as interper- terpersonal communication are the most important sonal skills, which include sensitivity, adaptability, cre- competences in the tourism sector. ativity and flexibility; conceptual competences can be Therefore, soft skills (hospitality, kindness, com- defined as critical thinking, problem-solving, judg- passion) are far more important than hard or technical ment and decision-making. skills (knowledge of information technology), and this In contrast, Spencer and Spencer (in Thanopou- is reflected in the tourism industry. Employers state los et al., 2011) distinguished two categories of compe- that their employees must not only know their profes- tences. The first are threshold competences (like writ- sional field and theoretical content perfectly, but also ing skills) that every employee must have; they are not have to respect themselves and others, be indepen- exceptional behaviour. The second are differentiating dent, responsible for their activities and end-results, be competences (like decision-making ability) that show innovative,adaptable,beteam-players,beabletocom- the difference between an average and extremely suc- municate, participate, think critically and constantly cessful individuals. set new goals. Mihalič (2006) divided the basic competences into Baum (2015) suggests that changes in the world three sets. The first set are personal and behavioural contribute to shifts in the workforce skills demands competences (decision-making ability, strategic think- while employers move their focus from technical skills ing, ethics, the ability of analytical and creative think- to soft skills, for example. social media management ing and expression). The second set is the compe- knowledge, a wider portfolio of language, cultural and tencetoworkwithpeople(theabilityofinterpersonal green skills. Moreover, employees must have a broad communication, public speaking, delegating, conflict skillset; thus, they can perform a flexible range of tasks. management, negotiation, teamwork). The third sec- Therefore, to enhance this skill set, training is vital. tion covers competences for working with information (project management ability, knowledge of business The Aims and Purpose of the Research processes, sense of space, accuracy and promptness). and Research Questions Regarding competences, one of the most impor- As we wrote in the literature review, employees are a tant factors is that the organisation determines the key element of the organisation’s performance. This is
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particularly true in the tourism sector, which is a ser- companies in the country. The tours were held on 24 vice activity and, as such, is even more dependent on April 2018 at the location of Revoz (Renault automo- the employees themselves: on their knowledge, skills, bile production), Novo mesto; on 21 May 2018 at the character, characteristics and also on their current location of Pivovarna Laško Union (Union Brewery), well-being. Several research studies have already ad- Ljubljana; on 26 May 2018 at the location of Pivovarna dressed various groups of tourism professionals, such Laško Union (Laško Brewery), Laško; and on 1 June as managers and tourist guides. However, we were in- 2018 at the location of the company Droga Kolinska, terested in the state of industrial tourism employees. Food Industry (production of Argeta pâté), Izola. We Industrial tourism is a relatively less explored area of told companies that we would take part in the factory tourism; at the same time, it is a mix of tourist services tour, but to ensure greater credibility of the tour per- and factory production processes. Regarding this fea- formance, we always joined a group that was already ture, we wanted to explore who is performing indus- on the schedule. This was not possible at Revoz, be- trial tourism (or who is guiding factory tours), what cause the company was in the confidentiality phase, competences are required for this work, and how they and visits were not possible, except in specific circum- gain necessary knowledge. Considering that there is stances. However, the tour of Revoz took place just as not a large number of organisations in Slovenia that if a random group of visitors had attended it. During allow visitors to view their production processes, we and after the end of the visits, we made notes about decided to focus the study on individual cases of pro- the delivery of the tour and double-checked the infor- duction factory tours. We have designed the following mation at the end with the tour guide. research questions: Asamethodofdataacquisition,wealsouseda rq1 Who performs industrial tourism in organisa- semi-structured interview with representatives of the tions (organisation employees or is industrial departments responsible for industrial tourism plan- tourism arranged by outsourcing another or- ning (see list of informants in Table 1). At Revoz, we in- ganisation)? terviewed a representative of the Communication and Public Affairs Department; at Pivovarna Laško Union, rq2 What are the responsibilities of industrial tour- we interviewed the head of the Corporate Events De- ism employees (is this their basic job or do they partment and the Union Experience (this person is re- have other tasks)? sponsible for industrial tourism in both visited brew- rq3 Which competences and what knowledge should eries); at Droga Kolinska, the questions were answered the industrial tourism employees have? by the head of production and by the marketing de- rq4 How is the organisation concerned with knowl- partment. The basic questions were sent to the com- edge management of industrial tourism employ- panies’ representatives first via e-mail; they also an- ees (do they arrange training)? swered additional questions after the factory tour was conducted. If factory tours were performed by another Methods Used person and not by the company’s industrial tourism After reviewing the existing literature in the fields of representative, we also asked tour guides some of the human resources and industrial tourism, observation same questions and obtained their answers. with participation in the process of viewing the pro- duction process itself was used as a method of re- Findings search. We decided to visit four Slovenian companies We have found that each company has a different that offer factory tours, since industrial tourism in personnel policy in the implementation of industrial Slovenia is in the emerging stage and thus provides tourism. Thus, we can identify four types of industrial different case studies to examine. Our research sam- tourism human resources from our studied cases: ple was composed of four companies that advertise 1. Staff, employed for the sole purpose of imple- this product on their web sites and are among large menting industrial tourism.
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Table 1 List of Study Informants Respondent Company Department in the Company Work tasks in industrial tourism Respondent A Revoz Communication and Public Affairs De- Strategic planning, reservations, visitor partment communication, tour guiding, presenting. Respondent B Pivovarna Union Corporate Events Department and the Strategic planning, recruiting tour guides. Union Experience Respondent C Pivovarna Laško Corporate Events Department Strategic planning, communication with outsourcing organisation. Respondent D Droga Kolinska Marketing department; Production Strategic planning, scheduling production workers for guiding tours.
2. Staff, employed in Communications, pr, Mar- fun presentation itself. So, we made the deci- keting, and similar departments. sion to hand over tour guiding to the communi- 3. Staff, employed in the production process. cationdepartment.Why?Asadepartment,we are constantly near information, factory inno- 4. Staff from outsourcing organisations. vations,andwehaveexcellentcommunication Theworkplaceofthefirsttypeofindustrialtourism skills. employees is the post of industrial tourism operator. This means that people are employed as hosts who take Their work also includes planning and strategic in- care of regular factory tours, visitor programmes, and sight into the implementation of industrial tourism presentation of the company. In the case of Pivovarna and, as such, are also responsible for the future devel- Laško Union, this type of employees can be found at opment of this kind of service. Nevertheless, the com- the Union Brewery in Ljubljana. Their hosts are stu- pany’s management confirms the final strategic deci- dents or people on working contracts. Nevertheless, sions. these employees have no influence on the content of As a third type of industrial tourism employees, the factory tour or on the strategic decisions regarding a person who is employed in production can carry industrial tourism. The decision-makers in this pro- out industrial tourism. An example is the production cess are the management of the corporate relations de- of Argeta pâté plant in Izola, Droga Kolinska Com- partment and the company’s management itself. The pany. There, the visitors are welcomed by a person, workplace of the second type of industrial tourism employed as a technologist in production, which is, in employees is in the department for communication, fact, the position of the company’s production process. public relations, marketing and similar. Such an ex- Respondent D explained the process of selecting tour ample can be found at the automotive company Revoz guides. in Novo Mesto, where the representative of the Com- munications and Public Affairs Department conducts Factory tours are guided by those employees, factory visits, represents the company and is in con- who know the production process and speak tact with visitors. The reasons that this is under their the language of the visitors. Usually, this is done department are given by Respondent A: by the head of production, but we also make daily agreements who gets to guide which tour, We used to have a network of tour guides who since this is related to our ongoing activities that were experts from the production departments. we perform besides factory tour guiding. But it turned out that visitors were not inter- ested in technical details as in an interesting and This person pauses his/her professional obligations
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atthetimeofcarryingoutthefactorytour,takesover It is also desirable for a factory tour guide to be in- the group, takes it through the production premises, ventive and adjustable to the group needs in order to and presents the company and the production process. choose an appropriate way of guiding. For example, it In doing so, he/she can use his/her expertise, which is possible to select only an oral representation of the he/she uses in everyday work. However, this person factory or visitors can participate in a treasure hunt does not participate in the strategic planning of the de- where information is thus conveyed in a fun manner. velopment of industrial tourism. For this, the heads of In doing so, the guide must have the skills to perform production and marketing department are responsi- the playful treasure hunt. The knowledge of foreign ble. languages (Slovene, English, Croatian) is also impor- The last type is cooperation with external organ- tant. isations who carry out factory tours. This form of The second type of industrial tourism human re- outsourcing can be found in the company Pivovarna sources, carried out by Revoz, highlights the impor- Laško Union, more precisely in the brewery in Laško. tance of knowing the production process, the knowl- There, employees of the public institution ‘Centre for edge and use of ict (PowerPoint, video, headphones), Sport, Tourism, Information and Culture Laško’ (Cen- the time availability of the guide and his/hers tour ter za šport, turizem, informiranje in kulturo Laško – guiding experience. Since the guide is responsible for stik) carry out the factory tours. Their tasks include the whole process from booking to guiding, he/she contacting and guiding visitor groups, presenting the must also master communication skills, know how to company and its production processes. They are in make a system announcement, check the operation contact with the company Pivovarna Laško Union, but of ict and security equipment, know the procedures do not influence the strategic decisions regarding the for arranging a possible catering offer for certain visi- implementation of industrial tourism. The decision- tors, and personally engage in the performance of the makers in this process are the management of the cor- tour itself. Furthermore, since the guide is also re- porate relations department and the company’s man- sponsible for the development of industrial tourism, agement itself. After the interviews, we could see com- it is expected that he/she also has the skills of strategic panies’ need for different employees’ competences. planning, is creative, and takes initiative. As the most Thus, in the Union brewery, where we detected the important element, they point out that a person who first type of industrial tourism human resources, they carries out factory tours must have good communica- highlight competences, such as the expert knowledge tion skills, as well as sense for people in order to judge of the factory history and the process of brewing beer. what a particular group is more or less interested in, In addition, the guides need to have good communi- so that the guide can adjust explanations accordingly cation skills and a good sense for people. For visitor (e.g., students compared to business partners). groups, requiring specific knowledge of production Moreover, he/she has to know the production pro- processes, production employees, who can provide cess, be aware of the innovations in production, and be more detailed information on professional issues, are widely educated. If there is a group that requires more recruited as tour guides. specific knowledge of the company, one of the produc- tion employees also joins the tour and gives more de- Most of the groups are guided by our presenters; tailed information. The factory set up this system after these are students or contract workers. When production employees first performed the tours, but it hosting specific groups (Biotechnical Faculty, turned out that visitors were not interested in many Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Biotechnical technical details. They much more prefer an interest- educational centre, . . .) I ask for help from other ing and attractive interpretation of a tour guide with production employees, like engineer officers, excellent communication skills. energetics expert, microbiologists or food sci- In the case of industrial tourism in the production ence experts. [Respondent B] of Argeta pâté, where we detected the third type of
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industrial tourism human resources; important com- meetings on current affairs, occasionally attend vari- petences are knowledge of the production process, ous training courses, such as psychological lectures on safety and sanitary rules, knowledge of the visitor’s people skills, training on gamification, branding, and language and time availability of the guide with regard similar. to his/hers other duties. Revoz does not organise special training for guides. Thefourthtypeofindustrialtourismhumanre- Before new guides begin with the factory tours, they sources was found in the Laško brewery. The guides can study a guidebook with the main information must have guiding expertise and especially good com- about the company and the factory tour process. They munication skills, according to Respondent C: used to have regular meetings with tour guides, but since guiding has been taken over by the communica- Groups that stik brings to the Laško Brew- tion department, there are no more such meetings, as ery are guided by their tour guides, who are therearenotmanypeopleinvolvedintheprocess. trained for the job. In addition to expert knowl- edge about the production process, they have to We don’t have trainings for factory tour guides. have foremost a good sense for communication In the past, we used to have regular meetings with people. with tour guides, when there was still a network of tour guides. But since communication de- For groups requiring specific information about partment took that over, that is gone. [Respon- the production processes, they invite additional pro- dent A] duction employees (e.g., technicians) to provide more detailed information on professional issues. Since the For guides who are conducting the tour of Ar- factory is located near a health resort and a spa, host- geta pâté production, the company does not carry out ing tourists from different countries, knowledge of for- training or has no introduction lessons. There are only eign languages, such as Italian, English, Spanish, Ger- regular short coordination meetings about the divi- man, and Serbian, is also essential. They also point out sion of groups among different guides and other spe- the flexibility of the guide to the situation and to the cial arrangements. In contrast, the Laško brewery pro- group needs, as well as the guide’s administrative skills videsannualtrainingsessionsfor their tour guidesand needed to carry out visits booking and collect entry especially when there is something new in the produc- fees. tion process. Furthermore, the guides coming from Companies also take care of the knowledge devel- stik must take part in the training for local tourist opment of their industrial tourism employees. In the guides; before they start conducting factory tours, they Union brewery, training is carried out at the annual study literature about the brewery, so they can learn as level or, if necessary, each time there is something new much about the factory and the production process as in the production process. The new guides are intro- they can. duced to industrial tourism in such a way that they firstly attend a factory tour as visitors, when someone Discussion else guides a tour. Further, it is recommended to use Companies use different types of industrial tourism ‘job shadowing’ and monitor experienced employees human resources, which is mainly dependent on the at the workplace. Then they receive a text with the in- availability of personnel and the degree of importance formationdatathatthey haveto learnfortheir presen- that industrial tourism has for the company itself. Re- tation. Prior to their first officially executed tour, they garding staff availability, the most basic type of in- conduct an internal factory tour for their co-workers dustrial tourism human resources could be identified to check their knowledge and skills. In addition, guides as employees working only for the purpose of imple- also conduct haccp training and practice their skills menting factory tours, as the staff is most easily acces- of how to pour a beer correctly. Guides hold regular sible.
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Theimportanceofindustrialtourismisreflected Swiderski, 1987 in Thanopoulos et al., 2011) or compe- in the significance of this offer for the company. The tences for working with people and for working with product is most important in companies for which the information (according to Mihalič, 2006). In one com- supply of industrial tourism is considered as a self- pany (Revoz), the employee is also responsible for the contained product, and is not just a marketing tool development of industrial tourism, so that personality but can become a self-standing tourist attraction of and behavioural competences are also expected (ac- the destination. Thus, in the Union brewery, they offer cording to Mihalič, 2006), which shows that the em- a unique experience product, ‘Union Experience,’ for ployee is capable of decision-making, strategic think- which they employ staff solely for implementing in- ing, analytical and creative thinking. According to dustrial tourism. Since the product is regularly accessi- these findings, companies that offer industrial tourism ble to visitors, there is also a need for a greater number can search for potential employees who already have of employees. In addition, the product is designed and communication skills, speak foreign languages, and adjusted to different groups of visitors; thus, employ- are willing to learn about the company itself and the ees should consider this characteristic while preparing production process. Since we suggest that guides are for a factory tour. This type of human resources seems also involved in the strategic development of the prod- to be most appropriate, since employees best know uct, potential employees may also have characteristics their work tasks; they specialise in group tours and of creativity, planning skills, and the like. develop all the necessary competences for conducting While the desired competences of employees in industrial tourism. However, in the case of this com- all companies are similar, the situation is different pany, tour guides do not participate in the strategic when examining the field of knowledge development planning of industrial tourism: they are only service among companies. Basic training is mainly placed at providers. Here, the company should consider how to the beginning of the work when an employee is in- incorporate guides into strategic planning, since they troduced to industrial tourism. At that, either compa- know both the situation in the production areas and nies time carry out internal training or employees read the characteristics, needs, and wishes of the visitors the guidebooks on industrial tourism in the company. with whom they are talking during the tours. Later, only one company responded that employees For the other three types of industrial tourism hu- also organise additional training in the areas of people man resources, employees’ time is much less available, skills, brand knowledge, gamification, and others. Two since their basic tasks are in other areas, or they are not companies also prepare training for the introduction employed at the factory and thus are not permanently of new features production, which potentially influ- present. The importance of industrial tourism is re- ence the course and content of the factory tours. flected in the strategic plans for industrial tourism and It can be noted that companies that see industrial employee involvement in these decisions. This was the tourism as a stand-alone product are investing more highest in the case of Revoz, where the tour guide also in the development of the knowledge of industrial develops the product of industrial tourism itself, as tourism employees. Thus, the Union’s Union Expe- the company wants to develop a factory tour as a self- rience is currently a stand-alone product: a tour of the contained product in the future. Union brewery, for which guides are systematically ed- As we have found in the study, the competences ucated about the production process and guiding skills of industrial tourism employees are critical. Among while the company simultaneously takes care of the them, the most outstanding is the knowledge of the development of their soft competences. This could be production process itself that all companies require followed by other companies that plan to introduce a from their tour guides. Communication skills, for- self-contained tourist product. At the beginning, they eign language skills, and flexibility were also common would prepare the introduction courses for the new responses, which means that companies expect their guides, prepare a guidebook with basic information, employees to master soft and hard skills (according to and instruct and train the employees in the field of soft
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skills, since they all stated that the ability to commu- fessional knowledge about the factory and about guid- nicate is the most important. Hence, soft skills should ing techniques. Then, during the implementation of be more emphasised in employee training. All of these factory tours, a number of additional training sessions findings are summarised in the model of industrial should be prepared annually, which focus on soft com- tourism personnel, which is presented in Figure 1. petences. Based on this model, the organisation can Asshowninthemodel,westartwithproposed select the most suitable employees for the implemen- three sets of competences that employees in indus- tation of industrial tourism, place them to the appro- trial tourism need. These include the necessary com- priate workplace, and continuously care for the devel- petences for working with people, for working with opment of their knowledge. information, and for personal and managerial compe- tences. According to the obtained data in the literature Conclusion and Implications and the study, we propose three types of workplaces In this study, we focused on industrial tourism and that deal with industrial tourism. They are an inde- industrial tourism human resources. Regarding the pendent department for industrial tourism, industrial situationinthefourstudiedcasesatthecompanies tourism as part of the marketing and pr department, (Revoz, Pivovarna Laško Union (Union and Laško and the participation of an outsourcing organisation. Brewery) and Droga Kolinska), we can summarise The independent industrial tourism department our findings and answer our research questions. In consistsoftheheadofthedepartmentandfactorytour response to the first two research questions, four types guides. The head is responsible for the development of of industrial tourism human resources can be identi- the industrial tourism product, but he/she should also fied: staff employed only for the purposes of industrial include guides in strategic decisions, although they tourism; staff employed in the communication, pr, or have a more operational role to play. This form is used another department; staff employed in core produc- when the product of industrial tourism is already well tion process; staff outsourced from an external organi- developed. sation. The first three types are represented by employ- In the second form, a factory tour guide is also a ees working in the parent organisation, while the latter person who is responsible for the development of the type includes employees who primarily work outside product; that person is a member of another depart- the parent organisation. Employees duties include vis- ment, presumably marketing or public relations de- itor guiding and presentation of the factory, while the partment. This form of industrial tourism workplace other type of employees (employees coming from the is used when the product of industrial tourism is in communication or pr department) also strategically the development phase. plan the product development. In other cases, strategic The third form of industrial tourism organisation planning is a part of management tasks. is the outsourcing to an external organisation that pro- Further on, we were interested in which knowl- vides guides for the factory tours and other assign- edge and competences industrial tourism employees ments. Meanwhile, a person who takes care of the de- should possess. Here we have found that the critical velopment of the industrial tourism product is a mem- competences are, first of all, professional knowledge ber of another department (presumably marketing or of the production process. Communication skills, for- public relations). This form of industrial tourism or- eign language skills, and flexibility were also common ganisation is used when the product is in the develop- responses; hence, soft skills are also very important in ment stage, and there is a simultaneous lack of avail- industrial tourism as in other tourism workplaces (Fo- able company staff to conduct tours. miniene et al., 2015; Baum, 2015). Such competences In all three cases, we propose a system of train- are required primarily with factory tour guides that are ing for all personnel involved in industrial tourism. in direct contact with visitors. The guides embody the First, training should be prepared prior to the begin- company and, therefore, they need to know accurate ning of work, where more emphasis is placed on pro- and interesting factory technical information and use
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• Communication skills • Knowledge of production process • Decision making ability • People skills • Knowledge of safety regulations • Strategic thinking • Flexibility •ICTknowledge • Creativity •Teamwork • Accuracy and promptness • Analytical thinking
Competences for working Competences for working Personal and managerial with people with information competences
Industrial tourism human resources
Workplace 1: Workplace 2: Workplace 3: independent industrial part of PR or marketing outsourcing tourism department department
Training
Before starting During position at industrial tourism at industrial tourism workplace workplace
•Professionalknowledgeaboutthecompany • Upgrading communication skills (workshop, simulation) (seminars, guidebooks) • Learning about visitor’s psychology (seminar, role playing) • Guiding skills (workshop, job shadowing) • Encouraging creativity (teamwork, visiting comparable products) • Fluent in foreign languages (attending course) • Strengthen knowledge of strategic planning (consultation, workshop) • Knowledge of safety regulations (seminar) • Refresh the knowledge of production processes and novelties (meetings) Figure 1 Industrial Tourism Human Resources the correct way of presenting this information in order continuous improvement, so that the product will be to attract the visitors. even more impressive for visitors and will represent All in all, one of the motives for the implementation the excellency of the visited company. of industrial tourism for the studied companies is mar- For employees to achieve basic competences, the keting of their basic product, which is also done by the final research question was addressed. The key find- factory tour guide. In addition to the guide, industrial ing is that studied companies provide a short list of tourism also needs people who are strategically devel- required trainings. In companies that offer training, it oping this tourism product. In one case, this person is primarily placed at the beginning of an employee’s is also a guide; in other cases, this person is a part of job in industrial tourism, so he/she can acquire some management from marketing or pr department. Per- expertise for the factory tour. This is done in the form sonnel at such positions also need the competence of of self-learning from a guidebook or with the help strategic planning, analytical thinking, and creativity, of experienced co-workers. Especially coaching and which ensures that operational employees can provide mentoring are among highly used new learning meth- quality industrial tourism services and strive for its ods, which is characteristic of industrial tourism em-
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ployee training as well as for general employee train- employees. When providing personal and knowledge ing (Marchington & Wilkinson, 2013). Insofar as in- development, the organisation will direct its focus to- dustrial tourism has been developed as a stand-alone wards sustainable human resource management and product of the company, the company offers more thus secure better working conditions for its employ- training possibilities, which are also aimed at the at- ees. tainment of other competences not just professional The study has shown that there are quite a few dif- knowledge of the factory. Thus, the guide can also be ferences between companies, as well as some similar- trained in communication skills and the psychology ities, based on which we revised the human resources of visitors. in industrial tourism. The proposed industrial tourism Asshownintheliteraturereview,studiesabout human resources model could be used by organisa- industrial tourism neglected this specific viewpoint; tions that want to improve their industrial tourism thus, research about human resources in industrial process or are only beginning to implement industrial tourism brings new insight into the field. Based on the tourism, thus choosing the type of human resources presented findings, we can propose that companies best suited to their situation and capabilities. wishing to develop an independent industrial tourism The research was conducted on the small sample of product strategically plan for the staff they need for the Slovenian companies that carry out industrial tourism. implementation of it. They can follow the proposed The sample itself is a considerable limitation of this model in Figure 1 and, according to the availability of research, since the number of factory visits should be employees, choose the most appropriate type of indus- higher to strengthen the results. In addition, multi- trial tourism human resources. It is recommended that ple visits to each factory would provide greater insight the guide, insofar as it is an independent workplace or into the process itself; however, due to the time limi- an outsourced co-worker, will also be involved in the tation of the study, only one visit per factory was con- strategic planning of the development of this product, ducted. Nevertheless, we presume that the results are as it is he/she who daily encounters visitors and knows representative of the studied issue and provide a gen- their needs and the situation of the premises where the eral picture of industrial tourism employees. Despite tour occurs. By selecting a type of human resources, the fact that the situation is expected to be similar in the company must also be aware of the competences it other factories and countries, we propose that further seeks for these employees. researchwouldbedirectedtocompaniesabroad.In Considering that, we recommend the involvement particular, the most important findings will be from of guides in strategic decisions; the company should the case studies of companies that have a long tradi- also look for personal and behavioural competences tion of implementing industrial tourism and offer it in guides in addition to the competences for working as a stand-alone product. Furthermore, they can pro- with people and the competences to work with infor- vide an environment for a more in-depth study of the mation. industrial tourism employees not only focusing on In any case, the company must provide constant their skills or training but also on their other char- employee training. Before starting their position in acteristics, their background, the conditions in which industrial tourism, employees must be equipped with they work, their performance, and service/experience professional knowledge of the company, knowledge delivery. of foreign languages and security provisions. Prior to starting work and during the course of work, the or- References ganisation must provide for the improvement of com- Armstrong, M. (2012). Armstrong’s handbook of human re- munication skills, people skills, as well as competences source management practice. Kogan Page. for encouraging creativity and knowledge of strategic Baum, T. (2015). Human resources in tourism: Still waiting planning. Therefore, the organisation should have a for change? A 2015 reprise. Tourism Management, 50(c), training plan for new and existing industrial tourism 204–212.
