Czech Society of Landscape Engineers
and
Department of Landscape Management Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology Mendel University in Brno
Public recreation and landscape protection – with man hand in hand!
Conference proceeding
Editors: Ing. Jitka Fialová, MSc., Ph.D.; Dana Pernicová
3rd – 5th May 2015 Brno
Under the auspices of Radomír Klvač, the Dean of the FFWT Mendel University in Brno, of Richard Brabec, the Minister of the Environment, of Marián Jurečka, the Minister of agriculture of the Czech Republic, of Michal Hašek, the Governor of the South Moravia Region, and of Petr Vokřál, the Mayor of the City of Brno. in cooperation with Czech Bioclimatological Society, Training Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny, AOPK ČR (Agency for Nature Conservation and Landscape Protection of the Czech Republic) – Administration of the Moravian Karst Protected Landscape Area, and the Czech Environmental Partnership Foundation with the financial support of the City of Brno
of the project COST CZ (LD14054 – Non-wood forest products in the Czech Republic)
and FS Bohemia Ltd.,
The conference is included in the Continuing Professional Education in Czech Chamber of Architects and is rated with 3 credit points.
The authors are responsible for the content of the article and the citation form. All the articles were peer-reviewed.
Editors of the proceeding: Ing. Jitka Fialová, MSc., Ph.D.; Dana Pernicová ISBN 978-80-7509-251-9 ISBN 978-80-7509-249-6 (Online) ISSN 2336-6311 (Print) ISSN 2336-632X (Online)
Contents
ARCTIC FOX IN ICELAND – PROTECTION OF FURRY TOURIST ATTRACTION Kamila Botková, Ester Rut Unnsteinsdóttir ...... 7
ASSESSING INFORMAL TRAIL NETWORKS IMPACTS ON PROTECTED AREAS LANDSCAPES: A CASE-STUDY FROM PORTUGAL Luís Monteiro...... 10
AVALANCHES IN JESENÍKY MOUNTAINS Libor Školoud...... 14
CULTIVATION OF ENDANGERED PLANT SPECIES AS THE REGIONAL PRODUCT Petr Jelínek, Nikol Buksová, Kateřina Táborská...... 17
DIFFERENCES IN THE NATURAL AREAS PROTECTION IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND ROMANIA: A SOCIOECONOMIC VIEW Petra Hlaváčková, Ciprian Palaghianu...... 23
ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN THE PROMOTIONAL FOREST COMPLEXES Małgorzata Woźnicka, Emilia Janeczko, Krzysztof Janeczko...... 29
ECOSYSTEM RECREATIONAL SERVICES OF A CULTURAL FOREST - CASE STUDY FROM THE VELKÝ KOSÍŘ NATURE PARK, CZECH REPUBLIC Ivo Machar, Vilém Pechanec, Zdeněk Opršal, Jan Brus ...... 35
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN THE FORESTRY ARBORETUMS OF SLOVAKIA Mariana Jakubisová ...... 39
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS IN URBAN AREA Vlasta Ondrejka Harbuľáková, Martina Zeleňáková, Jozef Viceš...... 44
EVALUATION OF REAL AND POSSIBLE FUNCTIONS AT SELECTED SMALL WATER RESERVOIRS Jana Marková, Věra Hubačíková ...... 49
EVALUATION OF REVITALIZATION MEASURES IN TERMS OF RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL IN TŘEBÍČSKO MODEL REGION Ivana Lampartová, Kateřina Blažková ...... 53
FREE TIME OF ELDERLY PEOPLE – WAYS OF COUNTERACTING THEIR SOCIO – ECONOMIC EXCLUSION Magdalena Kowalska, Jacek Puchała...... 59
GEOEDUCATION AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Aleš Bajer ...... 64
GEOMYTHOLOGY: AN USEFUL TOOL FOR GEOCONSERVATION AND GEOTOURISM PURPOSES Karel Kirchner, Lucie Kubalíková ...... 68
GUIDED TOURS TO THE WILDERNESS IN THE ŠUMAVA NATIONAL PARK Josef Štemberk...... 75
HABITAT MAPPING OF SKALICKÁ MORÁVKA NATURAL NATIONAL MONUMENT AS A BASIS FOR RECREATIONAL LAND USE Jaroslav Blahuta, Miloslav Šlezingr, Lenka Gernešová ...... 80
HEAVY HORSES IN CITY FORESTS OF OSTRAVA Jiří Kadlec, Zlata Matysová ...... 87
CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT OF CLIMBING SECTORS Ivo Kohn, Aleš Bajer...... 90
CHINA CLAY PITS – FILL UP THEM OR FULFIL THEIR TOURIST POTENTIAL? Kamila Botková...... 96
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MODIFIED HESSEN METHOD IN GIS AS TOOL FOR SPATIAL DECISION SUPPORT IN THE LANDSCAPE Vilém Pechanec, Helena Kilianová, Eva Alková ...... 99
IMPLEMENTING RISK MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES TO MTB TRAIL INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC Tomáš Kvasnička, Hana Hermová...... 104
IMPORTANT ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF THE NATIONAL PARK. ADMINISTRATIONS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC David Březina, Petra Hlaváčková...... 108
IN PRAISE OF TREES – EXCURSION GUIDE Milan Rajnoch...... 114
INFLUENCE OF RECREATION ON WATER QUALITY ON THE BÍLÝ STREAM WATERSHED Věra Hubačíková, Petra Oppeltová, Lucie Navrátilová...... 117
INFLUENCE OF STABILIZATION THE BANKS ON THE QUALITY OF WATER IN THE RESERVOIR Miloslav Šlezingr, Jaroslav Blahuta, Hana Uhmannová ...... 123
INTEGRATED TOURISM STRATEGY BASED ON COMMUNITY PLANNING Alice Kozumplíková, Tereza Schielová ...... 127
MAGICAL TRAILS IN CHŘIBY MOUNTAINS Hedvika Psotová ...... 131
MANAGEMENT OF ECOTOURISTIC RESOURCES IN SOUTHER DOBROGEA, ROMANIA Marius Popescu...... 134
MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL MATERIALS IN THE PAVEMENT OF LOW VOLUME ROADS Lenka Ševelová, Iztueta Elixabete ...... 139
METHODOLOGY OF COPPICE BIOTOPES SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT FOR ORGANISM’S SPECIES FIXED ON COPPICE DEFINED ENVIRONMENTS Petr Kupec, Jan Kadavý, Robert Knott, Michal Kneifl...... 144
METHODS FOR VISITOR MONITORING IN PROTECTED AREAS Markéta Braun Kohlová, Jan Melichar, Hana Škopková, Vojtěch Máca...... 148
METHOLOGICAL PROCEDURE FOR THE ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF THE TFE IMPORTANCE IN LOCAL ECONOMY Petra Hlaváčková, David Březina...... 153
MICROCLIMATE MONITORING FOR EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT EFFECT ON MOHELNO SERPENTINE STEPPE Hana Středová, Jaroslav Knotek, Tomáš Středa...... 157
MONITORING OF THE NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC Jiří Kadlec, Jitka Fialová...... 161
NEW METHODS OF SURFACE AND TERRAIN MAPPING AND ITS USE IN LANDSCAPE AND NATURE CONSERVATIONS Tomáš Mikita ...... 164
NUMBER OF TOURISTS AS FACTOR INFLUENCING TRAILS´ CONDITION Juraj Švajda, Peter Bačkor, David Zahradník, Marek Banaš...... 169
OPTIONS OF ENSURING SAFE USE OF BEACH SHORES Miloslav Šlezingr, Petr Pelikán, Lenka Gernešová ...... 175
PLACES WITH ICE IN PROTECTED AREAS AND VISITORS Václav Ždímal...... 178
PRECISION OF TRAVEL COST MEASURES IN ESTIMATION THE RECREATION DEMAND: THE CASE OF ŠUMAVA NATIONAL PARK Kateřina Kaprová...... 181
PROPOSAL OF "METHODOLOGY OF IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF TREAT RISK ON CULTURAL MONUMENTS NATURAL COMMUNITIES" Petr Kupec, Jan Deutscher, Monika Veličková ...... 187
PROTECTION OF RECREATIONAL AREA OSADA WITH USING ACTIVE ANTIABRASIVE STABILIZATION OF BANKS Lenka Gernešová, Jana Marková ...... 192
RAINWATER MANAGEMENT AND RECREATION IN MAINLY AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE Václav Tlapák, Jan Šálek, Miloslav Šlezingr, Petr Pelikán, Lenka Gernešová...... 196
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNIQUE WATER FLUME AT HARMANEC AS THE EXAMPLE OF THE ATTRACTIVENESS Jiří Junek, Jitka Fialová, Hana Kubíčková ...... 201
RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL INCREASE OF THE AREA WITH THE HELP OF SPECIFIED ELEMENTS OF ATTRACTIVENESS Hana Kubíčková, Jitka Fialová...... 205
REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS FOR STAIRS AND STAIRWAYS IN NATURE Pavla Kotásková...... 210
REROUTING FINLAND´S AGROFORESTRY SCHEME Henri Vanhanen, Rainer Peltola...... 215
RESTORATION OF ABANDONED MEANDERS – THE VIEW OF PUBLIC RECREATION AND LANDSCAPE PROTECTION Pavla Pilařová, Kristýna Bláhová ...... 220
SOIL EROSION RISK IN THE CATCHMENT AREA OF THE WATER RESERVOIRS Martina Zeleňáková, Vlasta Ondrejka Harbuľáková, Zuzana Kárászová ...... 227
SOUNDSCAPE: IMPORTANT ATTRIBUTE OF PLA MORAVIAN KARST LANDSCAPE CHARACTER Eva Kostková...... 233
TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF FOREST TIMBER HAULING ROADS AND THEIRS RECREATIONAL SUITABILITY Petr Hrůza ...... 238
THE CONFLICTS IN FLOOD ROUTING THROUGH THE RECREATIONAL RESERVOIR HOSTIVAŘ IN PRAGUE Jaromír Říha...... 242
THE DENDROFLORA SUCCESSION IMPACTS ON CULTURAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN MALÁ FATRA NATIONAL PARK (WESTERN CARPATHIANS) Ivan Vološčuk, Peter Sabo, Martina Škodová, Juraj Švajda, Anna Dobošová ...... 247
THE RESTORATION OF AN OLD EXTENSIVE ORCHARDS - THE REALIZATION PERSPECTIVE Jan Deutscher ...... 254
THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE RESILIENCE MODULE Ortiz de Zarate Gorka, Lenka Ševelová...... 258
TOURIST AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT OF ROZTOCZANSKI NATIONAL PARK - PRESENT STATE AND PERSPECTIVES Emilia Janeczko, Małgorzata Woźnicka, Krzysztof Janeczko...... 265
TRAINING FOREST ENTERPRISE MASARYK FOREST KŘTINY – EXCURSION GUIDE Pavel Mauer ...... 269
TRAINING FOREST ENTERPRISE MASARYK FOREST KŘTINY AND THE VISITORS MONITORING Jitka Fialová...... 271
TREAT RISK ASSESSMENT ON CULTURAL MONUMENTS NATURAL COMMUNITIES - EXAMPLES OF EVALUATION Petr Kupec, Monika Veličková, Jaroslav Blahuta...... 274
UTILIZATION OF DARK SKY PARKS IN NATURE TOURISM Martin Labuda...... 280
VISITORS' PERCEPTION OF CHOSEN SUBURBAN RECREATIONAL LOCALITIES OF BRATISLAVA CITY Katarína Pavličková, Viera Novanská Chrenščová...... 286
WATER QUALITY AND RECREATION FUNCTIONS IN THE PROCESS OF ABANDONED SMALL WATER RESERVOIRS AND PONDS RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT PROPOSAL Miloš Rozkošný, Hana Hudcová, Pavel Sedláček, Miriam Dzuráková ...... 292
WATER QUALITY EVALUATION OF SELECTED WELLS AROUND BRNO RESERVOIR Petra Oppeltová, Věra Hubačíková, Sabina Valešová ...... 296
WIND FACTOR IN A PROCESS OF SHORE ABRASION IN RECREATIONAL AREA OSADA – BRNO DAM RESERVOIR Lenka Gernešová, Petr Pelikán...... 302
WINTER RECREATION AND AVALANCHE DANGER IN THE WESTERN TATRAS Matúš Jakubis...... 306
ARCTIC FOX IN ICELAND – PROTECTION OF FURRY TOURIST ATTRACTION
Kamila Botková 1, Ester Rut Unnsteinsdóttir 2 1 Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 The Arctic Fox Centre in Súdavík, Iceland
Abstract The Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) live circumpolar in artic regions and it is the only native terrestrial mammal in Iceland, not only an animal of great beauty and elegance but a beast well adapted for a life in the kingdom of ice and cold as well. In Iceland, the population has got about 12000 individuals in autumn. The highest density of arctic fox in Europe can be found in Westfjords of Iceland, in the Hornstandir Nature Reserve. In the remote reserve, Arctic foxes have been protected since 1994. Here, in the area of 580 km2, 40-50 pairs mate and hunt mainly on rich bird cliffs. Nature based tourism is an increasing industry in Iceland and the foxes of Hornstandir Nature Reserve are becoming more and more popular among visitors. The Arctic Fox Centre, established in 2007 in closeby village Súdavík, is a non-profit research and exhibition centre. The centre organizes a monitoring of the Hornstrandir Reserve fox population every summer season, studying parental behaviour and newly also the effect of tourists on fox life. The aim is to describe this effect and to find the balance between tourist interest and fox need of peace for their life.
Key words: Hornstrandir nature reserve, polar fox, nature based tourism
Introduction The arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) is a small (3-4 kg) carnivore with a circumpolar distribution (Angerbjörn & Tannerfeldt 2014). The species is characteristic of the arctic but is also found as south as in Iceland where the species is the only native terrestrial mammal. The arctic foxes of Iceland are true descendants of the ice age as they remained at the island as the ice cap redraw towards north thousands of years ago. The arctic foxes are found in two colour morphs, the "white" and the "blue". The white foxes are almost completely white in the winter but bi- coloured in the summer, dorsally brownish and ventrally whitish. The blue morph is dark brown and keeps its colour throughout the year but the sun bleaches the colour in late winter so it´s not easy to distinguish the colours in that time of the year. The white colour results from recessive allele, so blue parents can have both white and blue pups. White parents, however, have only white pups and mixed pairs have mixed pups (Arctic Fox Centre 2014). The arctic foxes are found throughout Iceland but the density is probably highest in the Westfjords. The region has some of the largest bird cliffs of the country and proportionally longest coast line. It is likely that food availability is the most important explanatory factor in determining density but winter food is extremely important for sustaining the population (Unnsteinsdóttir & Hersteinsson 2013). In many other countries, the arctic foxes feed mainly on lemmings (Lemmus sp.), that are medium sized rodents and important food resource for arctic predators. There are no lemmings in Iceland and no competitive carnivores so the Icelandic arctic foxes have quite general food habits. The main food resources are birds and eggs, carrion, invertebrates and berries. Since the food abundance is highly seasonal, the foxes cache food for the winter. The coast is very important and a stable resource of edible things, such as carrion and various invertebrates, throughout the year (Arctic Fox Centre 2014). Monitoring of the fox population in Hornstrandir Nature Reserve in Westfjords is annually organized by the Arctic Fox Centre. The centre is focused on the arctic fox and it was established as a non-profit research and educational institution by Prof. Páll Hersteinsson (1952-2011) and Ester R. Unnsteinsdóttir in 2007. IThe centre has got its seat in the area of Westfjords of Iceland in Súðavík from June 2010. The main purpose is education – exhibition about the arctic fox and research. Other activities are represented by coffee shop, tourist information centre and the centre of social life in a village with 150 inhabitants in general. The centre organizes a monitoring of the Hornstrandir population every summer season, studying parental behaviour and the tourist effect on fox life.
Tourism in the Hornstrandir Nature Reserve The Hornstrandir Nature Reserve is one of few regions where the arctic foxes are protected in Iceland. The protection took place in the spring 1994 but until then, organized "den-hunting" had been performed in ages. Due to the protection, the arctic foxes in Hornstrandir have become tame and curious of the people passing by during the summer. Likewise, the tourists are interested in the foxes and their photogenic nature (Arctic Fox Centre 2014).
- 7 - The growth of ecotourism in the Westfjords not only brings new ways of economic revenue but also potential threats for the fragile wildlife within the area (Isaacs 2000), especially in biodiversity reservoirs. The increase of tourism in the Westfjords of Iceland has great potential for positive development (Madrigal & Kühn 2014). Overall, tourism in the area has increased since 1999. A total of 12,714 tourists stayed on average 1.4 nights in the area in 1999. By 2012, the total overnight stays in the Westfjords went up to 77,062, with an average stay of 1.7 nights (Statistics Iceland 2014). This increase in tourism can be both economically and ecologically beneficial, because it can provide a source of revenue that can be invested in the development of local communities and nature preservation (Madrigal & Kühn 2014). However, the effect of increased tourism on the wildlife and nature of the area is unknown. If the tourism industry is not properly managed, it can degrade the area and create conflict between conservation and development (Isaacs 2000). The negative effects of tourism on fragile areas such as the Hornstrandir Nature Reserve is a great concern.
Fig.1: Arctic Fox Centre in Súðavík Fig.2: Orphaned puppy, white morph (foto:author) (foto:author)
Research The Hornstrandir Nature Reserve is in a remote peninsula of the North-Westfjords, giving it some conservation advantages such as limited access to the area, and a controlled flow of tourists. Both of these advantages, make it possible to study tourist behaviour within the area (Madrigal & Kühn 2014). Taking into consideration increasing tourist interest in the area, the reseach of the effects of tourist on fox parental behaviour started in 2008. First study focused on parental behaviour of adult fox pair during summer, when tourist and fox activity were monitored during five consecutive days every month (Unnsteinsdóttir 2014). First results show some changes: longer time in the den or increased scent marking and decreased barking in the time of tourist activities (Unnsteinsdóttir 2014). Even though more and longer monitoring periods are needed to be able to explain properly the tourist effect, it is obvious that tourist visits and their activity control and cooperation with local tourist guides will be neccesary for satisfied foxes and thus sustainable management of the reserve.
References Angerbjorn, A. & Tannerfeldt, M. (2014): Vulpes lagopus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.2.
Acknowledgement A special thank you from the first author goes to the Arctic Fox Centre in Súðavík and the whole fox pack (especially Midge, Ester, Genka and fluffy Freddy) for a wonderful time in autumn 2014.
- 8 - Souhrn Liška polární je jediným původním suchozemským savcem Islandu. Nejpočetnější populace je v oblasti západních fjordů, a to v rezervaci Hornstrandir. Tato rezervace byla vyhlášena roku 1975 a dnes je nejdůležitějším útočištěm pro lišky polární v zemi. Rozkládá se na 580 km2 poloostrova a žije v ní přibližně 40-50 rozmnožujících se párů. Území, které od 40. let 20. století není obydleno a jehož návštěva je možná pouze lodí, případně nekolikadenním náročným pochodem, představuje se svými útesy bohatými na hnízdící ptáky ideální prostředí pro lišku, a tak i pro její pozorování. Centrum zaměřené výhradně na polární lišky (Arctic Fox Centre) sídlí od roku 2010 v oblasti západních fjordů Islandu, ve vesničce Súðavík. Bylo založeno jako nezisková výzkumná a vzdělávací instituce v roce 2007 Prof. Pállem Hersteinssonem (1952-2011) a jeho studentkou Ester R. Unnsteinsdóttir, předními islandskými odborníky na lišku polární. Mezi hlavní programovou náplň centra patří vzdělávací činnost - expozice o liškách a výzkum. Doplňkovými činnostmi jsou provoz kavárny, turistického informačního centra a centra společenského dění obce se 150 obyvateli vůbec. V průběhu letních měsíců centrum každoročně organizuje monitoring populace lišek v přírodní rezervaci Hornstrandir. Monitoring zahrnuje například stanovení hustoty populace, využití nor nebo efekt turismu na chování norujících lišek. Lišky jsou pro turisty velkým lákadlem, čímž se zachování Hornstrandirské populace stává veřejným zájmem a faktorem rozvoje regionu. Vzhledem ke zvyšující se popularitě a návštěvnosti rezervace byl v roce 2008 započat výzkum zaměřen na vliv turistů na rozmnožovací a rodičovské chování lišek. Prvotní výsledky odhalují změny v chování lišek, delší čas strávený v noře, zvýšenou míru pachového teritoriálního značení a méně teritoriálního štěkání. Ukazuje se, že regulace turistické návštěvnosti či pohybu návštěvníků rezervace a spolupráce s místními průvodci bude nejen pro spokojený život lišek, a tím zachování jedinečného charakteru rezervace, nutností.
Contact: Ing. Kamila Botková E-mail: [email protected]
- 9 - ASSESSING INFORMAL TRAIL NETWORKS IMPACTS ON PROTECTED AREAS LANDSCAPES: A CASE-STUDY FROM PORTUGAL
Luís Monteiro Department of Land Use and Improvement, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 21 Praha 6 – Suchdol, Czech Republic
Abstract Visitor-created informal trails, sometimes referred to as “social trails”, represent an important threat to the visitor experiences and natural resources of recreational areas by removing vegetation, moving wildlife, altering the hydrological cycle, introducing invasive species and fragmenting landscapes. This paper presents the preliminary stage of a project that intends to develop the current understanding of informal trails and their potential impacts on protected natural landscapes. The methodological approach has its application in a Portuguese protected area, the Arrábida Natural Park, and consists of three sub-steps: (1) collection of GPS-based data from a webshare service based on a WebGIS and a spatial analysis using a geographic information system; (2) an on-site visual survey of informal trails using condition class assessment method; and (3) an assessment of the diversity of trail-based fragmentation across the area using landscape fragmentation metrics to summarize the relative impacts on a landscape scale. When using the proposed approach it will be possible to produce a comprehensive coverage of information with reasonably high accuracy about the absolute and relative levels of impacts from informal trails at the landscape scale (fragmentation indices) and at the local scale (trails condition assessment).
Key words: trail networks; assessing trail impacts; webshare platforms; Global information systems, Arrábida Natural Park.
Introduction With increasing numbers of visitors engaging in protected area activities, potential environmental impacts can appear on trails where recreation activities are performed most of the time (Marion and Leung, 2001). Formal trail networks can minimize visitor impacts and curtail widespread degradation by concentrating use on appropriate walking surfaces. (Marion and Leung, 2004). However, when formal trail networks fail to provide the desired access and experiences, visitors tend to venture off-trail, leading to the creation of informal trails due to foot trampling (Wimpey and Marion, 2010). This type of impact can affect ecosystem components through the removal of vegetation, displacement of wildlife, alteration of hydrology, spread of invasive species and can also exacerbate ecological fragmentation effects by expanding the influence into relatively undisturbed habitats (Wimpey and Marion, 2010; Walden-Schreiner et al, 2012). Creation and proliferation of informal trails can be characterized according to their spatial scale, patterns of distribution, motivation of trail users, and the types of environmental impacts (Walden- Schreiner et al, 2012). Although, even if they are present in nearly all protected areas, research focused on informal trail networks remains mainly absent (Marion et al., 2006). This may be due to the fact, that informal trail segments are often comparatively numerous, short, and frequently disposed in complex patterns, creating sampling and assessment difficulties (Leung and Marion, 1999). Through the years, informal trails mapping and on-site monitoring were commonly performed by using a hand held Global Positioning System (GPS) unit and covering the entire trail system networks by walk (Wimpey and Marion, 2011). Since limited human and financial resources are a major constraint of protected area management this technique is many times costly in terms of time and resources invested. However, nowadays, a new source of data is available based on GPS-based data from webshare services and can be used to understand the patterns of visitor movements. In this way, it is possible to identifying the spatial distribution of informal trails as a result of recreation use in a effectively, cheap and accurate way. This paper presents the preliminary stage of a project that intends to develop the current understanding of informal trails and their potential impacts on protected natural landscapes. Specifically, it provides an introduction to the project and presents the results of the preliminary stage: GPS data collection from a free webshare service based on a WebGIS, and spatial analysis of GPS tracks using a Global Information Systems (GIS).
- 10 - Study area The proposed methodological approach has its application in the Arrábida Natural Park (PNA), an important protected area in Portugal, with 17 653 ha, located 37 km south of Lisbon (Figure 1). The entire area represents an important tourism and recreation destination, mainly due to its coastal and mountainous scenery and special location within Lisbon Metropolitan Area (near 2.5 million inhabitants).
Fig. 1: Location of Arrábida Natural Park
Material and methods To achieve the proposed objectives and because the research is on its preliminary stage, this conference paper provides an introduction to the project by presenting its first sub-step: the collection of GPS data from GPSies.com (GPSies) and their spatial analysis using a GIS. Thus, in order to characterize the spatial distribution of visitor-created trails within the PNA limits a main dataset was collected from GPSies website, a free webshare service containing GPS tracks from visitors who wanted to share their movements. Each track is classified within 32 different activities, length, altitude profile, category and can be and downloaded in a variety of formats. Search queries on GPSies were conducted on March 19th 2015, using a radius of 25 km from Palmela and considering no more than 10 activities (hiking, mountain biking, walking, motor biking, sightseeing, running, cycling, climbing, geocaching and racing bike). However, in order to ensure that all submitted tracks were downloaded, a selective track length was used, to limit each query to less than 250 tracks. This is due to the fact that the website restricts downloads to a maximum of 250 tracks, limiting the time window for each dataset if the query result is a higher number. All tracks were downloaded in a "gpx" format and then converted into shape-files for editing and analyses using a GIS software with the aim to eliminate duplicate results. This allowed create a shape-file with the entire trail networks based on GPSies users tracks. After the elimination of duplicates, the park boundary polygon was used as a base layer and all tracks that overlaid the official park infrastructure, including official road and trail network, were removed. The result was a final shape-file compiling all potential informal trails. Besides, for absorb the GPS spatial errors of tracks collected by assisted GPS cell and smartphones, under different atmospheric conditions and canopy cover, a 15 trail width buffers was created. Removal of buffered tracks was accomplished using ArcMAP 10.3 by selecting and removing tracks that intercepted each park infrastructure. The result was a shape files representing all park’s potential informal trails that will be used on the subsequent phases. Finally the results were overlaid with the park zonation plan to summarize the lineal extent informal trails in different management zones of the park.
Results and discussion Following the considered search queries and after the elimination of duplicates, the total dataset downloaded consisted of 7157 individual tracks, representing a total accumulated of 52 744.8 km, with 4004 tracks (56%) passing through the study area. This final dataset was submitted from March 2006 to March 2015 by 408 identified users that upload 6632 tracks and the remained by 105 anonymous. The large number of users and their varied sources demonstrates the high attraction of PNA for its trail networks. Regarding the extension of the trail network, based on GPSies users tracks, a total of 8230 km are contained within PNA limits and approximately 85% intersected the official road and paths networks. From this, 7007.3 km are considered formal park infrastructure and 1223 km might configure illegal trails - potential informal trails - that will be assessed on the subsequent phase (Table 1). The results
- 11 - shows that despite most users prefer to use the official park infrastructure, illegal use of trails and paths network is still happening leading to the creation and proliferation of visitor-created informal trails. When plotting results against park zonation plan, 51% of the potential informal network is on complementary protection, 36% on partial protection and the remain 13% on full protection. This results represent all potential management conflicts between current uses and each management zone.
Tab. 1: Summary of formal and informal tracks
Track type N Length (km)
Formal infrastructure 20302 7007
Potential informal trails 17076 1223
Conclusion The demand for the practice of outdoor recreation activities in protected areas is increasing and because most of these activities are concentrated on trails, potential impacts can appear on local condition leading to a decrease on the quality of visitors experience. Besides, once research regarding informal trails remains mainly absent, it becomes essential to have a clear and objective methodology with common principles, to better examined their effects in protected landscapes. In this case, accurate and low-cost voluntary geographical data showed to provide important clues regarding how the territory is being used, making it a valuable tool to evaluate the ecological significance and fragmentation effects of trail networks. Like this sustainable management action can be instigated in order to minimize the creation and proliferation of visitor-created informal trails as a result of outdoor activities within recreational and protected areas.
References Hammitt, W.E., Cole, D.N. (1998): Wildland Recreation: Ecology and Management, second ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Leung, Y.F., Marion, J.L. (1999): Characterizing backcountry camping impacts in Great Smoky Mountains national park, USA. Journal of Environmental Management 57, 193e203. Leung, Y.F., Marion, J.L. (2000): Recreation Impacts and Management in Wilderness: A state-of- knowledge review. In: Cole, D. N., McCool, S. F., Freimund, W. A., Borrie, W. T., O'Loughlin, J. Wilderness science in a time of change conference. Missoula, MT. 23-27 May 1999, Proceedings RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Vol. 5: Wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden, UT, USA. Marion, J.L., Leung, Y.F. (2001): Trail resource impacts and an examination of alternative assessment techniques. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration (Special Issue on Parks and Greenways) 19. Marion, J.L., Leung, Y.-F. (2004) : Environmentally sustainable trail management. In: Buckley, R. (Ed.), Environmental Impact of Tourism. CABI Publishing, Cambridge, MA, pp. 229e244. Marion, J.L., Leung, Y.-F., Nepal, S. (2006): Monitoring trail conditions: new methodological considerations. George Wright Forum 23, 13. Turk, E., Uysal, M., Hammitt, W., and Vaske, J. (2011): Research Methods for Leisure, Recreation, and Tourism, London, U.K: CABI Publishing. Walden-Schreiner, C., Leung, Y.-F., Newburger, T., Woiderski, B. (2012): Developing an accessible methodology for monitoring visitor use patterns in open landscapes of Yosemite National Park. Park Science, 29(1), 53-61. Wimpey, J., Marion, J. L. (2010): The influence of use, environmental and managerial factors on the width of recreational trails. Journal of Environmental Management, 91, 2028–2037. Wimpey, J., Marion, J. L. (2011): A spatial exploration of informal trail networks within Great Falls Park, VA. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(3),1012–1022.
Acknowledgement This paper presents the initial results of a project funded by the internal Grant Agency of the Faculty of Environmental Science, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague.
- 12 - Souhrn Stále vzrůstající počet návštěvníků chráněných oblastí má zásadní dopad na dané prostředí. Tyto dopady jsou koncentrovány v okolí cest (Marion a Leung, 2001). Pokud však není zajištěn dostatek cest, dochází k pohybu návštěvníků mimo místa určená k pohybu. Tito návštěvníci pak mají tendence opouštět běžné trasy a vytvářet neformální cesty – vyšlapáváním (Wimpey a Marion, 2010). V chráněných oblastech pak mají tyto vyšlapané stezky přímý dopad na citlivá rostlinná společenstva, na vzácné druhy flóry fauny volně žijících živočichů a historické/archeologické památky (Hammitt a Cole, 1998; Leugh a Marion, 2000). I když existuje celá řada výzkumů zabývajících se právě chráněnými oblastmi, výzkum zabývající se problematikou neformálních cest zcela chybí (Marion a kol., 2006). Z tohoto důvodu je článek zaměřen právě na tuto problematiku a je úmyslem rozvíjet zde současné chápání neformálních cest a jejich možných dopadů na chráněné oblasti s ukázkou konkrétního příkladu Přírodního parku Arrábia (PPA), což je důležitá chráněná oblast v Portugalsku. Výzkum je zde prezentován ve formě výsledků první fáze projektu: sběr GPS dat pomocí GPSies.com (GPSies) a webovou službou poskytovanou zdarma a založenou na WebGIS; s následnou geoprostorovou analýzou pomocí systému Global Information Systems (GIS). Pro možnost charakterizovat území z hlediska rozložení pohybu návštěvníků mimo určené trasy v PPA, proběhl 19. března 2015 sběr dat pomocí GPSies. Celkový datový soubor byl tvořen 7157 jednotlivými trasami s celkovou délkou 52 744,8 km zahrnující 4004 tras (56 %), které se nachází ve zkoumané oblasti. Po odstranění duplicitních tras a oficiálních tras tvořících infrastrukturu parku vznikl výsledný soubor (shapefile) cest obsahující pouze neformální trasy. Celkově tedy oficiální trasy představují délku 7007,3 km a ty neoficiální (ilegální) trasy tvoří délku 1223 km. Právě ty budou posuzovány v další fázi výzkumu. Při vykreslování neformálních tras v porovnání se zonací chráněné oblasti parku, 13 % těchto tras zasahuje do zón s největší ochranou. V tomto případě byla použita volně přístupná zeměpisná data, která poskytla důležité informace o využití území, takže je možné je využít jako cenný nástroj pro hodnocení ekologické významnosti a negativní dopady cest, jež způsobují fragmentaci území. Díky tomu mohou být navržena opatření, která povedou k minimalizaci pohybu návštěvníků mimo určené trasy s následným vytvářením neoficiálních cest v důsledku rekreace a jiných sportovních aktivit v chráněných oblastech.
Contact: Luís Monteiro E-mail: [email protected]
- 13 - AVALANCHES IN JESENÍKY MOUNTAINS
Libor Školoud Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The avalanches occurrence in Czech Republic can not be compared with Alpine countries but on the other hand the avalanches also occur in theCzech mountains and represent an objective danger. Winter sports and mountaineering are the integral part of recreation, mainly in the highest parts of the Giant Mountains National Park and Protected Landscape Area Jeseníky. There are zones, where avalanches in human interaction represent considerable risks. The avalanche prevention thus predicting the risk of avalanches in the specific areas is essential for the avalanches risk reduction. Computing models of the avalanches break off zones were performed by equations in ArcGis 10.2 software. Modeling potential break off zones is used for identifying sites, where is the highest probability of the avalanches formation. This fact follows modeling of the avalanche paths in programme RAMMs (Rapid Mass Movement System), where the quality of input data is key for the avalanche paths simulation.Model results enable to predict speed, pressure and mainly the amount of material which possibly sline down.
Key words: avalanches, Jeseniky Mountains, break off zones
Introduction On the PLA Mountains National Nature Reserve Praděd is situated a specific part of the mountain range. Treeless rocky amphitheater which is wedged deep into the forest. This glacial valley is called the Velká kotlina and attracts visitors with its natural beauty as a source of inspiration, mental refreshment or stimulus for overcoming limits. This mountain area is despite big touristic pressure one of the last places where nature has preserved its natural character. Climatic conditions in this area could be consider as an extreme whole year. But the grandeur and glory of this place still attracts visitors, tourists and sportsmen. When moving in mountains is necessary to ensure the safety, because any underestimation of the situation in these conditions could have tragic consequences. Very dangerous phenomenon in winter period are avalanches. The avalanches cause a significant risk of movement in mountains. The Velka kotlina has six registered avalanche paths. From 1953 on these paths have recorded almost all of avalanche landslide, according to international classification. Characteristics of individual pathways and their spatial depiction are also part of the classification. Software ArcGIS 10.2, with its functions is appropriate tool for modeling avalanche vulnerability. Software RAMMS 1. 6. 20 serves exclusively for modeling avalanche pathways. Critical for the resulting simulation is Quality of input data in both these programs. It should be noted that break off zones were based on the model created in the ArcGIS 10.2. The purpose is according to the chosen methodology create a possible break off zones, classify them into three categories of endangerment and according to available data to model potential avalanche paths.
Materials and methods Processing of break off zones digital model, avalanche paths simulation and their impact on the Velká kotlina consists of several consecutive steps. The first step was to obtain input data for modeling break off zones. Input data were obtained by airborne laser scanning as a digital elevation model of the fifth generation (5G DMR). Land cover data were based on digital surface model of the first generation (1G DMP). In classification process of airborne laser scanning data some errors occured - mostly on bare rocks with slope more than 45 °. The DMP 1G had to be adjusted by comparison with orthophoto images obtained from the CUZK in the program Terra scan. The layers which seemed like a mature tree stands were reclassify to values corresponding to bare rocks. After data editing a statistical model of potential break off zones was processed. Then a digital terrain model was created. From the DMT were derived layers as inputs to the model (slope, altitude, vertical and horizontal curvature, relief exposure), and digital surface model layer with the coordinates x, y, z of which may be reclassified different types of surface. The actual calculation required to reclassify each factors that enter the equation. The created avalanche danger model was also used to simulate avalanche paths and scope of the various avalanches in the program RAMMS (Rapid Mass Movement System).
- 14 - Results Key factor for calculating the avalanche danger is input data resolution and map of the surface area structure. In the process the digital surface model (DMP 1G) was used to create a map of the surface structure of the territory in all cases, The reclassifications distinguished different heights of rock and vegetation stands whether grass, shrub, or tree. The largest representation of avalanche danger was in medium vulnerability category (77% of the area). Maximum vulnerability is represented by 21% of the area and catastrophic vulnerability on the rocks by 2% of the area. Then the areas of potential avalanches break off zones were transferred into the program RAMMS 1. 6.20. Break off zones of individual selected avalanche pathaways was created on the basis of statistical information recorded by mountain rescue service and potential break off zones.
Discussion Currently new technologies and software development allows usage for avalanche issues as a different models creation, visualization, and statistical analyzes. Creation and visualization of models in this work was carried out from elevation data by Surveying Office. Hreško (1998) developed a model used to determine the avalanches break off zones. As the most important variables entering the equation was chosen a surface roughness. Methodology according to the Bárek and Rybár (2003) and subsequently Biskupič (2008) added as the most important variables slope in addition to the factor of surface roughness. The slope is considered as a primary topographical factor for avalanches formation. The results of break off zones in the Velká kotlina showed that the most represented is medium vulnerability of avalanche. This area with medium vulnerability is located on the slope with inclination of 30 ° - 50 °. The rocks and grassland 10-20 cm high are represented on the model surface with this vulnerability. This surface has according the methodology by Bárka and Rybár (2003) and Biskupič (2008), the highest value for avalanches. The parameters which have the most influence on the results besides the input data details, are snow depth in the break off zone and pull of snow in the avalanche path. Accurately would be to establish the detailed distribution of snow in the break off zone for a single grid cell. This step would, however, require detailed meteorological data of wind direction and intensity before the avalanches fall and at the same time data of the snowfall intensity in the period after . Some Swiss avalanche professionals ( from Eidg. Schnee- und Institut für Lawinenforschung, Weissfluhjoch, Davos) expressed doubt that the direct measurement of mechanical parameters of snow avalanche on a slope will lead in the future to exact avalanche forecasts. Practical implementation of such work appears as impractical to them. In the software RAMMS a simulation of avalanche with the largest volume registered during the years 1953 – 2013 was also carried out. The avalanche fell in the spring of 2005 and measured volume by Mountain Rescue Service at Ovčárna was 60,000 m3. The simulated volume reached the value of 48,000 m3, so the simulation undervalued it by 20%. Bártík et al. (2013) reported in their study that the changes in the alpine treeline could have potential impact on the avalanches parameters by using the model Elba +, the simulation undervalued avalanche by 10%. It should be noted that the model Elba i + and RAMMS. 1.6.20. are based on the same principle of Voellmy`s friction equation. In assessing the feasibility of the simulation results is needed to carry out any calibration modeling, or explore the reality of the situation, using historical data or traces of avalanche activity in the environment.
Conclusion The aim of the study was in GIS map a potential break off zone of avalanches in the Velká kotlina. After necessary adjustments of the input data (transfers, thinning, filtering), all analysis were carried out in ArcGIS 10.2 software focused on parameters of break off zones. The used equation is composed of topographic characteristics derived from the recorded avalanches. In particular, the analysis of altitude, relief exposure, terrain curvature, terrain slope and roughness were carried out. The result from model was used as a basis for individual avalanches modeling. The results of this work can be applied in areas such as avalanche prevention. Despite the number of avalanche fields and regular influx of visitors to the mountains in winter, it can be stated that the number of avalanche disasters in the Jeseníky mountains is quite negligible. It's certainly a direct result of security and administrative measures by Mountain Rescue Service. These include besides the technical equipment and personal training for rapid interventions mainly preventive measures, of which the greatest emphasis is on avalanche forecasting service. So in the rest of the PLA Jeseníky avalanche forecasting service could be established in the context of the results. These results can also be used for floristic and phytosociological surveys of differences on break off zones, pathaway and avalanches lodgement. The account can be taken of the avalanches reconstruction and their impact on the local landscape and influence of anemo-orographic systems on avalanches.
- 15 - References Biskupič, (2008): in Vybrané fytogeografické faktory ovlivňující vznik lavinových procesů v centrální části Nízkých Tater a analýza lavinového ohrožení [online], is.muni.cz, [cit. 2014-03-06], dostupné na: http://is.muni.cz/th/180899/prif_b/bp_oponent_Kacmarova_Kirch.pdf Bárka I., Rybár R. (2003): Identifikácia miest vzniku lavin pomocou Gis, In Nové trendy v krajinnej ekológii, Bratislava, UK. Bartlík a kol. (2013): Potenciálny vplyv zmien hornej hranice lesa na parametre lavin s použitím modelu Elba +, Zvolen, Technická univerzita vo Zvolene Hresko J. (1998): Ohrozenosť vysokohorskej krajiny v oblasti Tatier, In Acta Facultatis, Stud. Hum. et Naturae Univ. Prešoviensis, geographica 2, roč. XXIX, str. 326 - 332
Souhrn Při výpočtu lavinového ohrožení, je zásadní, rozlišení vstupních dat a mapa struktury povrchu území. Při tvorbě této práce byl, pro vytvoření mapy povrchu struktury území ve všech případech využit digitální model povrchu (DMP 1G), jehož reklasifikací byly odlišeny jednotlivé výšky skalních ohlazů a porostů vegetace ať už travních, keřových, či stromových. Největší zastoupení lavinového ohrožení má kategorie střední ohroženosti (77% plochy). Velká ohroženost je zastoupena 21% plochy a katastrofická ohroženost na skalních ohlazech 2% plochy. Plochy potencionálního odtrhu lavin byly následně převedeny do programu RAMMS 1.6.20. Zde se na základě statistických informací evidovaných horskou službou a potenciálních odtrhových ploch vytvořila místa odtrhu jednotlivých vybraných lavin. Zjištěné výsledky této práce se mohou uplatnit například v oblasti lavinové prevence. Přes počet lavinových polí i přes pravidelný příliv návštěvníků hor v zimním období, lze konstatovat, že počet lavinových neštěstí v Jeseníkách je celkem nepatrný. Je to bezpochyby přímý důsledek řady bezpečnostních a organizačních opatření Horské služby. Patří k nim vedle technického vybavení a osobního výcviku k rychlým lavinovým zásahům především preventivní opatření, z nichž největší důraz se klade na lavinovou předpovědní službu. Právě v rámci lavinové předpovědní služby může být na výsledky navázáno ve zbytku území CHKO Jeseníky.
Contact: Ing. Libor Školoud E-mail: [email protected]
- 16 - CULTIVATION OF ENDANGERED PLANT SPECIES AS THE REGIONAL PRODUCT
Petr Jelínek, Nikol Buksová, Kateřina Táborská Department of Forest Botany, Dendrology and Geobiocenology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract This paper introduces the idea of the cultivation of endangered species, which are listed in the Red List of Czech vascular plants. Case studies in the Moravian Karst Landscape Protected Area and the Jeseniky Landscape Protected Area are part of the research. The use of the regional mark “Jeseniky Original Product” and “Moravian Karst Original Product” for planted endangered species is discussed and supported by a local community questionnaire.
Key words: biodiversity, Moravian Karst, Jeseniky Landscape Protected Area, Red List, regional product
Introduction Strengthening local populations of endangered plant species with importance for local communities is the main aim of this paper. We describe the various threat levels for vascular plants and legislation related to their handling. An area in the northern part of Moravia – “ Jeseniky Landscape Protected Area ”, and an area north of the second largest city in the Czech Republic, Brno - “Moravian Karst Landscape Protected Area” were chosen. The work focuses on identifying endangered species grown by locals as ornamentals on their land in selected communities. The study deals with legislative restrictions in the management of endangered plant species and suggests possible careful regional use of them. Some of planted ornamental taxa, commonly visible in gardens of local people, belong to endangered species of regional origin and no longer exist in the wild, being extinct. Locally planted and carefully cared for they could help reintroduction into the wild. Supervision by the local environmental agency is a must, however.
Fig. 1: Regional product logos of Czech Republic (http://www.regionalni-znacky.cz/)
Materials and methods Two protected areas (IUCN category V) were chosen: Jeseniky Landscape Protected Area (LPA) and Moravian Karst Landscape Protected Area. Both areas lie in Moravia, the eastern part of the Czech Republic. The potential for the growing of ornamental endangered species with the regional mark “Jeseniky original product” or “Moravian Karst original product” respectively were studied. The Red
- 17 - Lists of plant species (Procházka 2001, Grulich 2012) were used. The Czech Red List uses four criteria: C1 critically endangered species C2 highly endangered species C3 endangered species C4 vulnerable species
There is no regional Red List in Moravian Karst LPA. In Jeseniky LPA the local Red List has been published (Bureš, 2010) and has these criteria:
E critically endangered species R highly endangered species V endangered species I vulnerable species
The criteria for the taxa chosen were as follows. 1. Species not under critical threat of extinction 2. Species are ornamental 3. Species are easily planted
Personal research in the villages of the Moravian Karst LPA using questionnaires was undertaken, but not in Jeseníky LPA. Five villages in the central part of the Moravian Karst were chosen: Jedovnice, Křtiny, Lažánky, Rudice and Vilémovice. Endangered plants in gardens and local people’s interest in certified locally produced ornamental plants were studied.
Results Based on personal research using questionnaires in five villages of the Moravian Karst (Jedovnice, Křtiny, Lažánky, Rudice and Vilémovice), endangered plant species according to the Red List of vascular plants of the Czech Republic (Procházka, 2001; Grulich, 2012) cultivated by the locals were researched. 17 species were found (see Table 1).
Tab. 1: Cultivated endangered species of the Moravian Karst LPA in gardens Species Czech Red List (Grulich 2012) Adonis vernalis C2b Anemone sylvestris C2b Aquilegia vulgaris C3 Aster amellus C3 Cornus mas C4a Dictamnus albus C3 Galanthus nivalis C3 Iris sibirica C3 Leucojum vernum C3 Lilium martagon C4a Menyanthes trifoliata C3 Nymphaea alba C1 Pulsatila grandis C2b Ribes alpinum C4a Saxifraga panniculata C3 Taxus baccata C3 Trollius altissimus C3
Although some of locally cultivated plant species are common in the Moravian Karst LPA (Cornus mas, Lilium martagon), most of them are very rare (Aquilegia vulgaris, Galanthus nivalis, Ribes alpinum, Saxifraga panniculata, Taxus baccata and Trollius altissimus) or extinct here.
- 18 - Horský (2012) describes the population of Taxus baccata in the southern part of the Moravian Karst, where there is the Training Forest Enterprise (TFE) Křtiny of Mendel University, as less than 100 individuals highly damaged by game grazing. The endangered species of the TFE nature reserves were published by Jelínek (2009). Some cultivated species are either extinct or in the last wild locality of the Moravian Karst LPA. Kučerová (2009) shows the last population of Leucojum vernum near Jedovnice. In contrast the species is very commonly planted in all the surveyed villages and its cultivation is easy which is also the case of Iris sibirica. This taxon also grows in the last wild place near Křtiny Arboretum. Being a marshland species, people plant it near garden ponds together with Nymphaea alba and Menyanthes trifoliata, another endangered species of the Moravian Karst, extinct in this part of the region. Wild localities are rare in the north of the LPA. Another group of taxa commonly planted by villagers are xeromorphic ones, which are all extinct in this central part of the Moravian Karst LPA. Adonis vernalis, Anemone sylvestris, Aster amellus, Dictamnus albus and Pulsatila grandis are all found in the gardens of the villages surveyed, but no longer grow wild in the Moravian Karst except the most southern steppes and open forest of the Hády nature reserve (3 indviduals of Pulsatila grandis grow also in Cihadlo nature reserve). Adonis vernalis is found only in the Moravian Karst LPA locality mentioned by Vaněčková (1997) near Hostěnice from 1979. Another locality in Hady was destroyed by limestone quarrying. Based on questionnaire research in the villages of the Moravian Karst on endangered plant species, people would appreciate the sale of these plants. Most people asked answered positively in Křtiny and less positively in Lažánky. In Křtiny ¾ claimed they would buy certified endangered ornamental plants with the logo of the regional product.
Fig. 2: Wollemia nobilis cone (http://www.wikipedia.org)
Fig. 3: Wollemia nobilis sapling to sell (http://www.wikipedia.org)
- 19 -
Fig. 4: Wollemia nobilis certificate (http://www.sustainable-gardening-tips.com)
Tables 2 and 3 show ten chosen plant species which we believe to be suitable for cultivation as a regional product of Jeseniky or the Moravian Karst respectively.
Tab. 2: Endangered species for Jeseniky LPA cultivation Czech Red List (Procházka, 2010)/Jeseníky Red Species List (Bureš, 2010) Aquilegia vulgaris C3/V Campanula barbata C2/I
Daphne mezereum C4a/V
Gentiana punctata C1/R Gentiana verna C1/E Gladiolus imbricatus C2/V Hieracium villosum C1/E Lilium bulbiferum C2/V Saxifraga paniculata C3/E Trollius altissimus C3/V
Tab. 3: Endangered species for Moravian Karst LPA cultivation Species Czech Red List (Procházka, 2010) Aster amellus C3 Cornus mas C4a Dictamnus albus C3 Galanthus nivalis C3 Leucojum vernum C3 Linum tenuifolium C3 Lilium martagon C4a Pulsatila grandis C2 Rosa pimpinellifolia C2 Taxus baccata C3
Discussion Act No. 114/1992 Coll. on Nature and Landscape Protection placed legislative restrictions on dealing in these species. Cultivating endangered taxa listed under Czech law is possible only with the permission of the nature protection authorities and only in the case that the state of the taxon will not
- 20 - get worse. If approved for sale, a local company could sell the product even when coming from the wild. Doing business in rare plants raises a number of questions. As mentioned earlier, the wild community of many plants of the Moravian Karst or Jeseníky has decreased, dramatically in some taxa. That is why we believe some precisely defined categories of endangered species could benefit from cultivation. Also some foreign experience supports the idea. Keel, Langenauer, Marti and Gigon (2009) describe the conservation effort of 85 private people who participated in cultivating 75 local endangered plant species near Zurich, Switzerland. Offord and Meagher (2006) from Australia price the marketing and cultivation of ancient tree species Wollemia nobilis (Araucariaceae family) newly found as late as in 1994 in Wollemi National Park, only 150 km from Sydney. Both positive and negative opinions in the Czech research community on cultivating species are described by Buksová (2011). Some botanists welcome the idea whereas others fear further degradation of the natural localities where endangered species grow.
Conclusion Cultivating endangered plant species for the purpose of saving them is discussed in this paper. Although we have established protected areas and environmental legislation, quite a few endangered plant species continue to disappear. As the case study from the Moravian Karst Landscape Protected Area shows, some of them are widely grown in the gardens of local Moravian Karst people, many of them extinct in the wild in the region. An environmentally friendly means of cultivation of endangered species could help the local wild plant communities, and in some cases could even mean the return of already locally extinct species. Ten species for Moravian Karst LPA and ten species for Jeseníky LPA are recommended for cultivation under the logo of Original Regional Product, known for both areas. This proposal is supported by concerned residents who want to buy such products as shown by the results from the questionnaires from the Moravian Karst villages.
References Buksová N. (2011): Pěstování ohrožených druhů rostlin v CHKO Jeseníky. Bachelor’s thesis, Mendel University, Brno. Bureš, L. (2010): Červený seznam cévnatých rostlin CHKO Jeseník. Greenfieldboyce, N., [cit. 2011-2-07 ]. A Growing Risk? Endangered Plants For Sale Online. Available at WWW:
- 21 - Acknowledgement The paper was prepared within the research project “The Red Book of Woody Plants of the Czech Republic, The Red Book of Threatened Species of the Floodplain Forests of the Dolní Morava Biosphere Reserve and The Red List of Threatened Species of Training Forest Enterprise Křtiny: EHP-CZ02-OV-1-012-2014.”
Souhrn Pěstování ohrožených druhů rostlin jako způsob jejich ochrany. V Chráněné krajinné oblasti (CHKO) Moravský kras a CHKO Jeseníky navrhujeme 10 ohrožených druhů rostlin vhodných k pěstování, což může být způsob, jak těmto rostlinám v území pomoci. Využití značek regionálního produktu (Regionální produkt Jeseníků a Regionální produkt Moravského krasu) pod přísnou kontrolou Správy CHKO Moravský kras a Správy CHKO Jeseníky. Protože obyvatelé stejně mnohé z navržených druhů pěstují na zahrádkách, mohla by certifikace nějakého pěstitele v regionu přispět k jejich ochraně na divokých stanovištích.
Contact: Ing. Petr Jelínek, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 558, e-mail: [email protected]
- 22 - DIFFERENCES IN THE NATURAL AREAS PROTECTION IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND ROMANIA: A SOCIOECONOMIC VIEW
Petra Hlaváčková1, Ciprian Palaghianu2 1 Department of Forest and Wood Products Economics and Policy, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 Department of Forestry and Environmental protection, Forestry Faculty, Stefan cel Mare Univeristy of Suceava 13, Universitatii Street, 720229, Suceava, Romania
Abstract The paper is focused on the differences in the natural areas protection in the Czech Republic (CR) and Romania, considering the socioeconomic perspective. Further, the main aspects of nature conservation in both countries are discussed. They result from differences in economic and political development, and different natural conditions in both countries. The total area under protection in Czech Republic is 1.28 million hectares (16.2% of the territory) and in Romania 5.57 million hectares (23.4%). In both countries, the nature conservation is focused mainly on large-scale protected areas. In these areas there are constant interactions between local people and the natural environment. Therefore, such areas represent places with high social and economic value. In the CR, the large- scale protected areas include mainly national parks and protected landscape areas. In total these protected areas cover about 15.5% of the territory. In Romania national and natural parks cover 4.6% of the territory (not including the Danube Delta). The article deals with the European context of nature conservation and outlines specific differences in the nature protection legislation in both countries. It also focuses on organizations dealing with large-scale protected areas management and problems resulting from the interaction of nature conservation and local residents.
Key words: environmental economics, recreation function, natural areas management, Czech Republic, Romania
Introduction The protection of natural areas remains a persistent effort on European level, and significant changes were made on the subject of their objectives. Maintaining the integrity and functions of natural areas needs constant protection efforts, and the protected areas (PAs) are the foundation of conservation (Joppa et al. 2008). Currently, the nature conservation is focused mainly on large-scale protected areas (Cantu-Salazar et al. 2010) and the main priority is considered the environmental protection. But the idea of classic conservation is now enriched by the concept of sustainable development (Brundtland 1987) which focuses not only on environment, but on economics and social pillars. Europe faces a new paradigm for PAs which starts to change the standard environmental policies. The new concept accepts PAs not just as conservation units but as genuine 'living landscapes' (Mose and Weixlbaumer 2007). In this ways activities such as tourism, education, forestry or even agriculture are integrated and supported in order to guarantee the sustainability. The European Habitats Directive (92/43/CEE) specifies that conservation measures should take into account the social and economic aspects at local or regional level. The idea of nature protection as an instrument for local or regional development can be easily assimilated from the socioeconomic perspective if we consider the protected area as a commodity used to produce, for example, tourism experiences (Byström and Müller 2014). It is obvious that the main benefits of PAs consist in preserving biodiversity, wilderness and wildlife habitat. But PAs benefits can be expanded to generate incomes from sales of products or services, opportunities for education, recreation and tourism (Kettunen and ten Brink 2013). The PAs recreation function is one of the key socioeconomic functions (Zandersen and Tol 2009), nevertheless still generates debates. Two different European countries were selected for the current analysis – the Czech Republic (CR) and Romania. The paper compares some selected socioeconomic aspects regarding natural areas protection focusing on the PAs management and financing problems, along with the aspects concerning the interaction between nature conservation and local communities.