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Baum,T.(2019).Hospitalityemployment2033:Abackcast- isational values in the hospitality sector: What do they ing perspective. International Journal of Hospitality Man- tell us? Academica Turistica, 12(1), 73–82. agement, 76(Part B), 45–52. Gorenak, M., & Gorenak, I. (2012). Challenges in education Baum,T.,Kralj,A,Robinson,R.N.S.,&Solnet,D.J.(2016). of tour guides and tour managers. Informatologia, 45(4), Tourism workforce research: A review, taxonomy and 287–296. agenda. Annals of Tourism Research, 60, 1–22. Gržinić, J., Zanketić, P., & Baćac, R. (2009). Industrial tour- Bhattacharya,S.,&Cohen,M.B.(2017).Tacitknowledge ism in Istria. Ekonomska misao i praksa, 18(2), 211–232. and intra-firm teams: Reaping the benefits of co-opera- Gupta, B. (2011). Competences’ importance and perfor- tion in a networked world. In M. Russ (Ed.), Human cap- mance in tourism industry: An application of the im- ital and assets in the networked world (pp. 151-173). Emer- portance performance analysis model. The International ald. Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 5(10), 117–133. Boros,L.,Martyin,Z.,&Pal,V.(2013).Industrialtourism Heery,E.,&Noon,M.(2008).A dictionary of human re- trends and opportunities. Forum geografic: Studii şi cerce- source management. Oxford University Press. tări de geografie şi protecţia mediului, 12(1), 108–114. Holloway,J.C.,&Humphreys,C.(2016).The business of Boštjančič, E. (2011). Merjenje kompetenc: metoda ocenjeval- tourism. Pearson Education. nega centra v teoriji in praksi. Planet gv. Ifko, S. (2010). Trendi razvoja industrijskega turizma v Evro- Bratton,J.,&Gold,J.(2012).Human resource management: pi.InA.Brezovec,&J.Mekinc(Eds.),Management, izo- Theory and practice. Palgrave Macmillan. braževanje in turizem: družbena odgovornost za trajnos- Brophy,M.,&Kiely,T.(2002).Competences:Anewsector. tni razvoj: zbornik referatov 2. znanstvene konference z Journal of European Industrial Training, 26(2/3/4), 165– mednarodno udeležbo (pp. 715–727). Fakulteta za turis- 176. tične študije – Turistica. Chow, H.-W., Ling, G.-J., Yen, I.-Y., & Hwang, K.-P. (2016). Jauhari, V. (2006). Competences for a career in the hospital- Building brand equity through industrial tourism. Asia ity industry: An Indian perspective. International Jour- Pacific Management Review, 22(2), 1–10. nal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(2), 123– Edelheim, J. R. (2015). Tourist attractions: From object to nar- 134. rative. Channel View Publications. Judrups, J., Zandbergs, U., & Kazakovs, M. (2015). Compe- Florjančič, J., & Vukovič, G. (1999). Kadrovskafunkcija– tence based human resource development solution. In management. Moderna organizacija. 14th International Scientific Conference Engineering for Florjančič, J., Bernik, M., & Novak, V. (2004). Kadrovski Rural Development (pp. 669–974). Latvia University of management. Moderna organizacija. Agriculture. Fominiene, V.B., Mejeryte-Narkeviciene, K., & Wozniewicz- Kajzar, P.,& Václavínková, K. (2016). Prerequisites adventure Dobrzynska, M. (2015). Employees’ career competence tourism in the Moravian region with a focus on rural for career success: Aspect of human resources manage- andindustrialtourism.InV.Klímová&V.Žítek(Eds.), ment in tourism sector. Transformations in Business & 19th International Colloquium on Regional Sciences, Con- Economics, 14(2b/35b), 481–493. ference Proceedings (pp. 1008–1015). Masarykova uni- Frank Orel, T., & Medarić, Z. (2018). Cultural tourism fro- verzita. man academic perspective. Academica Turistica, 11(2), Kalargyrou, V., & Woods, R. H. (2011). Wanted: Training 101–110. competences for the twenty-first century. International Frew, E. A. (2000). Industrial tourism: A conceptual and em- Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23(3), pirical analysis (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Victoria 361–376. University. Kohont,A.(2005).Razvrščanjekompetenc.InM.S.Pezdirc Gelhard, A. (2017). Kritika kompetence. Krtina. (Ed.), Kompetence v kadrovski praksi (pp. 29–48). gv Goeldner,C.R.,&Ritchie,J.R.B.(2003).Tourism: Princi- izobraževanje. ples, practices, philosophies. Wiley. MacCannell,D.(2013).The tourist: A new theory of the leisure Gorenak, M. (2013). Organizacijske vrednote in kompetence class. University of California Press. kot orodje za razvoj človeških virov. In V. Dermol (Ed.), Madera,J.M.,Dawson,M.,Guchait,P.,&Belarmino,A.M. Sodobni izzivi managementa človeških virov (pp. 11–23). (2017). Strategic human resources management research Mednarodna fakulteta za družbene in poslovne študije. in hospitality and tourism. International Journal of Con- Gorenak, M. (2019). The differences in perceptions of organ- temporary Hospitality Management, 29(1), 48–67.
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Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |65
Original Scientific Article
Monitoring of Visitors as a Tool of Protected Areas Management
Stanislava Pachrová College of Polytechnics Jihlava, Czech Republic [email protected] Petr Chalupa College of Polytechnics Jihlava, Czech Republic [email protected] Eva Janoušková College of Polytechnics Jihlava, Czech Republic [email protected] Alice Šedivá Neckářová College of Polytechnics Jihlava, Czech Republic [email protected] Leoš Štefka pla Administration Moravský kras, Czech Republic [email protected]
This article reviews the possibilities of using visitor monitoring in the management of a protected area in the example of the Moravian Karst Protected Landscape Area (pla). The Moravian Karst is the largest and most significant karst area in the Czech Republic. Its location near a large city and its easy accessibility mean that some of the pla’s parts are faced with the negative impacts of overly intensive tourism on rare natural sites and protected species. While the presence of visitors in a protected area is desirable, it is necessary to regulate their activities in the area. The pla man- agement needs quality information for its decision making, such as on the current characteristics and behaviour of visitors. To obtain this information, primary mar- keting research was carried out at selected pla sites from May to September 2018. A questionnaire survey was used to obtain data from 2,100 visitors and to define the Moravian Karst visitor profile. We found that most visitors were attracted to caves open to the public and the Macocha gorge and that almost a quarter of respondents were planning to return to the pla within six months of questioning. A major chal- lenge for the sustainable development of tourism in the area will be the fact that vis- itors to the caves are not interested in visiting other localities in the pla. The data obtained about visitors will be used by the pla management to formulate measures to redirect visitors from the most-visited locations to the less-visited ones. Keywords: sustainable tourism, marketing research, visitor profile, destination management, protected landscape area, Moravian Karst https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13.67-79
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Introduction behaviour, and to optimise the activities of not only According to the unwto, sustainable tourism can the protected area management but also all the rele- be simply defined as ‘tourism that takes full account vant stakeholders, including visitors to the area (Ze- of its current and future economic, social and en- lenka et al., 2013, p. 61). vironmental impacts, addressing the needs of visi- Finally, the local population should be managed tors, the industry, the environment and host com- so as to achieve sustainable development of protected munities’(unep&wto,2005,p.12).Whenfocus- areas, too. As mentioned by Sevšek and Slavič (2017) ing on rural areas, where most protected areas are lo- (among others), locals represent a long-term develop- cated, tourism has gained significance in recent years ment factor of protected areas, and they should ac- (Sánchez-Hernandéz et al., 2016). Sustainably manag- tively participate and cooperate with a protected area ing tourism is a fundamental objective for most des- administration. tinations. Tourism is often used as a tool for local de- This article discusses some possibilities of using velopment. Sustainable tourism brings advantages for visitor monitoring in the management of a protected all tourism stakeholders and society as a whole; for area in the example of the Moravian Karst Protected example, it helps to create jobs or to generate income. LandscapeArea(pla).Wefocusonthepossibilityof Staying in protected areas significantly improves the obtaining important, topical, and relevant data for the physical and mental state of visitors who relax there pla’s management decision-making from primary and learn interesting facts about the area (e.g., through marketing research; this data describes the current a guided tour in a cave). This interesting and pleasant characteristics of visitors and their behaviour. The au- experience creates positive attitudes in visitors towards thors would like to inspire the managers of other pro- the protected area and contributes to the preserva- tected areas to use marketing research as an effective tion acceptance of these areas by the general public tool for visitor management and to intensify the dis- (Pachrová et al., 2019). Tourists’ encounters with na- cussion among tourism experts on the increasing and ture also lead to their pro-environmental behaviour severe problem of overtourism in the most attractive and activities (Mensah, 2019, p. 54). To strengthen the nature areas. positive impacts of tourism on a rural destination, it The Moravian Karst is the largest and most sig- is necessary to conserve resources and appreciate the nificant karst area in the Czech Republic. Its location existing heritage. For this purpose, a proactive aware- near a large city and its easy accessibility mean that ness is promoted in the environmental area (Gallardo some parts of the pla face the negative impacts of too Vázquez et al., 2014). However, tourism also creates intensive tourism on rare natural sites and protected certain negative impacts, mainly when the carrying species. While the presence of visitors in a protected capacity of the destination is repeatedly exceeded (e.g., area is desirable, it is necessary to regulate their activ- by excessive numbers of visitors); these aspects include ities in the area. The pla management needs quality pollution, increased erosion, and reduced population information for its decision-making, such as on their or even the extinction of various species can result characteristics and behaviours. To obtain this infor- (Pásková,2008;Hübelováetal.,2016). mation, a questionnaire survey among 2,100 visitors Managing protected areas has to combine both na- was carried out in 2018, and the Moravian Karst visi- ture protection and the interests of visitors to ensure tor profile was defined based on it. the sustainable development of the areas. Achieving The present paper is structured as follows: the in- sustainable tourism is a continuous process, and it re- troduction is followed by the theoretical framework quires the constant monitoring of impacts (unep & and a brief description of the pla Moravian Karst. wto, 2005). Monitoring and research in protected ar- Next comes the methodology used, and the stated eas have the potential to describe these various im- null hypotheses are described. Selected results of the pacts of tourism, to decipher the causes and contexts, case study and their discussion are then presented. to use the acquired knowledge to stimulate desirable The conclusions underscore the principal results and
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contributions of the paper. Research limitations and rately undertakes the activities of destination manage- future research lines are also provided. ment in that area. Also important is the cooperation between nearby destinations (Ness et al., 2014), as well Visitor Management as an Integral Part as those with protected areas; networking can help to of Protected Areas’ Management solve many problems because it enables them, for ex- According to Eagles (2007) and confirmed by other ample, to share good cases of management measures. authors on tourism, such as Balmford et al. (2012), or Recently, the attention of professionals has often been Prouza (2019), the number of visitors to protected ar- focused on modern technologies and many changes eas is increasing. This is especially true for the most they bring to tourism, including new models of desti- attractive locations. Frequently, the number of visi- nation management (Donald et al., 2019; Ivars-Baidal tors exceeds the limits recorded in the previous years. et al., 2019). With growing numbers of visitors to protected ar- Destination management and, therefore, the man- eas, the burden that tourism puts on treasured sites is agement of the tourism of protected areas should al- sharply increasing; therefore, the importance of man- ways include visitor management in their activities. aging protected areas is also increasing, and along with Sustainable visitor management is, according to New- it the task to ensure not only the protection of nature some and Moore (2017, p. 261), achieved as a com- and the landscape for future generations, but also to bination of different approaches (e.g., controlling the ensure the sustainable use of the area by the general size, type and spatial extent of visitor activities in com- public and thus the adequacy of tourism itself. Visitor bination with various educational programmes) and management is an integral part of protected area man- the application of modern technologies. Basic visitor agement and, after the creation of a protected area, management attempts to guide the flow of visitors in management specifying human use of the area is de- the time and space of the destination in such a way veloped (Newsome & Moore, 2017, p. 264). In pro- as to minimise the negative impacts of tourism on tected areas, there is not only unique nature but also the area. Visitor management simultaneously attempts places with sites of cultural heritage (e.g., caves with to positively motivate visitors on how to behave with archaeological points of interest). Visitor management concern for the environment in the given area. of protected areas should, therefore, not forget that Visitor management of the protected area can use some visitors have culturally oriented tourist motives many tools, for example, the marking and mainte- (Belij, 2017). nance of hiking trails, the building of visitor centres, Currently, destination management is considered offering guided tours, introducing/regulating admis- the most effective way of planning and managing the sion to the protected area, introducing limits on visitor sustainable development of tourism in any area. The numbers to the most vulnerable parts of protected ar- basic principle of destination management is coopera- eas, providing clear and up-to-date information avail- tion (Wang, 2008). General cooperation should ensure able on the website of the protected area, among oth- cooperation between all stakeholders in the tourism ers. of the destination through the destination manage- A significant current challenge is using modern ment organisation, which maintains mutually effec- technologies for visitor management in protected ar- tive communication and facilitates the coordination eas, such as mobile learning in environmental inter- of the activities in planning, organising, and decision- pretation and visitor education (Tan & Law, 2016). A making that take place in the destination (Holešinská, tool that has not been mentioned yet, but is signif- 2012,p.47).Themanagementoftheprotectedarea icant for decision-making processes in the manage- should cooperate in various ways with the local des- ment of protected areas, is primary research. Research tination management organisation in the destination should be done on various topics, such as natural and management area, while not excluding that the organ- landscape conditions and their development, includ- isation engaged in protected area management sepa- ing changes caused by tourism activities in an area.
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Uncontrolled and unmanaged visitors can easily purely European approach is, for example, data taken and adversely affect the core values of a protected area. fromsummitbooks(Muharetal.,2002,p.3).Inthe As revealed by Foin et al. (1977), visitors can cause case in which entry to some locations in the protected changes in density and species composition of vegeta- area is not free, the data on the number of tickets sold is tion and animal populations. Protected area manage- used to record the number of visitors (e.g., caves open ment sometimes has to control the resource damage to the public). Integrated visitor monitoring, moni- from tourism being restrictive even if it can lead to toring using a combination of several methods for backlash responses from visitors (Bixler et al., 1992). obtaining data (long-term video monitoring, counts Typical measures of visitor management in karst areas by human observers, specific visitor interviews and are restrictive. Tour guide services are provided as the route analysis by the gis tools, etc.) seems to be the only legitimate way to visit caves (Tomic et al., 2019) most effective approach (Arnberger & Hinterberger, and the determination of a maximum visitor capacity 2004). This is very interesting, because a cost-effective per one cave tour (Calaforra et al., 2003). approach to visitor monitoring can be using crowd- sourced data (Rice et al., 2019). Visitor Monitoring in Protected Areas Other types of visitor monitoring, especially mon- For visitor management to be done effectively and effi- itoring the characteristics of visitors and segmenting ciently, the management of the protected area needs a them, are much more difficult to implement system- great deal of information about visitors. For this pur- atically for protected area management. The data can pose, visitor monitoring within the protected area is be obtained, for example, from primary marketing re- carried out. Summary reviews of the locations where search, while the disadvantage in obtaining data is the visitor monitoring studies were conducted over the need for more time, personnel availability, expertise, past ten years, were given by Pickering et al. (2018). and financial resources. Another innovative source of The monitoring of visitors in protected areas is a information about visitors is an analysis of big data specific and multidisciplinary field of research. Ze- from social media (Pickering et al., 2018). Supporting lenka et al. (2013, p. 232) state that the monitoring information is also usually provided by tourist infor- of visitors to the natural and treasured landscapes of mation centres in the area, by the visitor centres of pro- the area can vary according to the measurements con- tected areas, or by the wardens and staff of protected ducted: areas. As mentioned by Ballantyne et al. (2011), a visitor’s • monitoring the flow of visitors, experience can impact their future behaviour. Visitor • monitoring the activities of visitors, satisfaction is the best tool for their attachment to the monitoring the behaviour of visitors and conflicts • place (Trakolis & Harding, 1981). The quality of the between them, experience and visitors’ satisfaction with the services • monitoring the characteristics of visitors and provided in protected areas should form the basis of their segmentation. visitor management. These two factors should system- The first mentioned type of visitor monitoring (i.e., atically be surveyed as part of visitor monitoring (Ea- monitoring the flow of visitors) is the one most widely gles, 2007; Tonge & Moore, 2007; Huang et al., 2008; used in the protected areas of the Czech Republic, Samuel et al., 2008; Musa et al., 2017; Oviedo-Garcia which is usually narrowed down to monitoring the et al., 2019). absolute numbers of visitors at selected locations. At present, mainly data from mobile operators or differ- Moravian Karst Protected Landscape Area ent visitor counters placed in the ground and oper- The Moravian Karst pla is located in the south-east- ated by specialised firms are used for this purpose. In ern part of the Czech Republic, close to Brno. The pla many national parks of America, moreover, the self- was declared there in 1956, covering an area of almost registration of visitors to the area is also common. A 100 km2; it is the largest and most extensive karst area
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in the Czech Republic, and more than 1,100 caves are stone decoration is strictly protected, and visitors are located in Devonian limestone. Five cave systems are not allowed to touch it. The needs of visitors and needs open to the public and are visited every year by ap- of nature protection had to be harmonised regarding proximately 400,000 people (see http://moravskykras the use of lights in the caves. The extremely negative .ochranaprirody.cz). impact of excessively intensive lighting in the caves Karst areas are not typical tourist attractions; most was described by Štefka (2016): the lights used for of them have extraordinary scientific and social im- enabling visitors to see in the caves caused the ap- portance, not only because they represent remark- pearance of green plants in large parts of the visited able geological and geomorphological phenomena, underground. This factor, absolutely foreign for the buttheyalsopreservevaluableevidenceabouttheori- cave environment, had to be cleaned away. Unfortu- gin and evolution of life or the origin and development nately, cleaning caves was done by furbishing or by us- of human culture. The Moravian Karst area is a good ing chemicals that harmed the sensitive environment. exampleofthis.Fromthescientificperspective,itis As a result, rules for lighting in the caves, including valuable, but for visitors to the area, the surface and the timing of light periods and the intensity of light, subsurface of the karst landscape offer highly attrac- are carefully managed now. tive features (extensive cave systems, abyss, sinkholes, The importance of setting strict limits for num- sinking and gaining streams of water, deep canyon bers of visitors per day to the caves was proved Lang gorges, etc.). In addition, the pla is interesting in et al. (2017), who discovered that when visitors were that there are 21 species of bats and many invertebrate present the anthropogenic co2 flux in Výpustek Cave species unique in the world (endemic) have been de- exceeded all other co2 fluxes and that intervals be- scribed here. In 2004, the Punkva cave system was tweenvisitorgroupswouldhavetobeuptosixhours included by the Ramsar Convention among interna- longifthecaveenvironmentweretoreturntonatu- tionally significant wetlands. From the cultural and ral conditions. Karst places decorated with ice during historical points of view, the importance of the Mora- winter (small caves near the surface) are also very at- vian Karst pla is that it offers various evidence on the tractive for visitors. As stated by Ždímal (2015), some development of human society from the Palaeolithic visitors to the Moravian Karst crawl through small Age to the present (Hübelová et al., 2017; Chalupa & tunnels and destroy valuable local plant and animal Veselovský, 2018). communities. Moreover, new tourism activities poten- In the surveyed area of the Moravian Karst, the tially dangerous for the environment are being devel- trend of increasing numbers of visitors can be seen: oped in the Moravian Karst now, such as single trails visitors to the caves increased between 2010 to 2018 by for mountain bikers (Fialová et al., 2019). The need for more than 22 (Štefka, personal communication, July visitor management in the researched area is obvious. 12, 2019). As stated by Pachrová et al. (2019), one of Nevertheless, according to Leslie (2015, p. 56), people, the main problems of tourism in the Moravian Karst in general, express their support for all environmental is its pronounced seasonality: most visitors come to initiatives, including conservation measures. Loren- the pla in the summer to visit the accessible caves cová et al. (2014) conducted a questionnaire survey and the Macocha gorge. In these locations, the inten- among visitors of Moravian Karst and stated that most sity of tourism is already too strong, and damage is tourists do not feel limited by conservation measures, occurring to this unique environment. The pla man- which is a very positive finding for the pla’s Admin- agement, therefore, needs to take corrective measures istration and sustainable development of tourism in within the visitor management of the area. the area. Mass tourism and insufficient protection of the unique underground of the Moravian Karst has de- Methodology stroyed more than half of the dripstone decoration in This paper aims to review the possibilities of using some parts of the caves (Štefka, 2013). Now, all drip- visitor monitoring in the management of a protected
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areainthecasestudyoftheMoravianKarstProtected (Czech,English,German,andPolish).Datawereob- LandscapeAreaintheCzechRepublic.Theauthors tained using the face-to-face survey with visitors at ten would like to inspire other protected area manage- designated pla locations throughout the protected ments to use marketing research more often, because area. The data collected by trained interviewers were it gives unique and valuable data on visitor manage- anonymous, with the choice of respondents consis- ment. The results of the research will be used by the tently random. In order to prevent any distortion of pla Administration to create measures that will lead the surveyed results, for example due to bad weather, to a greater spread of visitors throughout the pla the data was collected on different days of the week at to relieve congestion at the most attractive locations different times of the day. A total of 2,100 question- and will also lead to shifting more visitation to the naires, properly completed, were obtained. spring and autumn months. The profile of the visi- To verify the stated null hypotheses, attention will tor to the Moravian Karst will serve as background be given to the geographic, psychographic, and be- material for creating the management strategy for the havioural characteristics of the respondents. The ini- protected area in question. The pla Administration tial data obtained were processed, analysed, and in- asked for information about the characteristics of vis- terpreted with mathematical and statistical methods. itors and information about their values, attitudes, Concerning the methods, analysis and synthesis were and behaviour. For effective visitor management, they used. Microsoft Excel and Statistica 13 software were need to know, for example, if there is a difference in the used to process the data. main reason for visiting the pla between visitors who The existence of a conclusive dependence between come for the first time and those who are returning to the selected characteristics of the respondents was the area. For mostly marketing communication of the proved using the Pearson’s chi-square test of indepen- pla, it is crucial to know where the visitors come from dence (χ2), provided that a maximum of 20 of the and if people from closer areas return to the Moravian expected frequencies was less than 5. For the Pear- Karst more often. Based on the mentioned needs of son statistic χ2, the number of degrees of freedom the pla Administration, we stated and tested two null (df) is also given for completeness. On the basis of hypotheses (h0): the probability of the distribution of chi-square, the p- value was observed for the null hypothesis (assuming h01 There is no significant difference in the main the independence of the two selected signs), which is reason for visiting the Moravian Karst pla be- thelowestlevelofsignificanceforwhichthenullhy- tween first-time visitors and those who are re- pothesis can be rejected (p <0.05).Theobservedχ2 turning to the area repeatedly. was then interpreted using the method of correspon- h02 For visitors to the Moravian Karst, there is no dence analysis. Correspondence analysis is a multi- dependence between repeat visits to the pro- variate statistical method that allows the display and tected area and the distance of the home of the summary of a set of data in a two-dimensional graphic respondent. form. It is traditionally applied to contingency tables; This article presents selected results of extensive correspondence analysis decomposes the chi-squared primary research among visitors to the Moravian Karst. statistic associated with this table into orthogonal fac- The research was carried out by the Department of tors.Thedistancebetweensinglepointsisdefinedasa Travel & Tourism at the College of Polytechnics Jihlava chi-squared distance. This analysis aims to reduce the (všpj) in cooperation with the pla management of multidimensional space of row and column profiles the Moravian Karst. The research was carried out andtosaveasmuchoftheoriginaldataaspossible using a quantitative survey method of standardised (Hebák et al., 2007). The total variance of the data questionnaires from May to September 2018. The ques- matrix is measured by the inertia (Greenacre, 1984), tionnaire had a total of 19 questions (closed, semi- which resembles a chi-square statistic but is calculated closed, scaled) and was distributed in four languages based on relative observed and expected frequencies.
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Table 1 Sociodemographic Structure of Respondents The structure of visitors to the pla according to Respondents characteristics N the highest level of education reached shows that al- most 80 of visitors had at least a high school degree, Gender Women , and one fifth of the total number of respondents had Men , a university education (Table 1). The remaining fifth, Total , (i.e., 452 respondents) had a basic education or ap- Age Up to years prenticeship. This number, however, included 195 sec- – years ondary school students (9 of the total respondents), – years who can be expected to continue with their education. – years The results of our research show that visitors to the + surveyed pla are mostly well educated, which con- firms the trend of tourism in protected areas as pub- Total , lished by Eagles (2007) and confirmed by Zelenka et al. Education Without high school (2013, p. 70), as well as Newsome and Moore (2017, p. High school , 261). These authors suggest that protected areas are ex- University ploited mainly by educated people expecting an expe- Total , rience full of interesting information and things to do, but who also expect sophisticated services and man- agement of the area. Visitor management of the Mora- All tables and figures in this article are the joint vian Karst should take this into account, because the work of the authors. right choice of marketing tools and provision of qual- ity services could quite easily motivate this group of Results and Discussion visitors to make repeat visits, even outside the main During the primary research carried out, 2,100 ques- summer season; it is also possible, given these visitors’ tionnaires properly completed by visitors to the Mora- interest in new information and experiences, to redi- vian Karst were obtained (N = 2,100). The socio- rect them to less exposed tourist parts of the pla. demographic characteristics of the respondents are Due to the age structure of the respondents (Ta- shown in Table 1, which indicates that, in a represen- ble 1), it is not surprising that the Internet is the main tative sample of visitors to the pla, the share of men medium from which visitors to the pla get informa- is 51 and women 49. It can be concluded from this tion for their visit (31 of respondents). The second result that men and women visit the Moravian Karst mostimportantsourceofdata(27ofrespondents) in equal proportion. is information from friends and relatives, transmitted All age categories were represented in the research. not only by word-of-mouth but also through various People aged 35–49 were the predominant group in the social media, which underscores the need of visitor structure of visitors, accounting for 40 of the total management of the protected area to have a clear, up- number of respondents (Table 1). Nearly a quarter of dated, and interesting presentation of visitor services visitors (24) are in the age segment of 25–34 years on the internet, as well as the need to provide quality old. The age categories of 24 years old and less, and services to receive positive reviews and recommenda- 50–59hadanequalshareof14ofthetotalnumber tions. For visitor management of the researched area, of respondents. The least numerically represented age it is crucial to recognise that the combination of these category of visitors were seniors (i.e., 60 and older). two sources of information makes it possible to reach The age structure of visitors is very similar to the one the majority of visitors, and some of them can certainly observed by Lorencová et al. (2014) in 2013, so we can be motivated to visit (e.g., a selected cave in winter), conclude that in a long-term view a majority of the when they will have the unique experience of the karst pla’svisitorsisbetween25to49yearsofage. in wintertime with a minimum number of other vis-
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itors, and the cave will probably be pleasantly warm Table 2 Reason for Visiting the Moravian Karst pla (compared to outdoor temperatures). in Dependence on the Frequency In the context of the geographic structure of re- of the Destination Visit spondents, whether they came from the Czech Re- Reason for visit () () () () () public or abroad was determined. The questionnaire Exploring natural a showed that the Moravian Karst is a destination mainly attractions (caves) s . . . for domestic tourism. Of the total respondents, only Sightseeing a 4 were foreign visitors. In the structure of foreign visitors, most respondents were from Slovakia; the s . . . second most frequently cited country of origin was Relaxation a Poland; the third was Russia. The largest representa- s . . . tion of Slovaks among visitors from abroad also prove Hiking, cycling, etc. a Lorencová et al. (2014). It can have various reasons, s . . . for example, not too great a distance of the Mora- House of Nature of the a vian Karst from Slovakia, or that many Slovaks live Moravian Karst s . . . in the Czech Republic. In the ratio of Czech and for- eign visitors, the results of our research contradict the Sport a information of the Moravian Karst Cave Adminis- s . . . tration, which indicates that visitors from abroad ac- Work a count for approximately one-third of the total number s . . . of visitors to the area (Enviweb.cz, 2017). It needs to Entertainment a be taken into account, however, that the information s . . . from the cave administration is based on the tickets Visittorelatives/friendsa sold to publicly-accessible caves, while our data were obtained at various locations throughout the protected s . . . area. Both sources of information nevertheless agree Transit a on the most common countries of origin of foreign vis- s . . . itorsaswellasonthefactthatthenumberofvisitors Total a , to the pla, for whom the main reason for their visit r to the protected area is a tour of the caves, accounted s – forlessthanhalfofthetotalnumberofvisitorstothe Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) frequency: a – area (Table 2). This agreement confirms, among other absolute,s–columnrelative(),r–relative(),(2)1st things, the relevance of the results of our research. The visit, (3) 2nd–4th visits, (4) 5th and further visits, (5) total. authors of the paper are, therefore, inclined to see the χ2 = 167.2909, df = 18, p = 0.0000. results of their research as corresponding better to the realsituationinrelationtotheentirepla,andsothe share of foreign visitors to the Moravian Karst is sig- (N = 2,100), 650 were visiting the area for the first time, nificantly lower than the overall number of visitors (i.e., 31). given by Enviweb.cz (2017). The statistical processing of the null hypothesis For visitor management and maintaining the sus- h01 with Person’s chi-square test showed a significant tainable tourism of the pla, the research implies the dependence between the main reason for visiting the positive fact that almost 70 of visitors return to this Moravian Karst and the frequency of visiting this pro- protected area, 30 even repeatedly (i.e., they had tected area. When testing the independence of the two been there at least five times at the time of data col- variables, the values of the test statistic χ2 =167.2909 lection) (Table 2). Of the total number of respondents and p = 0.0000 were calculated; the h01 null hypoth-
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Figure 1 The Correspondence Analysis: The Dependence Figure 2 The Correspondence Analysis: The Dependence of the Reason for Visiting the Moravian Karst of the Distance from Visitor’s Residence to the pla to the Frequency of the Destination Visit Frequency of the Moravian Karst pla Visits (2d (2dplot of row and column coordinates, plot of row and column coordinates, dimension: dimension: 1 × 2; input table (rows × columns): 1 × 2; input table (rows × columns): 3 × 4; 3 × 10; standardization: row and column profiles; standardization: row and column profiles; dark – dark – visit frequency, light – reason for visit) visit frequency, light – residence distance) esis was rejected at the level of significance of 5 (Ta- back too, but not so soon. A major challenge for the ble 2). The corresponding analysis of examining both sustainable development of tourism in the area will be variables suggests that there is a significant difference thefactthatvisitorstothecavesarenotinterestedin between the main reason for visiting the destination visiting other localities in the pla during their visit. among first-time visitors and among visitors repeat- For visitor management of the pla, these research re- edly coming back (i.e., those who have been to the sults are significant in that they demonstrate that re- area at least five times) (Figure 1). peat visitors are greatly interested in other locations The first visit to the pla is most often logically fo- of the protected area than the accessible tourist caves cused on becoming acquainted with the most famous and the Macocha gorge, and they need much more attractions in the area (i.e., the caves), while for repeat attention in the visitor management in future. visitors the predominant reason is the desire for active We can also see thatMoravian Karst has some spe- leisure in the beautiful natural environment, whether cific characteristics in terms of the main reasons for for relaxing walks, hiking, or biking. While the major- visiting this area. Visitors come here mainly to explore ity of first-time visitors (55.4) said their main reason the natural attractions, then to relax and to do sports. for visiting the pla was to ‘explore natural attractions Entertainment was the main reason for less than 3 of – caves,’ it was the reason for only 27.9 of repeat vis- respondents. In contradistinction, Navrátil et al. (2015) itors. revealed that most important for tourists in the pro- In contrast, only 26 of first-time visitors indicated tected areas in the southern part of the Czech Republic active leisure in the pla natural environment, but it are relaxation, entertainment, and recreational sports was the reason for 52.3 of repeat visitors to the area activities. (Table 2). Moreover, one quarter of respondents were Furthermore, the stated h02 null hypothesis was planning to return to the pla within six months of tested, for which the assumption was made that among questioning, and 52 of respondents want to come visitors to the Moravian Karst pla, repeat visits to the
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Table 3 Distance from Visitor’s Residence in Dependence Conclusion on the Frequency of the Moravian Karst pla Protected areas around the world are seeing a growing Visits public interest in visiting them, and in many places Residence distance () () () () () valuable natural and landscape features are under Up to km a threat from overly heavy a tourist burden. This is s the current problem of the Moravian Karst pla, the largest and most popular karst area in the Czech Re- – km a public. s This article shows the possibilities of using visitor – km a monitoring in the visitor management of the protected s area in the example of the Moravian Karst Protected Above km a , Landscape Area and serves as a case study that could s inspire other protected area managements to use pri- Total a , mary marketing research more often as an effective tool for obtaining data needed for sustainable tourism r management of the given area. The data obtained di- s – rectly from visitors enables not only the creation of Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) frequency: a – their exact profiles and segmentation of them, but also absolute,s–columnrelative(),r–relative(),(2)1st provides valuable data on the motivation to visit the visit, (3) 2nd–4th visits, (4) 5th and further visits, (5) total. area, data on the planned and real behaviour of visi- χ2 = 548.398, df = 6, p = 0.0000. tors, their satisfaction with their stay in the destina- tion, and similar. area are not dependent on the distance of the respon- The results of the research into the Moravian Karst dent’s home. Pearson’s chi-square test showed a signif- Protected Landscape Area showed that this protected icant statistical dependence of both variables, because area is visited by men and women in balanced propor- χ2 = 548.398 and p = 0.0000 (Table 3); we, therefore, tion and that the structure of visitors is significantly reject the h02 null hypothesis at the significance level predominated by persons aged 35–49. Furthermore, of 5. Figure 2, a biplot created using the correspon- almost 80 of visitors to the surveyed pla have at dence analysis method, shows that respondents resid- least completed secondary education. This fact should ing within 20 km of the surveyed site are clearly the be exploited by the visitor management of the Mora- most frequent visitors to the Moravian Karst. Two- vianKarstpla,asthisgroupofvisitorscanbeeasily thirds of repeat visitors to the area reside within 50 km motivated for repeated visits and can be redirected to of the pla. Interestingly, more than a fifth of repeat less exposed parts of the pla. The results of the re- visitors to the surveyed area come from a distance of search also show that the surveyed area is primarily over 100 km. Almost 70 of first-time visitors come a destination for domestic tourism and that the main from a distance of over 100 km from the pla (Table motive for visiting the destination is, for almost half 3). For visitor management of the protected area, it is of the total number of visitors, to become acquainted recognised that people not only from the surround- with tourist–accessible caves. The vast majority of vis- ing area are repeatedly returning to the pla, again im- itors (almost 70) return to the Moravian Karst pla portant information. This fact confirms the high at- and 30 of the total number even repeatedly. tractiveness of the area for tourism, and management The stated h01 null hypothesis, which assumed could use it in their marketing activities, especially in there is no significant difference in the main reason for an effort to disperse visitors across the pla, ideally in visiting the Moravian Karst pla between first-time combination with the previous finding regarding the visitors and those who repeatedly return to the area, main reasons for repeat visits by the respondents. was not confirmed. The statistical processing of the
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data by Pearson’s chi-square test showed a significant References dependence between both variables analysed. It has Arnberger, A., & Hinterberger, B. (2004). Visitor monitor- been proven that the first visit to the pla is most of- ing methods for managing public use pressures in the ten focused on becoming acquainted with the most Danube Floodplains National Park, Austria. Journal for famous attractions of the area (the caves) while repeat Nature Conservation, 11(4), 260–267. visitors are mostly motivated by the desire for active Ballantyne,R.,Packer,J.,&Sutherland,L.A.(2011).Visitor’s memories of wildlife tourism: Implications for the de- leisure (relaxing on walks, hiking or biking). This re- sign of powerful interpretive experiences. Tourism Man- sult for visitor management of the pla is significant in agement 32(4), 770–779. that repeat visitors have shown great interest in other Balmford, A., Beresford, J., Green, J., Naidoo, R., Walpole, areas of the protected area than the tourist-accessible M.,&Manica,A.(2012).Trendsinnature-basedtourism. caves and the Macocha gorge. In J. A. Seba (Ed.), Ecotourism and sustainable tourism: The stated h02 null hypothesis, which assumed New perspectives and studies (pp. 30–37). Apple Aca- thatrepeatvisitstotheMoravianKarst pla donotde- demic Press. pend on the distance of the respondent’sresidence, was Belij, M. (2017). Cultural tourist motives in national parks also not confirmed. Pearson’s chi-square test showed inSerbia.InD.Filipović,A.Gosar,M.Koderman,&S. a significant statistical dependence of both variables. Ðurđić (Eds.), Tourism in protected areas of nature in Ser- bia and Slovenia (pp. 113–128). University of Belgrade. Respondents residing within 20 km of the place of in- Bixler,R.D.,Noe,F.P.,&Hammitt,W.E.(1992).Restrictive quiry are clearly the most frequent visitors returning and non-restrictive management of park visitors. Journal to the pla. With the combination of the knowledge of Environmental Systems, 21(4), 335–348. that returning visitors to the pla are more interested Calaforra, J. M., Fernandez-Cortes, A., Sanchez-Martos, F., in getting to know new sites of the protected area, vis- Gisbert,J.,&Pulido-Bosch,A.(2003).Environmental itor management of the Moravian Karst pla should control for determining human impact and permanent also work on trying to relieve the most burdened sites. visitor capacity in a potential show cave before tourist Our article has provided much new information use. Environmental Conservation, 30(2), 160–167. about the profile of visitors to the Moravian Karst pla, Chalupa, P., & Veselovský, J. (2018). Link of the natural and which is practical in the management of visitors to human components of the geosphere in historical devel- this area. The primary limitation of the research con- opment as a motivation for the visit of Moravian karst. Geografické informácie, 22(pt1), 163–179. ducted is that the data collected in the field was not Donald,R.,Seo,Y.,&Kemper,J.(2019).Complainingprac- year-round and did not cover at least one whole tourist tices on social media in tourism: A value co-creation season. However, due to the chosen methodology of and co-destruction perspective. Tourism Management, data collection and well-trained interviewers, our re- 73, 35–45. search results are sufficiently representative. The con- Eagles, P. (2007). Global trends affecting tourism in pro- tinuous collection and subsequent evaluation of data tected areas. In R. Bushell, & P. Eagles (Eds.), Tourism on visiting a destination are essential for the sustain- and protected areas: Benefits beyond boundaries (pp. 27– able management of tourism in any area. Our research 43). cabi. should, therefore, be followed up by further research, Enviweb.cz.(2017,21January).Návštěvnost jeskyní Moravské- which would be conducted throughout the year and ho krasu byla loni nejvyšší od 2007. http://www.enviweb provide, for example, information on the prevailing .cz/107610 motivation to visit the pla outside the main tourism Fialová, J., Březina, D., Žižlavská, N., Michal, J., & Machar, I. (2019). Assessment of visitor preferences and atten- season and during the winter. dance to singletrails in the Moravian karst for the sus- tainable development proposals. Sustainability, 11(13). Acknowledgments https://doi.org/10.3390/su11133560 The paper was created with the financial support of Foin,T.C.,Garton,E.O.,Bowen,C.W.,Everingham,J.M.,& project No. 1170/026/013 of the College of Polytechnics Schultz, R. O. (1977). Quantitative studies of visitor im- Jihlava. pacts on environments of Yosemite National-park, Cali-
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Original Scientific Article
Congress Destination Attractiveness: TheCaseofSupply-SideofBusinessTourism in Slovenia
Marijana Sikošek University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia [email protected]
The purpose of the article is to research which attractiveness attributes of a congress destination are those that are important for visiting the congress destination and association meeting, namely from the point of view of the supply-side of business tourism, meaning meeting planners (buyers), suppliers, intermediaries and special agencies. The article redefines the dimensions of visiting a congress destination and the research concept of the supply-side of business tourism. On this basis, we devel- oped a new multidimensional construct (model) of congress destination visit, which takes into consideration three aspects: the destination, venue and business event as- pects as the foundation of the supply-side of congress tourism. Based on previous research, we developed a model of attractiveness attributes for each individual as- pect which contributes to the visiting of the congress destination. The aim of the research is to contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the supply-side of congress tourism in a multidimensional analysis of attractiveness attributes of a congress destination which constitute important factors for visiting. Keywords: congress destination attractiveness, business tourism, conference attributes, congress destination attributes, venue attributes, congress destination visit https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13.81-95
Theoretical Background ings that prompted researchers to explore both the rea- In the last decades, there has been an exponential sons and the attributes of attractiveness of a congress growth in the number of events, which also applies to destination. This is the central space where a business business events and congress tourism in general (Getz meeting (conference) takes place and where suppli- & Page, 2016). According to the icca (see http://www ers, organisers and attendees meet. There are differ- .iccaworld.com), the period between 1963 and 2017 ent definitions in literature in the conceptualisation of shows a considerable growth, both in terms of inter- the congress destination (Oppermann, 1996a, 1996b; national association meetings as well as the number of Oppermann & Chon, 1997; Rogers, 1998; Crouch & attendees. With the advent of the economic crisis over Ritchie, 1998; Swarbrooke & Horner, 2001; Petersen, ten years ago, a decrease in the number of meetings 2005; Davidson & Rogers, 2006; Rogers, 2008), and was recorded as well, which, however, has been on the these are often not uniform, especially when defin- rise again in the last few years (The Global Association ing its dimensions and spatial framework. A review of of the Exhibition Industry, 2016). literature shows that a congress destination can be de- It was the growth in the volume of business meet- fined as a spatial, substantive and service entity. Clas-
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |81 Marijana Sikošek Congress Destination Attractiveness
sifying congress destinations based on the substan- event, as content is what defines it. The latter is also tive principle means classifying them according to the the basic motive for the travel of the business tourist, differenttypesofbusinessmeetings(Swarbrooke& and the basic motive of the meeting planner (organ- Horner, 2001), such as congress destination, incen- iser) for the organisation of the conference. Zhang et tive destination, or exhibition destination (Lu & Cai, al. (2007) view the core congress product in a similar 2009). way, arguing that the essential product of a conference A narrower understanding of a congress destina- is its programme. tion as a spatial entity means understanding a desti- The understanding of the attendance of a confer- nationasalocationwhereacongresswilltakeplace ence and destination is often associated with the un- (Rogers, 1998; Baloglu & Love, 2005; Millar & Kerr, derstanding of the motives and factors contributing to 2009; Shin, 2009; Del Chiappa, 2012). A destination is the decision to attend a conference and thus to visit defined in a broader sense by Swarbrooke and Horner the destination. In congress tourism, attendance as a (2001), who understand it as the central location or quantitative category is very often mentioned in rela- place of business travel with the purpose to attend a tion to the performance of either the meeting planner business meeting. At the same time, they point out the (organiser), supplier or the destination. The criteria we need to distinguish between the terms ‘congress des- see is either the number of attendees or, more often, tination’ and ‘congress venue,’ as a destination is to be the number of conferences held over a given period understood as an area, whereas a venue is to be seen as (Crouch & Ritchie, 1998; Nelson & Rys, 2000; Fawzy an independent unit of said area, meaning a ‘destina- &Samra,2008;Elston&Draper,2012).Intermsof tion’ is considered to be a broader term compared to content, attendance is a category that means attend- a ‘venue.’Nevertheless, we found quite a few examples ing a conference (Crouch & Ritchie, 1998; Rittichain- in literature where a congress venue is interpreted as a uwat et al., 2001; Comas & Moscardo, 2005; Petersen, destination (Robinson & Callan, 2005; Millar & Kerr, 2005; Robinson & Callan, 2005; Severt et al., 2009; 2009; Shin, 2009; Del Chiappa, 2012). Oral and Whit- Lee & Back, 2010; Tanford et al., 2012; Ramirez et al., field (2010) use the terms ‘macro-destination,’ which 2013), meaning that an attendee is understood as a includes the attributes of a broader destination, and person who attends the conference programme. Op- ‘micro-destination,’ including venue, accommodation permann and Chon (1997) already mentioned differ- and restaurant services. ent segments of meeting participants and the related To view the concept of a congress destination in a different activity of attending or visiting both the con- more complex manner, the destination should also be ference and the destination, so the attendance cate- understood as a space that provides suitable services gory can be understood in two manners. In a narrow and amenities for a business meeting. Literature thus sense, the attendance of a conference is understood most often mentions the concept of a congress destina- as the attendance of a conference participant in the tion as a space that acts as a host destination for the or- substantive program of the conference taking place ganisation of congresses (Oppermann & Chon, 1997; in a specific venue; more broadly, it also means visit- Rogers, 1998; Swarbrooke & Horner, 2001; Rogers, ing a congress destination. As authors (Oppermann & 2008). However, according to Davidson and Rogers Chon, 1997; Upchurch et al., 2000; Rittichainuwat et (2006), and Rogers (2008), a destination is also re- al., 2001; Tanford et al., 2012; Oral & Whitfield, 2010; ferred to as a combination of different attributes, fac- Del Chiappa, 2012) often point out destination attrac- tors, attractions, services and stakeholders in a specific tiveness attributes as important factors as well, atten- space or location. dance is understood in its broader meaning. Fundamental to the existence of a congress destina- As Getz and Page (2016) point out, researchers pay tion and congress tourism is the content of its services, considerable attention to questions about reasons and meaning congress-related products. The congress pro- motives for attending (visiting), loyalty, or attractive- gramme can be understood as the essence of a business ness attributes of attraction of a congress destination.