Material and methods Relevant data material was obtained from a secondary research, on the basis of an analysis of available scientific literature dealing with socioeconomic value and benefits of protected areas. National and European database and statistics on PAs were consulted, offered by sources such as: World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), United Nations List of Protected Areas (UN List), Official website of European Union, Czech Statistical Office (CSO), Digital Register of the Nature
- 23 - Conservancy Czech Republic (DRNC), financial and accounting reports from the Ministry of Finance (for the CR), National Statistical Institute, National Forest Administration (RNP), Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests, Natura 2000 (for Romania). There were made basic comparison at national level and assessment of differences concerning European nature protection legislations, economic and policy development. The data were processed by scientific methods such as analysis, synthesis, comparison and economic analysis in order to obtain relevant results. The graphic processing of results was performed using Microsoft Office Excel.
Results and discussion Nowadays, society is extremely focused on developing a network of protected areas and on its sustainable management. Protected areas can be divided into national PAs which are established at national level and internationally recognized PAs which are set out in the framework of international and regional agreements, conventions or programs. The most frequently used classification includes the categories of the International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN), but at regional or continental level appear new and more flexible frameworks (e.g. pan-European networks Natura 2000 or Emerald). According to the World Database on Protected Area, about 209,429 PAs from more than 193 countries and territories cover around 15.4 % of the world’s land and 3.4% of the global ocean extent (Juffe-Bignoli et al. 2014). The world’s protected areas have an extent of 32,868,673 km2. Around 65% of protected sites are located in the European region, but the protected European surface covers only 12.9% of the total world protected space (Deguignet et al. 2014). Fig. 1 shows the proportion of sites and area protected in the world. The global expansion of PAs shows not only the current state of environmental conservation but also reveals the touristic potential of PAs, considering that eight billion tourists visit PAs every year (Balmford et al. 2015). For analysis there were selected two countries with different economic and political development – the Czech Republic and Romania. Tab. 1 shows the main socioeconomic characteristics of selected countries. Both are former communist countries but the European Union integration lead to significant improvements in the quality of the environment. In both countries, the nature conservation is focused mainly on large-scale PAs with high forest cover: national parks and protected landscape area (PLA) in the CR, national parks and natural parks in Romania. But their protection network include small- scale PAs too, such as nature reserve or national and natural monuments. The total area under protection in the CR is 1.28 million hectares (16.2% of the territory) and in Romania 5.57 million hectares (23.4%). In Czech Republic forest ecosystems occupy most of the territory of PAs: 753.4 thousand ha, which represents 28.2 % of the area of national forests. Protection of PAs is carried out by Act no. 114/1992 Coll., on the Nature and Landscape Protection. Forest management in addition to this Act is governed by management plan and Act no. 289/1995 Coll., Forest Code. The nature and landscape protection in large-scale protected areas is supervised by the government and the central authority is the Ministry of the Environment. In Romania, the large-scale protected areas consist in national parks and natural parks. The main environmental regulations are the Environmental Protection Law (137/1995), the Law of the territory planning (5/2000) and the Forest Code (46/2008) with all the amendments. The central authority in nature conversation is the Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests. Tab. 2 shows the main characteristics of large-scale protected areas in the CR and Romania. In the CR, there are 4 national parks: Šumava National Park (SNP), Krkonoše Mountains National Park (KRNAP), Podyjí National Park (PNP) and Bohemian Switzerland National Park (BSNP) and 25 protected landscape areas. Each national park and PLA is managed by its own administration. These non-profit organisations are supervised by the Agency for Nature Conservation and Landscape of the Czech Republic (ANCLP). In the CR, the state budget represents the main source of funding administrations of large-scale protected areas, but there are additional sources such as European Community, the State Environmental Fund, regional administrations, donations or other sources. Tab. 3 shows the most important socioeconomic information about the National Park Administrations in the CR. The report reveals that most of the costs are related to staff payment and forest management services. One key indicator is represented by the ratio between PA area and the number of employees which is around 150 ha/employee (excepting the largest park, Šumava NP, which has a ratio that exceeds 250 ha/employee). Tab. 4 displays the most important socioeconomic information about the protected area in Romania. Most national and natural parks from Romania have large areas, nearly half of them exceeding 50 thousand ha. But the funding of PAs is quite low, considering that the majority of PAs are placed
- 24 - below 10 euro per ha. The largest PAs are more disadvantaged because the larger the PAs are the lower the funds are available per hectare. The underfunding forces PAs administrations to limit the number of staff. There are higher ratios between PA area and the number of employees (the average is above 3000 ha/employee) compared to the situation from the CR. Romania still struggles to find a solution for funding PAs administrations and till now there have been no funds allocated from the state budget (excepting the Danube Delta). Most of the PAs are currently managed by the National Forest Administration, NGOs and county councils. Further, the rapid growth of PAs due to addition of Natura 2000 sites led to confusion regarding the protection status and increased the financial pressure. In Romania Natura 2000 sites cover 23.4% of the territory, compared to only 4.6% of national and natural parks (7.0% including the Danube Delta), but there is a 96.19% overlap with other PAs. Recent studies (Iojă et al. 2010) reveal the declining efficiency of Romanian PAs after the creation of the Natura 2000 network. This decrease is amplified by additional environmental issues, such as high disturbance rates, generated by rapid ownership and institutional changes (Knorn et al. 2012). The revival of PAs is possible only solving the funding problem, and solutions can be found by assessing the economic value of such areas (Dumitraş et al. 2011). According to WWF, Romania groups 65% of the European (without Russia) virgin forests and has the largest European populations of large carnivores. This fact reveals a great potential for tourism and recreation activities, which could partially solve some PAs funding issues.
Fig. 1: Percentage of the protected areas’ network among global regions Note: ABNJ – Area beyond national jurisdiction, Source: Deguignet et al. 2014
Tab. 1: The socioeconomic characteristic of the Czech Republic and Romania Item Unit Czech Republic Romania Geographic size (2012) km2 78,866 238,391 Population (2012) number 10,505,445 20,095,996 Population as % of total EU population % 2.1 4.0 Gross domestic product (2012) billion € 152.926 131.579 EU member country since year 2004 2007 Political system parliamentary republic semi-presidential republic Currency Czech koruna (CZK) Romanian Leu (RON) Schengen area member Yes/No Yes No Forest cover % 34 27 Total area under protection ha 1,278,685 5,573,265 Percentage share of PA on total area % 16.18 23.38 Source: European Union 2015; DRNC 2015; Romanian Annual Statistical Report 2013
- 25 - Tab. 2: The main characteristic of large-scale protected areas in selected countries Czech Republic Romania Item Protected landscape National parks National parks Natural parks areas Number of areas 4 25 13 15 Total area (thous. ha) 119.5 1,086.7 316.9 772.8 % of country area 1.51 13.77 1.33 3.24 Forest land (thous. ha) 104.5 588.5 247.2 517.8 Forest cover (%) 87.7 54.2 78 67 Source: Ministry of Agriculture 2014; Romanian Annual Statistical Report 2013
Tab. 3: Selected information of the Czech National Park Administrations (2012) Item Units Šumava NP KRNAP Podyjí NP BSNP NP area without buffer ha 68,064 36,327 6,276 7,933 zone Area of forest land ha 59,853 31,779 5,285 7,621 Forest cover (%) % 87.9 87.5 84.2 96.1 thous. € 116,435.24 101,724.73 14,648.73 18,406.50 Assets €/ha 1,710.67 2,800.25 2,334.09 2,320.24 thous. € 17,246.74 13,625.98 1,918.33 4,002.42 Expenditures €/ha 253.39 375.09 305.66 504.53 thous. € 17,224.80 14,881.09 2,045.44 1,228.84 Revenues €/ha 253.07 409.64 325.91 154.90 thous. € 9,326.43 7,164.72 1,501.67 - Income from transfers €/ha 137.02 197.23 239.27 - thous. € -21.94 1,255.11 127.11 -2,773.59 Profit/loss €/ha -0.32 34.55 20.25 -349.63 thous. € 4,659.14 3,899.84 675.58 764.03 Staff costs €/ha 68.45 107.35 107.64 96.31 thous. € 4,877.35 4,338.61 516.73 2,374.05 Other services €/ha 71.66 119.43 82.33 299.26 number 267 245 44 48 Number of employees ha/employee 254.92 148.27 142.64 165.27 Source: Ministry of Agriculture 2014; Ministry of Finance 2015
Conclusion The large-scale PAs have a great potential for tourism and recreation activities in both of the selected countries and such activities can support PAs development. A responsible environmental management of tourism can produce consistent income for PAs and the recreation activities can raise the awareness of environmental problems. Surely, limits and regulatory measures should be applied in order to compensate some negative impacts on PAs. The results show that despite the different economic and political development, the nature conservation is built on the same principles in both selected countries. Obviously there are some differences too: the Czech Republic exhibits a more solid funding framework and PAs are better covered with personnel, while Romania has a larger percentage covered with PAs but it faces major funding issues.
- 26 - Tab. 4: Selected information of the Romanian National and Natural Parks (2010) Funds Area/employee Protected Area Area [ha] [euro/ha] ratio [ha] Muntii Macinului National Park 67,363 11.04 2,907 Buila Vânturarita National Park 4,186 48.52 261 Cheile Bicazului-Hasmas National Park 7,976 32.88 665 Ceahlau National Park 8,396 37.08 446 Gradistea Muncelului-Cioclovina Natural Park 40,009 6.8 5,001 Balta Mica a Brailei Natural Park 20,461 19.68 1,461 Vânatori-Neamt Natural Park 30,818 20,74 3,082 Piatra Craiului National Park 17,937 16.77 897 Muntii Calimani National Park 137,446 3.37 7,636 Lunca Muresului Natural Park 17,697 16.63 2,950 Defileul Jiului National Park 11,127 15.44 742 Retezat National Park 43,316 12.53 902 Cozia National Park 17299 12.57 2,472 Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve 660,081 7.85 2,201 Muntii Bucegi Natural Park 238,745 7.18 1,761 Cheile Nerei-Beusnita National Park 37,100 7.7 1,124 Comana Natural Park 25,338 7.5 5,068 Semenic-Cheile Carasului National Park 36,664 7.3 1,111 Domogled-Valea Cernei National Park 60,100 6.86 2,146 Putna-Vrancea Natural Park 38,204 6.53 4,776 Muntii Rodnei National Park 46,399 5.81 967 Muntii Apuseni Natural Park 96,282 4.27 8,204 Muntii Maramuresului Natural Park 148,850 2.84 12,404 Portile de Fier Natural Park 128,765 2.33 8,584 Average values 80,856.63 13.34 3,240.33 Source: Iojă, et al. 2010
References Balmford, A., Green, J. M., Anderson, M., Beresford, J., Huang, C., Naidoo, R., & Manica, A. (2015): Walk on the Wild Side: Estimating the Global Magnitude of Visits to Protected Areas. PLoS Biol, 13(2), e1002074. Brundtland, G. (1987): Our common future: Report of the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development. United Nations, Oslo, 1-59. Byström, J., & Müller, D. K. (2014): Tourism labor market impacts of national parks: The case of Swedish Lapland. Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsgeographie, 58(2-3), 115-126. Cantú-Salazar, L., & Gaston, K. J. (2010): Very large protected areas and their contribution to terrestrial biological conservation. Bioscience, 60(10), 808-818. Deguignet, M., ... & Burgess N., Kingston N. (2014): United Nations List of Protected Areas. UNEP- WCMC: Cambridge, UK. Dumitraş, D. E., Felix, H., & Merce, E. (2011): A brief Economic Assessment on the Valuation of National and Natural Parks: the case of Romania. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoxa, 39(1), 134-138. Juffe-Bignoli, D., Burgess, N. D., ... & Kingston, N. (2014): Protected Planet Report 2014. UNEP- WCMC: Cambridge, UK. Iojă, C. I., Pătroescu, M., …& Felciuc, M. (2010): The efficacy of Romania’s protected areas network in conserving biodiversity. Biological Conservation, 143(11), 2468-2476. INS. 2013. Romanian Annual Statistical Report 2013. Joppa, L.N., Loarie, S.R., & Pimm, S. L. (2008): On the protection of “protected areas”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(18), 6673-6678.
- 27 - Kettunen, M., ten Brink P. (eds.). (2013): Social and Economic Benefits of protected Areas: An Assessment Guide. Oxon: Routledge. 340 p. Knorn, J., Kuemmerle, T., Radeloff, V. C., Szabo, A.,... & Hostert, P. (2012): Forest restitution and protected area effectiveness in post-socialist Romania. Biological Conservation, 146(1), 204-212. Ministry of Agriculture. 2014. Report on Forest Management of the Czech Republic. Prague: Ministry of Agriculture. 134 p. ISBN 978-80-7434-153-3. Ministry of Finance. (2015): [online]. Presentation and financial system of the state accounting information, Ministry of Finance, Czech Republic. [cit. 2015-04-08]. Available at: < http://wwwinfo.mfcr.cz/ufis/>. Mose, I., Weixlbaumer, N., (2007): A New Paradigm for Protected Areas in Europe? In Mose, I. (Ed.). 2007. Protected areas and regional development in Europe: towards a new model for the 21st century. Ashgate Publishing, 13-19. Zandersen, M., & Tol, R. S. (2009): A meta-analysis of forest recreation values in Europe. Journal of Forest Economics, 15(1), 109-130. Act No. 114/1992 Coll. on the Nature and Landscape Protection, as amended. Act No. 218/2000 Coll., on Budgetary Rules and on amending some related acts (budgetary rules), as amended. Act No. 219/2000 Coll., on the property of the Czech Republic and their representation in legal relations, as amended.
Acknowledgement The paper was prepared with the support of the Ministry of Agriculture project No. QJ1220313.
Souhrn Příspěvek zkoumá rozdíly v ochraně přírody a krajiny v České republice a Rumunsku z pohledu socioekonomického. Management chráněných území čelí v současné době novému paradigma, které vnímá ochranu přírody jako nástroj, který by mohl přispívat k místnímu, případně regionálnímu rozvoji. V České republice je chráněno více než 1,28 mil. hektarů (což představuje 16,2 % z celkové rozlohy území) v Rumunsku je pod ochranou 5,57 mil. hektarů (23,4 % z celkové rozlohy státu). V obou sledovaných zemích se ochrana přírody a krajiny zaměřuje především na velkoplošná chráněná území s vysokým procentem lesnatosti, které představují velký potenciál pro cestovní ruch a rekreační aktivity. Výsledky ukazují podobnosti týkající se zásad a principů, kterými se řídí úsilí v ochraně přírody a krajiny obou zemích a také poukazují na některé rozdíly v oblasti managementu, správy a financování chráněných území.
Contact: Ing. Petra Hlaváčková, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 075, email: [email protected]
Ing. Ciprian Palaghianu, Ph.D. Phone: +40 745 614 487, email: [email protected]
- 28 - ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN THE PROMOTIONAL FOREST COMPLEXES
Małgorzata Woźnicka1, Emilia Janeczko1, Krzysztof Janeczko2 1 Department of Forest Utilization, Faculty of Forestry Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland 2 Department of Forest Management Planning, Geomatics and Forest Economics, Faculty of Forestry Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Abstract Within the countries belonging to the European Union an ecological education program is realized. This program aims, among others, to raise environmental awareness and change attitudes and behavior of the society, including children and adolescents. In 1994 the first seven Polish Promotional Forest Complexes (PFC) were appointed, mainly to promote multifunctional forest management, but they also had ecological, educational and social significance. Poland currently has 25 PFCs with a total area of 1.207 million hectares. In 2013 5292 outdoor workshops were conducted in PFCs, and they were attended by 185,077 people, other organized events included: 3878 classes in dedicated spaces (124,995 participants), 107 exhibitions, 332 contests and 582 educational actions.
Key words: forest education, forestry education centers
Introduction In 1972, participants of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden, emphasised the necessity to develop a global programme of environmental education for the society. Three years later, at the conference in Belgrade, a global framework for environmental education – the Belgrade Charter developed jointly by UNESCO and UNEP – was adopted. The Charter contains the objectives of environmental education and points to the need to incorporate this education into all educational systems. The environmental education issues were also discussed at subsequent international conferences. The Tbilisi Declaration of 1977 put the authorities of member states of UNESCO under the obligation to include in their educational policy both formal and non- formal environmental education programmes and to secure funds necessary for the implementation of this objective. In addition, the declaration recommended the implementation of environmental education in all age and social groups. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the role of environmental education in the promotion of sustainable development was strongly emphasised, whereas the UNESCO Conference held in Athens in 1995 was entirely dedicated to the issue of environmental education for sustainable development. In December 2002, the United Nations General Assembly declared the years 2005-2014 the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.
Environmental education in forest areas in Poland In Poland the obligation to provide the so-called non-formal environmental education is imposed by, among other things, the Nature Conservation Act, the Environmental Protection Law and the Act on Forests, as well as by other ministry documents. For example, in the "State Ecological Policy" of 1991, environmental education was listed as one of the tools used to achieve environmental objectives, and a similar document published in 2000 points additionally to the need to further intensify the actions resulting from the "National Strategy for Environmental Education" and its implementing programme. The National Strategy for Environmental Education identifies and sets out main objectives of environmental education, presenting at the same time the possibilities of their implementation. The Strategy basically recommends that environmental education should extend to the entire society, all age groups and professionals, as well as decision makers at central and local levels. In addition, the Strategy puts forward the objectives of the education for sustainable development: 1. raising full awareness and increasing public interest in the interrelated economic, social, political and environmental issues; 2. enabling each man to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for the improvement of the environment condition; 3. creating new behavioral patterns, shaping attitudes, values and beliefs of individuals and social groups taking into account the concern for the quality of the environment. The accomplishment of these objectives requires among other things: 1. acknowledgment that environmental education is one of the essential conditions for the implementation of the State Ecological Policy; 2. the introduction of elements of environmental education in all areas of social life.
- 29 - As of 2013, forests in Poland occupied slightly above 9.1 million ha (GUS [Central Statistical Office] 2014), which accounts for 29.4% of the country area. A substantial part of the country's forests – more than 81% – is owned by the public authorities, of which 7,410,000 ha is the property of the State Treasury, whereas 84,000 ha is owned by administrative districts, for instance: Urban Forests of Warsaw, Łódź, Szczecin or Olsztyn. State Forests comprise forests administered by the State Forests National Forest Holding (7,085,000 ha) and forests located in national parks (185,000 ha). Over 18% of the forest area is privately owned. Pursuant to the Act on Forests of 28 September 1991, forests constituting the State Treasury property are available to the public. They are therefore the place of rest creating opportunities for the implementation of various forms of tourism and recreation. Inappropriate use of forest resources may cause damage or devastation of these lands. Thus, in order to broaden the public knowledge of forests and ways of using them, the State Forest Policy adopted in 1997 acknowledged that the overriding objective of the State Forests National Forest Holding (the State Forests NFH) is education of the public in the field of forestry, with the specific goals including: • propagation of knowledge of the forest environment as well as of multifunctional and sustainable forestry management; • increasing public awareness in the field of rational and responsible use of all functions of forests; • building public trust for the professional activity of foresters. Forest education carried out by the State Forests NFH refers to the provisions of the Strategy for Environmental Education and has been carried out in various forms and for different age groups. In 2013, over two million people benefited from the educational offer of the State Forests. The most numerous group were children aged 3-6 (more than 36% of all organised recipients of environmental education), and the second largest group comprised people over 19 years of age (almost 24% of all participants). The most popular forms of forest education include educational campaigns and events, such as cleaning up forests or the Forget-me-not's Day, attended by 27% of all participants of the education process. Outdoor activities with foresters were also attended by almost 27% of all participants in environmental education (549,417 people). In 2002, the Director-General of the State Forests NFH appointed a Task Force to deal with forest education which developed "Guidelines for the development of forest education in the State Forests" as well as "Guidelines for the creation of public forest education programme in Forest Districts". In addition, Regulation No 57/2003 issued by the Director-General of the State Forests NFH orders to assign tasks to be carried out in respect of forest education to a selected staff of each Forest District. As indicated in the "Report on the educational activities of the State Forests NFH in 2013", the roles of the educators were most frequently assigned to Sub-District Forest Managers and Junior Forest Managers.
Role and importance of Promotional Forest Complexes Promotional Forest Complexes (PFCs) were created in order to secure sustainable conservation and regeneration of the natural assets within the State Forests. Their key objective is to promote multifunctional forest management as part of sustainable development and to serve as functional areas of ecological, educational and social importance (the Act on Forests). Promotional Forest Complexes are located in all Regional Directorates of the State Forests, covering in total 72 Forest Districts (16.7% of all Forest Districts in Poland), and their total area amounts to 1,267,803 ha, which accounts for 13.9% of the total area of the State Forests. One PFC may comprise one to seven Forest Districts, as well as the premises of scientific institutions and universities. The smallest complex, the Niepołomicka Primeval Forest PFC created in 2011, with the area of 11,000 ha covers one Forest District, while the largest one (137,273 ha) is the Notecka Primeval Forest PFC established in 2004 and comprising seven Forest Districts. The first seven Promotional Forest Complexes were established as early as in 1994, whereas the most recent six PFCs were created in 2011. By the end of 2014, twenty five Promotional Forest Complexes were established. What is important for the educational activities of the complexes is the aforementioned regulation of the Director-General, according to which in every Forest District included in the PFC at least one person must be employed as a specialist or senior specialist in forest education. Promotional Forest Complexes have a well-organised educational base. More than 45% of all forest education centres are located in the Forest Districts included in the PFC (Table 1). About 22% of all exhibition rooms and educational trails are located within the PFCs. A significant number (28%) of the so called small-scale water retention objects used in nature education is also present in the area of promotional complexes. The number of nurseries (14.7%), cultural sites (18.8%) and green classes (19.5%) is less than 20% in comparison with facilities in the area of the State Forests.
- 30 - Tab. 1: Facilities of the State Forests (SF) used in forest education of the society (Source: Report on the Educational Activity of the State Forests NFH in 2013) Share% Objects Total in SF In the area PFC objectsPFC 1. Education centers 59 27 45,8 2. Education room 263 58 22,1 3. Green classes 532 104 19,5 4. Educational trials 981 213 21,7 5. Point of forest education 1 937 in it 386 in it 19,9 5a. Forest tree nursery 381 56 14,7 5b. Tree stand 690 133 19,3 5c. Small-scale water retention 341 97 28,4 6. Other objects 2504 in it 405 in it 16,2 6a. Nature reserves 683 139 20,4 6b. Gardens, parks dendrologic 113 28 24,8 6c. Cultural sities 421 79 18,8
Outdoor lessons (Table 2) are one of the most popular form of education carried out in promotional complexes, as well as in other units of the State Forests. Over 37% of all activities of this type in 2013 were carried out in the PFCs. It is worth noting however that, on average, one Forest District in the State Forests organises 33 lessons per year, while a Forest District in a PFC provides annually 74 such lessons. Outdoor activities are carried out in the natural and cultural environment, most frequently on educational trails, but also in forest nurseries, natural reserves, seed stands and exhibition rooms. Outdoor lessons may last 1-2 lesson periods, several hours or several days. Lessons lasting several days are mostly interdisciplinary and combine knowledge of nature, history, geography, etc. Another important form of education are meetings with foresters in school classes. They may touch upon different subjects, such as the forester's work, the protection of forest environment, forest resources management etc. Similar meetings take place also during festivities, cultural events or gatherings of various social groups. Another popular form of nature education are classes conducted in educational centres and exhibition rooms. More than 50% of such activities are organised in exhibition rooms and educational centers within Promotional Forest Complexes. On average, every Forest District of the State Forests holds 22 lessons, while a Forest District belonging to a PFC gives 46 such lessons per year. Children and young people eagerly take part in competitions (artistic, photographic, literary or knowledge contests) and campaigns organised by the State Forests at various levels: local, regional or national. These events are related to the direct actions taken up in forests and for the benefit of forests, such as forest cleaning, animal feeding during the winter or planting forests. In 2013, the PFCs organised 332 competitions of various kind (25% of all competitions organised by the State Forests) in which more than 10 thousand persons took part. Individual Promotional Forest Complexes demonstrate a diversity of the quantitative status of the educational infrastructure. Also the number and type of the forms of nature education varies, not just for individual PFCs but also within a single complex in various periods of its activity. Sample data on the educational infrastructure and educational activities that were carried out, are based on three selected Promotional Forest Complexes of a similar area: the Gostynińsko-Włocławskie Forests PFC, established in 1994, with the area of 53,093 acres comprising three Forest Districts, the Rychtalskie Forests PFC, created in 1996 and taking up 47,992 ha comprising two Forest Districts, and the Oliwsko-Darżlubskie Forests PFC, established in 1996 with the area of 40,743 ha comprising two Forest Districts.
In each of the analysed PFCs there is an environmental education centre (Table 3). The Oliwsko- Darżlubskie Forests PFC has even two such centres at its disposal, however there are no educational shelters, and the exhibition room was open only for a short period. A gradual closedown of educational shelters in the Gostynińsko-Włocławskie Forests PFC is also noticeable, while the Rychtalskie Forests PFC increase the number of such facilities in their area. The Gostynińsko-Włocławskie Forests PFC has the largest number of educational trails (8).
- 31 - Tab. 2: Forest education forms carried out by the State Forests. (Source: Own study based on the Report on the Educational Activity of the State Forests NFH in 2013) The number of The number of The number of The number of Form of education participants in the classes in the SF classes in the PFC participants PFC
outside lesson 14153 5292 549417 185077
lesson in educational 7638 3878 255988 124995 room
the meeting with the 5434 1434 240323 53783 forester at school
meeting with forester 1612 449 84426 28227 out of school competition 1322 332 108262 35260 educational effort 2398 582 558091 263328
exhibition 864 107 252107 117948
Total 33421 12074 2048614 808618
Tab. 3: Educational infrastructure in the selected PFCs. (Source: Own study based on the Report on the Educational Activity of the State Forests NFH in 2013)
education educational Promotional Forest Complexes year education room green classes centers trials
2006 0 2 2 7 2008 0 2 4 7 Gostynińsko - Włocławskie Forest 2010 0 2 4 6 2013 1 2 1 8 2006 0 2 1 3 2008 1 2 1 3 Rychtalskie Forests 2010 1 2 2 4 2013 1 1 5 3 2006 2 0 0 6 2008 2 1 0 6 Oliwsko - Darżlubskie Forests 2010 2 1 0 5 2013 2 0 0 5
The Gostynińsko-Włocławskie Forests PFC organises a larger number of competitions and events of various type in comparison with the remaining PFCs presented; annually it is 10-17 competitions and 19-61 events, while in the Rychtalskie Forests PFC: 2-9 and 3-6 respectively (Table 4). The Rychtalskie Forests PFC hosts virtually no exhibitions, whereas the Oliwsko-Darżlubskie Forests PFC organises up to 5 exhibitions a year, with more than 5,500 participants. The number of outdoor activities or lessons carried out in exhibition rooms varies depending on the PFC. The Gostynińsko- Włocławskie Forests PFC organises approximately 60 outdoor lessons per year, and the number of lessons conducted in the exhibition room is variable: 40 lessons in 2006 and 2010, and as many as 274 lessons in 2013. In the Rychtalskie Forests PFC there were 81 outdoor lessons and 68 exhibition room lessons in 2006, in 2008 – 126 outdoor lessons but only 46 lessons in the exhibition room, while in 2013 there were as many as 173 outdoor lessons and 101 exhibition room lessons. In the Oliwsko- Darżlubskie Forests PFC only 51 outdoor lessons and as many as 137 exhibition room lessons were
- 32 - carried out in 2008, however in 2013 there were nearly 160 outdoor lessons and only 34 exhibition room classes.