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We find that the authors were looking for models and understood in terms of physical accessibility, but also approaches that would provide the most comprehen- as an attribute of destination affordability (Nelson & sive answer and solutions that would give the meeting Rys, 2000). Other less frequently mentioned attributes planners and suppliers at the destination a competitive of destination attractiveness are out-of-congress facili- advantage and have a positive impact on the visit and ties, the image of the destination, security, professional experience of all destination stakeholders. DiPietro congress staff, local hospitality, attractions, local sup- et al. (2008) believe that the primary goal of meeting port and others. planners is to find a destination that meets the goals On the other hand, we were also interested in es- of the planned congress, as this is what the number of tablishing how the attributes of destination attractive- attendees will depend on. Breiter and Milman (2006, ness were evaluated from the point of view of the at- p. 1370), however, are convinced that ‘the destination tendee, that is, the one who was already perceived by where the congress will take place is important for a Var et al. (1985) as an important factor when decid- participant in deciding whether or not to attend’ Whit- ing to attend a conference and thus visit the destina- field et al. (2014) found that research usually includes tion.Inananalysisofselectedstudies,weestablished three most important directions, namely, research of that the most important attribute of attractiveness or the process of choosing a location or venue (Crouch motive for attending is the destination or conference &Louviere,2004;Robinson&Callan,2005;Fawzy& location; Mair and Thompson (2009) are in fact con- Samra, 2008); research of the attractions of the desti- vinced this is one of the most important attributes, nation or venue for the participant (Breiter & Milman, with accessibility and attractiveness being at the fore- 2006; Whitfield & Weber, 2011; Weber & Chon, 2002), front. It is closely related to the dimensions of acces- or research of the congress destination image (Op- sibility and attraction of a destination, which are, as permann, 1996b; Baloglu & Love, 2005). Considerable a redefinition of the Oppermann-Chon model (1997), research has also been dedicated to satisfaction and supported by Zhang et al. (2007). The dimension of loyalty to the destination (Choi, 2005; Lu & Cai, 2009; accessibility is often expressed by the distance to the Lee & Back, 2010; Tanford et al., 2012). host destination, the travel time, and transport con- The analysis of the selected papers of research on nections, as well as the formalities that need to be ar- destination attractiveness attributes from the point ranged to enter the country, whereas the dimension of of view of the meeting planner shows that they are attraction is expressed with the image of the destina- most often associated with the attributes of accom- tion, its climate, the hospitality of the locals, and the modation and congress venue capacity, as they ap- culinary and leisure selection at the destination, as well pear in all research. Hotel and venue services are of- as the past experience of an individual. According to ten considered simultaneously, confirming the pro- Jago and Deery (2005), the attractiveness of a desti- fessional practice that most congresses take place in nation is also an important element for meeting plan- hotels (Rogers, 2008; Robinson & Callan, 2005). In ners, who, as a result of its attractiveness, attract more terms of frequency, following immediately behind is visitors at the conference and thus higher revenue. In the cost/expense aspect, especially the costs within terms of content, the destination is also associated with the destination, the cost of the venue and the accom- its image, environment and climate and, ultimately, its modation. Attributes related to the attractiveness of reputation (Whitfield et al., 2014). As emphasised by congress halls ranked third in terms of frequency, with Rittichainuwat et al. (2001) and Whitfield et al. (2014), the capacity and services provided being the leading the opportunity to visit a destination is not to be ne- attributes. Destination attributes are very often associ- glected as an additional form of motivation to visit. ated with the accessibility of the destination itself; only One of the most common attributes is the attractive- four of the studies analysed do not mention accessi- ness of the content or the conference program. This bility as such (Edelstein & Benini, 1994; Robinson & is closely linked to the attributes of networking and Callan, 2002). The accessibility attribute is not always professional development, career opportunities, vali-
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dation and reputation in the profession, and personal advancement (Rittichainuwat et al., 2001; Lee & Back, Conference 2008; Yoo & Chon, 2008; Mair & Thompson, 2009; attributes Shin,2009;Whitfieldetal.,2014). Another important attractiveness attribute is the cost of attending a conference at a destination, in par- ticular the amount of registration fees, transportation Congress and accommodation (authors). Important attributes destination that attendees think of are also those that may lead visit them not to attend the conference, and were referred to as ‘intervening opportunities’ by Oppermann and Destination Venue attributes attributes Chon (1997, p. 186). These may be more attractive con- ferences with more prominent key-note speakers, or thosetakingplaceatthesametime,asnotedbyMair andThompson(2009).Authorsalsoclassifyinthis Figure 1 Multi-Dimensional Construct of Congress same group the overlaps with the holidays of an indi- Destination Visit vidual (Oppermann & Chon, 1997; Zhang et al., 2007; Mair & Thompson, 2009), whereas some also include the health of the individual (Rittichainuwat et al., 2001; already pointed out that the common goal of both the Mair & Thompson, 2009) or overlaps with other con- associations (organisers) and the host destination of- ferences in this category (Mair & Thompson, 2009), fering congress services, is maximizing the number especially as it is often pointed out that participants are of conference attendees. Our way of thinking is sup- ‘time-poor’ (Jago & Deery, 2005; Yoo & Chon, 2008). ported by the findings of some authors (Oppermann An overview of research shows that the content & Chon, 1997; Jago & Deery, 2005; Yoo in Chon, 2010; representation of individual attractiveness attributes is Whitfield et al., 2014), who state that the factors and at- very diverse and structured differently. We found that, tributes of a congress destination should be evaluated in terms of meaning, they could be split into multiple from different perspectives. dimensions, such as destination, conference/content, The main purpose of business travel is precisely and venue attributes. Whitfield et al. (2014) also noted to travel to a destination for business interests, where that attractiveness attributes could be divided into des- business travellers meet as part of the event by attend- tination attributes, event attributes, and facilities at- ing a congress (event) held at a congress venue at the tributes. congress destination. On this basis, we assume that We found that in the research done so far, the the visit of the congress destination is the result of a biggest gap can be seen in the approach when con- combination of three factors – destination, venue, and sidering the attributes of destination attractiveness. the conference (event) – and introduce a multidimen- Firstly, there is no approach that would simultane- sional congress destination visit construct consisting ously check the willingness to visit a congress desti- of the group of destination attractiveness attributes, nation through the various groups of attractiveness the group of conference attractiveness attributes, and attributes that are typical of a congress destination. the group of venue attractiveness attributes. Secondly, there is no approach that would verify the attributes of attractiveness based on the opinions of Methodology the supply-side of business tourism as a whole, as it is Thepurposeoftheresearchistofindthosefactors composed of meeting planners (buyers), suppliers, in- of attractiveness of a congress destination that service termediaries, and special agencies as defined by Swar- providers and organisers of business meetings con- brooke and Horner (2001), although Var et al. (1985) sider to be important in choosing a congress desti-
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nation. We designed a multidimensional construct of trade secret of suppliers. Robinson and Callan (2002) congress destination attractiveness as a starting point encountered the same dilemma of determining the for empirical research. The necessity for designing population of meeting planners, where they reported a multidimensional construct was also based on the on the absence of a central client list. The sample of opinion of the authors of Whitfield et al. (2014), who meeting planners includes those who organised asso- propose to address the attractiveness attributes on sev- ciation meetings at least in the last year, or are suppli- eral levels. ers of congress services in the territory of Slovenia. We Based on the substantive analysis of the literature obtained their addresses based on our own research; we incorporated different aspects in each group of at- part of the meeting planners’ addresses were obtained tractiveness attributes within the construct, and iden- with the help of pcos, cvbs and dmcs. The ques- tified them with individual elements. The group of tionnaire was sent to 1558 addresses. destination attributes thus included destination acces- The introductory part of the questionnaire was sibility, attractiveness, services and conditions at the aimed at obtaining data on the profile of the respon- destination, as well as the reputation of the destina- dent with closed-ended questions. The central part tion. The ones we classified as venue attributes include was substantive in nature, and was divided into three venue services, accommodation, type of venue, venue sets of statements, separated into: destination attri- accessibility, congress hall features, and venue reputa- butes, conference attributes, and venue attributes. tion. The elements of the group of attractiveness at- Surveys were conducted over a three-week period tributes include business opportunities, networking, using the online survey technique using the 1ka web intervening opportunities, the content of the confer- application. After three weeks of surveying, after hav- ence and its reputation. ing exhausted the willingness of respondents to partic- The multidimensionality of the construct of con- ipate, we received 171 returned questionnaires, which gress destination attractiveness was tested using Ex- represents a 10.8 response rate. Out of 171 question- ploratory Factor Analysis (efa). In general, factor naires received, 49 were excluded as ineligible for fur- analysis is used to analyse phenomena that cannot be ther analysis due to the excessive number of miss- directly measured. The purpose of exploratory factor ing answers. Thus, 122 survey questionnaires were in- analysis was to identify relevant factors by individual cluded in the analysis. The data were analysed using attractiveness groups. Given the relatively large num- spss version 22. ber of researched attributes, dictated by the complexity of the case under study, factor analysis was performed Results separately for individual attribute groups. Sample Profile Out of the 122 respondents, 75 were women, and 25 Research Sample and Instrument were men. Their age structure indicates that most of The research sample consisted of organisations on them are in their work intensive period: 35 are be- the supply-side of business tourism in Slovenia. Their tween 31 and 40 years old, 27 are between 41 and 50, number can roughly be estimated based on the results 26ofpeopleinthesampleareover51,whileatleast of the Congress Capacity Study of Slovenia (Sikošek 11 are in the 18–30 age group. Nearly half (46) of et al., 2014). Congress venue suppliers account for the respondents have a college or university degree, fol- largest number, estimated at 208 in the research; there lowed by those with a postgraduate degree (18), and are far fewer other supply-side organisations, such only2haveahighschooldegree,andnoonehasonly as professional congress organisers (pcos), destina- aprimaryschooleducation. tion management companies (dmcs), incentive travel The results also show that the respondents have agencies, convention visitors bureaus (cvbs), carri- extensive work experience in the organisation where ers, caterers, and event agencies. It is difficult to esti- they are currently employed: the largest proportion of matethevolumeofmeetingplanners,asitisusuallya respondents have more than ten years of experience,
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Table 1 Working Time (Period of Employment) Table 3 Type of Supply-Side Organisation of Respondents in the Current Organisation Type f Period of employment (in years) f Meeting planner (‘buyer’) . No answer . Science/research institution . Up to year . Venue . More than year up to years . cvb/dmo . More than years up to years . pco . More than years up to years . dmc, incentive, teambuilding services . More than years . Other . Total .
Table 2 Current Position of the Respondents On average, they stated 1.3. The structure of supply- in the Working Organisation side organisations indicates that a considerable pro- portion of survey participants were meeting planners, Job position f as in 36.2 of cases, the respondents stated that they Middle management position . were either clients or organisers of the meetings (Table Upper/high management position . 3). More than a quarter (26.7) of respondents work Researcher, professor, teacher . in a scientific research institution, and these are of- Congress management . ten meeting planners. Slightly fewer (25.9) are venue Marketing, sales . suppliers, who, however, stated that they were repre- Other . sentatives of a hotel with conference facilities (n =14), a congress hotel (n = 5), a congress or exhibition centre No answer . (n =4),oraspecialvenue(n = 1). Total . Further on, we were also interested in how many conferences are organised by the respondents. Half of and almost a quarter have between five and ten years them stated that their organisation organises up to five of work experience in the meetings industry. Other re- conferences annually, and just under a fifth (18.0) be- searchers (Baloglu & Love, 2005) provided similar re- tween 6 to 10 conferences. More than a tenth of the sults. participating organisations (11.5) organise from 11 to Mostofthesupply-sideorganisations surveyed 30 conferences, 5.7 organise from 31 to 50, and a tenth (22.1) hold a leading position, such as area manager. (10.7) of them organise more than 50. For 4.1 of re- Those in managerial positions, such as directors, ac- spondents we were unable to obtain this information. count for 16.4. Researchers, professors and teachers account for 15.6 (Table 1). There are 13.9 of employ- Factor Analysis Results ees in congress management, such as organisation, ad- Considering that a similar multidimensional attribute ministration, technical service, etc., while a slightly model for the attractiveness of the congress destina- lower percentage is employed in marketing and sales tion with three groups of factors has not yet been (12.3). For 13 of the service providers, we were not constructed, it was necessary to form a set of state- able to obtain data on their workplaces. ments related to each group of attributes for the pur- In identifying the specifics of the sample, we were pose of this research. We thus classified the statements also interested in the type of supplier. Respondents had into three groups. Due to the complexity of the stud- the possibility to answer several questions at once, as ied problem, we decided to perform a separate factor practice shows that each supplier could perform sev- analysis for each group. The statements were checked eral activities simultaneously (e.g. venue and pco). the same way in each group: with a Likert-type scale,
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where the respondents rated agreement with each destination as the place where the conference is organ- statement, where a score of 1 meant they ‘completely ised refers to the reputation of the place, the attractions disagree,’ a score of 2 meant they ‘disagree,’ a score of the destination, its accessibility and leisure activities of 3 meant they ‘partially agree,’ a score of 4 meant available at the destination. they ‘agree’ and a score of 5 meant they ‘strongly agree.’ Thefirstfactoristheonethatexplainsthelargest We deliberately formed some statements with a nega- proportion of the total variance, namely 16.2. Ac- tive meaning. In this case, we reversed the rating scale cording to the content of individual variables, which so that the higher value was always associated with a stand for the general characteristics of the place where stronger agreement with the importance of the item the conference is organised, we named this factor rep- beingevaluated.Wemarkedsuchelementswith(R). utation. It is most strongly defined by the destination security variable, followed by the attitude of the locals Destination Attractiveness Attributes towards the conference guests and the development In the final model 13 of the original 19 statements were of local infrastructure. According to the suppliers, the used. The adequacy of variable inclusion in the final reputation of the destination is also indicated by the factor model was verified by kmo statistics; its value good opinion of the professional public about the des- amounted to 0.74, which indicates the median suitabil- tination, which facilitates the decision to organise the ity of the data (kmo > 0.7) for further factor analysis. conference at the destination itself, and is also a result The adequacy of the data to obtain the final factor so- of a stimulating economic environment. lution is further confirmed by Bartlett’s test of spheric- The second factor was associated with attractions, ity (p = 0.0). The eigenvalue diagram showed one and it accounts for 12.9 of the total variance. It is de- more prominent factor and three slightly less promi- termined by the culinary selection of the destination, nent ones. The results therefore show that the opin- the sights at the destination and the favorable climatic ions of the surveyed suppliers regarding the attractive- conditions. ness attributes of the destination can be explained by The third factor, which accounts for 12.2 of the four common factors, all of which together account for total variability, is the factor related to the accessibility 53.3 of the total variance explained, which is an ac- of the destination, in which case its attractiveness is ceptable value. To obtain a clearerstructure ofthe final reduced by a great distance from the original destina- solution, we carried out a rotation using the varimax tion, which is usually associated with high transporta- method. The final factor solution is shown in Table tion costs to the host destination. Last but not least, a 4. To achieve better clarity, only those factor loadings destination may be less accessible and thus, according that show a significant impact are shown (<–0.3 or to the service providers, also less attractive due to the >0.3). We added the calculated proportion of the total time-consuming arrangement of formalities to enter variance explained to the structure of factor loadings, the country. as well as Cronbach’s coefficient of reliability of an in- The fourth factor is associated with leisure activities dividual factor, which ranges between 0.74 and 0.77 at the destination, which accounts for 12 of the total in the case of three factors, which is considered very variance. The result is almost somewhat surprising, good, whereas for the fourth, 0.83 indicates exemplary as organisers have not paid much attention to ‘non- reliability. congress’ activities so far. It is true, however, that such The results of the factor analysis showed that a total activities are becoming increasingly more attractive of four factors can determine attractiveness. Accord- for the organisation of the conference at the destina- ing to the respondents, these are the factors that are tion. important in choosing a host destination for the or- ganisation of the conference, and thus for attracting Venue Attractiveness Attributes potential visitors to the destination. According to the The final factor solution retained ten variables out of a suppliers, the evaluation of the attractiveness of the total of 22 originally included. The kmo statistic value
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Table 4 Rotated Factor Solution: Destination Attributes Item (variable) () () () () When organising a conference, it is better if a destination is considered safe. . It is better to have locals with a positive attitude towards guests (they are hospitable, kind, . fluent in foreign languages) when organising a conference. When organising a conference, it is better if a destination has a well-developed local . infrastructure. If the professional public (journals, online journals, professional associations, social . networks) has a positive opinion about a destination, the decision for organising a conference is faster, easier. It is important that the economic environment of a destination is encouraging. . It is important that a destination has a well-developed culinary offer. . When deciding to organise a conference, it is important for a destination to offer tourist sites . and attractions. Favourable climate/weather conditions at a destination facilitate opting for the organisation . of a conference. Remoteness of a destination makes it less attractive for organising a conference there. . High transport costs make a destination less attractive for organising a conference there. . Time-consuming arrangement of formalities when entering a country (obtaining visas, . procedures at crossing borders) makes a destination less attractive for organising a conference there. When deciding whether to organise a conference, it is irrelevant whether a destination offers . good possibilities for shopping. When deciding whether to organise a conference, it is irrelevant whether a destination offers . a variety of leisure activities (night clubs, bars, theatres, . . .). Total variance explained () . . . . Reliability Coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) . . . . Notes Factors: (1) reputation, (2) attractions, (3) accessibility, (4) leisure activities. amounts to 0.81, which means it is estimated as suit- first one, which can be estimated as good reliability, able to be included in the model. The adequacy of whereas for the other two factors, the value is 0.66 for the data to obtain the final factor solution is further the second and 0.67 for the third factor, which can be proven by Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p =0.0).Inesti- estimated as moderate reliability (Nunally, 1978). mating the proportion of total variance explained, we The first factor, which accounts for 18.1 of the found that a total of three factors account for 44.4 variability in the sample, is the organisation of the of the total variability in the sample. The final factor venue, which can be associated with the professional solution was formulated by three common factors and work of the staff at the venue, as well as the efficiency of is presented in Table 5. To achieve better clarity, only the registration process and the speed of entry or exit those factor loadings that show a significant impact fromthevenue,andlastbutnotleast,theadequatear- are shown (<–0.3 or >0.3). The calculated proportion rangement of conference facilities, such as their clear of the total variance explained and the Cronbach’s al- labelling. Ensuring security is also one of the parame- pha were added to the structure of factor loadings for ters of the organisation of the venue. each individual factor. This amounts to 0.70 for the The share of the total variance explained for the
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Table 5 Rotated Factor Solution: Venue Attributes Item (variable) () () () Itisexpectedofthestaffatthevenuetobeprofessional. . It is expected that a venue offers a possibility to organise an effective registration process and afast . entrance to/exit from the venue. A pleasant atmosphere at a venue is not important. . It is not important that a venue offers additional services, for example the possibility to use their . offices, wardrobes, carrying as well as storing of materials and similar. When organising a conference, it is important to have an appropriate number of hotel rooms . (rooms for accommodation) with respect to the size of the conference. It is important that a venue offers good connections for local transport. . It is better if accommodation is as close as possible to the conference venue (facilities in which the . conference takes place). The size and number of halls have to be appropriate for the size of a conference (the number of . attendees). Conference facilities at a venue must be appropriately organised (markings, interior design, toilet . facilities). Safety at a venue is important. . Total variance explained () . . . Reliability Coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) . . . Notes Factors: (1) organisation, (2) infrastructure, (3) additional services. second factor amounts to 13.8, and is associated with refers to elements that facilitate the organisation of the the infrastructural arrangement of the venue. It is de- conference and include those venue services that typi- fined by variables relating to conference facilities as cally represent the ‘invisible’ hand of the organisation. such on the one hand, and to accommodation on the Infact,theresultsshowthatthisreferstoapleasant other. Conference facilities at the venue should have an atmosphere created by the venue and a variable that appropriate ratio between the size and number of halls reflects the technical nature of the organisation, such and the volume of the conference, which undoubtedly asthepossibilitytouseanoffice,changingrooms,and facilitates its organisation. The results also show that material storage facilities. the infrastructure arrangement of the venue is deter- mined by its distance to local connections. It is not Conference Attractiveness Attributes surprising that accommodation can be linked to the After a substantive analysis, we decided to include 12 venue, as we established both in theory and in practice variables in the final solution. The relevance of in- that the venue and accommodation are often linked clusion is confirmed by kmo statistics, amounting to together in a meaningful whole. The characteristics of 0.793, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p = 0.00). The the individual variables that are linked within the fac- assessment of the total variance explained and the tor of infrastructure lead us to think that these are the eigenvalue of the individual factors showed that the characteristics of the venue that facilitate the organi- attractiveness of the conference can be explained by sation of the conference. four factors, their total variance being 58.2. The fi- A somewhat smaller proportion of the total vari- nal factor solution after rotation is shown in Table 6. ance explained (12.4) is associated with the third fac- The calculation of the reliability coefficient indicates tor, which is related to additional venue services. It exemplary reliability in the opportunity factor (0.83),
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whereas the reliability in the reputation and network- Findings and Discussion ing factors is very good (0.79 and 0.78 respectively). In Our starting hypothesis is based on the realization that terms of the content factor, the Cronbach’s coefficient visiting a congress destination is possible due to the in the amount of 0.60 is at the border of moderate existence of attractiveness of the congress destination, reliability. which is not a unique construct, but is defined by three The factor loadings matrix shows that the first fac- groups of attractiveness attributes that arise from the torisdefinedbyfourvariables.Thisisrelatedtocon- necessity for the existence of three fundamental com- ference opportunities and accounts for 18.5 of vari- ponents of a congress destination: attractiveness of the ability in the sample. From the organisers’ point of destination as a place, attractiveness of the venue and view, the opportunity factor should be understood attractiveness of the conference. We examined it using primarily as creating an opportunity for the attendee, the results of exploratory factor analysis by individual and thus fulfilling the basic mission of the confer- groups of attractiveness of a congress destination. The ence, which is primarily meant to be a place for busi- summary of results is shown in Table 7. ness meetings between individuals. From a service The results show that destination attractiveness is provider’s perspective, conference opportunities are determined by the reputation of the destination, the those that allow for the exchange of experience, the attractions at the destination, accessibility to the des- search for new opportunities and contacts, and the ac- tination and leisure activities at the destination, char- quisition of knowledge, and ultimately an opportunity acterized by 13 variables. Cronbach’s coefficient values to meet experts. for these factors express very good or exemplary reli- The second factor, accounting for 15.2 of the total ability, as they range between 0.74 and 0.83, indicating variance explained, was the factor associated with the that individual dimensions of destination attractive- reputation of the conference, which is determined by ness on the service provider’s end define the construct exactly the same variables as we had anticipated in the appropriately. design phase of the survey. Reputation is a conference According to the results of the analysis, the attrac- factor that relates to the opinion of the external pub- tiveness of the venue is linked with the organisation lic. This is the opinion that former attendees and the of the venue, the infrastructure and the additional ser- professional public have of the conference, and pos- vices of the venue, characterised by a total of 10 vari- itive past experiences of the attendees with the con- ables. Considering the values of the reliability coeffi- ference, which should contribute to the efforts of sup- cient, which ranges from 0.66 to 0.70, we can sum- pliers to optimize the organisation of the conference, marise that they indicate appropriate result character- which can lead to better opportunities in conference istics, meaning the individual dimensions of venue at- selection and attendance. tractiveness on the part of the providers define the The third factor, which accounts for 13.2 of sam- measured construct with adequate reliability. ple variability, is associated with networking. It is The analysis has shown that conference attractive- linked with opportunities to find new business part- ness can be defined by a total of four factors, includ- ners and meet existing ones. ing conference opportunities, the reputation of the The fourth factor of conference attractiveness is conference, networking and the substantive aspect associated with conference content, and accounts for of the conference, which is described by 12 variables. 11.3 of the variability in the sample. According to the Cronbach’s coefficient values for each individual factor suppliers, the content of the conference is most de- range between 0.83 and 0.60, which indicates a good termined by interesting contributions or content ap- reliability of the conference attractiveness construct. pearing in the conference program, especially if they The results of exploratory factor analysis are only represent something original in comparison to pre- partially in line with the anticipated theoretical con- vious conferences, and by the presence of prominent cepts, as it was set out at the beginning of the study speakers at the conference. that the attractiveness of a destination would consist
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Table 6 Rotated Factor Solution: Conference Attributes Item (variable) () () () () Attending a conference is a great opportunity for participants to share experience. . Attending a conference is a great opportunity for seeking new possibilities (markets, . research, companies, cooperations etc.) and contacts. Attending a conference is a great opportunity for participants to obtain new knowledge. . Attending a conference is a great opportunity for participants to meet specialists within . their field. It is important for organisation that past participants have a positive opinion about . aconference. It is important for organisation that the professional public (journals, online journals, . professional associations, social networks) has a positive opinion about a conference. If participants have had a good experience with a conference, it is easier for them to decide . to attend it. Attending a conference is a great opportunity for participants to search for new business . partners. Attending a conference is a great opportunity for participants to meet business partners. . If the programme, content of a conference represents a novelty with regard to the previous . ones, it is easier/faster to get participants to attend a conference. Interesting contributions (topics) in the programme increase the number of participants . at a conference. Thepresenceofrespectablespeakersinsideafieldincreasesthenumberofparticipants . at a conference. Total variance explained () . . . . Reliability Coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) . . . . Notes Factors: (1) opportunity, (2) reputation, (3) networking, (4) content. of four factors (accessibility, attraction, services and nation attractiveness construct, defined by destination conditions at the destination, reputation of the des- attractiveness, venue attractiveness, and conference tination) and five factors of venue attractiveness (ac- attractiveness, as it turned out that there are a total of cessibility, accommodation, special conference facili- 11 dimensions defining it. These are the factors that ties, venue services, accommodation and reputation) are important in choosing a congress destination, and and conference attractiveness (business opportunities, thus for attracting potential visitors to the destination. networking, intervening opportunities, content and The results also indicate that it would be difficult to reputation). The research shows that attractiveness separately consider the different items of attractive- factors are shaped differently by individual attractive- ness of a congress destination as a factor in visiting, ness groups. We identified a total of 11 attractiveness and they should therefore be considered as a compre- dimensions, which are described by a total of 34 ele- hensive concept, which, given their multidimensional ments, and are classified within three groups of attrac- nature, dictates the simultaneous consideration of all tiveness. aspects of attractiveness. The results of exploratory factor analysis conducted Based on the results of the analysis, our thesis can between suppliers and meeting planners undoubtedly be confirmed, as it turned out that it is possible to de- indicate the multidimensionality of the congress desti- termine 11 attractiveness dimensions within individ-
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Table 7 Summary of Results of Exploratory Factor Analysis by Individual Dimensions Category Item α Dimension Destination Reputation . Safety of the destination Positive attitude of locals Well-developed local infrastructure A positive opinion of the professional public Encouraging economic environment Attractions . Well-developed culinary offer Offering tourist sites and attractions Favourable climate/weather conditions Accessibility . Remoteness of a destination High transport costs Time-consuming arrangement of formalities Leisure activities . Shopping A variety of leisure activities Venue Organisation . Professional venue staff Effective registration process Appropriately organised conference facilities Safety at a venue Infrastructure . Good connections with local transport Appropriateness of the size and number of halls Vicinity of accommodation Appropriate number of hotel rooms with respect to the size of the conf. Additional services . Pleasant atmosphere Technical services Continued on the next page ual congress destination attractiveness groups, which tiveness of a congress destination a multidimensional points to the multidimensionality of the congress des- character. The congress destination thus cannot be un- tination attractiveness construct. derstood as an individual entity, but as a managerial and organisational compound of different stakeholder Conclusion groups, which nevertheless want to accomplish a com- This paper highlights the multidimensionality of ad- mon goal: to hold the conference as its core product, dressing the attractiveness of a congress destination, taking into account the attributes of attractiveness that and points out the need to address it in a comprehen- determine both the conference and the venue where sive manner and, ultimately, to interpret the attrac- it takes place, and considering the attributes of attrac- tiveness of a congress destination as a factor in visit- tiveness of the destination acting as the host location ing. It was established that it would be difficult to ad- for the conference. dress individual attributes of attractiveness separately The novelty of the research lies in the changed, or as an individual entity, but must be viewed in the more comprehensive view of the attractiveness of the light of complementarity that gives the items of attrac- congress destination, which arises from the three con-
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Table 7 Continued from the previous page Category Item α Dimension Conference Opportunities . Sharing experiences Seeking new possibilities Obtaining new knowledge Meeting specialists within the professional field Reputation . Positive opinion of past participants Positive opinion of professional public Good past experiencies Networking . Searching for new business partners Meeting existing business partners Content . Novelty of the content Interesting topics The presence of respectable speakers
ceptual cores or ingredients required in organising a changed view of the things that make it attractive, the conference: the attractiveness of the destination which requires the construction of a new model, mea- as a host destination, the attractiveness of the venue suring instrument, and its verification. In addition to as the location where the conference is held, and the designing a new, multidimensional construct of attrac- attractiveness of the conference as the core product. tiveness of a congress destination, our view of under- The research is based on the thinking of Whitfield standing the offer on the congress market as a sample et al. (2014), who argue that the attractiveness of a on which we tested the model, has also changed. Based congress destination should be considered in the con- on the model first developed by Oppermann and Chon text of three different, but interacting levels. This way, (1997), which is also supported by the recommenda- through the construction of a new model and with a tions of unwto (United Nations World Tourism Or- newly designed measuring instrument, we tested and ganization,2016),wealsoincludedsuppliersaswell confirmed the multidimensionality of addressing the as meeting planners. These two groups are in fact the attractiveness of a congress destination. ones which organise the conference with the aim of The restriction of the research is certainly the fact attracting as many attendees as possible, as Var et al. that it was conducted on the territory of Slovenia and (1985) were among the first to point out. onthesampleoftheassociationsegment,sowewere The research possibilities are presented in the fol- limitedtotheSlovenianmarketofassociationconfer- lowing parts of the paper using a developed measur- ences. By expanding the research into a region, such as ing instrument on the example of individual congress Southeastern Europe as an important congress desti- destinations, and on the example of conference and nation, we could get a different view of the researched business meeting types. This would make it possible to case. Due to the complexity of the model tested, an- also gain insight into the special preferences leading to other restriction was that the research does not in- the choice of a congress destination for different, spe- clude members of international congress committees cific segments of congress participants within the as- that decide on the destination at transnational level, as sociation market that our research was aimed at, and highlighted by Crouch et al. (2019). to confront them with the guidelines that organisers It is, however, definitely a contribution to address- and suppliers follow when organising business meet- ing the attractiveness of a congress destination with ings. In the light of determining the attractiveness of
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a congress destination in a multidimensional model, DiPietro, R. B., Breiter, D., Rompf, P., & Godlewska, M. itwouldalsobereasonabletoexplorethespecificsof (2008). An exploratory study of differences among meet- smaller destinations. ing and exhibition planners in their destination selection Finally, the proposed construct of congress desti- criteria. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 9(4), nation attractiveness could be applied to other types 258–276. Edelstein, L. G., & Benini, C. (1994). Meeting market report of events as well, because, as Getz and Page (2016) ex- 1994. Meetings & Conventions, 29(9), 60–62. plain it, business events are one of the specific types Elston,K.,&Draper,J.(2012).Areviewofmeetingplanner of planned events in addition to sport events, fes- site selection criteria research. Journal of Convention & tivals and other cultural events, and entertainment Event Tourism, 13(3), 203–220. events. By appropriately modifying the measuring in- Getz,D.,&Page,S.J.(2016).Progressandprospectsforevent strument, the existing construct would thus be tested tourism research. Tourism Management, 52, 593–631. on other types of events and at different destinations, Jago,L.K.,&Deery,M.(2005).Relationshipsandfactorsin- which would contribute to a broader understanding fluencing convention decision–making. Journal of Con- of the attractiveness of different types of events. vention & Event Tourism, 7(1), 23–41. Lee,J.S.,&Back,K.J.(2010).Reexaminationofattendee- References based brand equity. Tourism Management, 31(3), 395– 401. Baloglu,S.,&Love,C.(2005).Associationmeetingplanners’ perceptions and intentions for five major us convention Lu,Y.,&Cai,L.A.(2009).Analysis of image and loyalty for cities: The structured and unstructured images. Tourism exhibitions and host destinations. Scholarworks. http:// Management, 26(5), 743–752. scholarworks.umass.edu/refereed/Sessions/Saturday/15/ Breiter, D., & Milman, A. (2006). Attendees’ needs and ser- Mair, J., & Thompson, K. (2009). The uk association con- vice priorities in a large convention center: Application ference attendance decision-making process. Tourism of the importance-performance theory. Tourism Man- Management, 30(3), 400–409. agement, 27(6), 1364–1370. Millar, M., & Kerr, G. M. (2009). Conventions held by associ- Choi, J. J. (2005). Factors influencing state association plan- ations: A case study of buyers and suppliers in an emerg- ners’ overall satisfaction with a convention experience. ing conference destination. In J. Carlsen, M. Hughes, K. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 6(4), 65–80. Holmes, & R. Jones (Eds.), Proceedings of the 18th An- Comas,M.,&Moscardo,G.(2005).Understandingassoci- nual cauthe Conference (pp. 1–20). Curtin University ations and their conference decision-making processes. of Technology. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 7(3/4), 117–138. Nelson, R., & Rys, S. (2000). Convention site selection crite- Crouch, G. I., & Brent Ritchie, J. R. (1998). Convention ria relevant to secondary convention destinations. Jour- site selection research: A review, conceptual model, and nal of Convention & Exhibition Management, 2(2–3), 71– propositional framework. Journal of Convention & Exhi- 82. bition Management, 1(1), 49–69. Oppermann, M. (1996a). Convention cities: Images and Crouch, G. I., & Louviere, J. J. (2004). The determinants of changing fortunes. Journal of Tourism Studies, 7(1), 10– convention site selection: A logistic choice model from 19. experimental data. JournalofTravelResearch,43(2), 118– Oppermann, M. (1996b). Convention destination images: 130. Analysis of association meeting planners’ perceptions. Crouch, G. I., Del Chiappa, G., & Perdue, R. R. (2019). Inter- Tourism management, 17(3), 175–182. national convention tourism. Tourism Management, 71, Oppermann,M.,&Chon,K.S.(1997).Conventionpartici- 530–542. pation decision-making process. Annals of Tourism Re- Davidson, R., & Rogers, T. (2006). Marketing destinations search, 24(1), 178–191. and venues for conferences, conventions and business Oral,J.,&Whitfield,J.(2010).TheNorthCyprusconference events. Routledge. sector: Establishing a competitive advantage. Tourism DelChiappa,G.(2012).Howdomeetingorganiserschoose Analysis, 15(4), 411–424. convention sites based on different types of meetings? Petersen, D. C. (2005). The city as a destination: Measur- An empirical analysis of the Italian meetings industry. ing its attractiveness. Journal of Convention & Event Event Management, 16(2), 157–170. Tourism, 6(1/2), 145–157.
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Ramirez,D.,Laing,J.,&Mair,J.(2013).Exploringinten- Tanford, S., Montgomery, R., & Nelson, K. B. (2012). Fac- tions to attend a convention: A gender perspective. Event tors that influence attendance, satisfaction, and loyalty Management, 17(2), 165–178. for conventions. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, Rittichainuwat,B.N.,Beck,J.A.,&Lalopa,J.(2001).Under- 13(4), 290–318. standing motivations, inhibitors, and facilitators of asso- The Global Association of the Exhibition Industry. (2016). ciation members in attending international conferences. Global exhibition barometer: A ufi report based on the Journal of Convention & Exhibition Management, 3(3), results of a survey conducted in december 2015. http:// 45–62. www.ufi.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/UFI-Global Robinson, L. S., & Callan, R. J. (2002). Professional uk con- _Exhibition_Barometer_report16b.pdf ference organizers’ perceptions of important selection United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2006). Mea- and quality attributes of the meetings product. Journal suring the economic importance of the meetings industry of Convention & Exhibition Management, 4(1), 1–17. – Developing a tourism satellite account extension. Robinson, L. S., & Callan, R. J. (2005). uk conference del- Upchurch,R.S.,Jeong,G.H.,Clements,C.,&Jung,I. egates’ cognizance of the importance of venue selection (2000). Meeting planners’ perceptions of site selection attributes. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 7(1), characteristics: The case of Seoul, Korea. Journal of Con- 77–95. vention & Exhibition Management, 2(1), 15–35. Rogers,T.(1998).Conferences: A twenty-first century indus- Var, T., Cesario, F., & Mauser, G. (1985). Convention tourism try. Adison Wesley Longman. modelling. Tourism Management, 6(3), 194–204. Rogers,T.(2008).Conferences and conventions: A global in- Weber,K.,&Chon,K.S.(2002).Convention tourism: Inter- dustry. Routledge. national research and industry perspectives. The Haworth Severt, K., Fjelstul, J., & Breiter, D. (2009). A comparison of Press. motivators and inhibitors for association meeting atten- Whitfield, J., & Webber, D. J. (2011). Which exhibition at- dance for three generational cohorts. Journal of Conven- tributes create repeat visitation? International Journal of tion & Event Tourism, 10(2), 105–119. Hospitality Management, 30(2), 439–447. Shin, Y.(2009). Examining the link between visitors’ motiva- Whitfield, J., Dioko, L. D. A., Webber, D., & Zhang, L. tions and convention destination image. Tourismos: An (2014). Attracting convention and exhibition attendance International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism, 4(2), to complex mice venues: Emerging data from Macao. 29–45. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(2), 169–179. Sikošek,M.,Bojnec,Š.,Fabjan,D.&UranMaravić,M. Yoo,J.J.E.,&Chon,K.(2008).Factorsaffectingconvention (2014). Obseg dejavnosti in neposredni ekonomski učinki participation decision-making: Developing a measure- kongresnega turizma v Sloveniji: primer Ljubljana. Javna ment scale. JournalofTravelResearch,47(1), 113–122. agencija spirit Slovenija. Zhang,H.Q.,Leung,V.,&Qu,H.(2007).Arefinedmodel Swarbrooke, J., & Horner, S. (2001). Business travel and of factors affecting convention participation decision- tourism. Butterworth-Heinemann. making. Tourism Management, 28(4), 1123–1127.