Tab. 4: Forms of educational activities carried out in the area of the selected PFCs (Source: Own study based on the Report on the Educational Activity of the State Forests NFH in 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2013) room effort lesson outside lesson in exhibition
Promotional educational competition educational Forest Complexes year number number number number number all comers all comers all comers all comers all comers
2006 103 4477 41 1563 10 1526 35 5539 1 800 Gostynińsko - 2008 61 2011 175 5334 15 3600 21 2824 1 3500 Włocławskie Forests 2010 61 1926 46 1176 17 4921 61 16293 0 0 2013 66 3043 274 16004 11 4018 19 2722 1 200 2006 81 5421 68 4974 5 380 4 2150 0 0 Rychtalskie 2008 126 5154 46 1625 2 70 6 615 1 30 Forests 2010 100 6748 80 2037 3 363 3 348 0 0 2013 173 16344 101 5275 9 785 4 2360 0 0 2006 102 4752 144 4404 10 1500 3 200 5 5700 Oliwsko - 2008 51 1674 137 2798 6 378 9 1835 4 4500 Darżlubskie Forests 2010 119 5163 113 3618 11 280 11 2490 2 600 2013 159 5014 34 1088 4 478 5 7406 1 1250
Conclusion: 1. The Promotional Forest Complexes implement the objectives of the National Strategy for Environmental Education, i.e. non-formal education for different age groups conducted in various forms. 2. The PFCs show a more numerous educational infrastructure base in relation to the State Forests units not included in the PFCs. 3. The PFCs carry out more educational activities in various forms than the State Forests units not included in the PFCs. One of the reasons for this is the possibility of hiring a specialist in education. 4. Both numbers and forms of educational activities carried out are subject to changes in individual PFCs, but also in different periods of operation within a single Promotional Forest Complex.
References GUS, Forestry 2013, Warszawa The National Environmental Policy for 2009-2012 And Its 2016 Outlook; (www.mos.gov.pl/g2/big/2009_07/2826c539c3015384e50adac8fe920b0b.pdf) Narodowa Strategia Edukacji Ekologicznej Environmental Education Strategy for 2013-2016; (http://www.mos.gov.pl/g2/big/2009_04/97b75873145cdf7e7695ed9573147c78.pdf) Raport z działalności edukacyjnej Lasów Państwowych w 2006, 2008, 2010, 2013 Forest Act. D.U. z 1991, nr 101, poz. 444 Zarządzenie nr 57/2003 Dyrektora Generalnego Lasów Państwowych w sprawie wytycznych prowadzenia edukacji leśnej społeczeństwa w Lasach Państwowych.
- 33 - Souhrn V zemích Evropské unie je realizován ekologický vzdělávací program. Cílem tohoto programu je, mimo jiné zvýšit povědomí o životním prostředí a změnit postoje a chování celé společnosti včetně dětí a dospívajících. V Polsku roku 1994 byl založen program Propagace lesních komplexů (PLK), který byl určen zejména na podporu multifunkčního hospodaření v lesích, ale měl i ekologický, vzdělávací a sociální význam. Polsko má v současné době 25 PLK s celkovou rozlohou 1,207 milionů ha. V roce 2013 v rámci PLK proběhlo 5292 venkovních seminářů, kterých se účastnilo celkem 185,077 lidí. Jako další akce lze zmínit 3878 lekcí probíhajících ve vyhrazených prostorách (124,995 účastníků), 107 výstav, 332 soutěží a 582 vzdělávacích akcí.
Contact: Dr inż. Małgorzata Woźnicka E-mail: [email protected]
- 34 - ECOSYSTEM RECREATIONAL SERVICES OF A CULTURAL FOREST - CASE STUDY FROM THE VELKÝ KOSÍŘ NATURE PARK, CZECH REPUBLIC
Ivo Machar 1, Vilém Pechanec 2, Zdeněk Opršal 3, Jan Brus 2 1Department of Development Studies, Faculty of Science, Palacky University Olomouc, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46 Czech Republic 2Department of Geoinformatics, Palacký University, Olomouc, 17. listopadu 50, 7771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic 3Deparment of Development studies, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46 Czech Republic
Abstract Ecosystem services have an obvious economic value and analogously, ecosystems and biodiversity have their economic value. This is also true for the ecosystem services of forests. The paper demonstrates a simple method for the direct financial assessment of the recreational ecosystem services of a cultural (commercial) forest in a case study of the Velký Kosíř Nature Park (Czech Republic). The result of the study showed that the value of the recreational ecosystem functions of the area under study reached the sum of almost half a million Czech crowns in a single day. Although it is not possible to reach a general conclusion about the monetary value of the recreational ecosystem functions of a commercial forest, on the other hand, the simple method that was used provides a good picture of the relatively high value of the recreational service of a forest ecosystem that primarily fulfils a supplying ecosystem function. The study could also be used as a methodological guide for the simple assessment of an important ecosystem service of a cultural forest, i.e. recreation.
Key words: ecosystem services, cultural forest, assessment, nature park.
Introduction The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) introduced the term ecosystem services (ES), which has already spread not only within the professional literature, but also into widely published texts, including political documents of the European Union. Ecosystem services have an obvious economic value, and therefore ecosystems and biodiversity obviously have an economic value as well. Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) are being applied increasingly in many countries (Ferraro, 2011). PES have a particular importance in the case of forest ecosystem services. Forests provide people with ecosystem services from all four major categories of services: (1) supplying ecosystem services (e.g. wood production), (2) regulatory services (e.g. climate regulation or regulation of the consequences of extreme meteorological situations), (3) support services (biodiversity protection), and (4) cultural ecosystem services (e.g. recreational functions of a forest in the landscape). The recreational functions of a forest include the synthetic effects of the hygiene, health, medical, aesthetic, and psycho-emotional impacts of the forest on the regeneration of the physical and mental capacities of a person. The recreational functions are also performed by forests which are classified as commercial forests (and therefore primarily provide supplying ecosystem services). In the Czech Republic, people can usually enjoy the recreational functions of a forest free of charge, but their valuation is a topical problem. This paper presents an example of the simple valuation of the ecosystem recreational functions of a commercial forest through the example of cultural forests in the Velký Kosíř Nature Park in the Olomouc region.
Study area and methods Geomorphologically, the Velký Kosíř Nature Park (Fig. 1) is at the southernmost tip of the Zábřeh highlands. The Nature Park, with an area of 19.6 km², was established in 2000 with the objective of preserving the typical landscape with its natural, aesthetic, and biological values. The vast majority of the area of the Nature Park is covered by commercial forests (mostly spruce monocultures). Only the south-western slopes of the Velký Kosíř hill are covered with xerophilic oak woods with the character of a former coppice. The biodiversity of the forests in the Nature Park is rich. In 1992-2003, 106 kinds of birds were observed in the Nature Park (Stříteský & Krist, 2004). At 442 m above sea level, Velký Kosíř is the highest peak of the Haná region (Machar, 2014). In 2013, a lookout tower (Fig. 2) was erected at the top of the hill and has become the natural centre of a network of hiking trails in the Nature Park. The tradition of so-called New Year's Day climbs began spontaneously in the 1990s. Every first calendar day of the year, people climb to the top of Velký Kosíř along various marked trails
- 35 - for hikers. These New Year’s Day climbs are organised by the hiking club from Lutín and this event became the basis for this study. The method applied for the assessment of the recreational ecosystem function of a commercial forest is based on a method of direct detection of the willingness of people to pay for ecosystem services (Seják et al., 2010). The research was conducted on 1st January 2015. The number of visitors coming to the Nature Park is based on the number of plastic medals that are distributed free of charge by the hiking club to every person who arrives on foot at the peak of Velký Kosíř within the New Year's Day climb. The total amount the hikers are willing to spend in one day for the recreational use of the Nature Park was calculated as the aggregate of the following items: (1) the total amount collected for the voluntary entrance fee to the lookout tower and (2) the total amount of money spent by the hikers on refreshments at all (four) refreshment stalls. The cost of transport from their place of residence to the Nature Park was not included.
Fig. 1: Study area (Velký Kosíř Nature Park)
Fig. 2: Lookout tower Velký Kosíř (442 m above see level)
Results The financial assessment of the recreational function of a cultural forest for one day. In the period concerned, the Velký Kosíř Nature Park was visited by 3256 people. The total sum of payments obtained from voluntary admission to the lookout tower was CZK 98,520.-. The total gross revenue from the sale of refreshments was CZK 379,000.-. The aggregate of both items, amounting to CZK 477,520.-, indicates the direct financial value of the ecosystem recreational function of the cultural forest in the Velký Kosíř Nature Park on the day of the research. It should be noted, however, that the actual number of visitors on the day of a popular event, such as the New Year's Day climb, cannot be automatically generalised.
- 36 - Discussion and Conclusion In recent decades, hundreds of studies have been published that focus on the assessment of ecosystem services. The value of these services is usually understood as an incremental (marginal) value, which shows how the value changes when the level or quality of the services is changed. Methodologically, the largest group of assessments to have been carried out is that of experimental methods for the derivation of environmental values from the preferences of individuals (consumers). The preferential methods are further divided into methods focused on deriving values from related markets (especially hedonic methods, travel expenses etc.) and methods for the direct detection of the willingness of people to pay (especially questionnaires based on contingent assessment methods). The method used in this article does not preclude inaccuracies in the detected primary data. The present study therefore cannot be used to reach a general conclusion about the monetary value of the recreational ecosystem function of a commercial forest. On the other hand, this simple method provides a picture of the relatively high value of the recreational service of a forest ecosystem that primarily fulfils a supplying ecosystem function. The study could also be used as a methodological guide for the simple assessment of an important ecosystem service of a cultural forest, i.e. recreation. While at its beginnings, the early PES were motivated primarily as tools to suppress certain private interests that were damaging ecosystems, at present it is rather the use of private interests as incentives to achieve socially beneficial goals. PES are understood as a means of protecting the ecosystems outside protected areas or as a component of the international system of payments for carbon sequestration in tropical forests. Besides the welcome ecosystem services, of course, there are also ecosystem functions that negatively affect the functioning of ecosystems, human civilisation, or both. Some economically dangerous species, known from a human perspective as pests, spread in the agricultural landscape (Zhang et al., 2007). Urban greenery provides people with a wide range of functions that it would be almost impossible to replace. We have known for a long time that the quality of life of city dwellers depends significantly on the presence of sufficiently large and, if possible, healthy green spaces. However, for many inhabitants of human settlements, vegetation is a source of allergies, the most common disease being known incorrectly as hay fever (Lyytimäki & Sipilä, 2009). The current research trends of the implementation of PES focus on the analysis of the environmental and social impacts of PES. The literature assumes that the application of PES will enhance the provision of ES and will bring advantages to those who live near threatened ecosystems. Unfortunately, we lack reliable data to confirm this theory. There are some important limitations of this theory: as a result of the incorrect administration of programmes and selection of areas, the areas that are contracted are often outside the areas that truly deserve protection, production is moved from the contracted areas in order to obtain payment, and therefore other ecosystems are damaged, the contractors do not observe their obligations as managers, or the contracts are too short to make a fundamental change in the land cover, etc. Above all, there is no assessment of the impacts of the PES that are applied on the environmental and social situation (it is not ascertained what the situation would look like if PES were not applied). The discussions often lead to the opinion that PES are a kind of a substitute for systems of regulatory protection; actually, the two are complementary, but it is not clear how these two systems influence each other. PES can eliminate socially grounded motivation to protect; on the other hand, they may reduce the opposition that arises against the restrictions caused by the regulatory protection. Therefore, the protected areas and regulatory instruments remain crucial devices in the protection of ecosystems. However, the role of PES has increased recently and they have often become a substitute for, or a complement to, these basic approaches.
References Ferraro, P.J. (2011): The Future of Payments for Ecosystem Services. Conservation Biology, l25, 6: 1134-1138. Lyytimäki, J. & Sipilä, M. (2009): Hopping on one leg – The challenge of ecosystem disservices for urban green management. Urban For Urban Green, 8: 309-315. MA (2005): Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis. Island Press Washington, D.C., 137 pp.+x. Machar I. (2014): Local place names as a part of landscape memory (Case study from Haná region, Czech Republic). Acta Universitatis Carolinae Geographica, 49: 61-70. Seják J. et al. (2010): Hodnocení funkcí a služeb ekosystémů České republiky. Fakulta životního prostředí UJEP Ústí nad Labem. ISBN 978-80-7414-235-2 Stříteský, J. & Krist, M. (2004): Ptactvo přírodního parku Velký Kosíř: změny početnosti v letech 1992 až 2003. Sylvia, 40: 49–62.
- 37 - Zhang, W.; Ricketts, T.H.; Kremen, C.; Carney, K. & Swinton, S.M. (2007): Ecosystem services and dis-services to agriculture. Ecological Economics, 64: 253-260.
Acknowledgement Analysis of data was supported by grants no. CZ.1.07/2.2.00/07.0086 (ENVIRUP) of the Palacký University in Olomouc and no. CZ.1.07/2.4.00/31.0032 (ABIONET) of the Mendel University in Brno.
Souhrn Článek představuje jednoduchý způsob přímého finančního posouzení rekreačně ekosystémových služeb v kulturním (komerčním) lese znázorněnou v případové studii Přírodního parku Velký Kosíř (Česká republika). Výsledky studie ukázaly, že rekreačně ekosystémové funkce zájmového území dosáhly hodnoty zhruba půl milionu českých korun za jediný den. V konkrétních podmínkách kulturního lesa Velký Kosíř dosáhla hodnota rekreačně ekosystémových funkcí 477 520,- Kč za jeden den. I když není možné učinit obecně platný závěr v rámci finanční hodnoty rekreačně ekosystémových funkcí kulturního lesa, na druhé straně tato jednoduchá metoda, která byla použita v našem případě, poskytuje dobrý obraz o relativně vysoké hodnotě rekreace v lesních ekosystémech, které plní primárně funkci ekosystémovou. Studie také může být použita jako metodické vodítko pro jednoduché posuzování důležité ekosystémové funkce kulturního lesa, tj. rekreaci
Contact: Assoc. Prof. Ivo Machar, Ph.D., Phone: +420 724 502 474, e-mail: [email protected]
- 38 - ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN THE FORESTRY ARBORETUMS OF SLOVAKIA
Mariana Jakubisová The Borová hora Arboretum of the Technical university in Zvolen, Borovianska cesta 2171/66, 960 53 Zvolen, Slovak Republic
Abstract This article deals with the issue of environmental education in forestry arboretums in Slovakia through existing educational trails and their possibility of using for formal and informal education. Accessing of such facilities for the public is linked to mission (the educational and cultural goals) for which they are intended. The natural objects of arboretums are interesting in terms of touristic-educational activities for all ages without difference. Formulation, quantification and creating of conditions for their accessibility are the key issues to achieving of these goals. Slovakia has in the European context attractive natural wealth of forest communities which is predetermined to environmental education with interconnect to movement activities in nature. We mapped in Slovakia the five significant arboretums which were created the foresters and are managed by the forestry institutions. We consider important to inform the public about the particular conditions of access, environmental education and possibilities of various activities in these objects with goal to ensure equal conditions and opportunities for all.
Key words: natural environment, forestry education, educational - touristic trails
Introduction There are several authors in Slovakia (e.g. Jakubis, Rusko 2003, Jakubis, Jakubisová 2010, 2012, Jakubis 2011, 2013, 2014), who systematically dealt with proposals of trails for environmental education with focus on different goals. Creating of conditions for education and access of public to the trails relate with the description of existing conditions and their quantification. Designing of touristic and educational trails without barriers exists in connection with local traditions, history and natural beauty. Arboretums and other natural objects of similar orientation are appropriate on these purpose.
Materials and methods In Slovakia are the five of significant arboretums which administer forestry institutions and which have been formed to the demonstration of collections of woody plants with different focus.
Description and character of the objects 1. The Mlyňany Arboretum of the Slovak Academy of Sciences This object is focused on the collecting of non-native trees and shrubs of Slovakia. On 40 ha of land was founded Evergreen Park in 1892 by Dr. Štefan Ambrózy-Migazzi which he called “Semper Vireo” one of the first large scale plantings of evergreen trees in Central Europe. In dendro-exposure are mainly represented by species of the northern hemisphere wherein dominate tree species of East Asia. Today Mlyňany Arboretum manages a large park, almost 67 ha in extent with a collection of approximately 2000 different trees, mostly varieties of wild species. (http://www.arboretum.sav.sk/). 2. The Arboretum Borová hora of the Technical University in Zvolen This object is one of the unique facilities with a professional focus on the original dendroflora of Slovakia. Arboretum Borova hora was established in 1965, has almost 50 ha, today. The collection can be divided into three parts: collection of tree species, roses and cacti. With regards to the gene pool, the main attention is aimed on the endangered taxa of the original dendroflora Slovakia, interesting populations of protected and endangered species and on the preservation of various morphological deviations. At present time the collection of tree species in the Arboretum consists of nearly 1800 taxa. (http://www.tuzvo.sk/abh/). 3. The Arboretum Kysihýbel of the National Forest Centre The arboretum near Banská Štiavnica (town inscribed on the List of World Cultural and Natural Heritage) is the unique experimental forestry area of fast-growing exotic species. It was founded in 1900 an area of 7.73 hectares. In this area was planted 282 pieces of woody from the northern hemisphere, originating mainly from North America. The aim of the foundation of the arboretum was to create opportunities for research of exotic species and their use in forestry. Planting of individual woody plants was carried out on the areas of 15x15 m according to systematic unification of species and forms to the attributable genus (http://www.nlcsk.sk/nlc_sk/ustavy/lvu/vyskum/olspe/arboretum.aspx). 4. The Arboretum Liptovský Hrádok at the Secondary Forestry School Jozef Dekret Matejovie
- 39 - Establishment of the arboretum is associated with the establishment of forestry education in Liptovský Hrádok. In the vicinity of the seat of the first forestry school, already in 1796 began to build a decorative English park with an area of about 20 ha. At present, however, has much smaller area more than 7 ha. It is the highest situated arboretum (605 a s.l.) in Central Europe and contains about 720 tree species ((http://lhradok.sk/arboretum-liptovsky-hradok/). Collection is divided into zones according to plantings (see Fig. 1). 5. The Arboretum Ortáše of the Cemjata School Management at the Secondary Forestry School in Prešov The arboretum is a purpose-built facility of the Cemjata School Management at the Secondary Forestry School in Prešov and is located in the forestry park Cemjata near Prešov. Its total area is of 13.09 ha. The area is divided into 26 separate stands of varying size and shape. Currently contains about 180 different species of trees. Its main mission is to provide space for the practical training of future foresters (http://www.slspo.sk/skolske-hospodarstvo/arboretum/).
Fig. 1: Educational trails in the arboretums (schemes), Internet sources: http://www.arboretum.sav.sk http://www.tuzvo.sk/abh/, http://www.nlcsk.sk/nlc_sk/ustavy/lvu/vyskum/olspe/arboretum.aspx, http://www.slspo.sk/skolske- hospodarstvo/arboretum/, http://lhradok.sk/arboretum-liptovsky-hradok/
Results The results, data and schemes about the educational trails are processed in Tab. 1, 2 and Fig. 1. Within detailed evaluation we came to the following results: • In Slovakia we have the five significant arboretum which were based by institutions with focusing on dendrologic collections (see Tab. 1, 2). • In all referred arboretums is realized formal and informal environmental education with a diverse range of different activities. The most extensive informal education with regard to the visitors provides arboretum Mlyňany (37,479 / 2014) and Borová hora (8,500/2014). Other arboretums do not report these data (see Tab. 1). • Historically the oldest are arboretums: Hrádocké (1886), Mlyňany (1892), Kysihýbel (1900). The most significant of these is the Mlyňany (see Tab. 1). • Historically the youngest are arboretums: Borová hora (1965) a Ortáše (1978). The Arboretum Borová hora belongs to the most important in Slovakia. • From the perspective of a technical ensure of environmental education through nature trails, have four arboretum very good conditions for its development potential (except the Ortáše). • The best developed network of environmental educational trails are in the arboretums Mlyňany and Borová hora (see Fig. 1 and Tab. 2).
- 40 - • The level of informal education activities in the arboretums corresponds with professionalism of educational forestry institutions which is significant at national and international level in the context of the education in Central Europe.
Tab. 1: The Forestry Arboretums of Slovakia, basic informations Data / Liptovský Mlyňany Borová hora Kysihýbel Ortáše Arboretum Hrádok Localization / geomorpholo Podunajská Zvolenská Štiavnické Podtatranská Šarišská gical unit of pahorkatina kotlina vrchy kotlina vrchovina the SR Altitudinal range or 135 – 217 291 - 377 530 – 563 650 376 - 413 altitude (m a s.l.) Founded in 1892 1965 1900 1886 1978 year Initially area 40 28.38 7.78 27.17 13.09 (ha) Acreage of 13.54/is not the arboretum 72/1s 47.89/2nd 7.78/3th 7.24/4th included in (ha)/ ranking evaluation The protected 61.15 45.50 7.78 7.24 not PA area (PA, ha) Range of *2500 of *260 of taxa / *180 of collections/ *1933 of taxa/2nd **740 of taxa/3th taxa/1st 4th taxa/5th ranking From year /type of 1951/PS 1981/PS 1950/PS 1982/PS - protection Level of 4th 3rd 3rd 4th FSP by PCF protection Hájniky, Cadastral Vieska nad Žitavou, Banská Liptovský Zvolen, Prešov area Mlyňany Štiavnica Hrádok Rybáre Name of organizational SNP - PLA Cemjata SNP - PLA unit which SNP - PLA Ponitrie Štiavnické TANAP School Poľana administrates vrchy Management the PA Landscape natural natural natural architecture gardens and natural landscape landscape botanical park landscape (styl,structure, landscape style style style style character) Number of there are no there are no there are no visitors on ***37 479 8 500 data data data trails/2014 after Seasonally 15 March -31 1 Apri l- 25 October, notification available October, 7:30 open all year open all year 8:00 to 17:00 only with a (from - to) to 15:00 guide Accessibility/ only with a yes, 8:00 to 18:00 no yes yes weekends guide the arboretum the biggest (near of 2nd the oldest and collec-tions of the individual Interesting Banská the highest one of most native woody selection data Štiavnica, located and significant exotic plants and trees with World Natural oldest of the SR collections in the SR roses in the high value and Cultural SR Heritage) Note: PS - Protected site; FSP – Forest of Special Purpose, PCF - Program of care for forest (2012 – 2021); SNP - State Nature Protection; CHKO- Protected Landscape Area; SR – Slovac Republic; TANAP – Tatra National Park; * - data from 2014; ** - data from 2007 *** - data of Internet sources: (http://uzemia.enviroportal.sk, http://www.arboretum.sav.sk/files/file/zaverecne_spravy/AM2014.pdf)
- 41 - Tab. 2: Description: Contens of Protection/Educational Trails and the Environmental Education in the arboretums The protected area is declared for the protection of a garden of local and exotic woody plants (from the Mediterranean, East Asia, Caucasus, Central Asia, North America). The garden was established in 1892 as a private garden by Dr. Štefan Ambrózy-Migazzi for the study of acclimatisation of these species in our climatic conditions. Here is studied the suitability of exotic woody plants for local economic purposes. Presents the gene pool of both local and exotic woody plants. The Mlyňany 1. Educational trail with the Ambrózy´s Semper vireo park - red sign, 10 Arboretum of the stations, duration of the route ca 60 minutes Slovak Academy of 2. Educational trail of the East Asian Dendroflora, green sign, 10 stations, Sciences duration of the route ca 50 minutes 3. Educational trail of the North American Dendroflora, green sign, 10 stations, duration of the route ca 40 minutes 4. Educational trail of the North Korean Dendroflora, brown sign, 5 stations, duration of the route ca 30 minutes 5. Educational trail of the Slovak Autochtonous Dendroflora, blue sign, 5 stations, duration of the route ca 30 minutes The protected area is declared for the protection of an example of genetic diversity of the woody plants composition of Slovakia and their wide individual variability of the woody plants species, for scientific research and educational purposes. Arboretum is unique facilities of the Technical University in Zvolen with a professional focus on the autochtonous dendroflora of Slovakia. The The Arboretum collections are intended for educational, scientific and research work with accent Borová hora of the on forestry dendrology. Technical 1. Educational trail of the Rosarium, red sign, 2 stations, the duration of University in Zvolen the route ca 30 minutes 2. Educational trail of the Slovak Autochtonous Dendroflora, green sign, 16 stations, duration of the route ca 60 minutes 3. Educational trail of the Slovak Autochtonous Dendroflora, blue sign, 17 stations, duration of the route ca 120 minutes
environmental education and educational trails The protected area is declared for the protection of one of the most valuable The Arboretum dendrological objects in Slovakia, important for the scientific research (study of Kysihýbel of the exotic woody plants) and for educational purposes. It was founded by J.Tuzson, National Forest an assistant of the Forestry Academy in Banská Štiavnica in 1900.Part of the Centre arboretum is International Phenological Garden with 30 taxa. 1. Educational trail of the exotic woody plants, 16 stations, length of the route 6.2 km, duration of the route ca 3 hours The Liptovský Hrádok arboretum is an ideal natural study room for teaching of The Arboretum dendrology but also other disciplines at the Secondary Forestry School in Liptovský Hrádok Liptovský Hrádok. It makes possible the study of ecological conditions and at the Secondary acclimatisation of exotic woody plants in given conditions. It is important part of Forestry School the greenery Liptovský Hrádok. Jozefa Dekreta 1. Educational trail, called "The Green heart of Hrádok, 6 stations, duration Matejovie of the route ca 2 hours. Its main purpose was to create an educational space for the practical education of future foresters. The forest stands of: European Larch (Larix decidua), Oak "Kokošokský" and
Object of protection in PA/ The existing of "Cemjatský", European Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), The Arboretum European cherry (Prunus padus), Silver Fir (Abies alba) and the individual Ortáše of the selection trees of pine have a high value by reason of the conservation of gene School pool. Management On the territory of the arboretum are protected species: Cordulegaster annulatus, Cemjata at the Rana temporaria, Bufo bufo, Nyctalus noctula, Salamandra salamandra, Secondary Forestry Coronella austriaca, Falco tinnunculus, Corvus corax, Jynx torquilla, Strix School in Prešov uralensis, Dendrocopos leucotos, Dryomys nitedula, Lilium martagon, Note:Forests of Platanthera bifolia (species of the names are given in Latin). Its main purpose Special Purpose – was to create an educational space for the practical education of future foresters. not protected area 1. Educational trail called "Kvašná voda", 16 stations, length of the route 3.7 km, duration of the route ca 100 minutes. Near the route is complex "Berecína" for disabled people in a wheelchair. It is part of the trail "Zabíjaná" in the famous area "Cemjata".
- 42 - Conclusion Importance of the existence of arboretums in terms of preservation of natural and cultural heritage for future generations is in context with creating of responsibility of the current generation. This objective can be achieved according to the creative ways of environmental education and training. In terms of history, content and orientation are the arboretums rich source of information not only for pupils and students of primary, secondary and higher education but also for visitors from general public.
References Jakubis, M. (2011): Proposal of touristic-educational polygon in National Park Veľká Fatra. In Public recreation and landscape protection - hand in hand? : Conference proceeding. Brno: Mendelova univerzita v Brně, pp. 88-90. Jakubis, M., Rusko, I. (2003): Návrh využitia edukačného potenciálu vybraného územia Národného parku Veľká Fatra prostredníctvom náučného polygónu. In Acta Universitatis Matthiae Belii IV./V. Banská Bystrica: Univerzita Mateja Bela, s. 5-21. Jakubis, M., Jakubisová, M. (2010): The proposal of revitalization, recreational and educational utilization of Komorovské ponds in cadastral area Banská Štiavnica. In: Fialová, J. (ed.): Public recreation and landscape protection – with man hand in hand. Conference proceeding. Brno: Mendelova univerzita v Brně, pp. 92-95. Jakubis, M., Jakubisová, M. (2012): Proposal of educational-touristic polygon in Račkova valley (West Tatras) in Tatras National Park. In: Fialová, J. (ed.): Public recreation and landscape protection - hand in hand. Conference proceedings. Brno: Mendelova univerzita v Brně, pp 58-62. Jakubis, M. (2013): Torrent as an important component of recreational and touristic potential of the landscape. In: Fialová, J., Kubíčková, H., (eds.): Public recreation and landscape protection – with man hand in hand. Conference proceeding. Brno: Mendelova univerzita v Brně, pp 216 – 220. Jakubis, M. (2014): Historical water reservoirs in the region of Banská Štiavnica and the possibilities of their recreational, tourist and educational utilization. In Public recreation and landscape protection - with man hand in hand?: Conference proceeding. Brno: Mendel University in Brno, pp. 132-136. http://www.arboretum.sav.sk/files/file/zaverecne_spravy/AM2014.pdf http://uzemia.enviroportal.sk http://www.arboretum.sav.sk http://www.tuzvo.sk/abh/ http://www.nlcsk.sk/nlc_sk/ustavy/lvu/vyskum/olspe/arboretum.aspx http://www.slspo.sk/skolske-hospodarstvo/arboretum/ http://lhradok.sk/arboretum-liptovsky-hradok/
Souhrn Článek se zabývá problematikou environmentální výchovy prostřednictvím naučných stezek v lesnických arboretech na Slovensku (Mlyňany, Borová hora, Kysihýbel, Liptovský Hrádok, Ortáše) a možnostech jejich využití pro formální a neformální vzdělávání. Přístup takových zařízení pro veřejnost je spojen s posláním a zaměřením (vzdělávací, výzkumné a kulturní cíle), na které jsou tyto objekty určeny. Přírodní objekty Arboreta jsou zajímavé z hlediska turisticko-vzdělávacích aktivit pro všechny věkové kategorie. Formulace, kvantifikace a vytváření podmínek pro jejich dostupnost jsou klíčové otázky pro dosažení těchto cílů. Slovensko má v evropském kontextu atraktivní přírodní bohatství lesních společenstev, které jsou předurčeny k ekologické výchově. Zmapovali jsme pět významných Arboret Slovenska, na jejichž budování mají podíl lesníci a jsou spravovány lesnickými institucemi. Považujeme za důležité informovat veřejnost o konkrétních podmínkách existence naučných stezek, o možnostech zaměření environmentálního vzdělávání a výchovy v těchto objektech s cílem zajistit stejné podmínky a příležitosti pro všechny.
Contact: Ing. Mariana Jakubisová, PhD. E- mail: [email protected]
- 43 - ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS IN URBAN AREA
Vlasta Ondrejka Harbuľáková, Martina Zeleňáková, Jozef Viceš Technical University of Kosice, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Vysokoskolska 4, 042 00 Kosice, Slovak Republic
Abstract The analysis of environmental stressors and its causes is a crucial prerequisite for the development of risk prevention and mitigation measures in the scope of disaster risk management. The growth of cities inevitably leads to a growth in the demand for basic services, facilities and opportunities. Paper describes an example of the agglomeration area of Kosice, its fundamental characteristics related to its geological and hydrogeological structure, local climate and urbanization of the area. Natural stressors are significant problem in the Kosice city and it includes mainly landslides, soil erosion and floods. Some examples of the current natural sources of stressors and burdens as well as analytical risk evaluation using graphs and maps are presented. Overall assessment of the area and suggestions of possible measures prior to the occurrence of environmental burdens and stressors are in the conclusion.
Key words: environmental risk, environmental burden, landslide, soil erosion, flood
Introduction Environmental burden [1] is a site, where hazardous substance caused by human activities, poses a significant risk to human health or to the environment, soil and groundwater, except environmental damage (Directive 2004/35/EC). Potential environmental burden is a site, where presence of contaminated soil is reasonably expected (potential soil-contaminating activities have taken place in the past). Basic legal regulations of the Slovak Republic in the field of interest are (Directive, 2004): • Act No. 409/2011 Coll. on certain measures in relation to environmental burdens and on the amendment of certain acts (the Act entered into force on January 1st, 2012.) • Act No. 569/2007 Coll. on geological works (Geological Act), as amended (the Act entered into force on January 1st, 2008.) • The Regulation of the MoE SR No. 51/2008 Coll. Implementing the Geological Act (the Regulation entered into force on February 15th, 2008.) • The State Remediation Programme of Environmental Burdens (2010 – 2015) represents the basic strategic document for management of contaminated sites in Slovakia, which determines the tasks to gradually reduce the negative impacts of environmental burdens on human health and the environment.
Study area Kosice city is situated in the southeast of Slovakia. Kosice lies at an altitude of 206 metres asl. and covers an area of 242.77 km2. It is located about 20 km from the Hungarian, 80 km from the Ukrainian, and 90 km from the Polish borders. Kosice is situated near the Hornad River in the Kosice Basin. Kosice city with a population of 239 797 (data from 31.12.2013) is administratively divided into four districts. Kosice I. (in the north), Kosice II. (in the west to the south-west), Kosice III. (in the east) and Kosice IV. (in the south and south-east). In the middle of these districts is the city centre. These districts are further divided into 22 boroughs. ¾ Geology According to the regional geomorphological division of the bulk of the area of the city belongs to the Kosice hollow geomorphological unit. The northern and north-eastern part of the territory extends geomorphological complex Cierna hora and northwest projection falls within the geomorphological unit Volovske vrchy. Geological structure of the territory is largely established by neogene rocks (clays, clay shales, sands, sandstones, conglomerates, tuffs, bentonite and organogenic limestones). The greatest importance of mineral resources located in the city is magnesite deposit in Bankov locality, also deposit of ceramic clay and stone products. Carpathian breaks and tectonic fractures had a major impact in Kosicka hollow creation. Slope movements also took part in relief basin modelling. In this area, three types of motion are visible: landslides, earth flows and surface crawling. Especially the first and the third type are abundant in the city. Landslides are common in locations Furca, Heringes, Konopiska and surface crawling in the area of Vysne Opatske.
- 44 - ¾ Hydrology From the hydrological point of view Kosice belongs to the basin of Hornad river and Bodva river (Figure 1). The main watercourse in the city is river Hornad, which runs through the city in the north – south direction. From the right side the river picks up two tributaries - the river Cermel and Myslavsky stream. Water reservoir Bukovec on rivers Hornad and Ida are used as a supply of drinking water for the city. The lake “Jazero” was established after gravel mining (in the southern part of the city) and it is used for recreational purposes, nowadays.
Fig. 1: Rivers in Kosice – district
The average annual flow in the Hornad basin is ranged from 35% -55% of Qa (long-term average annual flow). The maximum average monthly discharges occur in April and May and minimum monthly flows were measured in February, December and August. The most important groundwater resources are located in the southern part of the area in the quaternary sediments. Ground water level is mainly at a depth less than 2 m below the surface. In the lower terraces of river Hornad the ground water is at a depth of 2-5 m and in case of high terraces at a depth of 5-10 m below the surface. There is a source of mineral water on the northern outskirts of the city - the former Gajdova spa (still active mineral spring) and in the Sebastovce (Kosice district) source of the geothermal water is registered with capacity of 10 l.s-1. ¾ Climatology Kosice agglomeration is under climate classification in warm territory, where the average number of summer days is 50 and more per year. Temperature is an area with characteristics of temperate continental climate. Temperatures range from 6.7 °C to 10.3 °C in the long-term average, in recent years slight increase in average temperature is monitored. The frequency of strong winds of northern directions is prevailing.
Results and discussion Among environmental stressors existing in Kosice agglomeration belong the landslides and soil erosion and they are the main cause of environmental loads formation. ¾ Landslides Landslides occur in the peripheral parts of the Neo-volcanic mountains with the transition to the Neogene basins. Specific locations of Kosice where the degraded area caused by landslide are Konopiska, Heringes, Krasna nad Hornadom and settlement Dargovskych hrdinov. In the Fig. 2 (Viceš, 2013) susceptibility of Kosice agglomeration and its districts are presented. Landslides areas are divided into 3 states (strong susceptibility, middle susceptibility and low susceptibility).
The State of the Environment of the Slovak Republic for 2011 reported the following landslides (Správa, 2011): • Kosice – settlement Dargovskych hrdinov - In terms of stability, low amount of precipitation in 2011 may be perceived positively. It led to a downward trend in groundwater levels. The movements of the area will be verified by performing the next phase of measurements, • Kosice – Krasna nad Hornadom (Fig.3) - The low amount of precipitation recorded in the second half of the year showed a loss of groundwater level in the well KHG-2. Capacity of
- 45 - drainage wells had steady to slightly increasing character. The movements of the area will be verified by inclinometer measurements in next stage (Viceš, 2013).
Fig. 2: Susceptibility of Kosice to landslides
Fig. 3: Krasna nad Hornadom – landlides
¾ Soil erosion Soil erosion has a negative effect on soils in Kosice and its surroundings. Soil erosion is one of the stressors that negatively affect the agricultural land and landscape as a threat by disruption of the natural evolution of soil biota. Especially at the terraced sediments of Hornad and Torysa river slight soil erosion is typical in Kosice basin. Surface erosion caused by water represents the most dangerous form of erosion in the area. It occurs in agricultural soils on slopes where the water in its devastating activity uses also geoenergy of the relief. In the next table the percentage representation of soil erosion of agricultural land in Kosice four districts and in Kosice surrounding is shown (Pôdny portal).
Tab. 1: Categories of erosion threat in Kosice surroundings Categories of erosion threat % District No threat-low Extreme Middle erosion Strong erosion erosion erosion Kosice I 43.81 31.77 17.75 6.68 Kosice II 4.96 20.93 49.76 24.35 Kosice III 61.65 31.56 6.04 0.75 Kosice IV - 54.13 38.06 7.81 Kosice - surrounding 78.68 10.16 10.31 0.86
From the Table 1 follows that extreme (almost 25%) and strong erosion (almost 50%) is prevailing mainly in Kosice II. Strong erosion (38%) also exists in Kosice IV. Low and middle erosion was evaluated in Kosice III and in Kosice surrounding. Soil is threatened by erosion mainly in areas (Program, 2008-2015):
- 46 - 9 In the northern part of the Kosice - Kavecany vicinity, southern slopes of the Hradova and Darius mountain in the north from Tahanovce settlement, 9 In the eastern part risk locations are vicinity of Kosicka Nova Ves, Heringes and its surroundings, slopes oriented on southwest of Sady nad Torysou, the critical area of Bankov mine and its surroundings, Cicky (northwest of KVP settlement) and the area between Lorincik and Polov villages in northeast of Saca. All these areas mentioned above are clearly visible in Figure 4 (red square is where the studied area is located) (Pôdny portal) .
Fig. 4: Categories of soil risk in Slovakia (Kosice district- red square)
¾ Floods The Directive (2007) shall be carried out in coordination with the Water Framework Directive, notably by flood risk management plans and river basin management plans being coordinated, and through coordination of the public participation procedures in the preparation of these plans. All assessments, maps and plans prepared shall be made and available to the public. In 2010 were measured devastating series of weather events which occurred across several Central European countries during May and June. Slovakia, especially eastern parts of Slovakia was the worst affected. A lot of villages were in Kosice – district. The most affected sites in Kosice were settlements Dzungla, Vysne Opatske, Krasna nad Hornadom and Saca. In Figure 5a situation in Tahanovsky Bridge is depicted. In Sady nad Torysou (Košice vicinity) water spilled over the levee and the water hit 40 houses of which had to leave about 70 people. From the Cana village some families from 3 streets had to be evacuated. Problems with flood are also in municipalities (Kosice district): Trstene, Gynov, Sena achieving the Hungarian border. Roads Cana - Zdana, Nizna Hutka - Nizna Mysla, Kosice - Druzstevna pri Hornade - Trebejov (Fig. 5b) - Kysak - Mala Lodina - Ruzin were closed.
Fig. 5: Floods near Tahanovsky Bridge (a) and Trebejov village (Kosice district) (b)
Also road Zdoba - Byster was closed whereas the levee in Sady nad Torysou was overflowed and the road was flooded. The third flood degree was also in Kosice region in May 2014. Rivers Hornad, Torysa as well as its small tributaries spill out the river beds and threaten the villages. Local floods threaten also districts Tahanovce, Krasna nad Hornadom, Polov and Saca.
- 47 - Conclusion In conclusion it can be said that environmental burdens and risks of Kosice city include particularly significant multiple occurrence of landslides, soil erosion and floods, which are fundamental factors affecting the environment Kosice. Some proposals for environmental condition improvement are: • Ensuring biodiversity through effective protection of habitats, wildlife and wild plants with emphasis on economic, social and cultural requirements of the city. • Provide support of environmental projects. • Improve environmental education (primary and secondary schools) and teaching materials in the field. • Revitalization of watercourses and drainage of basins. • Avoidance of erosion negative impact. • Promoting of energy production with an emphasis on renewable sources. • Developing a broaden network of monitoring and measuring stations. • The rational usage of natural resources. The environment is an important part of our lives and it is therefore essential that we protect it.
References Directive 2004/35/EC of the European parliament of 21 April 2004 on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage. Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2007 on the assessment and management of flood risks. http://www.kosice.sk/static/prilohy/phsr/Priloha_A_Situacna_analyza_PHSR_Kosice.pdf Pôdny portal, Výskumný ústav pôdoznalectva a ochrany pôd. Available at: http://www.podnemapy.sk/portal/reg_pod_infoservis/vod/vod.aspx#mapka Program hospodárskeho a sociálneho rozvoja mesta Kosice 2008-2015, Situačná analýza mesta Košice (in Slovak). [online]. [cit. 2013-05-06] Available at: Správa o stave životného prostredia SR v roku 2011 (in Slovak). [online]. [cit. 2013-05-10]. Available at: http://www1.enviroportal.sk/pdf/spravy_zp/2011-sk/svk11s.pdf Viceš, J. (2013): Environmentálne riziká sídelnej aglomerácie (in Slovak). Thesis. Kosice: TU, SvF, 66 p.
Acknowledgement This paper was written thanks to support from project VEGA 1/0609/14.
Souhrn Příspěvek popisuje aglomeraci Košice, její základní charakteristiky, které souvisejí s geologickou a hydrogeologických strukturou a místní klimatem. Kromě stresorů způsobených lidskou činností také přírodní stresory jsou významným problémem ve městě Košice, a ty zahrnují zejména sesuvy půdy, erozi půdy a povodně. Některé příklady současných přírodních zdrojů stresorů jsou prezentovány. Celkové hodnocení území a návrhy možných opatření před vznikem těchto stresorů jsou uvedeny v závěru.
Contact: Ing. Vlasta Ondrejka Harbuľáková, PhD., Phone: +421 55 602 4269, e-mail: [email protected]
- 48 - EVALUATION OF REAL AND POSSIBLE FUNCTIONS AT SELECTED SMALL WATER RESERVOIRS
Jana Marková 1, Věra Hubačíková 2 1 Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 Department of Applied and Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Small water reservoirs in the past were frequently implemented as a more or less dedicated. After their implementation and for inclusion in the neighborhood often encountered even more options for their use. Today, the "ponds" are proposed mainly as a multipurpose reservoir, or multifunctional. During the construction, renovation or reconstruction of basins, particularly if it is requested support from public funds, we need prefer their public functions, which include: retention of flood flows, increase water quality, improvement of the landscape, biodiversity, and promotion of recreational facilities villages. This paper deals with the use of small water reservoirs implemented or designed in the last few years. On these specific examples, it evaluates the possible potential recreational use or potential conflicts in the use and functionality of the basin. Small water reservoirs are of Act No. 214/1992 Coll. important element of the landscape, their completion can significantly improve the ecological potential of the site. But if the basin will propose already ecologically valuable areas, it may on the contrary to the degradation of the site.
Key words: retention, recreation, water area, littoral, bank
Introduction The first written mention of the ponds in our country date from the 11th century. At that time, the ponds were constructed multipurpose. The pond was used for primarily for water accumulation and subsequently for the economic purposes of the population as a water supply, fire protection, fish breeding, drainage, etc. Today, these functions are expanded mainly associated with the function it demands for water retention in the landscape that are subject to the applicable legislation of the Czech Republic. The construction or renovation of reservoirs can be, aside from the dominant function to achieve a variety of other positive effects. First of all there always will be to increase water supplies in the landscape with a positive impact on local groundwater reserves. Reservoirs also positively influence the course of high water, upgrade flow below the reservoir during water shortages while increasing the recreational potential of the locality. The Reservoirs perform a biological function; become a habitat for aquatic and wetland plants and animals. Of natural aspect most valuable part of the tank is the littoral zone. To the littoral zone is concentrated in many forms of aquatic life - breeding amphibians, spawning, nesting waterfowl, occurrence and reproduction of small aquatic animals. To the littoral zone is concentrated in many forms of aquatic life - breeding amphibians, spawning, nesting waterfowl, Occurrence and reproduction of aquatic animals small. Each water reservoirs, whether renovation or construction becomes an important landscape feature (according to § 4 of the Act no. 114/1992 Coll., on nature and landscape protection).
Materials and methods Selected reservoirs are located in different environments and were therefore put on them and different requirements. Water reservoirs are evaluated primarily due to the location and subsequent integration into the surrounding landscape. Water tank "Časkovec" reservoir is located in an agricultural landscape in the South Moravian region near the village of Velké Hostěrádky. Water tank originally had approximately a rectangular shape with dimensions of 135 x 25 meters and is situated on the left bank of the Hunivka river, near the farmhouse Časkovec; between the flow and buildings. The tank is recessed into the sandy loam flood stream and is fed by a spring fissure in the bottom of the tank and subsidize inflow of groundwater. In 2006, tank was reconstruction. Widening and deepening the tank bottom sediment removal, stabilization of the bottom slope, bank lining and dam reservoir, construction of a new discharge device, creating a wetland ecosystem, vegetational adjustment around the tank. Selected reservoirs "Above the Arboretum" tanks are realized in the forest complex, site is located on the territory of Training Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny (TFE) northwest of the Křtiny village. Reservoirs localed on the Zemanův Žleb stream, which flows into the Křtinský stream and the basin is 8.143 km2.
- 49 - Another example is the small tank castle, which is located on the eastern edge of the cadastre of the city of Brno - Bystrc under the Veveří castle. Small pond Malý hradní was used in the past as fish breeding. Below the dam are hatcheries. According to the Brno city plan area of interest falls within the resort area of Brno dam. The reservoir is fed by the Veverka stream consisting mainly of forests. The purpose of the reconstruction was to restore the operation of the water supply from Veverka stream to the Malý hradní and restore functionality of small reservoir. The completed building will serve as a landscape-protection function biota.
Results Častkovec reservoir was refurbished in 2006, the project was handled in 2003. In addition to cleaning reservoir - silt removal, edit the shape reservoir, also included a proposal plantings around a proposal wetlands, which significantly diversifies surroundings and create a new wetland habitat for flora and fauna, wetlands is a useful complement to the landscape next to free water surface of the tank. Original regular shape reservoir was replaced so that the tank better fit into the surroundings. Plantations in the proposed project have not been implemented under renovation. In the vicinity of the tank is grassland, land is grazed by cattle. Absence suite vegetation and greatly reduces the overall ecological but also an aesthetic value of the site. On the site allocated for the pools and wetlands, were implemented two pools depths of about 1.8 meters. Plantings around the pools were realized only around the perimeter of the triangular parcel. (see the figure 1)
Fig. 1: The Comparison Častkovec reservoirs before and after reconstruction (www.mapy.cz, edited by the author)
Reservoirs implemented in the TFE were designed in 2004, the implementation was begun in 2007. It is a system of two flow-through tanks homogeneous earth dams. On both associated objects are built for discharge and transfer of high water. Valleys around the reservoirs, a marked hiking trail in the vicinity of the second tank are two wells and there is also, at the crossroads of hiking trails is turist landing. Landscaping around the tank consisted mainly of bank stabilization, treatment and ensuring access to the well springing right on the banks of the cesond reservoir. Planting due to surrounding forest stands have been proposed. The location is frequently visited by tourists and is a target not only from the surrounding villages, but also from nearby Brno. These tanks used as a very successful example of the implementation of small water reservoirs. They are important elements of the landscape and the enrichment of the surrounding woodlands. Though they are not intended as a priority for recreational purposes and swimming are important elements fit into the concept of management and recreational use of the TFE, with an emphasis on ecology and aesthetics. (see the figure 2)
- 50 -
Fig. 2: The Reservoirs "Above the Arboretum" (photo by author)
Reconstruction of headrace and restoration reservoir Malý hradní is at the stage of obtaining a building permit. The reconstruction was proposed modification of the dam, new discharge structure - a bottom outlet, total renovation of backwater area proposal littoral and finishes shores. The main part is to design a headworks and the pipe bridge with a supply drive from the Veverka river. One of the main reasons for building the Malý hradní restore function as an important element of the landscape. The overall impact of the building on nature and the landscape will be positive. Created habitat suitable for reproduction amphibians, life of small birds, insects and other animals. The building is located on the territory biocentre Podkomorské lesy and their importance in the sense of belonging to the existence of this biocentre. The building is designed to promote the ecological functions of the landscape. Construction and will be at least partially counterbalance the negative effects of Brno dam on the links in the countryside and landscape features. (see the figure 3)
Fig. 3: The Reservoirs Malý hradní – backwater area (photo by author)
- 51 - Conclucion and discussion Selected reservoirs described in the article are in different environments, and are placed on them very different requirements. A common feature is that they are always beneficial for increasing biodiversity, aesthetic values and recreational potential of the locality. The above example Častkovec reservoirs shows that the projected reconstruction reservoirs are often not implemented according to project documentation. The efforts of designers to integrate reservoirs into the landscape and an emphasis on landscape management are wishful thinking. Primarily proposals plantations are not accepted in full accordance with the project documentation. For tanks in the agricultural landscape are banks vegetations very important. Planting and subsequent necessary care, protection against browsing, are indispensable item in the budget. Inconsistent implementation of the reconstruction of the tank can be beneficial, due to the shape adjustment, silt removal and construction of pools. Reservoirs implemented or reconstructed in forest complexes are often spared the design and implementation of vegetation in the area. These tanks have their claims for inclusion into the field and bank stabilization. The above mentioned tanks are very busy recreational areas, although not intended for swimming; emphasis is placed on the appropriate location and also on safety.
References Jirout, M. (2014): Study of headrace reconstruction in the watercourse Veverka, diploma thesis, Mendelu in Brno, 130s. CSS 75 2410: Small water reservoirs, 2003 Vrána, K., Beran, J. (2005): Rybníky a účelové nádrže. 2. vyd. Praha: ČVUT. 150 s., ISBN 80-01- 02570-5 Šálek, J. (2000): Malé vodní nádrže v zemědělské krajině. Praha: Ústav zemědělských a potravinářských informací, 70s., ISBN 80-7271-051-6
Acknowledgement The article contains partial results of research project “Active anti-abrasion structures”, reg. no. LDF_VT_2015011, funded by IGA FFWT MENDELU Brno.
Souhrn Malé vodní nádrže byly v minulosti hojně realizovány převážně jako jednoúčelové. Teprve s jejich realizací a po začlenění do okolí často vyvstaly i další možnosti pro jejich využití. Dnes se „rybníky“ navrhují převážně jako nádrže víceúčelové, neboli multifunkční. Při výstavbě, obnově nebo rekonstrukci nádrží, zejména pokud k tomu je žádána podpora z veřejných prostředků, je třeba preferovat jejich veřejné funkce, kterými jsou především: retence povodňových průtoků, zlepšování kvality vody, zkvalitňování krajinného prostoru, podpora biodiverzity, podpora rekreačního zázemí obcí. Je kladen důraz na vhodný návrh břehové a doprovodné vegetace s následnou péčí. Malé vodní nádrže jsou dle zákona 214/1992 Sb., významným krajinným prvkem, jejich zbudování může výrazně zvýšit ekologický potenciál dané lokality. Předkládaný článek se zabývá využitím malých vodních nádrží realizovaných či vyprojektovaných v několika posledních letech. Na těchto konkrétních příkladech pak hodnotí jejich možný potenciál rekreačního využití nebo případné střety ve využití a funkčnosti nádrží.
Contact: Ing. Jana Marková, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 009, e-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Věra Hubačíková, Ph.D. Phone:+420 545 132 465, e-mail: [email protected]
- 52 - EVALUATION OF REVITALIZATION MEASURES IN TERMS OF RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL IN TŘEBÍČSKO MODEL REGION
Ivana Lampartová, Kateřina Blažková Faculty of Regional Development and International Studies, Trida Generala Piky 2005/7, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The aim of the article is to evaluate the revitalization measures from the point of view of recreational potential. The issues of revitalization of water elements, recreation potential and methods are described in the introduction. These methods can be used for evaluation. Herádky retention basin in Třebíč region is characterized in materials and medhods. This part focuses on the evaluation results of revitalization of Herádka model area. In the results, revitalization measures in terms of recreational potential in Třebíčsko model region is evaluated. The factors of external and internal environment are analysed using SWOT analysis and the results of questionnaire survey are assessed. Finally, possible measures to improve recreational possibilities in this area are suggested.
Key words: restoration, recreational value, evaluation methodology, model locality Třebíčsko
Introduction Recreation and functional recreational potential play an important role both from the social, economic and environmental point of view. Multipurpose revitalizations of watercourses in urban and suburban landscape contribute, among others, to an increase in the recreational potential of the area and to the development of the region. Today, objectives of revitalisation measures in urban and suburban landscape consist primarily in flood protection and promotion of biodiversity. While the "urban area revitalisation" is a relatively new way to enhance the recreational potential of the territory in the Czech Republic, we can find many advanced projects abroad e.g. in Bavarian villages and towns (Munich, Nuremberg, Miltach etc.). Revitalisation measures for watercourses can be evaluated from many perspectives. On the basis of the methodology of Králová et al. (2001), Mikátová et al. (1998), we can evaluate different revitalisation actions and their contribution to the creation of better living conditions for selected species of animals and vegetation. Monitoring of hydromorphological indicators (HEM) is used for observation of hydromorphological characteristics of streams and floodplains (Langhammer, 2008). The recreational potential of the landscape can be assessed on the basis of components of the tourism potential, according to Bína (2002), according to the method Terplan (1974) Vepřek (2002), Ciurea et al., (2011), and according to Pralong (2005).