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Review Article
Integration of Quality, Continuous Improvement, and Innovation in Tourism: The QCII Model
Dejan Križaj University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia [email protected]
This article focuses on the search for intersections of quality management, continu- ous improvement systems, and innovation in the field of tourism. It contains intro- ductory theoretical insights in all three areas and (in the research section) considers professional media to find validation for theoretical starting points and further de- velopment guidelines, additionally obtained through examples of good practices and their following of key trends. Through connections between theories and practical examples, the basis for the links between sustainability, quality, improvements, and innovation in tourism are introduced, followed by the resulting qcii model for im- proving and innovating quality tourism offerings at the destination. The suggested model should be (spontaneously or through careful planning) evolved to follow the concepts of smart tourism, both in terms of new technologies and their balanced de- ployment, and in terms of the harmonisation of interests and connections between all components of the destination system. Keywords: quality, continuous improvement, innovation, smart tourism https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13.97-110
Introduction nal promotion of continuous improvement in the or- The answers to this paper’s questions (where does ganisation; and various approaches for external trans- the boundary lie between quality and innovation in parency and the involvement of stakeholders outside tourism and what is the related role of promoting con- the organisation in its processes of improvement and tinuous improvement?) are dealt with at three lev- innovation. The findings are summarised in three els: through a theoretical overview, a case analysis, schematic diagrams: one of the links between inno- and the proposal for the synthesis of findings in the vation, quality and sustainability, one of the links be- form of a model. The model suggests the roles of the tween quality, innovation, and continuous improve- tourist system’s stakeholders in improving and inno- ment, and a model for introducing these concepts into vating tourism processes and offerings. In the theoret- a tourist destination. The links in the diagram and the ical part, the areas of innovation, internal and external model are based on trends and values, streamlined aspects of quality, and related continuous improve- in the concept of smart tourism: a term that carries ment concepts are discussed. a double meaning related to smart technologies and In the analytical work, examples from practice ac- their smart usage. quired in professional media were used: the case of stimulating innovation in Slovenia at the national level Theory and in a large Slovenian tourist company; an exam- In a review of the various research stages of service in- pleofqualitymanagementinoneofthelargestin- novation, Coombs and Miles (2000) mention the stage ternational hotel corporations; a set of tools for inter- of synthesis in which it is possible to develop an inno-
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vation categorisation model that would be suitable for (oecd, 2005). The described two-dimensional ap- all economic sectors, including tourism. To achieve proaches (Križaj et al., 2014) can be summarised into this stage, the authors reduce the influence of the clas- two groups: content and appearance. The characteris- sical technological approach on measuring innova- tics of content define the type of innovation: product, tion, supported by (Camisón & Monfort-Mir, 2012), process, organisational, marketing and other related which argue that there are hidden and unexplored ways of describing the form of innovation. Features fields (also) in the field of innovation in tourism. The such as the incremental or radical level of innovation key field for them is innovation through organisational and the degree of impact define their appearance. learning based on internal (embodied) and external The ‘content’ of innovation is described by differ- (disembodied) knowledge. The former type of knowl- ent categorisation schemes. The ‘appearance’ of in- edge is the acquired experiences, skills, and technolo- novation is divided into its appearance within the gies that are owned by the company, while the latter company (as it was perceived within innovation and are various external sources for acquiring knowledge. what has changed within its boundaries) and outside With the help of both types, tourist companies im- the company (how innovation has been perceived by prove and innovate their intangible (and difficult-to- customers, suppliers and competitors, and what has quantify) services that they offer on the market and changed for this reason). In the field of project man- which address key added value(s) for their customers. agement and quality management, a similar role is There are many different approaches to measure- played by efficiency and effectiveness (Sundqvist et ment and more or less complex categorisations of in- al., 2014), the first in terms of finding optimal internal novation in tourism (Camisón & Monfort-Mir, 2012; configuration, i.e., the ‘content’ of the object of obser- Pikkemaat & Peters, 2005; Bieger & Weinert, 2006; vation, and the second in terms of its ability, external Hall & Williams, 2008; Hjalager, 2010). Although, ‘appearance.’ The quality domain focuses on a similar the two-core innovation model approaches the issue internal and external view of the (still) non-optimal with only two dimensions (Daft, 1978; oecd, 2005; objects, analyses diverse related human activities and Camisón & Monfort-Mir, 2012), the model focuses on looks for ways to better implement them and improve two key operational areas of each company: the tech- their results. nological core (technical part) and the administrative One of the fundamental approaches that attempt to core (social part). The technological/technical focus is identify key quality areas is the gaps approach (Para- usually divided by the development of new product- suramanetal.,1985;Kandampully,2007;Uran,2010). and process-related factors (Abernathy & Utterback, The proposed service quality model identifies its key 1978) and the analysis of the degree of innovation in- dimensions, its measurement, and the reasons for the troduced at the incremental-radical interval (Aber- problems in achieving quality. It focuses on external nathy & Clark, 1985; Damanpour, 1991; Hjalager, 2002). aspects (customer expectations, perception and expe- In the social/management field, the focus is on innova- rience of service) as well as internal ones (the opera- tions that change the social structure of the company, tion of devices and employees, their level of knowledge meaning changes of interactions with the internal and and skills, and their ability to manage, implement, re- external environment (Damanpour et al., 2009). spond and communicate). Another partly related approach to describing in- In tourism, service quality is a basic element of novation analyses the form of innovation and its im- tourism productivity (Sainaghi et al., 2017). The most pact on the system to which it belongs (Hall & Willi- critical role in tourism is played by employees who, ams, 2008). The form of innovation describes its com- during interactions with customers, have a decisive position, and the impact describes the degree of in- influence on the level of service quality, customer sat- fluence of innovation on a global, national, regional, isfaction, their loyalty and, consequently, the perfor- or sectoral level (Hall & Williams, 2008) or, according mance of the company (Schneider et al., 2005; Uran to the Oslo Manual definition, at the company level Maravić, 2016). For the implementation of high qual-
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ity and recognisable services, tourism companies must to achieve the desired quality of the offered products recognise their competitive advantages and key com- and services, and outwardly invisible business pro- petences that need to be constantly upgraded (Ţîţu cesses as well (Sujová & Marcineková, 2015). It is all et al., 2016). In addition to the internal analysis, it is about the quality of the goods sold and the appropri- essential to analyse customer satisfaction and other ate level of quality of all direct and indirect processes factors in the environment in which the company that take place in the company and which reach be- operates (Tasci, 2016). In the aforementioned ‘con- yond the classical (standardised) quality assurance, as tent/appearance’ relation, therefore, we can also refer they are directed towards an all-encompassing bal- to the ‘content’ of activities in the field of quality in anced and sustainable operation (Broman & Robèrt, tourism, with which we ensure such (higher) quality, 2017). as well as internal and external ‘aspects’ of such efforts. These guidelines are also being followed by newer versions of the already well-established approaches to Internal Aspects of Quality quality management and continuous improvement: Theinternalaspectsofservicequalityandgapsbe- Just in Time, Total Quality Management, Kaizen, Lean tween them are systematically addressed by the above- Manufacturing, Business Process Reengineering, Six mentioned model (Parasuraman et al., 1985) and its Sigma among others (Delgado et al., 2014). In addition later versions, which are discussed in later sections. to measuring the in-house characteristics of the pro- Prior to this, in the field of internal aspects of quality, cesses themselves and collecting suggestions for em- we should mention the concept of continuous improve- ployee improvements, these approaches are also more ment process (cip). One of the early works in this field or less actively focusing on the opinions of their cus- (Deming, 2000), published for the first time in 1982, tomers. One such example is a business process man- places the process of constant improvement in the core agement system based on the methodical processing activity of each organisation, where the feedback ob- of user feedback, the so-called Voice of the Customer tained from its processes and from its customers is (Pyon et al., 2011), which is a quantitative and quali- compared with the goals of the organisation and fur- tative marketing tool for the systematic and in-depth ther development steps are defined according to that. collection of feedback from customers about expecta- As part of the management and improvement of or- tions, desirable and unwanted characteristics, experi- ganisational systems, the concept of ‘Business Process ences and feelings related to the ‘content’ of the offer Management’ (bpm) is also used (Ko, 2009), in which and the ‘appearance’ of the company. Feedback is or- the emphasis is on tracking the hierarchy of processes ganised within a system in a hierarchical structure, in that bring added value rather than the social hierarchy line with the strategic priorities of the company. The of the organisation itself. processed information serves as a basis for all deci- bpm and similar quality management systems fo- sions on the further development and improvement of cus on business process analysis, identification, and internal processes. It is especially important that mem- measurement of their key performance indicators, and bers of the development department and production measures for continuous improvement and innova- staff be included throughout the process, from the col- tion. In such activities, which are derived primarily lection of feedback and their processing onward; that from conventional manufacturing companies, there is, internal and not only external marketing staff has is a danger of too much focus on exclusive processes to be included in the whole process (Pyon et al., 2011). and technology and their structuring, standardisation, and automation; especially when there is an increasing External Aspects of Quality number of creative, personalised, and complex service With the last example of the approach to internal processes involved (Brocke et al., 2016). It is important planning of business process improvements, we have to focus on the context of each such process (Brocke et switched to another, external quality perspective: the al., 2016) and to the appropriate choice of approaches perspective of the users of the business processes’ re-
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sults. Users opt for the services of the company if they (Wang et al., 2016), based on the conceptual founda- see value in them, whereas the value is difficult to tions of smart cities (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2015) understand with a uniquely manageable concept in a and the data networks used in them together with mo- globalised and fragmented offer, as well as in the abun- bile technologies, artificial intelligence, cloud comput- dance of increasingly diverse lifestyles (Tasci, 2016). ing, and the Internet of Things. Perhaps such inten- The usual variables that companies with which want sive integration of information technologies currently to master value include customers’ opinions about looks just like an overly pushy principle of sales pro- quality, satisfaction, trust, and price compliance. All motion, but as Buhalis and Law (2008) pointed out of these variables affect the first and continuing visits some ten years ago, more demanding tourists want of the tourist company and the tourist destination in to organise travel (at least in part) by themselves, are whichthecompanyislocated;thisissobefore(Kimet more impatient and informed, intensively compare al., 2011), during, and after the buying decision (Han the prices of competitive offerings, communicate more &Hyun,2015). intensivelywitheachother,sharenegativeandposi- As in all other service sectors, quality in tourism tive opinions in publicly accessible online places, and also has two main dimensions, the quality of the ser- also want instant access to any information, even dur- vice process, and the quality level of the provided ser- ing the trip. All this requires smarter tourism, smarter viceitself,thatis,thefinalmarketgoodsboughtbythe supply, and a smarter approach to ensure the adequate tourist, experienced and compared with pre-purchase quality of basic tourist services and the quality of many expectations (Butnaru et al., 2014). All this is measured new details that tourists require on the wave of cur- using various methodological approaches (servqual, rent information technology development and other servperf, sictqual, giqet, etc.), which are used trends. in various service sectors: health, education, banking, Avitalnewaspectofqualityis,forexample,in- telecommunications, sales, transport, delivery (But- formation quality and its impact on user satisfaction naru et al., 2014; Parasuraman et al., 1985; Zeithaml et (Ghasemaghaei & Hassanein, 2015), which is still be- al., 1990; Cid-López et al., 2015; Saraei & Amini, 2012). ing mostly discussed in theory and less in practice The main variables that are measured by serqual’s (Ghasemaghaei & Hassanein, 2016). However, already most established methodological approach are tangi- very present and influential is electronic word of mou- bility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empa- th (ewom) whose three main areas of influence (the thy (Zeithaml et al., 1990). content of such messages, the consequence of con- With the emergence of ubiquitous information tech- sumer behaviour, and the impact of published reviews nologies, not only the processes and businesses them- on the performance of companies (Kim & Canina, selves changed but also the cultural habits and value 2015) are already well researched both at the level systems of (potential) customers. New channels for of companies and destinations, and different tourist tourism companies and new channels for the flow segments (Abubakar & Ilkan, 2016). Still, more and of quality information are thus opened (Berne et al., more ingenious users and ever-smarter technologies 2012). Such new channels allow new ways of select- draw a thin line between when ewom is controlled ing and purchasing tourist services, enabling new ap- by tourism companies, and when ewom is control- proaches to the marketing and creating of new types ling them (Litvin et al., 2008). of demand. Therefore, Pearce (2008) suggests that old and new sales channels are to be intertwined and used Innovation as a network of opportunities that, in new ways, mea- The answer to the management of diverse (yet) un- sures, defines, and targets customer values and thus manageable situations lies in innovation: the search also affects perception and upgraded understanding for new and better solutions, which bring added value of quality. to the one who introduces or accepts these innovations One of the approaches to this is smart tourism (Rogers, 2003). The basic aspects of innovation and its
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two-dimensional content/appearance scopes were pre- ing transition to online environments, open innovation sented at the beginning of this paper. On the one hand, platforms (oip) have also emerged enabling searching we are therefore questioning what and how we are in- forthemissingparts(employees,knowledge,part- troducing, and on the other, what the appearance of ners, etc.) of the innovation process, and fostering that which was introduced through all the effects and partnerships and finding the necessary professionals. added values brought about by the innovation is. In By opening platforms for the general public and end- tourism, the key issue (in addition to the company’s users, there were opportunities for free trading with existence and well-being) is how to effectively tar- development solutions, organising development chal- get the values and needs of customers, i.e., tourists, lenges, voting for the best solutions, among others. through the offerings of the company. These tourists The main reasons for active participation in such plat- are increasingly involved in or co-create tourist prod- forms, as providers of knowledge and solutions, are ucts that are purchased from tourism and tourism- earnings and reputation (Abbate & Souca, 2013) or the related companies (Malone et al., 2017). The term ‘in- mutual interest of companies and customers in seek- creasingly involved’ targets the findings from the sec- ing better user solutions and their marketing (Sigala, tion on smart tourism, that is, the new, even more 2012). By actively participating in such ecosystems, as fragmented conditions in which an individual tourist with the sharing economy, a loop between providers company operates, forming one of the pieces of the and consumers is tightly closed. The boundary be- tourist mosaic at the destination (Chapman & Light, tween one and the other is blurred, which does not 2016;Zach&Hill,2017). mean that chaos has arisen and we do not know who The concept of public-private innovation networks drinks and who pays, but this is a clear message that and services (ppins) (Djellal & Gallouj, 2013) con- tourism providers must also ‘open and democratise’ in firms that the mosaic paradigm is not just a phe- innovation. nomenon that we find in tourism. As in other eco- One of the ways of opening up innovation pro- nomic sectors, there is the same global and techno- cesses is to find cross-sections between quality man- logical pressure that encourages individual economic agement, continuous improvement processes, and in- and non-economic entities to connect to larger in- novation. In their study, Kim et al. (2012) confirm novation networks. The principle of such networks that the introduction of quality management meth- has been known for a long time (Powell et al., 1996), ods positively correlates with the introduction of all but ppins point to the growing phenomenon of non- the main categories of innovation. Similarly, a positive technological innovations and to the changing para- correlation between employee performance, innova- digm that innovation is exclusively an in-house high- tion and quality management has been revealed by the tech process in which the public sphere has no role to work of Sadikoglu and Zehir (2010) and Terziovski play. This change was indicated by the democratisa- and Guerrero (2014). More detailed analysis of the tion of innovation (Hippel, 2005) and open innovation links between innovation and various ‘hard and soft’ (Chesbrough, 2003), although the openness of the in- quality management approaches (statistical analysis novation field is even more strongly reflected in the of process variables, human capital management, fo- aforementioned smart cities and in the increasingly cus on customer needs) also confirmed the positive ever-present principle of the sharing economy (Ac- impact on the degree of business innovation (Zeng et quier et al., 2017). al., 2015). An example of the development of a system After the transition from a closed high-tech inno- that promotes the spreading of the general innova- vation paradigm to the openness of the innovation tion culture of the company by encouraging continu- process, the innovation intermediaries were the first ous improvement has been described by Ross (2016). to take care of the flow of knowledge and resources Through analysing a few case studies in the fields of among the involved companies in controlled innova- tourism, quality, and innovation, this article also deals tion networks (Gómez et al., 2016). With the increas- with this kind of opening and connecting approaches.
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Case Studies new information channels that can also be exploited Based on the presented theory, the analysis of selected in tourism for both conventional production activi- casesispresented,whichinthefieldoftourismin- ties and the quality management with continuous im- dicate partial links between quality, continuous im- provements process. The latter was addressed by Sava provement processes, and innovation. Examples are tmc, which managed the network through three sub- selected in four areas. The first part deals with exam- systems for (1) promoting and capturing innovation ples of promoting tourism innovations and improve- proposals, (2) effective handling of innovation pro- ments in the local, national environment. The sec- posals, and (3) implementing innovation proposals ondonedealswiththesituationinoneofthelargest and measuring impacts. The size of the organisational tourist global corporations. Then, a group of ict tools team shows their large-scale approach: six represen- to stimulate the improvements in implementation and tatives of the management, six representatives of the the developmental involvement of entire organisations dislocated companies, a joint innovation coordinator is presented. The final part of the case analysis contin- and two representatives of support processes (person- ues with the transparency of production and develop- nel, information support). According to their applica- ment processes both inside and outside the organisa- tion documentation (Berne et al., 2012), the number of tion. improvements proposals increased from 29 to 1,471 in Since 2004, the Slovenian Tourist Board, in part- two years. At the time of the application preparation, nership with the Ministry of Economic Development over 900 innovations were proposed in their company and Technology, and the University of Primorska’s in the first quarter of 2011, of which more than half Faculty of Tourism Studies Turistica, has been sys- were accepted for immediate introduction. The num- tematically promoting the innovation of Slovenian ber of proposals per employee increased from 0.02 to tourism through the Sower and Creator Awards and 1.22 proposals per employee. According to their inter- the Bank of Tourism Potentials (btps) platform, for nal estimates, the effect of the innovations introduced which they have received several international ac- before and after the introduction of the system rose knowledgements (un wto, oecd, eu). Sower and from €6,000 to almost half a million euros a year. Creator are annual awards for realised tourism prod- A similar, global example is related to Starwood ucts and still unrealised tourist ideas. The btps is a Hotels, one of the largest hotel networks with over 30 tourism innovation platform, on which information leading service brands and over 5,700 locations. On about tourism trends and ideas is published, and their the blog of a provider of an application development authors and potential investors can connect in order to platform (Quick Base, 2016), an interview was pub- realise their ideas (Križaj & Zakonjšek, 2011). The most lished with the administrator of the Six Sigma Star- remarkable example of these activities is the creation wood Hotels programme for North America. After of a new niche tourist agency for sustainable tourism; deciding that his group would become responsible the co-investor found the idea of the agency and con- for operational innovation, the interviewed admin- tacted the author through the btps.1 istrator’s team was caught in a trap by running long Sava tmc, a part of Slovenia’s largest chain of ho- lists of what was being improved, but not what has tels and spa resorts Sava Hotels & Resorts, applied for actually been accepted into the daily business from the 2011 Sower Award, with their Network of Innova- these lists. They found that they undertook too many tion (Sava tmc, 2011). In a similar way, as suggested projects at the same time, but did not devote enough in the theoretical part of this paper by Berne et al. attention and time to the people in the organisational (2012), they have recognised the interconnection of structure of their companies to become accustomed to and adopt all the innovations. As a result, the num- 1 Information about this example was obtained during the in- ber of projects decreased, and an analysis of the be- terview between the author of the article and the author of haviour and reactions of employees to the innovations the niche sustainable tourism agency idea. was introduced (Rogers, 2003), which set the admin-
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istrator’s project in the right direction. In addition to gestion mailbox and, for their system, they claim that pointing to meaningful and contextual (Brocke et al., 80 of the proposed improvements are introduced 2016) work with information related to the introduc- (Kutscher, 2016). There are many versions of this kind tion of innovations, the interview emphasises the im- of tools available online for ‘each-and-every’ employee portance of project sponsors (Sense, 2013) who, in ad- integration in the analysis of performance and opera- dition to project managers in charge of introducing tional quality, and continuous improvements process improvements and innovations, check and influence (Hyphen, Treehive, Vibecatch, Teamphoria, etc.); one the proper climate in all key departments and the hier- of their main features is to increase the transparency archical levels of the company to which the innovation of operation and cooperation within the organisation is being introduced. (Piccolo et al., 2015). The third area in the Quick Base interview, re- An additional step forward is external transparency lated to the change management and the ever-smarter (Heimstädt, 2017), in which the clients also obtain in- technologies (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2015), was the sight into the operation of the company. Usually, such Citizen Development concept. The concept serves as systems are predominantly based on ewom, for which an approach to the production of software according the goal is not so much to inspect the quality of service to the ‘Lego’ principle, in which the in-depth knowl- processastolookatthequalityoftheservice(But- edge of computer programming languages is not im- naruetal.,2014).However,withavailableonlineplat- portant, because the new internal/business or exter- forms strongly equipped with customer review func- nal/user applications are created with pre-prepared tionality, such as TripAdvisor, Booking.com, and Yelp, software modules. The approach is particularly inter- ever-resourceful tourists are gaining an ever greater esting for smaller (tourist) providers who do not have insight into not only what they are or will buy, but such complex internal structures as large corporations also what the company is doing ‘behind the curtains.’ (Bloomberg, 2016), although also the Starwood Hotels One example of a ‘wide-open curtain’ is shown in the Six Sigma administrator believes that such tools can article on a carpenter’s workshop from Buenos Aires, contribute to a more agile daily deployment of process which was promoted on several crowdfunding plat- improvements, as they reduce dependence on internal forms, transmitting live work processes of the crowd- or external professional computer programmers. funded products in the workshop (Peters, 2016). One Quick Base itself offers a tool based on the Citizen of the platforms, Kickstarter, soon also offered Kick- Development concept (see http://www.quickbase.com starter Live services to all projects published on their /about-us). It is primarily aimed at managing busi- platform (Hughes, 2016), confirming that this can be ness processes, automating them, capturing data, and an important message in terms of the transparency generating analytical reports on the operation of busi- and quality of innovation production processes. ness systems. More specifically, it is focused on quality External transparency and simultaneous opportu- and, like the presented example of the Sava Innovation nity for crowdfunding of improvements focused on Network are ict tools, is represented by KaiNexus exclusively tourist providers are offered by the Trav- (Kutscher, 2016). They are based on one of the con- elStarter platform (Tourmag, 2015); in exchange for tinuous improvement approaches (Kaizen in the case financing providers’ development activities, crowd- of KaiNexus) and allow employees throughout the funders are offered diverse packages of benefits for organisation to participate in the exchange of ideas existing and emerging tourist products. In the area to reduce costs, increase sales, or increase user satis- of smart cities and their external visibility, the good faction. These are web and mobile platforms, which, practice example is the city of Vienna, which recently through various methods, stimulate the active partic- offered residents a mobile application to propose im- ipation of all employees in the business system. Ac- provements during their everyday use of city infras- cording to KaiNexus, 3 of submitted proposals are tructure (der Standard, 2017). The received proposals implemented in systems with a classic physical sug- are publicly available, as well as their implementation
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Q
ns tio va o i n ts In en m ve ro p m I Q=V Minimize vaste
Figure 1 Tourism q i s Coordinate System S Figure 2 Values Target statuses, and are part of a larger data network through- from them; and (i) innovation – by which companies out the city. Specifically, the wien.at site offers over consider how they can positively surprise their guest. 600 e-government services and records eight million Depending on which axis the company is more or less pageviews per month, thus confirming the importance attentive, it is positioned in the indicated qis coordi- of transparency of the information and the consid- nate system. eration of ‘each-and-every’ member of large human Quality and innovation are intertwined in the ef- networks in development and service quality-related fort to maximise the satisfaction of tourists, as illus- activities. trated by the proposed values target (Figure 2). At the core of each tourist company’s focus are the values and Discussion expectations of the targeted customer (Malone et al., Based on the presented theories and analysed exam- 2017). Companies attempt to identify them as much ples, the basis for thinking about new development as possible in the process of the fulfilment of the cus- guidelines in the current global technological and eco- tomer’s needs. While doing so, the company is guided nomic cycle is sustainable development, which in- with strategic decisions about internal (written or un- cludes elements of innovation and quality manage- written) quality standards. To achieve the Q = V equa- ment (Broman & Robèrt, 2017; Bourke & Roper, 2017). tion, the company has to operate in accordance with In tourism and beyond, therefore, the priority axes can the basic principle of most quality management meth- describe the so-called tourism qis coordinate system ods: ‘minimise waste.’2 In the process of identifying (quality – innovation – sustainability). with the client and optimising its own performance, Considering the existing or emerging tourist of- the company tackles two levels of this minimisation. ferings, in view of the shown priority axes, one fo- At the first level, it seeks to minimise any harm- cus should on: (S) sustainability – by which in the ful or unnecessary elements that impede the achieve- widest possible meaning of the word everyone checks whether he plays an optimal and fair game towards all 2 Kaizen, for example, talks about the elimination of waste the building blocks of the systems he is part of; (Q) (Hanebuth, 2002), but since the Q = V quest is a perma- quality – by which the companies are thinking about nent, never completed optimisation process, the minimisa- whether and how the guest will get what she expects tion seems a more appropriate term in this case.