Material and methods The goal and expected output of this work is to evaluate the importance of revitalisation measures in terms of the recreation potential of the landscape, and therefore their impact on the development opportunities of the region. The model location selected for the purpose of this work is a locality in the village Rudíkov in the administrative district ORP Třebíč. The observed Mlýnský Creek, on which the revitalization of the retention basin Herádka took place, flows around the village. Indicators, criteria or elements from the following methods were used to evaluate the site: • Recreational aspect - the tourism potential according to Bína (2002). • Environmental aspect - suitability of living conditions for selected species of birds, mammals; the suitable environment for the growth of vegetation according to Králová et al., (2001), suitable conditions for amphibians according to Mikátová et al., (1998) • Technical and hydrological aspects - evaluation of the implemented revitalisation actions according to the Vrána et al. (2004). The method of public preferences (survey) was applied within the observed territory. Its aim was to obtain information about the awareness and satisfaction of citizens with their surroundings of the retention basin Herádka. The research was conducted through a written questionnaire both in an electronic and printed form. The electronic form was published on the website survio.cz. The survey was performed directly in the model locality in the surroundings of the retention basin. The target group were residents of the village and other citizens, who know and visit the retention basin and its surroundings. The obtained data were used for elaboration of proposals for improvements of the situation and for an increase in the recreational potential of the area.
- 53 - Lastly, a SWOT analysis focused on evaluating the recreation potential for local residents in the model area was performed. The assessment covers both implemented revitalisation actions and the wider context, which may affect the recreational potential of the area of interest in the future.
Results The outcome of this work is to evaluate the implemented revitalization of the retention basin Herádka in the model locality in the village Rudíkov, ORP Třebíč, in terms of the recreation, environmental and technical-hydrologic aspect, and subsequently, to draft measures to increase the recreational potential of the area. The following parameters of the methodology according to Bína (2002) were selected and analysed to evaluate the revitalisation measures in the model locality, see Table 1. The creation of the retention basin, planting of trees and building of the islet led to an increase in the diversity of landscape elements. It can be said on the basis of the evaluation of the indicators that the diversity of landscape elements has improved the conditions for hiking, biking and rural tourism in the locality. The retention basin is also a water body suitable for swimming and sunbathing.
Tab. 1: Effect of revitalization measures on the elements of recreational potential (Blažková, 2014) Element of tourism potential
ool p basin basin island retention Building of of creation Planting of Creation of Creation of Creation Measure 1. Measure 2. Measure 3. Measure 4. Measure 5. Revitalization measure littoral zone woody plant plant woody non-draining Appropriateness of landscape for hiking Appropriateness of landscape for cycling Appropriateness of landscape for water recreation Appropriateness of landscape of type forest/mountains Appropriateness of landscape for rural tourism Appropriateness of landscape for sport fishing Appropriateness of landscape for watching water birds Appropriateness of landscape for swimming Appropriateness of landscape for sunbathing Appropriateness of landscape for photographing water birds Appropriateness of landscape for horse riding
There is also a forest in the vicinity of the site of interest, which offers the possibility of mushroom hunting and nature walks. Planting of more trees has improved the microclimate conditions in the area, leading to an emergence of many shaded areas, where people can relax. All the implemented measures had an impact on increasing the local biodiversity. Many plants and animals associated with aquatic habitats, such as the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos L.) and broadleaf cattail (Typha latifolia L.) can be observed at the site. From the recreational point of view, areas suitable for observing and photographing of the flora and fauna have been created. Owing to the repaired field path the site is now more accessible from the village for both pedestrians and cyclists. The more diverse environment of the revitalised valley also encourages the development of horseback
- 54 - riding. The construction of the retention basin and littoral zone resulted in suitable conditions for fishing. In order to prevent the risk of a conflict between recreational aspects and nature conservation, only extensive fish breeding has been introduced based on the natural production of the basin. The environmental aspect was evaluated in the work according to Králová et al. (2001) and Mikátová et al. (1998). The suitability of the living conditions for aquatic species of birds - mallard (Anas platyrhynchos L.), mute swan (Cygnus olor G.) and common coot (Fulica atra L.) were evaluated within the site. The observed mammals included muskrat (Ondatra zibethica L.) and water bat (Myotis daubentonii K.). After evaluating the suitability of the conditions for amphibians in this area, it was concluded that the conditions are most favourable for the life of the toad (Bufo bufo, L). After evaluation of selected indicators of the methodology according to Vrána et al., (2004), an increased retention capacity of the retention basin in the landscape was confirmed. The littoral zone positively affects the infiltration of water into the underground. Planting of trees and sowing plants on a part of the banks of the dam strengthens and protects the environment against the soil erosion. A massive concrete spillway was built at the site, the appearance of which does not fit into the surroundings and it disrupts the view of the landscape. The dam is made from the soil excavated from the backwater zone, which is a material that is natural for this area. The work includes a survey, the purpose of which was to determine the visitors’ satisfaction with the reconstruction of the retention basin and its surroundings. The survey showed that mostly only locals and people from nearby towns are aware of the existence of the retention basin Herádka. Of the 98 respondents, 94% believe that the revitalization of the retention basin had a positive impact on the surrounding countryside. According to 80% of the respondents, the appearance of the surrounding countryside has improved, 65% of respondents said that the best advantage was the return of an open body of water into the valley, 53% respondents chose the improvement of ecological stability. 69% of respondents use the retention basin for their recreational activities. Visitors use the retention basin primarily for swimming, sunbathing and its surroundings are used for walking and cycling, as well as for winter skating. 69% of the respondents said that the access to water has improved on the site, respondents also appreciated the emergence of new pools usable for swimming, and 57% of respondents appreciated the emergence of new recreational areas (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Change of recreational conditions for local residents after set up of retention basin (Blažková, 2014)
As for the negative effects of the revitalized retention basin, 97% of respondents opted for the increase in the number of bothersome insects, 13% indicated another option (presence of litter and increased number of visitors in the area). In addition, 3% of respondents selected visually inappropriate tree species and the disruption of the general appearance of the landscape. Additionally, a SWOT analysis of the recreational potential for the model locality was elaborated within the results, see Table 2. The strengths include good transport accessibility, as it is located near the main road. There is also a reinforced path leading to the retention basin, which is used as a cross- country trail in winter. On the contrary, the weaknesses include a low promotion of the locality, the existence of which is known mostly only by locals. Opportunities for the site could lie in increasing the promotion and public awareness of the implemented revitalisation.
- 55 - This could contribute to an increase in the visitor rate, but in such an extent as to avoid any conflicts between the conservation and recreation perspectives. Threats, which could disrupt the natural environment of the locality, include intensive fishing and recreation.
Tab. 2: SWOT analysis of recreational potential of model locality (Blažková, 2014)
Strength Weaknesses • Good accessibility • Insufficient promotion • Part of the nature park Třebíčsko • Absence of natural attractions • Close to the cycle path • Visitors are only locals • Strengthened road • Rubbish surrounding the retention basin • Suitable place for cross country skiing • Unsuitable place for allergic person • Benches around the water basin • The place is unlighted at night • Suitable place for relax • Small beach • Near the forest
Opportunities Threats • Increase in promotion • Intensive fishing • Higher number of visitors • Intensive recreation • Support agro-tourism of the village • Water pollution • Another revitalizing measures • Emergence of the competitive location • Build an nature trail • Overgrowth of invasive plant • Insufficient funds in village
Measures were proposed to increase the potential of recreation in the area on the basis of the collected data. An excessive amount of municipal waste and an insufficient number of rest areas in the vicinity of the retention basin were observed as disadvantages in the survey. In order to improve the situation, it was suggested to install wooden furniture equipped with waste bins at the site, which would not disrupt the appearance of the surrounding countryside. The retention basin Herádka is used for swimming in summer and the surrounding banks of the basin serve as a beach for sunbathing. The survey showed that locals consider the place of access to the water and capacity of the beach as inadequate and poorly maintained. They suggested an extension of the beach, regular maintenance of vegetation and mowing of the adjacent meadows, which could also serve as a place of relaxation for visitors, e.g. for allergy sufferers. The surrounding landscape is suitable e.g. for biking, walks of parents with prams etc. According to the survey, locals are not satisfied with the quality of the local unpaved roads. They suggested paving of the road with the use of natural materials (e.g. compacted gravel). After the construction of the retention basin, the area has become more suitable for observing and photographing of animal and plant species associated with aquatic environments. This article proposes a creation of a wooden pier, from which people could see the entire surface of the water. Steps could be attached to the pier allowing access to the water. Most inhabitants of the nearby villages do not know the locality, which can be a consequence of an insufficient promotion. On the basis of these facts, it was suggested to install information, educational and safety boards in the vicinity of the retention basin.
Discussion The objectivity of the methods currently used for evaluation of revitalization measures is a frequently discussed topic. Most of the used techniques are suitable for a quick and easy evaluation of revitalization effects. In the example of the retention basin Herádka, revitalization was evaluated from three perspectives (recreational, environmental and technical-hydrological) for the reason of the complexity of the assessment of the implemented revitalisation measures. The methodology by Bína (2002) was used for evaluation of the recreational potential. Its updated version from 2010 is also often used in the Czech Republic. Unlike the methodology of 2002, this methodology is focused on the critical aspects affecting the development of tourism and recreation in larger territorial units, which are municipalities with extended territorial scope. The methodology is not suitable for evaluation of the recreational potential in the model locality Herádka, as it is just a small territorial unit. Recreational effects of revitalizations of watercourses are often underestimated in the Czech Republic and they are primarily associated with positive environmental and hydrological effects. Abroad,
- 56 - recreational benefits of revitalizations are far more frequent, which is reflected in their evaluation, e.g. in Jung et al., (2013), Golet et al. (2006). According to the results of the survey, 70% of respondents have heard about the term revitalization, but the term is little known in association with an aquatic environment. This may be due to the fact that revitalisations of watercourses have been implemented only since 1990s in our domestic conditions and there is little awareness of them.
Fig. 2: Retention basin Heradka and proposed measures to increase of recreational potential (mapy.cz – own work)
Conclusion The purpose of this article was to evaluate the importance of revitalization measures in terms of the recreation potential of the landscape, or their impact on development opportunities of the region. The methods used for evaluation of the particular locality of the retention basin Herádka in the Třebíčsko Region included the method of evaluation of the recreational potential according to Bína (2002), the environmental assessment methodology from Králová et al. (2001) and Mikátová et al. (1998) and the technical-hydrological aspect according to Vrána (2004). A questionnaire survey was realised in the model locality aimed at obtaining the views and perceptions of local residents with regard to the revitalized retention basin. The results confirmed that locals use this place for their recreational activities, mostly for walks and for swimming in summer. However, the locality is little known to the wider community. Measures, which could improve the public awareness and increase the recreational potential of the area, were suggested on the basis of the results of the survey, SWOT analysis and field research of the author of this article.
References Bína, J. (2002): Evaluating the potential tourism in municipalities Czech Republic. [online]. [cit. 2014- 02-26]. Available from: http://www.uur.cz/images/publikace/uur/2002/2002-01/01.pdf Blažková, K. (2014): Evaluation of revitalization measures in terms of recreational potential in the model region Třebíčsko. Bachelor thesis. Brno, Mendel university in Brno. Golet, G., H., Roberts M., D., Larsen, Luster R., A., Unger R. (2006): Assessing societal impacts when planning restoration of large alluvial rivers: A case study of the Sacramento River project. California, Environmental Management. vol. 37, issue 6. Jung, H. (2013): Valuing the Functionality of Leisure in Gyungin Ara Waterway Using Choice Experiment Method. Journal of Korean Society of Rural Planning. vol. 20, issue 4. Králová, H., (2001). Rivers for Life: revitalization of rivers and floodplain habitats care. Brno, Veronica. 439 p. ISBN 80-238-8939-7. Langhammer, J. (2008): The methodology for monitoring hydromorphological indicators of ecological quality of watercourses. [online]. [cit. 2014-03-16]. Available form: http://web.natur.cuni.cz/~langhamr/publications/pdf/hem/HEM_metodika_hodnoceni.pdf Mapy.cz. (2011): [online]. [cit. 2014-03-26]. Available from: http://www.mapy.cz/ Mikátová, B., Vlašín, M. (1998). Protection of amphibians. Brno, EkoCentrum. 135 p. ISBN 80-902- 2037-1.
- 57 - Pralong, J., P. (2005): A method for assessing tourist potential and use of geomorphological sites. Géomorphologie: relief, processus, environnement. [cit. 2014-05-7]. Available from: http://geomorphologie.revues.org/350?lang=en#tocto1n2 Vepřek, K. (2002): Evaluating the potential tourism and its use in spatial plans VÚC. city planning and land development. issue 3, 1-12. Vrána, K. (2009): Revitalization of landscape. České Budějovice, Jihočeská university in Českých Budějovicích. 150 p. ISBN 978-80-7394-160-4. Vrána, K., Dostál, T., Gergel, J. (2004). Revitalization of small watercourses - part of the landscape care. Praha, Consult. 60 p. ISBN 80-902-1329-4. Ciurea, I. (2011): Studies Regarding the Evaluation of the Tourist Potential of Oituz Hydrographical Basin – Bacau County. Bulletin UASVM Horticulture. [cit. 2014-05-12]. Available from: http://journals.usamvcluj.ro/index.php/horticulture/article/viewFile/7058/6319
Acknowledgement This article was elaborated for the proposes of the project IGA FRDIS Mendelu in Brno "Relationship revitalization of watercourses and recreation in the landscape."
Souhrn Cílem práce bylo vyhodnocení revitalizačních opatření vodních prvků z hlediska rekreačního potenciálu krajiny, potažmo jejich vlivu na možnosti rozvoje regionu. Na konkrétní lokalitě retenční nádrže Herádka na Třebíčsku byly aplikovány a vyhodnoceny metody hodnocení rekreačního potenciálu dle Bíny (2002), ekologické hledisko posouzené metodikou od Králové a kol. (2001) a Mikátové a kol. (1998) a technicko-hydrické hledisko dle Vrány (2004). V modelové lokalitě bylo realizováno dotazníkové šetření, zaměřené na získání názorů a vnímání místních obyvatel na revitalizovanou vodní nádrž. Dále byla provedena SWOT analýza rekreace v území. Z výsledků dotazníkového šetření, provedené SWOT analýzy rekreace území a na základě vlastních terénních šetření byla navrhnuta opatření, která přispějí ke zlepšení povědomí obyvatel o revitalizaci retenční nádrže a ke zvýšení rekreačního potenciálu území.
Contact: Bc. Ing. Ivana Lampartová, Ph.D. E-mail: [email protected]
- 58 - FREE TIME OF ELDERLY PEOPLE – WAYS OF COUNTERACTING THEIR SOCIO – ECONOMIC EXCLUSION
Magdalena Kowalska, Jacek Puchała University of Agriculture in Krakow, Economic and Social Institute, Al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Krakow, Poland
Abstract Ageing society is one of the most serious socio-economic problems of the contemporary Europe, and thus this process also affects Poland. Within the next several decades, the number of elderly people in our country will be growing, and widely understood effects of this process (e.g. the hazard of socio – economic exclusion) must be an area of interest of many public life spheres. In the presented study, the authors refer to the results of the survey entitled "Together Close to Krakow – Integrated Development of the Near-Krakow Functional Area", conducted under the project co-financed from EEA funds (Financial Mechanism of the European Economic Area 2009-2014). The survey included, among others, learning about preferences of elderly people with regard to free time (the inhabitants of the southern neighborhoods of Krakow) in the context of cultural and leisure potential of the "Close to Krakow" functional area. For the analysis, the oldest age group of 64 and more was selected.
Key words: elderly people, free time, tourist and leisure offer, exclusion
Introduction Ageing society is one of the most serious socio-economic problems of the contemporary Europe, and thus this process also affects Poland. Within the next several decades, the number of elderly people in our country will be growing, and widely understood effects of this process, e.g. the hazard of socio- economic exclusion of this group, must be an area of interest of many public life spheres. Not only are elderly people beneficiaries of the pension system, but also a group with the greatest amount of free time. Thus, it is worth analyzing the issue of free time management by elderly people – the most desired activities from their point of view. In the opinion of many authors, elderly people's ability of managing their free time and their selection of active lifestyle, helps them to maintain both mental and physical fitness, and enables them to enjoy this phase of life (Nowicka, 2006). In addition, this issue has its economic dimension, as the concept of "silver economy" assumes the concentration of marketing activities on this group in the context of the offer of services and production of goods aimed at making use of the purchase potential of elderly people and satisfying their consumer, living and health needs. The issue of free time is raised by many investigators, representatives of different fields of science. Despite the fact that it is a relatively young category, many attempts have been made to define it. And so, the first attempts to define what free time is appeared in the late 19th century, when the American economist T. Veblen stated that "it includes the whole of human life apart from work, and the amount of this time is determinant for the affiliation to the working or privileged class" (Ibidem). Otherwise, free time, according to the classic definition by J. Dumazedier, "the time allocated for activities to which people dedicate voluntarily beyond their professional, family and social duties" (Nawojczyk, 2011). It can be used in different ways, namely for rest and entertainment or e.g. for development of interests or acquisition of knowledge. Saving up free time has become "an achievement of the modern society" (Ibidem). It is also worth mentioning the definition of free time proposed in Poland by J. Danecki: according to him, it is the time "required for: regeneration of forces consumed for work, expansion of general and professional knowledge, family life, upbringing of children, personal interests, cultural needs and participation in public life" (Nowicka, 2006). The issue of free time of elderly people in Poland is raised relatively rarely. This is puzzling, for example, due to the aging process of the Polish society we have been dealing with for some time, and whose factual sizes will become visible within the next few decades. M. Kaczmarczyk and E. Trafiałek claim that activities that are preferably undertaken by elderly people are mainly: classes within the University of the Third Age, voluntary service, namely acting for people in need, and senior clubs, under which the following activities are organized: trips to cultural institutions, excursions, tourist and open air trips and participation in various types of training and courses, e.g. computer and the Internet (Kaczmarczyk, 2007).
- 59 - Materials and methods In the presented paper, the authors refer to the results of the survey conducted under the project co- financed from EEA funds (Financial Mechanism of the European Economic Area 2009-2014). The survey was part of the project "Together Close to Krakow – Integrated Development of the Near- Krakow Functional Area", implemented under the program "The Development of Towns by Strengthening the Competences of Local Government Units, Social Dialogue and Cooperation with Representatives of the Civil Society", under the Financial Mechanism of the European Economic Area 2009-2014. The survey included, among others, learning about preferences of elderly people with regard to free time (the inhabitants of the southern neighborhoods of Krakow) in the context of cultural and leisure potential of the "Close to Krakow" functional area. For the analysis, the oldest age group of 64 and more was selected.
Results and discussion The surveys whose partial results will be presented in this part of the article were carried out in 2015 on the area of six housing estates of the southern neighborhoods in Krakow, with a sample of 150 people aged above 15. The surveyed elderly people had the greatest amount of free time from among all the age groups – almost 36% of them specified that it was above 24 hours a week, and nearly one fourth had 13-24 hours of free time a week. The greatest number of free time was declared by the oldest inhabitants of the surveyed area on Saturdays and Sundays (half of them) and by every fourth on weekdays. Only a small group of elderly people was not able to specify when they had free time. Elderly people mainly spend their free time with their families (half of cases) but also gladly on their own (almost 36% of the answers). Most rarely chosen answer was "with friends" – only approx. 14% of the respondents choose their company in their free time. During their free time, the respondents most often read books and newspapers and meet their family or friends. On the contrary, they relatively rarely choose forms that are associated e.g. with physical activity (walks, sports, trips outside the city) and with participation in cultural events or going to the cinema, theater – approx. 6% of the respondents indicated these forms of spending free time. The way of spending free time not acceptable by elderly people turned out shopping, declared only by single respondents. When planning their free time, the respondents usually use information included in the press (35% of the selected answers). For one fourth of the respondents, a source of such information is the mass media (radio, TV). On the other hand, never used forms are electronic forms and promotional leaflets. This situation is opposite than in the case of other age groups, for which the fastest and the most attractive forms when planning their free time are websites and social media (almost 40% and approximately 19% of the indications, respectively) (Fig. 1). Forms of active leisure most often selected by the surveyed elderly people are walks (for over half of them), less frequently (for every tenth) Nordic walking and other exercises outdoors. On the contrary, such activities as biking or practicing team or individual sports seem of no interest to the respondents. It is particularly alarming that one fifth of the surveyed elderly people declare no physical activity. In the case of forms of active leisure, clear differences are visible as compared to younger people (Fig. 2). The survey the results of which are presented refer to the "Close to Krakow" functional area, namely the area of five near-Krakow communes. The respondents were asked to comment on the current and potential tourist and leisure offer. It turns out that, presently, the respondents most often choose such attractions in the area of the surveyed communes that are associated with history and cultural heritage of the region (e.g. folk group "Mogilanie", local legends, museums and chambers of memory) or with tourist and natural qualities (e.g. parks and nature reserves). Tourism forms that are of the greatest interest for the elderly people are hiking tourism and cultural tourism (in both cases 30% of the selected answers), and of the least interest - agritourism and spa and wellness services (no respondent indicated this answer). On the contrary, the following forms enjoy a relatively small interest: bike tourism, natural tourism or pilgrimage tourism (selected roughly by every tenth respondent). Particularly clear differences depending on the age can be observed in the case of pilgrimage tourism, enjoying greater interest among elderly people, as well as bicycle tourism, selected, in turn, more often by younger people (Fig. 3).
- 60 -
Fig. 1: The structure of the respondents by the answer for the question about sources of information used when planning free time (%) Source: prepared by the authors on the basis of interviews.
Fig. 2: The structure of the respondents by active leisure forms Source: prepared by the authors on the basis of interviews.
Plans related to the development of the functional area assume a large extension of the tourist and leisure offer. However, it is important that it should be preferably adjusted to the visitors' preferences. Therefore, the surveyed were asked a question about facilities they would preferably use in the area of the communes in question in the future. Elderly people indicated natural and educational paths (in almost one fifth of the cases) and tourist routes, as well as monuments and other elements of the region's cultural heritage. On the other hand, they are not interested in facilities related to sports, which expressly differs them from the respondents from younger age groups. The present vogue for ruralism, related, e.g. to interest in local craft and handicraft, as well as purchase of healthy, ecological food, is also reflected in the respondents' answers. Well, if in the "functional area" local little stores appeared with products straight from a farmer or products directly from a farm were offered, people from the oldest age groups would be definitely more interested than younger people. Interest in the participation in cultural events related to local traditions and cultural heritage was similar in both age groups.
- 61 -
Fig. 3: The structure of the respondents by choice of the most attractive tourist offer offered by the communes from the functional area (%) Source: prepared by the authors on the basis of interviews.
Another element important from the point of view of planning the offer for potential tourists visiting "the functional area" is undoubtedly the way of advertising attractions of the region. It turns out that the vast majority of the inhabitants of the southern neighborhoods of Krakow (more than 75% of the selected answers on the Fig. 4) would like to be informed about cultural events that are held within "the functional area". Additionally, more often it was the case of younger people than elderly people - in the second group almost half expressed such a desire.
Fig. 4: The structure of the respondents by answers to a question whether they would like to be informed about cultural events and offers, etc. concerning the "Close to Krakow" area Source: prepared by the authors on the basis of interviews.
The best way for the respondents to receive information about this type of events would be, in the case of elderly people, SMS, e-mail and traditional mail, whereas for younger people the most favorable form includes websites, and social networking portals and e-mail.
Conclusion The presented survey results covering elderly people from the southern neighborhoods of Krakow indicate that they have the greatest amount of free time as compared to other age groups. Although, presently, most of them do not use the attractions offered by the communes of the "Close to Krakow" functional area, it is important that they declare interest in the future offer of tourist and leisure services. However, it is important that the proposals typically addressed to elderly people include the special character of this age group, namely health condition, ensuring convenient access or the fact that they dispose of restricted funds. It seems that a suitable offer of free time management for elderly people in the vicinity of Krakow may be a good example of matching the system of activities aimed at social inclusion of elderly people and prevention of their socio-economic exclusion.
- 62 - References Kaczmarczyk M., Trafiałek E. (2007): Aktywizacja osób w starszym wieku jako szansa na pomyślne starzenie. Gerontologia Polska. Volume 15, no. 4. Krakow. p. 117 Nowicka A., Błażewicz K. (2006): Preferowane formy wykorzystywania czasu wolnego przez uczestników Klubu Seniora w Nowym Tomyślu. (in:) Wybrane problem osób starszych. Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls. Krakow. Nawojczyk M. (2011): Czas wolny – pochodna czy deterninanta pozycji społecznej. (in:) Czas wolny. Refleksje, dylematy, perspektywy. ed. Mroczkowska D. Wydawnictwo Difin. Warsaw. p. 122
Souhrn Stárnoucí společnost je jeden z nejdůležitějších sociálně-ekonomických problémů moderní Evropy a tento proces se týká také Polska. Během nejbližších několika desetiletí se počet starších osob v našem státě bude zvyšovat a široce chápané výsledky tohoto procesu (např. sociálně-ekonomické vyloučení) musí být předmětem zájmu mnoha veřejných sfér. V představené prezentaci se autoři odkazují na výsledky výzkumů „Společně Blízko Krakova – integrovaný rozvoj podkrakovské funkční oblasti”, provedených v rámci projektu spolufinancovaného z fondů EHP (Finanční Mechanismus Evropského Hospodářského Prostoru 2009-2014). Výsledky zahrnovaly seznámení se s preferencemi seniorů, pokud jde o volný čas (obyvatelů jižních čtvrtí Krakova) v kontextu kulturního a rekreačního potenciálu funkční oblasti „Blízko Krakova”. K analýze byla vybrána nejstarší skupina věku 64 a starší.
Contact: Magdalena Kowalska PhD Phone 126624438, e-mail: [email protected]
- 63 - GEOEDUCATION AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Aleš Bajer Department of Geology and Pedology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Geoeducation is a relatively new term in the field of environmental education. It aims to create relationship between people and their home place or region, consequently ecological awareness of children and youth is raising, which may reflect positively towards the older generation. Geoeducation´s importance lies in the fact that so called abiotic nature is involved in the process of familiarization with nature and its protection. Geoeducation is not focused on geology only, but it seeks to create interlinks among geology, soil science and geomorphology of the landscape. Different educational methods should be applied by age. In general, we distinguish 3 levels: up to 6 years (preschool age), 6-10 years and 11-18 years. Specific teaching tools and time capacity are linked to each level. Preschool level put emphasis on mediating perceptions on localities, without systematic teaching, all of this through games and stories. Geoeducation model for 6-10 years consists of outdoor education by simple learning forms and teaching in the classroom focused on basic properties of rocks and mineral through simple experiments and stories. More demanding forms of learning are suitable for children of 11-18 years, consisting of both teaching in nature and in classroom with a comlex approach to the topic, with option of multiple-day activities. In general, the best form of providing information and interpretation is the story.
Key words: geoeducation, educational methods, outdoor activities, interpretation
Introduction Education in the field of abiotic nature geopedagogy or geoeducation fills the gap in extracurricular ecological education (Gray 2012). It does not intend to substitute school education, but to extend it and focuses on nontraditional forms of providing information (teaching). The objective is not a complex educational system, but rather insight into the functioning of natural laws and landscape development through games, interpretations and stories (Pásková 2014, Ptáček a Růžička 2012). Specific procedures and teaching tools are being applied according to 2 aspects - age and locality specification. The term geoeducation is in world and European context known: a) from the National Geographic point of view when National Geographic has adopted the term geo-education to describe education about our world. A well-rounded geo-education provides young people with a fundamental understanding of how the human and natural worlds work at local, regional, and global scales.
b) as a form of out-of school education focuses specially on geology being applied in Great Britain. Our concept is somewhere in the middle – landscape geofactors are involved in general context and their regional specificities and uniqueness are introduced within concrete localities.