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ment of Q = V by continuously improving existing cal) tourist destination, which is (the destination, not business processes and final products. On the second the tourist provider) usually perceived as the vacation level, it seeks to introduce new processes and prod- target to tourists. This mechanism directs all desti- ucts in order to maintain a balance between the offered nation stakeholders, including academia (Onn, 2018), quality and the (changed) values of the clients. Dur- towards networked coopetition thinking (Chim-Miki ing the optimisation, the values and expectations of & Batista-Canino, 2017). The qcii model shown in the clients can also be exceeded (positively), which can Figure 3 must (spontaneously or through careful plan- mean that (1) despite its larger investments as competi- ning) evolve into a content- and business-networked tors, it maintains its competitive advantage, (2) com- destination (Pearce, 2008), which wants for its offer to pany is expanding or upgrading the target market seg- follow the changing trends and values of guests. ment due to exceeding Q > V,or(3)companyun- The starting point of the picture is represented by necessarily invests and drains itself more than needed. the existing business processes of tourist companies, Because of all of this, Figure 1 is shown as a target. The which are usually or regularly improved to ‘minimise goal of the company is to reach the status Q = V:at waste’ – from the smallest tourist providers to chains, the daily level it attempts to achieve this with minimal such as Sava Hotels & Resorts and Starwood Hotels. corrections to the existing offer and processes, and oc- The first source of information for such activities are casionally,alsobyinnovatingtotesttheopportunities the employees, motivated by tools and methods simi- for targeting additional markets or merely redirecting lar to the KaiNexus tool. Due to the principles of smart thefocusduetochangesintrendsandvalues. networking, as well as internal and external trans- The difference between the two levels, the intro- parency, we are looking for approaches that go even duction of improvements and innovations, is ade- further and are captured in the proposed qcii model. quately explained for the purpose of this contribu- The first requirement is that it must enable tourist tion by Harvey (2007). In the case of introducing im- providers to obtain the feedback of experts, customer provements, the question is easy: ‘Can the process be opinions, potential ‘coopetition’ partners and poten- improved?’ In the case of innovation, the question is tial investors in a simple way during the minimisation more fundamental: ‘Are we doing the right thing?’ If a process. companyistoointenselyfocusedontheexistingpro- Investors (financial or with other incentives and re- cesses, there is a risk of overlooking the fact that the wards)arethoseindividualsandprivateandpublicor- process as such has become inadequate and needs to ganisations that are in the interest of: (1) participating be rebuilt. Thus, the question at the second innovation in the profits of the investee, or (2) the higher qual- level withdraws from the current mode of operation ity and performance of the investee, which in return and improvement and encourages rethinking what the raises the reputation and attractiveness of the entire target’score is (Figure 2). In doing so, it is important to destination. The investors of both types (1 and 2) are overlook the existing structures in the company and included in the Bank of Tourism Potentials of Slove- focus on the target values and customer needs; and in- nia on the national level. The first type is the men- stead of focusing on the process improvement focus on tioned example of investing in a sustainable tourism process design (Tussyadiah, 2014). For such activities, agency. The second type is the financial and promo- more knowledge and more risk are required, but the tional awards granted by the state for the purpose of company should decide what will generate greater or bigger b2b and b2c (both between the competition optimal added value. and among tourists) recognition of the most success- The arguments presented thus far lead to the con- ful companies and the most promising ideas. Investors struction of a final proposal for the systematic intro- of Types 1 and 2 may be interested in both improving duction of quality principles, continuous improve- and innovating the tourist offer. ment and innovation in a tourist destination (qcii In the same way, as in process improvement, the model). The tourist company is part of a (geographi- qcii model must be able to connect all the mentioned
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |105 Dejan Križaj Integration of Quality, Continuous Improvement, andInnovation in Tourism
Employees Experts Customers Partners Investors
Existing processes Improvements
Unique traits Minimize vaiste Improve design = Customer values Innovations
Figure 3 qcii Model of Systematic Introduction of Principles of Quality, Continuous Improvement and Innovation in the Tourist Destination
stakeholders in the case of innovation. In accordance technological capacities and business interests of the with the basic principles of quality management and systems of which we are part. Another more recent the presented difference between improvements and and wider trend that confirms ‘smart’ orientation, sug- innovations, the process begins with the identification gested throughout this paper, is ‘service encounter ofthekeycompetitiveadvantages,knowledge,previ- 2.0,’where new business configurations stem in multi- ous experiences and vital processes of the company. In organisation service systems built from employees, the second step, the company attempts to harmonise technology and customers (Larivière et al., 2017). all of these with the key and perspective values and If a shift in the minds of understanding of the des- needs of the targeted customers and, on the basis of tination management principles was required a few these findings, develop a new or radically renewed years ago (that the company is part of a larger tourist tourist offering through the partnership development destination and has to act accordingly), a similar shift process with all the listed stakeholders. is taking place today in understanding the concepts of There is no need to emphasise that the presented universal and multi-layered sustainability. The tech- qcii model can only function successfully if it is com- nological capabilities and the values associated with posed of motivated stakeholders from all depicted global accessibility (as well as the footprints of the hu- groups. Nor is it necessary to additionally emphasise man civilisation on Earth and beyond) underline the that qcii must be part of smart networks, which will need for thoughtful linking of the tourist company notbejustanothercurrentcrazebutwillbepartofa with stakeholders in the domestic tourist destination living system that is understood and adopted by most and around the world. Such content- and technology- of its population. related smart operation is expected from the tourist company and its processes of following the values and Conclusions needs of its customers. The same applies to all other The tourist qis coordinate system (quality – innova- qcii stakeholders. tion – sustainability), the values target, and the qcii Based on the analyses carried out, this article pro- coopetition model have shown general and tourism posesguidelinesforfurtherdevelopmentstepsand specific links between quality management, contin- collaboration, while it should not be taken for granted uous improvement and innovation. Connections are that all current key trends to follow are correctly in- based on the previously presented theoretical founda- cluded in the utilised forecasts. As with the hitting tions and examples of good practices of following the the target with innovations, there must also be a cer- current development trends. One such already men- tain degree of caution present when taking this article tioned trend is the concept of smart tourism, which into account in the sense that innovation is never a emphasises ubiquitous opportunities to connect both completely predictable process. It is more like a new
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opportunity, potentially useful for the next turn on (Eds.), Innovation and product development in tourism theroad,whichwedonotyetseeabsolutelyclearly. (pp. 88–102). Erich Schimidt Verlag. The aim of succeeding research beyond this point is to Bloomberg, J. (2016, May 16). Citizen developers: Low code is additionally clarify the picture and add other current now enterprise-class. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/ and future trends to further conceptual thinking and sites/jasonbloomberg/2016/05/16/citizen-developers -low-code-is-now-enterprise-class/ empirically verify the individual parts of the proposed Bourke, J., & Roper, S. (2017). Innovation, quality manage- qcii system. The future studies should include analy- ment and learning: Short-term and longer-term effects. sesofthecapabilities,opinionsandintentionsofallof Research Policy, 46(8), 1505–1518. the listed stakeholders, as well as analyses of their de- Brocke,J.vom,Zelt,S.,&Schmiedel,T.(2016).Ontheroleof velopment and collaboration activities and the effects context in business process management. International achieved. All this is facilitated by internal and external Journal of Information Management, 36(3), 486–495. sources of knowledge, with the mention of which this Broman, G. I., & Robèrt, K.-H. (2017). A framework for article started and ends in the same tone – a prerequi- strategic sustainable development. Journal of Cleaner site for achieving quality and innovation (in tourism) Production, 140(1), 17–31. is a smart relationship between the exploitation of in- Buhalis, D., & Amaranggana, A. (2015). Smart tourism des- ternal and external knowledge. tinations enhancing tourism experience through per- sonalisation of services. In I. Tussyadiah & A. Inversini (Eds.), Information and communication technologies in Acknowledgments tourism 2015 (pp. 377–389). Spinger. This paper is a part of the project v5-1511 (Total Qual- Buhalis, D., & Law, R. (2008). Progress in information tech- ity Programme in Tourism) which was financially sup- nology and tourism management: 20 years on and 10 ported by the Slovenian Research Agency. years after the Internet – The state of eTourism research. Tourism Management, 29(4), 609–623. References Butnaru,G.I.,Ştefănică,M.,&Maxim,G.M.(2014).Al- Abbate,T.,&Souca,M.L.(2013).Openinnovationandon- ternative method of quality evaluation in tourism: Case line intermediaries: A review of theory and its implica- study applied in tourist accommodation units. Procedia tions for tourism. In The proceedings of the international Economics and Finance, 15, 671–678. conference Marketing – from Information to Decision (pp. Camisón, C., & Monfort-Mir, V. M. (2012). Measuring in- 9–22). Babes Bolyai University. novation in tourism from the Schumpeterian and the Abernathy, W.J., & Clark, K. B. (1985). Innovation: Mapping dynamic-capabilities perspectives. Tourism Management, the winds of creative destruction. Research Policy, 14(1), 33(4), 776–789. 3–22. Chapman, A., & Light, D. (2016). Exploring the tourist des- Abubakar, A. M., & Ilkan, M. (2016). Impact of online wom tination as a mosaic: The alternative lifecycles of the sea- on destination trust and intention to travel: A medical side amusement arcade sector in Britain. Tourism Man- tourism perspective. Journal of Destination Marketing & agement, 52, 254–263. Management, 5(3), 192–201. Chesbrough, H. (2003). The logic of open innovation: Man- Abernathy, W.J., & Utterback, J. M. (1978). Patterns of indus- aging intellectual property. California Management Re- trial innovation. Technology Review, 80(7), 40–47. view, 45(3), 33–58. Acquier, A., Daudigeos, T., & Pinkse, J. (2017). Promises Chim-Miki, A. F., & Batista-Canino, R. M. (2017). Tourism and paradoxes of the sharing economy: An organizing coopetition: An introduction to the subject and a re- framework. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, search agenda. International Business Review, 26(6), 1208– 125(2017), 1–10. 1217. Berne, C., Garcia-Gonzalez, M., & Mugica, J. (2012). How Cid-López, A., Hornos, M. J., Carrasco, R. A., & Herrera- ict shifts the power balance of tourism distribution Viedma, E. (2015). sictqual: A fuzzy linguistic multi- channels. Tourism Management, 33(1), 205–214. criteria model to assess the quality of service in the ict Bieger, T.,& Weinert, R. (2006). On the nature of the innova- sector from the user perspective. Applied Soft Comput- tive organizations in tourism: Structure process and re- ing, 37, 897–910. sults. In B. Walder, K. Weiermaier, & A. Sancho Perez Coombs, R., & Miles, I. (2000). Innovation, measurement
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110 | Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Research Note
Hotel Employees and Corporate Social Responsibility: The Case of Portorož, Slovenia
Tanja Planinc University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia [email protected] Zorana Medarić University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia [email protected] Kristina Bogataj University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia [email protected]
Corporate social responsibility has been widely researched in recent decades across different industries. This paper attempts to explore the social aspects of corporate social responsibility in the hotel industry, focusing on the awareness of csr of em- ployees in the selected case-study of a hotel company in Portorož, Slovenia. Specif- ically, their awareness of csr activities oriented towards the local community was researched. A questionnaire survey was conducted among employees, investigating their awareness of the hotel company’sattitude towards the local community. Results show that it is crucial for employees to be employed in a company that participates in the development of a local community. However, they often do not know how their employer carries out activities that are related to the social aspects of corporate social responsibility. Keywords: corporate social responsibility, employees, hotel industry, Portorož, Slovenia https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.13.111-116
Introduction (Carroll, 2015). In recent decades, csr in general and This research paper aims to present the results of specifically in the hospitality sector has become an in- quantitative research regarding the social dimension teresting research field with several different aspects of corporate social responsibility (csr) in the hotel being researched (De Bakker et al., 2005). Researchers industry in Portorož, Slovenia. csr can be defined have attempted to determine the motives for imple- as a contribution of businesses to social, economic, menting csr activities and the consequences of such and social development (Garay & Font, 2012). Such actions on financial performance, organisational com- contributions were often on a voluntary basis, but be- petitiveness, brand image, employees’ and customers’ cause of recent legislative changes, csr involvement loyalty, and other factors (Garay & Font, 2012; Lee, is becoming mandatory. Companies have been engag- 2016). ing in csr activities, because doing so brings benefits In the hotel industry, csr aspects concern hu- to companies, the environment, and society at large man resources, the local community, the environment,
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 | 111 Tanja Planinc et al. Hotel Employees andCorporate Social Responsibility
and similar (Holcomb et al., 2007; de Grosbois, 2012; of one hotel company, located in Portorož, Slovenia. Font et al., 2012; Garay & Font, 2012; Tsai et al., 2012; Based on the literature review, two research questions Sasidharan & Križaj, 2018). Hospitality (and especially were formulated: the hotel industry) is characterised by high employee rq1 What is the employee’s awareness of the com- turnover,seasonality,andlowwages,andcsrpro- pany’s csr activities oriented towards the local vides an opportunity for companies to mitigate these community in the chosen hotel company at the (negative) characteristics. destination Portorož? In the tourism industry, the hotel sector is largely rq2 How important is it for employees to work in a integrated into the local environment; it is inherently company that is actively involved in such activ- connected with it, and it simultaneously depends on ities? the society in which it operates (Abaeian et al., 2014; Mackenzie & Peters, 2014). It is, therefore, not surpris- ing that hotel chains were often among the first to in- Methodology troduce initiatives and policies of social responsibility To obtain answers to our research questions, a quanti- (Kasim, 2006). The number of surveys dealing with tative method was employed, the results of which will the issue of corporate social responsibility in tourism be presented. Based on the literature review, the ques- has increased significantly over the previous 15 years tionnaire was developed and distributed among the (Farrington et al., 2017); however, there is relatively lit- employees in a chosen hotel company. tle research on the issue of social aspects of csr in The questionnaire for employees was developed hotel companies. In particular, there is little research based on the literature review (Carroll, 1979; Lux et that deals with the relationship between hotel compa- al.,1996;Backetal.,2011;Leeetal.,2013);itconsisted nies and the local community (Chen & Lin, 2015; de- of 11 questions, of which eight were closed, and three Miguel-Molina et al., 2018). were open. Employees’ awareness was measured on The hotel industry has acknowledged social sus- a Likert-type ordinal scale with a neutral value (with tainability as a strategically important factor, but the values: 1 ‘not true at all,’ 2 ‘not true,’ 3 ‘neither,’ 4 ‘true,’ environmental aspect remains predominant, mainly and 5 ‘absolutely true’). The statements related to the because of its most visible economic benefits. Never- company’s attitude towards the local community also theless, in the previous decade, there has been a grow- hadanoption‘Idonotknow/cannotanswer.’The ing body of good practices and research, which also questionnaire was tested on a small group of hotel em- focusonthesocialaspectsofcsr,suchastheatti- ployees and adjusted slightly, according to their com- tudes towards employees or the local community (Bo- ments. The survey was conducted in May 2018. The hdanowicz & Zientara, 2008; Levy & Park, 2011; Sku- hotel company employed 452 employees in 2018; all diene & Auruskeviciene, 2012; Abaeian et al., 2014; Im employees were invited to participate in our research, et al., 2017; Mohammed & Rashid, 2018). We aim to and random sampling was consequently employed. A provide an insight into the social aspect of csr from total of 105 employees (23.23 of all employees) com- the perspective of hotel employees since employees are pleted the anonymous questionnaire. For the analy- acknowledged as one of the key stakeholders in the re- sis of the data gathered, spss statistical software was searchofcsractivities(Kimetal.,2017).Inaddition, used. Descriptive statistics employed for the sample according to Kang et al. (2010), csr activities in the description and the correlation analysis were used to hotel industry lead to positive changes in employees’ determine the possible relationship between (1) the mindsets.Severalauthors(Heslin&Ochoa,2008;Lee employee’s awareness of the hotel company’s attitude et al., 2013; Youn et al., 2018) have determined that towards the local community and the importance of companies’ csr activities significantly contribute to being employed in a company that participates in the employees‘ satisfaction and lower employee turnover development of a local community, and (2) the em- rates. In this research paper, we present a case study ployee’s awareness of the company’s attitude towards
112 | Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Tanja Planinc et al. Hotel Employees andCorporate Social Responsibility
Table 1 Employee Awareness of Hotel Companies’ csr Activities towards the Local Community and Level of Information about These Activities Statements () () () () () () () () Ourcompanyhelpssolvevarioussocialproblems(financialassistanceto . . employees in distress, employment of disabled people). Our company devotes funds for philanthropic (humanitarian) purposes. . . Our company encourages the participation of employees in volunteer activi- . . ties (voluntary participation at local events). Our company supports sport, cultural, and other projects/activities in the .. local community. Our company cooperates with local organisations (local community, local .. tourist association, local tourist organisation). I am regularly informed about the developments in the company (in meet- – . . ings, through newsletters etc.). Notes Columnheadingsareasfollows:(1)nottrueatall,(2)nottrue,(3)neither,(4)true,(5)absolutelytrue,(6)donot know/cannot answer, (7) arithmetic mean, (8) standard deviation. the local community and how informed they are re- The results presented in Table 1 show that the garding company’s csr activities. highest-rated statement refers to the fact that the com- pany cooperates with local organisations (mean 3.96), Results and Discussion closely followed by the statement that refers to sup- To analyse the respondent’s demographic characteris- porting sport, cultural, and other activities in the local tics, descriptive statistical analysis was used. Most re- community (mean 3.91). According to the standard spondents were female (almost 64 ), they fell in the deviation value, respondents have relatively unani- age group between 26 and 36 years (32 ) and had a mous opinions regarding both statements (s =0.823 secondary school education (almost 45 ). Nearly half and 0.836, respectively). The statement with the low- (48 ) of respondents work in the food and beverage est average value is the one referring to solving the sector (cooks, waiter, etc.), followed by receptionist (30 social distress of employees (mean 3.18) and, accord- ). The rest work in wellness, animation, housekeep- ing to the value of standard deviation (s =1.185),the ing, etc. Almost 47 of respondents have an employ- respondents’ opinions are not so unanimous. ment contract of indefinite duration. The remaining One interesting result is also the fact that many re- have a fixed-term employment contract or work as a spondents do not know in what way their employer student. A little over 70 of respondents have up to cooperates with the local community. This is particu- 10 years of working experience in the company. larly true for the first three statements, which deal with While all employees were invited to participate solving social problems, allocating funds for humani- in the research, not everyone took part in it. How- tarian purposes, and encouraging employees to partic- ever, random sampling does not necessarily imply a ipate in volunteer activities. match in the characteristics of the sample and popu- The last statement shows how employees are in- lation. According to the publicly available data, more formed about the csr activities of their company. Al- than half of all employees had secondary school ed- most 56 of respondents agree with the statement ucation (three or four years), which is in line with that they are informed, while the rest believe that they the education level of employees in our sample. The are not regularly informed. The standard deviation same is true also for the gender of the employees (see is 1.114, and this suggests that the respondents’ opin- https://www.ajpes.si/jolp). ions are not so unanimous. Five respondents did not
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Table 2 The Importance of Being Employed in a Company that Participates in the Development of a Local Community Statements () () () () () () () It is important for me to work in a company that participates in the development .. of a local community. Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) not true at all, (2) not true, (3) neither, (4) true, (5) absolutely true, (6) arithmetic mean, (7) standard deviation. provide opinions for this statement. One of the pos- ticipates in the development of a local community and sible conclusions is that the hotel company does not employee’s awareness of the hotel company’s attitude pay sufficient attention to informing their employees towards the local community. Contrary to our expec- about how they work with the local community. Busi- tations, there were weak positive correlations only be- nesses need to be aware of the importance of inform- tween two csr practices and the importance of being ing employees about socially responsible activities, as employed in a company that participates in the devel- also noted by Bhattacharya et al. (2008). opment of a local community. The two practices refer Table 2 shows whether it is important for respon- to solving various social problems and devoting funds dentsto be employedin a companythatparticipatesin for philanthropic (humanitarian) purposes (ρ = 0.288, the development of a local community. More than half sig. = 0.005, and ρ = 0.271, sig. = 0.009, respectively). of the respondents (51.4 ) agree with this statement. We assume that the weak correlation between the im- In this case, too, we can say that respondents are not portance of being employed in a company that is com- so unanimous (s =1.054).Fourrespondentsdidnot mitted to csr practices and the awareness of practices provide an opinion for this statement. can be attributed to the fact that only the part of csr These findings are in line with previous research oriented towards the local community was explored in which the authors confirmed the connection be- and not, for example, csr activities oriented towards tween the implementation of social aspects of social the employees themselves. responsibility and lower fluctuation rates of employ- ees and the more significant affiliation of employees to Conclusion the company (Heslin & Ochoa, 2008; Lee et al., 2013; To answer our research questions, we can say that em- Youn et al., 2018). ployees of the chosen hotel company are not aware We have also checked for correlations between the how the activities related to the social aspects of cor- employee’s awareness of the hotel companies’ attitude porate social responsibility are implemented; in con- towards the local community and how informed they trast, it is important for them to be employed in a com- are regarding the company’s csr activities. For the pany that participates in the development of a local analysis, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was community, which is in line with findings of previ- used and, as expected, the analysis resulted in weak ous research, for example, the research done by Tsai et positive but statistically significant correlations be- al. (2012) that showed that hotel employees are often tween variables. The highest correlations were with the not familiar about hotels’ csr activities, whilst Sinha csr practice regarding solving various social prob- (2017) concluded that whether their employer is active lems and supporting sport, cultural, and other projects/ in the field of corporate social responsibility is impor- activities in the local community (ρ =0.358,sig.= tant for the employee. The results confirm previous 0.000, and ρ =0.302,sig.=0.003,respectively).This theoretical findings and also contribute to the body of is an important aspect for the hotel companies to con- knowledge regarding the social aspects of csr. sider. Based on research results, several suggestions for We have also analysed the correlations between the the hotel company arise. The hotel company should importance of being employed in a company that par- explain the importance of crs to employees and, in
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the next phase, the employees should be more ac- De Bakker, F.G., Groenewegen, P., & Den Hond, F.(2005). A tively involved in csr activities. Informing employ- bibliometric analysis of 30 years of research and theory ees about csr activities through internal newsletters on corporate social responsibility and corporate social is perhaps not sufficient, so the hotel company should performance. Business & Society, 44(3), 283–317. consider other communication channels. According de Grosbois, D. (2012). Corporate social responsibility re- porting by the global hotel industry: Commitment, ini- to Schein (2004), individuals, such as department and tiatives and performance. International Journal of Hospi- business managers, play an essential role in influenc- tality Management, 31(3), 896–905. ing employees‘ mindsets and behaviour, so informing de-Miguel-Molina, B., de-Miguel-Molina, M., Segarra-Oña, as well as motivating employees within their work- M., & Peiro-Signes, A. (2018). Why and how hotel groups groups may be of crucial importance in the successful in luxury segments give back to their communities. In- implementation of csr activities. ternational Journal of Tourism Research, 20(1), 100–114. This research has some limitations that must be Farrington, T., Curran, R., Gori, K., O’Gorman, K. D., & considered. The most obvious one is the fact that it ex- Queenan, C. J. (2017). Corporate social responsibility: amined only one side (that of the employees) and that Reviewed, rated, revised. International Journal of Con- it is concerned with only one hotel company. There- temporary Hospitality Management, 29(1), 30–47. fore, the findings cannot be generalised. In the future, Font,X.,Walmsley,A.,Cogotti,S.,McCombes,L.,&Häusler, N. (2012). Corporate social responsibility: The disclosu- it would be interesting to examine the opinion of the re-performance gap. Tourism Management, 33(6), 1544– employer and then to compare the gathered data. In 1553. addition, it would be an added value to broaden the Garay,L.,&Font,X.(2012).Doinggoodtodowell?Corpo- research to more hotel companies within Slovenia and rate social responsibility reasons, practices and impacts perhapsalsonearbyacrosstheborder. in small and medium accommodation enterprises. Inter- national Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(2), 329– References 337. Abaeian, V., Yeoh, K. K., & Khong, K. W. (2014). An explo- Heslin,P.,&Ochoa,J.(2008).Understandinganddevelop- ration of csr initiatives undertaken by Malaysian ho- ing strategic corporate social responsibility. Organiza- tels: Underlying motivations from a managerial perspec- tional Dynamics, 37, 125–144. tive. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 144, 423– Holcomb,J.L.,Upchurch,R.S.,&Okumus,F.(2007).Cor- 432. porate social responsibility: What are top hotel compa- Back,K.-J.,Lee,C.-K.,&Abbott,J.(2011).Internalrelation- nies reporting? International Journal of Contemporary ship marketing: Korean casino employees’ job satisfac- Hospitality Management, 19(6), 461–475. tion and organizational commitment. Cornell Hospitality Im, S., Chung, Y., & Yang, J. (2017). Employees’participation Quarterly, 52(2), 111–124. in corporate social responsibility and organizational out- Bhattacharya, C. B., Sen, S., & Korschun, D. (2008). Using comes: The moderating role of person-csr fit. Sustain- corporate social responsibility to win the war for talent. ability, 9(1), 1–14. mit Sloan Managemen Review,49(2), 37–44. Kang,K.H.,Lee,S.,&Huh,C.(2010).Impactsofpositive Bohdanowicz,P.,&Zientara,P.(2008).Corporatesocial and negative corporate social responsibility activities on responsibility in hospitality: Issues and implications: A company performance in the hospitality industry. Inter- case study of Scandic. Scandinavian Journal of Hospital- national Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(1), 72–82. ity and Tourism, 8(4), 271–293. Kasim, A. (2006). The need for business environmental and Carroll, A. B. (1979). A three-dimensional conceptual model social responsibility in the tourism industry. Interna- of corporate performance. Academy of Management Re- tional Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, view, 4(4), 497–505. 7(1), 1–22. Carroll, A. B. (2015). Corporate social responsibility. Orga- Kim,H.L.,Rhou,Y.,Uysal,M.,&Kwon,N.(2017).Anexam- nizational Dynamics, 44(2), 87–96. ination of the links between corporate social responsi- Chen,M.H.,inLin,C.P.(2015).Understandingcorporate bility (csr) and its internal consequences. International philanthropy in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 61, 26–34. Journal of Hospitality Management, 48, 150–160. Lee, K. J. (2016). Sense of calling and career satisfaction of
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hotel frontline employees: Mediation through knowl- Sasidharan, V., & Križaj, D. (2018). Tourism Ecolabels and edge sharing with organizational members. International Social Sustainability: Challenges and Innovations from Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(2), aSlovenePerspective.Academica Turistica, 11(1), 19–29. 346–365. Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. Lee,E.M.,Park,S.-Y.,&Lee,H.J.(2013).Employeepercep- Wiley. tion of csr activities: Its antecedents and consequences. Sinha, R. (2017). Employees’ participation in corporate social Journal of Business Research, 66(10), 1716–1724. responsibility initiatives and job outcomes. The Interna- Levy,S.E.,&Park,S.-Y.(2011).Ananalysisofcsractiv- tional Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies, ities in the lodging industry. Journal of Hospitality and 12(2), 1–22. Tourism Management, 18(1), 147–154. Skudiene, V., & Auruskeviciene, V. (2012). The contribution Lux,D.J.,Jex,S.M.,&Hansen,C.P.(1996).Factorsinfluenc- of corporate social responsibility to internal employee ing employee perceptions of customer service climate. motivation. Baltic Journal of Management, 7(1), 49–67. Journal of Market-Focused Management, 1(1), 65–86. Tsai, H., Tsang, N. K. F., & Cheng, S. K. Y. (2012). Hotel em- Mackenzie,M.,&Peters,M.(2014).Hospitalitymanagers’ ployees’ perceptions on corporate social responsibility: perception of corporate social responsibility: An explo- ThecaseofHongKong.International Journal of Hospi- rative study. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, tality Management, 31(4), 1143–1154. 19(3), 257–272. Youn, H., Lee, K., & Lee, S. (2018). Effects of corporate so- Mohammed, A., & Rashid, B. (2018). A conceptual model of cial responsibility on employees in the casino industry. corporate social responsibility dimensions, brand image, Tourism Management, 68, 328–335. and customer satisfaction in Malaysian hotel industry. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 39(2), 358–364.