Fig. 1: A good interpreter has to attract attention of children. A suitable form is providing information through stories. Use of field notebook is recommended to assure better educational results. (Photo: J. Doucek)
- 64 - Materials and methods Didactics varies according to age. There are 3 specific cathegories: under 6 years (preschool), 6-10 years (primary school), 11-18 years (higher primary and secondary school) (Pauk 1981). Teaching forms are divided into indoor and outdoor activities where teaching tools can be used in both places according to needs. The information is of general and regionally specific character (Ziegler 2004). Teaching tools can be very diverse (collections of rocks and minerals, maps, pictures, workbooks, field notebooks, presentations, tests, puzzles etc.). Geoeducationalist should have science education, fundamental pedagogical skills, knowledge on regional natural conditions and be above all a good interpreter (Fig. 1)
Results The 4 examples of realized educational blocks: A. Children of 6 – 10 years: 1 hour in the classroom , 1,5 hour in the field, Boskovice furrow territory. Teaching is running in the classroom, up to 16 pupils, teaching tools: regional topographic map, pictures of localities, basic mineral collection (12 pieces), typical regional rocks (10 pieces), pencil, crayons, paper. Firstly, basic minerals, their properties, are introduced, with emphasis on a specific property for each of them. Pupils touch minerals and test selected properties. Selected rocks of close surroundings are introduced (conglomerate, siltstone, shale, black coal of Boskovice furrow, granodiorite of Brno massif, devonian limestone, ortogneiss and marble of Moravikum, all described, touched and their occurence is shown in the map, pictures of localities, pupils draw their favourite place with its rock outcrop in the surrounding. Indoor teaching ends up with discussion about pictures. Field education takes place in 2 localities in the distance within 500m of distance, outcrops of permian shales with plant fossils, outcrops of permian conglomerates with different rock pebbles, 5-minute familiarization with the locality, samples collecting, a short lecture, locality tour with questions and samples showing, lecturer uses a hammer, children takes notes and draw what they saw and what impressed them the most, present what they will tell to parents home and on walk. B. Preschool age - 1,5 hour, a general educational game in the garden, up to 12 children, (2 adults and a lecturer), teaching tools: minerals of various colour, shape and grain size, unconsolidated materials of different colour (clay, sand, loess, gravel, gravel pebbles), loam of different colour, ceramic raw material, paper, crayons. Materials will be displayed and introduced, everyone choose what he/she likes best and try to explain to other why, playing with materials, creating simple shapes (sun, cloud, ball, house…), drawing pictures of materials (Fig. 2), modelling various things using ceramic loam, children showing (describing) what they created.
Fig. 2: For children up to 10 years it is recommended to involve additional activities such as drawing (Photo: J. Doucek)
- 65 - C. Children of 11 – 18 years: field excursion 3-4 hours, surroundings of Brno reservoir, up to 16 pupils per a lecturer, teaching tools: regional geological map, geological hammer, magnifier, geol. compass, knife, diluted HCl, field notebook, pencil, simple description of route including localities will be available to pupils 2 day before excursion, the route leads from Brno dam to Veveří castle (9 km), lecturing during the excursion, detail description of following localities: dam, Sokolské koupaliště creek, loess and terraces at Sokolske koupaliště, Rokle, NM Kůlny, Zouvalka, NM Junácká louka, Veverka, Veveří castle. The localities are presented from the geological, pedological, geomorphological point of view as well as cultural-historical development of the landscape. Someone repeats provided information on each locality, pupils making notes into field notebook, taking samples. The excursion ends up with pupils´presentations about what the saw putting stress on the most interesting issues (Bajer2012).
D. Children of 6 – 10 years: 1,5 hour, in general stones around us, up to 16 pupils per a lecturer, teaching tools: basic geological map of the Czech Republic, suitcase with collection of basic igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks (25 rocks), pictures of important places in the Czech Republic (Sněžka, Karlštejn, Praděd, Pálava, Macocha, Blaník, Říp etc.) paper, pencil, blind map of the Czech Republic. Firstly, each type of rock is introduced, everyone can see and touch them, geological map is presented, everyone has a look at it and find landmarks (Prague, Brno, the Labe river, the Vltava river, Šumava mountains, Beskydy mountains etc.) in the map, pupils mark places which they have visited with their parents, groups of 4 pupils choose 2 rocks and try to find and mark localities of their occurence discussing with a lecturer, they get pictures of localities and rocks and try to find them in blind map, they discuss their favourite rocks and localities with a lecturer.
Discussion The main objective of geoeducation is not substituting or extending curriculum, but an offer of direct contact with natural materials (Fig. 3) in their natural conditions, conscious familiarization with their properties and importance through stories and interpretations with emphasis on interactive game – teaching. An important part is the effort to show genius loci of home landscape and create space for identification of an individual with his/her home place.
Fig. 3: If possible, children should have opportunity to see, touch and test properties of natural materials (Photo: A. Bajer)
Conclusion Geopedagogy (geoeducation) as a new term and discipline in the enviromental education field is nowadays becoming more familiar to teachers and school children. Currently, there is no detail concept of geoedcuation in the Czech Republic, but being developed at this moment. The methodology is based on 3 levels according to the age. Different teaching tools are being used for different levels. The paper presents 4 examples of already realized educational model blocks.
- 66 - References Bajer, A. (2012): Vycházky do okolí Brna, Brno, Rezekvítek Bajer, A. (ed.) (2014): Geoparky ČR: možnosti ochrany geodiverzity, Brno, Mendelova univerzita v Brně, pp. 89 Gray, M. (2013): Geodiversity: valuing and conserving abiotic nature, 2nd edition, London, Wiley- Blackwell, pp. 508 Matyášek, P. (ed.), (2014): Metodická publikace. Nová škola, Brno, 96 s. Pásková, M. (2014): Interpretace krajiny v geoparcích In. Bajer, A. (ed.). 2014. Geoparky ČR: možnosti ochrany geodiverzity, Brno, Mendelova univerzita v Brně, pp. 9-15 Pauk, F., 1981. Didaktika geologických věd, Praha, SPN, pp. 253 Ptáček, L., Růžička, T.(eds) (2012): Jak pře(d)kládat svět – základy dobré interpretace, Brno, Nadace Partnerství, pp. 124 pp. Ptáček, L. (eds.) (2004): Interpretace místního dědictví, příručka pro plánování a tvorbu prezentací místních zajímavostí, Brno, Nadace Partnerství Ziegler, V. (2004): Exkurze jako inovativní metoda výuky biologie a geologie: využití poznatků z jejich aplikace na základních a středních školách v ekologickém vzdělávání a výchově, Praha, Pedagogická fakulta, pp. 228 https://www.field-studies- council.org/media/268859/2004_a_review_of_research_on_outdoor_learning.pdf [online 11.04.2015] http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/geo-education-essential-preparation- interconnected-world/?ar_a=1 [online 11.04.2015]
Acknowledgement The paper was supported by the OPEC project Platform for landscape formation reg. no. CZ.1.07/2.4.00/31.0032
Souhrn Geopedagogika je relativně novým pojmem na poli environmentálního vzdělávání. Jejím cílem je vytváření vztahu jednotlivců ke konkrétnímu místu či regionu a tím výrazně zvyšuje ekologické povědomí dětí a mládeže. Což se zpětně může pozitivně odrážet i směrem ke starší generaci. Geopedagogika je důležitá v tom, že do procesu seznámení se s přírodou a její ochranu vkládá prvek tzv. neživé přírody. Geopedagogika není zaměřena jen na geologie, ale naopak se snaží o propojení geologie, pedologie, geomorfologie v konkrétní krajině. V souvislosti s vývojem dítěte je třeba aplikovat při výuce různé metody. Obecně lze hovořit o 3 stupních, a to předškolním stupni, prvním stupni základní školy a druhém stupni základní školy. Na každý stupeň jsou navázány konkrétní didaktické nástroje a časová kapacita. U předškolního stupně je kladen důraz na zprostředkování vjemů na konkrétních lokalitách, bez systematické výuky, vše formou her a příběhů. U prvního stupně základní školy po pobytu v přírodě, kde se zapojují jednoduché výukové formy, následuje výuka v učebně zaměřená na základní vlastnosti hornin a minerálů, formou jednoduchých pokusů a příběhů. Pro žáky druhého stupně základních škol jsou již vhodné náročnější výukové formy zahrnující pobyt v přírodě a výuku v učebně s komplexním přístupem k tématu s možností vícedenních tematických aktivit. Obecně platí, že nejlepší formou předávání informací a interpretace je příběh.
Contact: Assoc. Prof. Aleš Bajer, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 040, e-mail: [email protected]
- 67 - GEOMYTHOLOGY: AN USEFUL TOOL FOR GEOCONSERVATION AND GEOTOURISM PURPOSES
Karel Kirchner, Lucie Kubalíková Institute of Geonics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Drobného 28, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract: The relationship between the geosciences and myths is studied by geomythology which is understood as an explanation of the geological and geomorphological features using the supernatural forces and beings. The geomythological aspect can be regarded in relation to cultural, historical and spiritual meaning or value of geodiversity and it can be included into the holistic concept of geotourism (that means that geotourism should contain abiotic, biotic and cultural components). The article briefly discuss the reasons why geomythological aspect could be used for geoconservation and geotourism purposes and it presents several examples (especially geosites and geomorphosites) from the Czech Republic where the geomythological value is (or can be) used for these purposes.
Key words: geosites; geomorphosites; Bohemian-Moravian Highland; Blaník Knights’ County geopark
Introduction Geological and geomorphological features and processes have always attracted people’s attention. These features and processes have been exploited and used already in prehistoric time: people exploited mineral resources (e. g. Paleolithic extraction and treatment of the hornblende in the region of Krumlov forest or at Stránská Rock in Brno), they used the suitable landforms as shelters (e. g. Býčí skála in Moravian Karst) or as the important communication paths (e. g. Moravian Gateway which was used as an important communication link and trade path between the Baltic and Mediterranean (the Amber road led through)). Later, the castles and fortresses were built on the significant elevations for defence reasons (e. g. Vranov castle in the Southern Moravia) or the natural processes as the watercourses were used for the transportation of the materials or as a source of energy. Besides this exploitation of geological and geomorphological features and processes, people also tried to explain their origin. Usually, the explanations were linked to the supernatural forces and some of the explications were rather fantastic while others contained surprisingly accurate description of the features and processes. These explanations formed the basis for the myths related to the various sites (Mayor 2004). In the Czech Republic there are a lot of sites of the geological and geomorphological interest (geosites and geomorphosites) connected to the myths. Probably the most distinctive “magic” site is the Říp hill (Fig. 1), the basaltic knob with the Romanic rotunda of Saint George on the top. The site is usually linked to the legend about the arrival of the old Bohemians to the Czech lands. The genesis of the specific rock formations was often explained as the work of the devil which is reflected in the toponyms; there are a considerable number of geological and geomorphological sites bearing the name of the devil (e. g. Čertovy skály in Vizovice highland, eastern part of the Moravia). The relationship between the geology, geomorphology and myths, respectively mystical explanation of the features and processes is studied by the partial sub-science called geomythology. The term was introduced by Vitaliano (1968) and it is understood as an explanation of the geological and geomorphological features using the supernatural forces and beings. The importance of geomythological aspect is also recognised by Gray (2013) who includes it into the cultural value of geodiversity.
Fig. 1: The basaltic knob of Říp which rises above the flat landscape of the central part of Bohemia has a mythological value and it is related to the arrival of the old Bohemians (photo: L. Kubalíková)
- 68 - Geomythology: what is it and how it can be related to the geoconservation and geotourism activities Mayor (2004) defined geomythology as “the study of etiological oral traditions created by pre-scientific cultures to explain - in poetic metaphor and mythological imagery - geological phenomena such as volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, fossils, and other natural features of the landscape”. Vitaliano (1973) recognizes two distinct types of geological folklore: the first in which some geological feature or the occurrence of some geologic phenomenon inspires the folklore explanation and the second being garbled explanation of some actual, relatively recent geological event (e. g. earthquakes). Mayor (2004) says that some of the geomyths are rather fantastic and give an emphasis on supernatural details, however, others give a surprisingly accurate description of geological and geomorphological features and processes and they are based on rational speculation and gives various examples of the geomythical explanations of the geological and geomorphological features and processes. A wide range of case studies from all around the world is presented by Piccardi and Masse eds. (2007): there are several examples from Mediterranean area connected to old Greek and Latin mythology (e. g. D’Orazio 2007, Dini et al. 2007, Agnezi et al. 2007), case studies focused on biblical events (Trifonov 2007, Roberts 2007) or articles about geomyths from Africa (Shanklin 2007), India (Chandrasekharam 2007) and North America (Vitaliano 2007) (Fig. 2). The role of geomyths and legends in today’s science is discussed by Masse el al. (2007) and Lanza and Negrete (2007). The geomythology is also being studied in Australia with an emphasis on the aboriginal interpretations of the genesis of various geosites and geomorphosites, especially meteorite craters (Hamacher and Goldsmith 2013, Hamacher 2014). The geomythological aspects of the fossils are examined by Mayor (2000, 2005).
Fig. 2: Devil’s Tower (Wyoming, USA), the eroded remnant of a laccolith with an exemplary columnar separation of volcanic rock. Indian tribes living in this area explained the columnar jointing as the claw marks made by the giant bear (photo: L. Kubalíková)
Gray (2013) appreciates the significance of geomythological aspect within the geodiversity concept and he states that geomythology can be regarded in relation to cultural, historical and spiritual meaning or value of geodiversity. Some case studies proved that the existence of myths connected to the geosites and geomorphosites helped to recognise and appreciate the scientific value of a geo(morpho)site by local communities; by relating the scientific value and myths, the people who are not scientists and usually do not understand the scientific language, more easily accepted the need to preserve scientifically valuable geosites and geomorphosites (Motta and Motta 2007).
Therefore, the geomythological aspects can play an important role in geoconservation and geotourism activities; the emphasis on geomythological aspect can bring positive perception of a site and consequently the positive perception of the possible geoconservation activities. The use of geomythology for geotouristic purposes and interpretations also present an interesting possibility and occasion how to bring geoscience to people. Moreover, the legends and myths about a geological/geomorphological features and processes are an important part of a local or regional identity; keeping them alive and linking them with other aspects of the nature protection helps to re-build and foster local/regional identity and healthy relationship to geosites or geomorphosites in the area. Geomythology can also contribute to the regional
- 69 - development; e. g. exploiting the geomythological aspect in relation to a local or regional product or service can become the important aspect of developing local economy.
Some examples of the geotouristic use of the geomythologic value in the Czech Republic The first concepts of geotourism were presented already in the beginnings of 90’s of the 20th century and they usually said that geotourism was oriented to the use of geological and geomorphological features of the landscape (Hose 1995, Hose 2000, Dowling and Newsome 2006). Later, the concept was enriched by the cultural component (National Geographic 2005). Today, the emphasis on a tight relationship between the natural and cultural aspects is given: Martini (2012) states that geotourism allow tourists to know the local geology but also to better understand that this geology is closely related with all the other assets of the territory, such as biodiversity, archaeological and cultural values, gastronomy, etc., Dowling (2013) says that geotourism is sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing the earth’s geologic features in a way that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation, and is locally beneficial; the geotourism should thus include Abiotic, Biotic and Cultural components. These cultural components, eventually cultural values can be perceived according to the Gray’s concept of geodiversity values and they include cultural, spiritual and historic meanings, e. g. folklore, sacred sites, and sense of place (Gray 2013). All around the world as well as in the Czech Republic, there are many examples of the areas, geosites and geomorphosites with a high geomythological value. Here, we will present some of them and the emphasis will be given on the use of geomythological value for geoconservation and geotourism purposes.
Blaník Knights’ County geopark Blaník Knights’ County geopark, as the name suggests, is based especially on the rich history that is closely related to the landscape. It is one of the emblematic sites of the Czech Republic and as well as Říp hill in the Central Bohemia, this area is connected to the myths (according to the legends, there are sleeping knights inside the Blaník mountain and they will rise up when the Czech country will need it the most). The geoheritage is represented by the oldest rocks in the Czech Republic (Moldanubian) and also by the cryogenic landforms (e. g. boulder fields, frost cliffs) which can be found on the Velký and Malý Blaník. The local products are promoted with the trade mark “Blaník Knights’ County regional product” which uses the typical feature of mythological persons: the knight’s helmet (Fig. 3). The presentation of this geopark is therefore tightly linked to the mythical events and it is successfully used as a trade mark (http://www.blanicti-rytiri.cz/).
Fig. 3: The design of the trade mark “Blaník Knights’ County regional product” uses the typical feature of mythological persons connected to the site: the knight’s helmet and it supports regional products of the Blaník Knights’ County National Geopark and surrounding area (source: Administration of Blaník Knights’ County geopark)
Legends connected to the rock formations in Žďárské Vrchy Hills Žďárské vrchy Hills form an upper part of a large Hercynian Mountains – Bohemian-Moravian Highland situated in the central part of the Czech Republic. A unique feature of the area is the occurrence of isolated groups of rocks or rock formations, which often have the character of towers. As these rock formations dominate the landscape and as they have always astonished local inhabitants, they served often as an inspiration for the myths. Usually the myths were linked to the work of devil, e. g. the sites Tisůvka, Peperek and Rozštípená skála (“Split Rock”). One of the legends says that the Split Rock is the remnant of a dam which was built by the devil as he intended to flood the village of Hamry. The devil carried the boulders from nearby for the dam construction, however, he did not make it in time and he dropped the last and the largest boulder to the Peperek hill. This strike was so strong that it split the dam and buried the silver mines on Peperek. Since then, the site is called “Split Rock” and the mining of silver was stopped. The legend has certain real basis – there
- 70 - were existent silver mines on Peperek and in 1328, there was an earthquake which could cause the inexplicable events that were later explained as a work of the devil (Zelená Křížová 2011).
These myths form an important part of the cultural and spiritual heritage of the area and some of them were collected and published (e. g. Jurman 1991, Zelená Křížová 2011). They play an important role in the local identity and they have a potential to be used for educational, conservation and geotourist purposes.
Fig. 4: Rozštípená skála (Split Rock): the myth says that the site is a remnant of a dam constructed by the devil as he wanted to flood the nearby village
Žižkův stolec (Žižka’s throne) A site called Žižkův stolec (Žižka’s throne) is situated near Velké Meziříčí town, on the southern border of Bohemian-Moravian Highland. The site is located near the important historical communication which led along the Oslava’s valley. Today it is situated very near the highway Prague – Brno. The site consists of several boulders (local paragneiss) which are arranged in a circle, the inner diameter oscillates between 7 and 8 m (Fig. 5). Already in the prehistoric times, the circle structures defined the areas that served for the cult purposes (Podborský 2006), but in this case, the history is younger (Cendelín et al. 2014). Inside the circle, there is another boulder which is shaped into the rectangular block which has been traditionally related to Jan Žižka – the leader of the Hussites in the 15th century. Another important feature of the site is Hajn’s linden which grows inside the circle. The tree is related to the old local family clan which played an important role in local economy already since 17th century. Although there is no evidence that the circle was used for the cult ceremony as it was believed and the last research did not confirm any connection between the site and Hussite leader, Žižkův stolec presents a good example of the agricultural and landscaping activities of the Hajn’s family in the past (Cendelín et al. 2014). For the local inhabitants it has still a touch of mystery and it forms an important element of local identity. It can be seen that a myth can be born later and it is not only the question of prehistoric times.
- 71 -
Fig. 5: Žižka’s throne and Hajn’s linden – it was believed that the site was visited and used by Hussite leader Jan Žižka, but it was not confirmed. However, the linden inside the circle can be considered an evidence of the long-lasting landscaping activity of our ancestors.
Conclusions The geomythological aspect forms a notable part of cultural value of the geosites and geomorphosites. Generally it raises the overall value of a site as regarded from the geotourist point of view; the existence of the myths connected to the site can significantly increase the interest of the visitors. In some cases (e.g. Blaník Knights’ County geopark) the geomythological aspect forms a basis for various geotourist activities; it helps to promote regional products and it significantly contributes to the regional development. The legends and myths related to the geosites and geomorphosites also play an important role in the keeping and further consolidation of the local and regional identity which helps local inhabitants to be proud on their heritage. Some case studies cited above proved that the existence of the myths and legends connected to geosites or geomorphosites helped for better understanding of the need of protection and its acceptation by the local inhabitants. Therefore, the geomythological aspect of geologically and geomorphologically important localities should not be neglected; on the contrary, it is evident that myths and legends can serve the geoconservation and geotourist purposes with success.
References Agnezi V et al. (2007): Giants and elephants of Sicily. In Piccardi L and Masse WB eds (2007) Myth and Geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications No. 273: pp 263-270 Cendelín D et al. (2014): Hajnova lípa a Žižkův stolec u Laviček. Západní Morava, vlastivědný sborník 18:297-304 Chandrasekharam D (2007): Geo-mythology of India. In Piccardi L and Masse WB eds (2007) Myth and Geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications No. 273: pp 29-37 Dini A et al. (2007): Sooty sweat stains or tourmaline spots? The Argonauts on the Island of Elba (Tuscany) and the spread of Greek trading in the Mediterranean Sea. In Piccardi L and Masse WB eds (2007) Myth and Geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications No. 273: pp 227-243 D’Orazio M (2007): Meteorite records in the ancient Greek and Latin literature: between history and myth. In Piccardi L and Masse WB eds (2007) Myth and Geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications No. 273: pp 215-225 Dowling R (2013): Global Geotourism – an Emerging Form of Sustainable Tourism. Czech Journal of Tourism 2(2):59-79 Dowling R and Newsome D eds. (2006): Geotourism. Elsevier. 260 p Gray M (2013): Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature. Second Edition. Wiley Blackwell, 495 p Hamacher DW (2014): Geomytholgy and Cosmic Impacts in Australia. West Australian Geologist 505:11-14.
- 72 - Hamacher DW and Goldsmith J (2013): Aboriginal oral traditions of Australian impact craters. Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 16(3):295-311. Hose TA (1995): Selling the Story of Britain’s Stone. Environmental Interpretation 10(2):16-17 Hose TA (2000): European Geotourism – Geological Interpretation and Geoconservation Promotion for Tourists. In Barretino D, Wimbledon WAP, Gallego E (eds) Geological heritage: its conservation and management. Sociedad Geologica deEspaña/Instituto Technologico GeoMinero de España/ProGEO, Madrid, pp 127-146 Jurman H (1991): Pernštejnský tis. Petrov Brno, 168 p Lanza and Negrete (2007) From myth to Earth education and science communication. In Piccardi L and Masse WB eds (2007) Myth and Geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications No. 273, pp.61-66 Martini G et al. (2012): Reflections about the geotourism concept. In Sá AA, Rocha D, Paz A and Correia V (eds) Proceedings of the 11 European Geoparks Conference. AGA – Associação Geoparque Arouca, Arouca, pp 187-188 Masse WB et al. (2007): Exploring the nature of myth and its role in science. In Piccardi L and Masse WB eds (2007) Myth and Geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications No. 273, pp. 9-28 Mayor A (2000): The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times. Princeton University Press, 384 p Mayor A (2004): Geomythology. In Selley RC, Cocks R and Pilmer I. eds (2004) Encyclopedia of Geology, Elsevier, 2750 p Mayor A (2005): Fossil legends of teh First Americans. Princeton University Press, 488 p Motta L and Motta M (2007): Erratic blocks: from protector beings to geosites to be protected. In Piccardi L and Masse WB eds (2007) Myth and Geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications No. 273: pp 315-327 National Geographic Society (2005): Geotourism Charter. Retrieved 13th October 2012 from:
Web sites: Geopark Kraj blanických rytířů, http://www.blanicti-rytiri.cz/ (visited 6th April 2015)
Acknowledgement The article was supported by long-term conceptual development support of research organisation (Institute of Geonics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i.) RVO: 68145535
Souhrn Geologické a geomorfologické tvary a procesy fascinovaly lidskou společnost již odedávna. Člověk se vždy pokoušel tyto procesy a jevy vysvětlit, v minulosti často sahal k interpretaci pomocí nadpřirozených sil apod. Vztahy mezi geovědami a mytologií se zabývá relativně mladý vědní obor zvaný geomytologie, který se pohybuje na hranici věd o Zemi, etnografie, historie, archeologie a folkloristiky. Termín byl poprvé představen koncem 60. let (Vitaliano, 1968). Geomytologie jako věda se zabývá vysvětlením geologických jevů a procesů pomocí mýtů a legend (Mayor, 2004). Existují dva
- 73 - druhy geologických mýtů: jeden je představován mýty, které vznikly jako interpretace vzniku nějakého tvaru reliéfu, druhý se zaměřuje na často přehnaný a překroucený popis zejména katastrofických událostí (Vitaliano, 1973). Ačkoliv mnohé mýty jsou spíše fantastické a odrážejí bujnou lidskou představivost, některé zahrnují i relativně přesný popis událostí a představují tak významný zdroj poznání geologických událostí v minulosti. Celkové shrnutí problematiky geomytologie včetně případových studií z celého světa uvádějí Piccardi a Masse eds. (2007) ve sborníku prací Myth and Geology. Význam geomytologie jakožto součásti kulturní hodnoty geodiverzity zdůrazňuje i Gray (2013) a novější definice geoturismu zahrnují využití kulturních složek (National geographic 2005, Martini 2012, Dowling 2013). Je tedy zřejmé, že kulturní složka (respektive spirituální, mytologická) je významná pro geoturistické aktivity, což je v souladu s holistickým pojetím geodiverzity a geoturismu. Motta a Motta (2007) uvádějí, že existence mýtů, které se vztahují ke geologickým lokalitám, napomáhají přijetí ochranných opatření pro tyto lokality místními obyvateli. Ti se díky existenci legend spjatých s geologicky a geomorfologicky významnými lokalitami (a tedy lokalitami hodnými ochrany) více s těmito lokalitami ztotožňují, považují je za významné (ne až tak z hlediska vědeckého jako právě z hlediska symbolického) a ochotněji přijímají navržená ochranná opatření. Navíc legendy spojené s místem pomáhají budovat a posilovat místní identitu. Článek rovněž představuje příklady lokalit a oblastí z České republiky, které využívají nebo mohou využít geomytologickou hodnotu pro geoturistické účely: Geopark Blanickcýh rytířů, skalní útvary Peperek a Rozštípená skála ve Žďárských Vrších a lokalita Žižkův stolec nedaleko Velkého Meziříčí. Geomytologie se tedy jeví jako jedna z možností, jak popularizovat vědy o Zemi, jak přitáhnout pozornost návštěvníků k lokalitě a případně jak ospravedlnit snahy vedoucí k zachování a ochraně vybraných geologických a geomorfologických lokalit.
Contact: Assoc. Prof. RNDr. Karel Kirchner, CSc. Phone: +420 545 422 730, e-mail: [email protected]
- 74 - GUIDED TOURS TO THE WILDERNESS IN THE ŠUMAVA NATIONAL PARK
Josef Štemberk Šumava National Park Administration, 1. Máje 260, 385 01 Vimperk, Czech Republic Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Abstract The Šumava National Park (NP) includes the vastest areas which have no-management or are extensively managed in the Czech Republic (or even in the Middle Europe). They offer “home” for large and rare animals (capercaillie, lynx, three-toed woodpecker, etc.) which are elsewhere extinct. The administration of the NP has trained local guides to offer guided tours to the wilderness of the national park. Trained guides participate in the sustainable tourism and have an income from it. Their acceptance of the protected area has significantly increased, because they refer to the visitors of the nature value. The guided tours have been run since 2008 and interesting data about the nature and the impact on it by specific groups of people were collected, as well as about the visitors themselves. The frequency of tours is of a major importance and the number of people in the group is recommendable to differ in respect to different biotopes. The results revealed that mostly visitors from cities are attracted by the wild nature and they are interested in the nature even if they are of very different professions. The cooperation of the nature protection body with local people helps to build up a beneficial relationship for both sides.