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Zaznana grožnja COVID-19 in prihodnje izogibanje potovanjem: rezultati zgodnjega primernega vzorca v Sloveniji Maja Turnšek, Boštjan Brumen, Marjetka Rangus, Mitja Gorenak, Janez Mekinc in Tanja Lešnik Štuhec Ta študija ponuja posnetek dojemanja slovenskih turistov v zgodovinsko edinstve- nem obdobju – zgodnjih dneh karantene, povezane s covid-19. V študiji smo, v povezavi s turizmom, merili zaznano nevarnost za zdravje, ki jo predstavlja covid- 19, in sicer v dveh dimenzijah: resnost bolezni in dovzetnost za bolezen. Na podlagi spletneankete,opravljenemarcainaprila2020,študijaponujaprvevpogledevza- znane grožnje turistov in kako so te odvisne od njihove demografije in preteklih po- tovalnih izkušenj ter kaj si v tem določenem času mislijo o prihodnjem izogibanju potovanjem. Rezultati so pokazali, da starost vpliva na obe dimenziji zaznane gro- žnje in prihodnje izogibanje potovanju, vendar le pri ženskah. Poleg tega za ljudi, ki so v preteklosti največ potovali, obstaja manjša verjetnost, da bi se izognili potova- nju zaradi pandemije covid-19. Tisti bolj izobraženi pa po drugi strani zaznavajo večje tveganje, vendar pa izobrazba nima nobene vloge pri njihovem prihodnjem iz- ogibanju potovanjem. Rezultati tudi kažejo, da je moralna obveznost skrbi za druge lahko zelo pomemben element dejavnika uspeha ukrepov covid-19 in s tem v pri- hodnje pri povečevanju privlačnosti turistične panoge. Nenazadnje rezultati kažejo, da ne moremo enostavno napovedati, kako se bo splošna populacija obnašala glede prihodnjega izogibanja potovanju, saj mnenja niso skrajno polarizirana. To pa kaže, da bodo ljudje verjetno dovzetni za kontekstualne dejavnike njihovih odločitev, kot so prihodnja zagotovila turistične industrije o zdravstveni varnosti. Ključne besede: covid-19, turizem, percepcija grožnje, prihodnje izogibanje potovanjem, apeli strahu Academica Turistica, 13(1), 3–19
Povezava turizma in gospodarske rasti v Latinski Ameriki in karibskih državah: dokaz s panelnim ARDL José Alberto Fuinhas, Matheus Belucio, Daniela Castilho, Joana Mateus in Rafaela Caetano Raziskava se osredotoča na turizem kot način za spodbujanje gospodarske rasti v državah Latinske Amerike in Karibov. Vpliv turizma na gospodarsko rast naj bi imel kratkoročne in dolgoročne učinke. V skladu s tem je bila uporabljena ekonometrična analiza, in sicer model ardl, ki omogoča to časovno razgradnjo. Rezultati za dva- indvajset držav so pokazali, da investicije v turistični kapital na prebivalca, prihodi turistov (število oseb), poraba električne energije na prebivalca in realni devizni tečaj kratkoročno statistično značilno in pozitivno vplivajo na gospodarsko rast. Po drugi strani pa imajo dolgoročen vpliv le prihodi turistov in poraba električne energije na prebivalca, kar je pozitivna gonilna sila gospodarske rasti na prebivalca. Oblikovalci politik bi morali še naprej razvijati in izvajati ukrepe za privabljanje čim večjega šte- vila turistov ob spodbujanju naložb v turistično industrijo. Vendar pa morajo biti pozorni tudi na druge gospodarske sektorje, da ne bi postali izjemno odvisni zgolj od turistične dejavnosti.
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |117 Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
Ključne besede: kapitalske naložbe, turistični prihodi, gospodarska rast, Latinska Amerika in Karibi, ardl Academica Turistica, 13(1), 21–34
Erasmus+ mobilnost: empirična raziskava vedenja turistov Erasmus+ Miha Lesjak, Emil Juvan in Eva Podovšovnik Študenti Erasmus+ predstavljajo velik podsegment izobraževalnih turistov, kar sle- dnjega pozicionira kot atraktiven trg za univerze in destinacijske turistične orga- nizacije. Turistično vedenje študentov Erasmus+ v času njihove mobilnosti je rela- tivno slabo raziskano, zato pričujoča raziskava stremi k razširitvi empirično podpr- tega znanja o turističnem vedenju študentov v času mobilnosti Erasmus+ mobino- sti. Podatke smo zbirali s pomočjo spletne raziskave med vsemi prijavljenimi štu- denti Erasmus+ v študijskem letu 2016/2017 v Sloveniji. Rezultati kažejo, da je v času mobilnosti kar 93 anketiranih študentov potovalo. Stopnja študija in spol vplivata na turistično vedenje študentov Erasmus+ študentov, zato ti dve značilnosti pred- stavljata zelo koristna atributa pri oblikovanju turistične ponudbe med turisti Era- smus+. Upoštevajoč zaznane atraktivne značilnosti destinacije ugotavljamo, da mo- ški pretežno iščejo destinacije s privlačnim nočnim življenjem, ženske pa enostavno dostopne, varne in destinacije s privlačno kulturno ponudbo. Ugotovitve nakazujejo, da morajo turistični ponudniki, destinacijske organizacije in univerze tesno sode- lovati pri oblikovanju personalizirane turistične ponudbe ter njene promocije med študenti Erasmus+. To je pomembno tako v fazi načrtovanja mobilnosti Erasmus+, ko študenti izbirajo destinacijo in univerzo mobilnosti, ter tudi med samo mobilno- stjo, saj študenti Erasmus+ med mobilnostjo aktivno potujejo. Ključne besede: mobilnost Erasmus+, izobraževanje, mednarodni študenti, privlačnost destinacij, vedenje turistov Academica Turistica, 13(1), 35–50
Človeški viri v industrijskem turizmu Barbara Pavlakovič in Eva Jereb Industrijski turizem se je kot vrsta turizma pojavil pred več kot sto leti, vendar pa se raziskave pojava izvajajo šele v zadnjem času. Večina sedanjih raziskav je usmerjena bodisi na dediščinski industrijski turizem bodisi na več posameznih vidikov, kot so značilnosti obiskovalcev, odnos do lokalnega gospodarstva in podobno. Ta članek poskuša osvetliti kadrovski vidik industrijskega turizma v različnih organizacijah. Našiosnovniraziskovalnimetodistabiliopazovanjezudeležbo(udeležbanaorga- niziranih ogledih po podjetjih) in polstrukturirani intervjuji s predstavniki podjetij. V raziskavi smo opredelili različne obstoječe oblike kadrovskih modelov industrij- skega turizma organizacij, ki ga izvajajo, potrebne kompetence za ta delovna mesta in metode izobraževanja zaposlenih v industrijskem turizmu. Na podlagi zbranih rezultatov predlagamo nekaj smernic, s pomočjo katerih lahko podjetja sledijo obli- kovanju lastnega produkta industrijskega turizma.
118 | Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
Ključne besede: človeški viri, kompetence, izobraževanje, industrijski turizem, model človeških virov Academica Turistica, 13(1), 51–65
Monitoring obiskovalcev kot orodje za upravljanje zavarovanih območij Stanislava Pachrová, Petr Chalupa, Eva Janoušková, Alice Šedivá Neckářová in Leoš Štefka Članek analizira uporabnost spremljanja obiskovalcev pri upravljanju zavarovanega območja na primeru območja zaščitenega krajinskega območja Moravskega krasa (pla). Moravski kras je največje in najpomembnejše kraško območje na Češkem. Njegova lega v bližini velikega mesta in lahka dostopnost omogočata, da so nekateri deli pla izpostavljeni negativnim vplivom, ki jih ima intenzivni turizem na naravne znamenitosti in zaščitene vrste. Medtem ko je prisotnost obiskovalcev na zavarova- nem območju zaželena, je treba ustrezno regulirati njihove dejavnosti na območju. Vodstvo pla potrebuje kakovostne informacije za svoje odločanje – npr. ažurne in- formacije o značilnostih obiskovalcev in njihovem vedenju. Za pridobitev teh infor- macij so bile od maja do septembra 2018 na izbranih lokacijah pla izvedene pri- marne marketinške raziskave. Za pridobitev podatkov o 2.100 obiskovalcih in za do- ločitev profila obiskovalcev Moravskega krasa je bil uporabljen anketni vprašalnik. Ugotovili smo, da večino obiskovalcev najbolj pritegnejo jame, odprte za javnost, in soteska Macocha, ter da se skoraj četrtina anketirancev namerava vrniti v pla v naslednjih šestih mesecih. Velik izziv za trajnostni razvoj turizma na tem obmo- čju predstavlja dejstvo, da obiskovalci jam niso zainteresirani za obisk drugih krajev v pla. Podatke, pridobljene o obiskovalcih, bo uprava pla uporabila za oblikova- nje ukrepov za preusmerjanje obiskovalcev z najbolj izpostavljenih lokacij na manj obiskane. Ključne besede: trajnostni turizem, tržne raziskave, profil obiskovalcev, upravljanje destinacij, zaščiteno krajinsko območje, Moravski kras Academica Turistica, 13(1), 67–79
Privlačnost kongresnih destinacij: primer ponudbe poslovnega turizma vSloveniji Marijana Sikošek Namen članka je raziskati, kateri atributi privlačnosti kongresne destinacije so ti- sti, ki so pomembni za obiskanost kongresne destinacije in kongresne prireditve kot njenega temeljnega produkta, in sicer z vidika ponudbe oziroma s stališča ključnih deležnikov, ki na kongresni destinaciji ustvarjajo ponudbo kongresnih prireditev: to je ponudnikov kongresnih storitev in naročnikov kongresa. V prispevku redefini- ramo dimenzije obiskanosti kongresne destinacije in koncept kongresnih ponudni- kov. Na tej osnovi smo na novo razvili večdimenzionalen konstrukt (model) obi- skanosti kongresne destinacije, ki upošteva tri vidike: vidik destinacije, prizorišča in kongresne prireditve kot temeljne celice kongresne ponudbe. Za vsak vidik posebej
Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 |119 Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
smo na osnovi predhodnih raziskav razvili model atributov privlačnosti, ki prispe- vajo k obisku kongresne destinacije Z raziskavo želimo prispevati k bolj celovitem razumevanju kongresne ponudbe in večdimenzionalni obravnavi atributov privlač- nosti kongresne destinacije kot pomembnih dejavnikih njene obiskanosti. Ključne besede: privlačnost kongresne destinacije, poslovni turizem, atributi privlačnosti konference, atributi privlačnosti kongresne destinacije, atributi privlačnosti prizorišča, obiskanost kongresne destinacije Academica Turistica, 13(1), 81–95
Povezovanje kakovosti, stalnih izboljšav in inovativnosti v turizmu: QCII metoda Dejan Križaj Članek se osredotoča na iskanje presekov med upravljanjem kakovosti, sistemi stal- nih izboljšav in inovativnostjo v turizmu. Vsebuje uvodne teoretične vpoglede v vsa tri področja in (v analitičnem delu) obravnava strokovno in znanstveno literaturo z namenom iskanja teoretičnih izhodišč ter nadaljnjih razvojnih smernic, pridoblje- nih s pomočjo analize primerov dobrih praks in relevantnih trendov. Ugotovitve so povzete v predlagani metodi qcii za izboljševanje in inoviranje kakovostne turi- stične ponudbe. Poseben poudarek je namenjen vključevanju konceptov trajnosti in pametnega turizma: tako z vidika novih tehnologij in njihove uravnotežene uporabe kot z vidika pazljivega usklajevanja interesov ter povezav med turističnimi podjetji in njihovim okoljem. Ključne besede: kakovost, stalne izboljšave, inovativnost, pametni turizem Academica Turistica, 13(1), 97–110
Zaznavanje družbene odgovornosti med zaposlenimi v hotelskem podjetju: študija primera v Portorožu, Slovenija Tanja Planinc, Zorana Medarić in Kristina Bogataj Družbena odgovornost podjetij je v zadnjih desetletjih pogosto obravnavana tema- tika v znanstveni literaturi. V prispevku je predstavljen socialni vidik družbene od- govornosti podjetij v hotelirstvu, s poudarkom na zavedanju zaposlenih o družbeni odgovornosti v izbranem hotelskem podjetju v Portorožu v Sloveniji. Rezultati ka- žejo,dajezazaposlenepomembno,dasozaposlenivpodjetju,kisodelujeprirazvoju lokalne skupnosti. Po drugi strani pa pogosto ne vedo, kako njihov delodajalec de- jansko izvaja aktivnosti, ki so povezane s socialnimi vidiki družbene odgovornosti podjetij. Ključne besede: družbena odgovornost podjetij, zaposleni, hotelirstvo, Portorož, Slovenija Academica Turistica, 13(1), 111–116
120 | Academica Turistica, Year 13, No. 1, June 2020 Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
Instructions for Authors on a separate page should be returned to the Editorial Board.
Aim and Scope of the Journal Permissions. Authors wishing to include figures, ta- Academica Turistica – Tourism and Innovation Journal bles, or text passages that have already been published (at-tij) is a peer-reviewed journal that provides a fo- elsewhere, are required to obtain permission from the rum for the dissemination of knowledge on tourism copyright owner(s) and to include evidence that such and innovation from a social sciences perspective. It permission has been granted when submitting their especially welcomes contributions focusing on inno- papers. Any material received without such evidence vation in tourism and adaptation of innovations from will be assumed to originate from the authors. other fields in tourism settings. The journal welcomes both theoretical and appli- Submission declaration. Submission of a manuscript cative contributions and encourages authors to use va- implies that it has not been published previously rious quantitative and qualitative research methodo- (except in the form of abstract or as part of a publi- logies. Besides research articles, the journal also pu- shed lecture or academic thesis), that it is not under blishes review articles, commentaries, reviews of bo- consideration for publication elsewhere, that its publi- oks and conference reports. Purely descriptive manu- cation is approved by all its authors and tacitly or expli- scripts which do not contribute to the development of citly by the responsible authorities where the work was knowledge are not considered suitable. carried out. The corresponding author should ensure that all appropriate co-authors and no inappropriate General Guidelines and Policy of the Journal co-authors are included on the paper, and that all co- Manuscripts are accepted in both American and Bri- authors have seen and approved the final version of tish English; however, consistency throughout the pa- the paper and have agreed to its submission for publi- per is expected. All manuscripts are subject to an ini- cation. tial editorial screening for adherence to the journal Conflictofinterest. All authors are requested to dis- style, for anonymity, and for correct use of English. close any actual or potential conflict of interest inclu- As a result of this your paper will be either accepted ding any financial, personal or other relationships with for further consideration or returned for revision. To other people or organizations within three years of be- avoid unnecessary errors you are strongly advised to ginning the submitted work that could inappropriately have your manuscript proofread. influence, or be perceived to influence, their work. Manuscripts should be organized in the following order: title, abstract, keywords, main text, acknowled- Manuscript Preparation gements, references, and appendixes (as appropriate). Manuscripts should be prepared according to the style Reviewing. Each manuscript, meeting the technical prescribed by the Publication Manual of the Ameri- standards and falling within the aims and scope of the can Psychological Association (American Psychologi- journal, will be subject to double-blind review by two calAssociation,2009;seealsohttp://www.apastyle.org). reviewers. Authors can propose up to two reviewers Language and style. The first author is fully respon- for revision of their work and also up to two reviewers sible for the language and style in the context of the theywouldliketoavoid. instructions. A good scientific standard command of The referees are chosen by the Editorial Board. As- grammar and style is expected. sessments by the referees will be presented anonymo- usly to the author and, in the case of substantial reser- Text formatting. Please, use the automatic page num- vations, the article, with the list of corrections needed, bering function to number the pages. Use tab stops or will be returned to the author for correction. The cor- other commands for indents, not the space bar. Use the rected copy of the article with the list of corrections table function, not spreadsheets, to make tables. Use
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the equation editor or MathType for equations. Whe- andshouldbeidentifiedbystandardsymbols.Allta- never possible, use the si units (Système international bles should be numbered consecutively (Table 1, Table d’unités). 2, etc.).
Thetitlepage should include the title of the article (no Figures. Captions are required for all Figures and shall more than 85 characters, including spaces), full name appear on a separate manuscript page, beneath table of the author(s), affiliation (institution name and ad- captions. Each figure should be saved as a separate dress) of each author clearly identified; linked to each file without captions and named as Figure 1, etc. Files author by use of superscript numbers, corresponding should be submitted in *.tiff or *.jpeg format. Pho- author’s full name, telephone, and e-mail address. tographs should be saved at at least 300 dpi. Line art images should be saved at 1200 dpi. Lettering (sym- Abstract. The authors are obliged to prepare two ab- bols, letters, and numbers) should be between 8 and stracts – one in English and one (translated) in Slo- 9 points, with consistent spacing and alignment. Font vene language. For foreign authors translation of the face may be Serif (Minion) or Sans Serif (Myriad). abstract into Slovene will be provided. Line width should be 0.5 point or greater. Any extra The content of the abstract should be structured white or black space surrounding the image should be into the following sections: purpose, methods, results, cropped. Ensure that subject-identifying information and conclusion. It should only contain the information (i.e., faces, names, or any other identifying features) thatappearsin the textaswell.Itshould containno re- is cropped out or opaqued. Prior to publication, the ference to figures, tables and citations published in the author(s) should obtain all necessary authorizations main text, and should not exceed 250 words. for the publication of the illustrative matter and sub- Beneath the abstract, the authors should supply mit them to the Editorial Board. All figures should be appropriate keywords (3–6) in English and in Slovene. numbered consecutively (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). The For foreign authors the translation of the abstract into journal will be printed in black and white. If the pa- Slovene will be provided. per contains graphs, we would appreciate that you also The main text should contain a coherent and logi- e-mail them in a separate Excel file. cal structure preferably following the imradformat (Introduction, Methods, Research [and] Discussion). References However, other structures are also welcome (e.g. In- References should be formatted according to the Pu- troduction, Development and Conclusions) as long as blication Manual of the American Psychological Associ- the text maintains its logical structure and focus. Ac- ation (American Psychological Association, 2019). knowledgments are optional. The list of references should only include works The length of the articles should not exceed 9,000 that are cited in the text. Personal communications words (including tables, figures, and references), dou- and unpublished works should only be mentioned in ble spaced, using Times New Roman font sized 12. the text. References should be complete and contain all Tables. Each table should be submitted on a sepa- the authors that have been listed in the title of the ori- rate page in a Word document after References. Each ginal publication. If the author is unknown, start with table shall have a brief caption; explanatory matter the title of the work. If you are citing a work that is in should be in the footnotes below the table. The table printbuthasnotyetbeenpublished,stateallthedata shall contain means and the units of variation (sd, and instead of the publication year write ‘in print.’ se, etc.) and must be free of nonsignificant decimal Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the places. Abbreviations used in the tables must be consi- last name of the first author of each work. Do not use stent with those used in the text and figures. Definition footnotes or endnotes as a substitute for a reference symbols should be listed in the order of appearance, list. Full titles of journals are required (not their abbre- determined by reading horizontally across the table viations).
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Citing References in Text Chapters in Books One author. Tourism innovation specific is mentioned Poirier, R. A. (2001). A dynamic tourism develop- (Brooks, 2010). Thomas (1992) had concluded . . . ment model in Tunisia: Policies and prospects. In Two authors. This result was later contradicted (Swar- Y. Aposotolopoulos, P. Loukissas, & L. Leontidou brooke & Horner, 2007). Price and Murphy (2000) (Eds.), Mediterranean tourism (pp. 197–210). Rou- pointedout... tledge. Threeormoreauthors.Wolchik et al. (1999) or (Wol- chik et al., 1999). Conference Proceedings Price, G., & Murphy, P. (2000). The relationship be- If two references with three or more authors shor- tween ecotourism and sustainable development: A ten to the same form, cite the surnames of the first critical examination. In M. Ewen (Ed.), cauthe author and of as many of the subsequent authors as 2000: Peak performance in tourism and hospitality necessary to distinguish the two references, followed research; Proceedings of the Tenth Australian Tou- by a coma and et al. rism and Hospitality Research Conference (pp. 189– List several authors for the same thought or idea 202). La Trobe University. with separation by using a semicolon: (Kalthof et al., 1999; Biegern & Roberts, 2005). Paper Presentation Thomas,J.(1992,July).Tourism and the environment: Examples of Reference List An exploration of the willingness to pay of the ave- rage visitor. Paper presented at the conference To- Books urism in Europe, Durham, England. American Psychological Association. (2019). Publica- Theses and Dissertations tion manual of the American Psychological Associ- ation (7th ed.). Sedmak, G. (2006). Pomen avtentičnosti turističnega Swarbrooke, J., & Horner, S. (2007). Consumer behavi- proizvoda: primer destinacije Piran (Unpublished our in tourism. Butterworth-Heinemann. doctoral dissertation). University of Ljubljana. Working Papers Journals Salamon,L.M.,Sokolowski,S.W.,Haddock,M.A.,& Laroche,M.,Bergeron,J.,&Barbaro-Forleo,G.(2001). Tice,H.S.(2013).The state of global civil society vo- Targeting consumers who are willing to pay more lunteering: Latest findings from the implementation for environmentally friendly products. Journal of of the un nonprofitt handbook (Comparative Non- Consumer Marketing, 18(6), 503–520. profit Sector Working Paper No. 49). Johns Hop- Wolchik,S.A.,West,S.G.,Sandler,I.N.,Tein,J.– kins University. Y.,Coatsworth,D.,Lengua,L.,...Griffin,W.A. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory- Web Pages based mother and mother-child programs for chil- Croatian Bureau of Statistics. (2001). Census of popu- dren of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical lation, households and dwellings. http://www.dzs Psychology, 68, 843–856. .hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/census.htm
Newspapers Manuscript Submission Brooks, A. (2010, 7 July). Building craze threatens The main manuscript document should be in Micro- to end Lanzarote’s biosphere status. Independent. soft Word document format and the article should be http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/ submitted to http://academica.turistica.si/index.php/ nature/building-craze-threatens-to-end AT-TIJ/about/submissions -lanzarotes-biosphere-status-2020064.html
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