Key words: local guides, wild nature, ecotourism
Introduction During the decades of running the ecotourism has shown it is not just a new trend, but thanks to the promotion of tourism in a particular area, it is of the benefit to all the participants. It has become an important part of the offers of modern tourist destinations. Its benefit needn’t be always economical, but it is also important for the whole destination from the point of view of marketing. Its supporting pillar is the experience tourism, because “the fascination of the experience, the experience of the exploring is in the desire not only to go through the intensive experience, but to come back to the place of the experience. And not only this! The experience leaves its track in a tourist. A man remembers, recalls his experiences, lives through and interprets his experiences.” (Štýrský, 2014) The ecotourism includes activities related to the nature in protected areas. From this point of view the national parks are on the imaginary point of the tourists’ interest. It is always necessary to keep a considerable respect and minimal impact on the nature, the countryside and the local inhabitants. Typical activities are active tourist forms such as hiking, cycling, hiking in high mountains and water tourism. (Zelenka – Pásková, 2012). In the Šumava National Park the ecotourism activities contain excursions with local guides to the vast natural areas with the occurrence of surviving populations of big animals. The public and the visitors to the region of the national park know this programme under the name “Guided tours to the wilderness”.
Materials and Methods Preparing the project of educative excursions an important role was played by: the choice of the organizers of these accompaniments themselves. Since 2006 the Administration of the Šumava National Park has been organizing the local guides training in the frame of the support of the acceptation of the strictly protected area and at the same time of the direct economic profits of it for the local inhabitants. Up till now in a co-operation with the Academy of Science in České Budějovice three rounds of the guides training with the total number of 71 leavers have been organized. Besides the lectures thematically focused on the live and inanimate nature, but also on the history and the development of the territory, the guide skills connected with the practical exhibition in the terrain are a part of the parcel. The guide’s character and his engagement can make an extraordinary experience from a “common” excursion. The guide works with the people and that’s why he has not only to present the facts and the knowledge in a correct way, but he must be a natural leader in the group, but at the same time its member. The job of a guide belongs both to the most various and at the same time the most interesting jobs. (Neužil, 2014) In 2008 the Administration of the Šumava National Park prepared and started to organize the excursions with a guide to the usually no-go areas of the national park which are at the same time the most vast resting territories in the Czech Republic and up till now (and in most cases) there can be found the rare species of animal which somewhere else disappeared or are a rarity. This programme
- 75 - presents the inaccessible areas with the concrete object of protection. In the very place the reasons for their strict protection and the interconnected limited entrance could be explained to the public. While preparing the documents the co-operation of specialists in the nature protection and the workers in the field of the public use of the protected area was very important. The entrance to the specially protected areas of the national park needs the exception from the no entry to the 1st zone of § 16, para 2, letter b) of the law n.114/1992 digest, about the protection of the nature and the countryside. The conditions of the protection specified the periods when it is possible to enter the specially protected areas so that the disturbing influence was as small as possible. The frequency of the movement along the route had to be “accidental”, not periodical so that the regularity of the disturbing was not noticed by the animals. For this reason in the most susceptible areas the maximal number of excursions i.e. the entrances with a guide in a year was specified. The number of persons in a group shows itself both as the point of view of disturbing and as the direct influence on the environment (terrain trampling). At the same time a non-negligible point of view is, of course, an effective performance of a guide. While the workers of the protection of nature paid particular attention to untouched specially protected areas of the nature, the people working with the public concentrated on the total planning of the actions with a view to a quality offer serving its aims as well as possible. It mainly concerned the logistic from the place of the departure to the end of the action and the interconnected length and time demand. Not least it was necessary to provide the organizational back up for the publicity before the beginning of the programme and the following marketing of the current actions. The main factor was the fact the accompaniments would not be done by the employees of the Administration of the Šumava National Park, but external trained guides. The persons interested in a job of a guide were trained in an orientation on particular routes and topics connected with them. The common orientation of all the persons was the presentation of the philosophy of the national park and of its aims. By the connection of the externally trained guides to the programme, the awareness of the national park grew up at the local inhabitants, and thus also the acceptation of its existence itself and the interconnected restrictions for everybody. The participants’ fees became the guides’ income. Already since the second year of the programme for the reason of the easier communication and with regard to the administration the guides have associated in a civic association which the Administration of the Šumava NP can co-operative with in an easier and more effective way. The co-operation of the local inhabitants with the common interest, where in the centre there is the nature of the national park, has been strengthened.
Fig. 1: Map of the main areas of home of animals in the Šumava National Park Source: author
- 76 - Tab. 1: Areas and routes with the conditions for the entrance on the basis of the protection of the nature (Source: author)
Number of Period of the Frequency of Number of Area Number of routes participants in the year (from to) the routes terms group
Křemelná canyon 3 1.6.-31.10. once fortnight 25 11
Vltava mead 2 1.7.-31.10. once fortnight 18 11
Trojmezná 1 15.7.-31.10. once fortnight 8 11 mountain
Smrčina 2 15.7.-31.10. once a month 8 11 mountain
Modravské 3 15.7.-31.10. once a month 16 8 plateau
Polom mountain 1 15.7.-31.10. once fortnight 8 11
Total 12 83
Results There was made a cycle of educational excursion of middle and higher difficulties. According to the separate areas with different biotopes there were specified the conditions for the persons interested in the entrance and their knowledge. Owing to the limited number of places of the interested persons there was made an on-line reservation on the internet pages of the national park where you can find the main part of the publicity of the offer for the public, too. For the reliable booking of the occupancy rate and the participation in the excursions the payment for a guide in advance, which can be cancelled at the latest two weeks before the action and with the payment of the cancellation fee, has become the condition of the reservation.
Tab. 2: Number of excursions, their occupancy rate in 2008 – 2014 (Source: author) Number of Number of Year Number of areas Number of routes Occupancy rate (%) excursions partitipants
2008 5 7 41 385 65 2009 6* 8* 57 647 71 2010 5 7 58 686 74 2011 6 8 71 812 75 2012 6 9 77 829 70 2013 8 13 93 819 67 2014 8 14 90 737 62 Total 487 4.915 69%
If there is appointed a low number of participants in the group in advance (5 – 11), it is possible to get in touch with all the participants and to find out the motivation and the way leading to the participation in an excursion to the Šumava wilderness. From this information it has been made a basic profile of a participant: He is 28 – 38 years old. His profession is the most often a manager or an IT specialist. He commands an above-average income. He has a general knowledge, he follows media and he is interested in ecology and the environment. From the beginning one of the conditions of the participation was an approval with the entry at his own risk. Everybody has to sign he was informed about possible dangers of the entrance to the “natural wilderness” and he agrees with the entry at his own risk. Doing this survey we incidentally found out the residence of the participants. On the basis of this information we can certainly say the most participants come to the natural wilderness from big cities.
- 77 - Tab. 3: Residence of participants of excursions to the Šumava wilderness (2014) (Source: author)
Number of visitors Residence Number of visitors (%) Praha 170 28% Plzeň 71 12 České Budějovice 62 10 Brno 19 3 Klatovy 16 3 All others* 255 42 Foreigners** 10 2% Total 603 100% *All the municipalities with the attendance under 10 persons **Country of origin: Germany, Slovakia, Croatia – always accompanied by another person (of the Czech origin)
Discussion The interest of the public in excursions into the “wilderness” persuaded us there is a demand for discovering the nature in its pure form in today’s technic and consumer times. The visitors coming from big cities, where the possibility of meeting the nature in its untouched form is the lowest, are the most interested. The trained local guides showed themselves to be excellent interpreters who have a strong motivation on the presentation of the national park which is intensified by the possibility of the direct earnings from the existence of the national park itself. Especially their work succeeded in producing the positive publicity from the side of the participants and it is not necessary to prepare or to finance much more expensive campaigns for the publicity of the whole programme which showed itself to be self-financed.
Conclusion The offer of educational excursions into the Šumava wilderness in the national park makes the active meeting the wild flowers and the wildlife possible and so it is an ecotourism offer which can be put into biotourism. Although this specially oriented form of tourism is traditionally associated with the visit to the national parks and e.g.: safari in exotic countries, in the Šumava National Park it helps not only the marketing, but also the protection of the nature itself.
Fig. 2: Participants of the tours to the wilderness have to overcome different natural obstacles. (Photo: Štěpán Rosenkranz, Šumava NP Administration)
- 78 -
Fig. 3: Wilderness is the “home” for large animals as red deer. (Photo: Marek Drha, Šumava NP Administration)
References Štýrský, J. et al (2014): Modul průvodce ekoturismu a geoturismu, Gaudeamus, Hradec Králové. Zelenka, J., Pásková, M. (2012): Cestovní ruch. Výkldový slovník. Linde Praha, 2. Přepracované vydání, 768 p., ISBN 978-80-7201-880-2. Neužil, J. et al (2014): Modul průvodce ekoturismu a geoturismu, Gaudeamus, Hradec Králové.
Souhrn Ekoturismus podporuje udržitelnost cestovního ruchu turistických destinací díky své ekonomickým i marketingovým přínosům pro všechny zúčastněné. Probíhá často v chráněných územích, národní parky nevyjímaje. V Národním parku Šumava sem patří výpravy s místními průvodci, tzv. Průvodci divočinou. Od roku 2006 se pořádá školení místních průvodců Šumavou, které celkem absolvovalo 71 osob. Od roku 2008 Správa NP Šumava nabízí výpravy s průvodcem do nejrozsáhlejších klidových území ČR, kde se dodnes vyskytují vzácné druhy zvířat jinde vymizelá. Program vysvětluje široké veřejnosti důvody přísné ochrany a omezení vstupu. Jsou stanoveny podmínky ochrany přírody, kdy je možno do zvláště chráněných území vstupovat, tj. období roku, frekvence a počet výprav, počet osob ve skupině, atp. Výstupy odpovídající stanoveným cílům garantují externě vyškolení průvodci, kteří prezentují především filozofii národního parku a přírodní zákonitosti. Zapojením místních obyvatel narostly znalosti i akceptace místních obyvatel o národním parku. Omezený počet míst pro zájemce znamenal vytvoření on-line rezervace na internetových stránkách národního parku a platbu předem za průvodce. Placené doprovody dávají jistý příjem průvodcům, kteří se kvůli snadnější spolupráci sdružili do občanského sdružení. Celková obsazenost přes 2/3 nabízeních kapacit je pozitivním výsledkem extenzivní reklamy. Mezi zájemce patří mladší až střední generace profesně zaměřená management a IT obory s hlubším zájmem o ekologii a životní prostředí. Na základě dotazníkového šetření bylo zjištěno, že nejvíce účastníků výprav do přírodní divočiny přijíždí z velkých měst. Vyškolení místní průvodci se ukázali jako výborní interpretátoři svého „domova“, o který se dělí s přírodou. Jejich motivace je umocněna možností přímého výdělku ze samotné existence národního parku. Díky jejich kvalitní práci dochází k pozitivní propagaci namísto nákladné kampaně celého programu, který je takto samofinancovatelný. Nabídka poznávacích výprav za šumavskou divočinou v národním parku je tedy ekoturistickou nabídkou zařaditelnou do bioturismu jinak tradičně asociovaného s návštěvou přírodních parků a například safari v exotických zemích. Program „Průvodců divočinou“ tak v Národním parku Šumava napomáhá nejen marketingu, ale i vlastní ochraně přírody.
Contact: Mgr. Josef Štemberk Phone: +420 731 530 287, e-mail: [email protected]
- 79 - HABITAT MAPPING NPP SKALICKÁ MORÁVKA AS A BASIS FOR RECREATIONAL LAND USE
Jaroslav Blahuta, Miloslav Šlezingr, Lenka Gernešová Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The aim of this thesis was to map the habitats of the Catalogue of habitats by Culek et al. (2010) with regard to the objective use the recreational land use of the NPP Skalická Morávka. At territory NPP (national natural monuments) is the subject of the protection of the natural stretch of the river Morávka in gravel sediments with their characteristic communities. This is a unique monument of the almost 102 ha in the Czech Republic which is necessary to protect but also promote sensitively in terms of recreation.Territory NPP was interspersed with square nets (50 x 50 m), which contained 454 nodes. At every point was made simplified the occurrence and registration of a particular species. Overall the 454 mapping points to characterize 13 habitat. The output is a map basis featuring the habitats that represents quality basis for future monitoring and management optimization not only in terms of recreational use.
Key words: care plan, riverbed, walking, knotweed
Introduction Water flow as well as a significant landscape element is law-making connected to nature and landscape protection under Act no. 114/1992 Coll. However if it is a particularly valuable part of the landscape the entire area legally treated. Otherwise it is not in today's Skalická Morávka which was under public notice by the Ministry of Environment 543/2006 Coll. established a national natural monument (in Czech NPP). NPP Skalická Morávka is one of the few rare in the Czech Republic where the water flow is left to his spontaneous development. The plan of care according to Šindlář and col. (2012) as the object of protection is given segment of the natural flow of the natural river Morávka in gravel sediments along with rare characteristic communities in stream and its surroundings area (Fig. ). The objective of protection is to preserve the ecosystem and help to its natural extension not only in the protected area but also outside the defined territory with consideration to housing developement nearby stream. Šigutová (2009) showed the presence of two critically endangered species of vegetation by Procházka (2001) which include tree Myricaria germanica which is now known in the Czech Republic only from two localities (Grulich, 2012). With this tree species is connected to habitat M4.2 (gravel sediments with Myricaria germanica). This natural habitat threatening invasive neophytes knotweed (Reynoutria spp.) which is ubiquitous on the rivers in the river basin Morávka (Fig. ). Public awareness of this distinctive area is insufficient. Near the river Morávka are created two educational trails, which are listed in the guide, "Naučné stezky Moravskoslezského kraje" (2008). Educational trail "Headsprings river Morávka" located in the upper part of the stream. But his whole route belongs to the PLA (protection landscaping area) Beskydy and is far from the sights, about 7 km. The second natural trail "Surrounding Morávka in Skalice" touches marginal parts NPP Skalická Morávka. Three information boards closer to deal with issues relating to the territory. If we concentrate visitors to certain parts of the monument by particular habitats could create a quality educational trail presenting issues and endangered of this territory. Of course with regard to the protection of nature most valuable part.
Materials and methods Habitat mapping on the NPP Skalická Morávka was carried out in two stages. The first habitat mapping was done Agency for Nature Conservation and Landscape Czech Republic (ANCLP) between the years 2001 to 2005 as stated in it’ s publication Härtel, Lončáková and Hosek (2009). Now in the years 2007 - 2018 are updated (on the NPP has already taken place). Mapping is identical according to the Methodology updates habitat mapping layer (VMB) presented Lustyk and Guth (2011). However for dynamically transforming the locality the methodology is inadequate. We assume that in a short period (3-5 years) due to increased flows leads to remodeling or even transferring the channel and thus to conversion the characteristic of river and riparian habitats. Presented VMB is different from the methodology presented Lustyk and Guth (2012) which was created especially for the purpose of defining the European network of protected areas Natura 2000. The user manual MapoMat.cz administered by the AOPK says Škarpec, Balak and Zohorna (2010) as
- 80 - the output polygon vector layer together with a database segments habitat characteristics that are available for analysis in GIS software. Preparatory work was carried out in environment software of ArcGIS when using "grids" went export maps NPP Skalická Morávka in measure 1:10 000. A square grid was huge 50 x 50 m with north- south orientation. All the nodes were numerically numbered. Network square knots intervened maximum distance of 20 m from the defined outer boundary monuments. The overall number of nodes reached 454. In the Excel program was created notebook with a list of herbal and woody potentially occurring species. On the NPP was transformed methodology used Vatolíková (2012) in habitat mapping flood stream Bečva. Field mapping was conducted in late August and September 2013. Since dense not allow for excessive use of GPS inaccuracy proceeded to use a compass for better orientation in the field. On each of the 454 nodal points was an area of 5 x 5 m taken phytocenological simplified notation. For plant species were notated percentage coverage of tree, shrub and herb layer. At the base of phytosociological list was to characterize habitat according to Chytrý et al. classification Katalogu biotopů ČR (2010). It was divided by woody floor Konšel classification (1931) into tree levels (1, 2a, 2b, 3, 4). Coverage was graduated by 5 percent. Data processing was carried out again in ArcGIS. Established are thematic map depicting mapped habitats. This map serves as a basis for creating recreational land use. According to the frequency of occurrence of each habitat and linkages between adjacent habitats were selected locations with recreational information use (nature trail) or tourism (outdoor school) use. From the present results if we would for example: 20 nodal points in close vicinity mapped 10 distinct habitats it seems this site in terms of usability recreational positive. These individual sites of interest were again drawn into thematic maps.
Results According Culek Katalog biotopů České republiky in NPP Skalická Morávka was to characterize 13 different habitats of the total 454 raised points. Habitats are ranked in the following order: forest habitats (L), shrubs (K), riparian vegetation (M), anthropogenically influenced habitats (X), aquatic habitats (V) and secondary grassland habitats (T).
Tab. 1: General overview of each habitats
The most common of forest habitat was L2.2 (ash-alder alluvial forests) which is located at 248 points. In the active stream causing rhythmic alternation of three main regularly occurring habitat gravel sediments. 54 points is to characterize habitat K2.2 (willow scrub of river gravel banks) X7B (herbaceous ruderal vegetation outside human settlements with neophytes) located in 49 points and habitat M4.1 (unvegetated river gravel banks) is mapped with 42 points. The rarest habitat M4.2 (river gravel banks with Myricaria germanica) is able to establish only a single point. The various habitats are described in detail in Blahuta thesis (2014).
- 81 - The inputs are two thematic maps. At first „Habitats on the NPP Skalická Morávka to 2013" depicts the newly mapped habitats (see map no. 1). The second map „Habitat mapping NPP Skalická Morávka as ground cover recreational land use information" has already shown the potential recreational use of the landscape with the aid of habitat mapping. On the territory of the NPP were identified two so- called: “spheres of interest” - A, B (see map no. 2). Sphere of interest occupies the highest number of different habitats in a relatively small area. Nature trail is suitable primarily based from these selected localities.
Discussion The study Šindlar (1997) states that if the time between floods long enough it can cause overgrown alluvial gravel deposits. Will to stabilize the riverbed and over time to the creation of forest habitats. In my opinion due to the uninterrupted succession be allowed to void the subject matter. If it is necessary for the protection of residential buildings to regulate the water flow Morávky, it is advisable to use biotechnical modifications to flow. In particular as stated Šlezingr (2007) it is appropriate to use animated willow gabbione earth structures using coarse gravel material which is situated directly on the stream. In my opinion should be updated VMB always at a distance of approximately three years after the flood because of the increase in vegetation. All parts of the flow stream and riverbed don’t subject to increase vegetation. On the rocky bedrock soil immediately after the flood there is a primary habitat without vegetation M4.1. Due to this habitat succession gives rise to a "secondary" habitats M1.4, M4.2 and young grow shrubby willows K2.2. But not necessarily so and it may be maintained biotope M4.1 over a longer period. On the territory there is a massive increase in invasive species, especially knotweed (Reynoutria spp.) and glandular impatiens (Impatiens glandulifera). Against the Reynoutria spp. was using herbicide which according Blahuta (2014) slowed the spread but of course not entirely overcome. Even this negative phenomenon can be used as a representative example of the negative anthropogenic influence in the construction of nature trails. The public should be informed of the existence and danger of invasive plants and fight against them. The proposed trail is possible to connect with the already existing referred to in the Introduction chapter. There would be a connection of nature trails: Prameny řeky Morávky, Okolí Morávky ve Skalici and Niva Morávky. It is advisable as stated Šindlar (2012) consider extending the NPP Skalická Morávka because during the last floods in year 2004 there was a move in the main stream outwards monuments. On this affected riverside Povodí Odry (2001) conducted bulwark bank reinforcement boulder bank. This disrupting natural forces the threat to the object of protection and flow regulation. Management NPP should be tempted to purchase the estates and expand the monument. Border on the left bank of the stream to move to the edge of the agricultural fields flanking the monument (outside urban area), i.e. include adjacent stands located in the so-called meander zone. The boundary on the right side stream extend to the edge of the main road connecting the village Raškovice and Skalice at Frýdek-Místek and from the top to the steep slopes Skalická Strážnice. There would be not only to expand the monuments but also to increase the attractiveness recreation area.
Conclusion The aim of the study was to explore by Chytrý Katalog biotopů ČR (2010) in NPP Skalická Morávka with regard to nature conservation and recreational land use. Thematic map of habitats used in this work as a fundamental basis for recreational use monuments. Natural monument covers a territory of almost 101 hectare. Traffic access to the monument is favorable. At a distance of about 1 km are maintained roads along the river Morávka along both banks. The trail dealing with issues Skalická Morávka could be guided along the left bank of the river Morávka. The bank is interwoven with a wide range of disestablished walkways led along the bank. They would serve as the basis for trailing meadow Morávka. As a basic premise seems footpath inter alia, the riverbed of the river Morávka consistent with the protection of nature. Society should not be disclosed rarest habitat M4.2 (river gravel banks with Myricaria germanica) on the grounds of his protection. Unfortunately it proved the occurrence of habitats strongly influenced by anthropogenic (X), where has refugium wide range of invasive neophytes which is necessary to reduce with public support. The nature trail would be associated as these habitats. In the riverbed are situated willow scrub of river gravel banks or gravel sediments without vegetation.
- 82 -
Fig. 1: Typical view of the NPP Skalická Morávka - overgrown gravel bedload habitat for K2.2, riparian vegetation habitats formed X7B, X7A, M1.4. Adjacent meadow formed L2.2. (by J. Blahuta, 2013)
Fig. 2: Threatened habitat M4.2 with Myricara germanica by ubiquitous knotweed (Reynoutria spp.). (by J. Blahuta, 2013)
Fig. 3: Graphical representation of the percentage of each habitat
On the EVL (Special Area of Conservation) Niva Morávky takes place using the financial resources of the LIFE-NATURE (2007) liquidation of invasive knotweed (Reynoutria spp.). EVL Niva Morávky includes the entire NPP Skalická Morávka. The last application herbicide was performed in 2012. The interim report Lacina, Halas and Švec (2009) monitors initial attempts to liquidate knotweed. On
- 83 - monitoring and knotweed resistance to the herbicide gradually established Švec (2012) and Blahuta (2014). The outputs of this work can be used for further research in this area and also in deciding how to deal with the possible use of educational and recreational attractions. In the future it is essential to protect local ecosystems and efforts to extend these communities not only on the river Morávka but also on other rivers of the Czech Republic.
References 2008. Naučné stezky Moravskoslezského kraje. Ostrava: Moravskoslezský kraj, Krajský úřad. 59 s Blahuta, J. (2014): Biotopové mapování NPP Skalická Morávka jako podklad pro monitoring regenerace křídlatky (Reynoutria spp.) po plošném zásahu herbicidem – (Diplomová práce). vyd. Brno: Mendelova univerzita. 70 s. Chytrý, M., a kol. (eds). (2010): Katalog biotopů České republiky. 2. Vydání. – Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha. ESRI. 2012. ArcGIS 10.2.2. Vyd. Redlands. Härtel H, Lončáková J, Hošek M. (2009): Mapování biotopů v České republice: východiska, výsledky, perspektivy. Vyd. 1. Praha: Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR. 195 s. Lacina, J., Halas, P., Švec, P. (2009): Monitoring vlivů likvidace křídlatky (Reynoutria spp.) v povodí řeky Morávky - Část B (biota). Průběžná zpráva za rok 2009. Dep. in: Ústav geoniky AV ČR, v.v.i Ostrava, p. Brno. 47 s. Lustyk, P. Guth, J (eds.) (2011): Příručka hodnocení biotopů (pracovní verze pro rok 2011). – MS., depon. in: AOPK ČR, Praha. 30 s. MINISTERSTVO ŽIVOTNÍHO PROSTŘEDÍ. (2006): Vyhláška o vyhlášení Národní přírodní památky Skalická Morávka a stanovení jejich bližších ochranných podmínek. Vyhlašovací dokumentace. 2 s. POVODÍ ODRY s. p., 2001b. Skalická Morávka, km 5,380-10,995. Protipovodňová a protierozní ochrana. Projektová dokumentace. Procházka, František et al. (2001): Černý a červený seznam cévnatých rostlin České republiky (stav v roce 2000). František Procházka. Praha: Příroda, 166 s. Šigutová. L. (2009): Botanický průzkum pro Plán péče o národní přírodní památku Skalická Morávka. Vyd. Správa CHKO Beskydy. 23 s. + přílohy. Šindlar, M., a kol. (1997): Koncepce ekologicky vhodné péče o obnovený říční ekosystém Morávky v ř. km 0,000 – 11,200 – studie. Šindlar, M., a kol. (2012): Plán péče o Národní přírodní památku Skalická Morávka pro období 2012 – 2018. vyd. Správa CHKO Beskydy. 63 s. + přílohy. Škapec, L., Balák, I., Zohorna, J., et al. (2010): Informační systém ochrany přírody. Praha: Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny České republiky, 157 s. Dostupné online Informační systém ochrany přírody. ISBN 9788087457009. Šlezingr, M. (2007): Stabilisation of reservoir banks using an "armoured earth structure". ed.: JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGY AND HYDROMECHANICS. Volume: 55 Issue: 1 Pages: 64-69 Švec, P. (2010): Sledování a hodnocení změn vegetačního krytu nivy Morávky při likvidaci křídlatky (Reynoutria spp.) s využitím (GIS) (Disertační práce). vyd. Ostrava: Ostravská univerzita v Brně. 147 s. Vatolíková, A. (2012): Biotopy povodňového koryta Bečvy – (Diplomová práce). vyd. Brno: Mendelova univerzita. 61 s. Zákon České národní rady o ochraně přírody a krajiny. In: Sbírka zákonů č. 114/1992 Sb. 19. února 1992
Souhrn Cílem této práce bylo mapování stanovišť biotopů dle Chytrého (2010), s ohledem na objektivní použití rekreační využití na území NPP Skalická Morávka. Na území NPP (národní přírodní památka) je předmětem ochrany část přirozeného toků řeky Morávky ve štěrkových sedimentech se svými charakteristickými společenstvy. Jedná se o ojedinělou památku o ploše téměř 102 ha na území České republiky, které je nutné chránit, ale také citlivě propagovat ruku v ruce s ochranou přírody. Území NPP bylo proloženo čtvercovou sítí (50 x 50 m), která obsahovala 454 vztyčných bodů. V každém bodě byl proveden zjednodušený fytocenologický zápis jednotlivých druhů. Na základě fytocenologického zápisu byl vylišen dle Culkova Katalogů biotopů (2012) biotop daného bodu. Zpracování dat proběhlo opět v programu ArcGIS. Vznikla tematická mapa s vyobrazením zmapovaných biotopů (VMB). Tato mapa slouží jako základní podklad pro tvorbu rekreačního využití
- 84 - krajiny. Dle četnosti výskytu jednotlivých biotopů a vazby mezi sousedními biotopy, byly vytipovány lokality s možnostmi rekreačně informačního. Celkově bylo na 454 mapovacích bodech vylišeno 13 biotopů. Nejčastěji zastoupený lesní biotop byl L2.2 (údolní jasanovo-olšové luhy), který se nachází na 248 bodech. V aktivním řečišti docházelo k rytmickému střídání tří hlavních pravidelně se vyskytujících biotopů štěrkových náplav. Na 54 bodech je vylišen biotop K2.2 (vrbové křoviny štěrkových náplavů), X7B (ruderální bylinná vegetace mimo sídla s neofyty) se nachází u 49 bodů a biotop M4.1 (štěrkové náplavy bez vegetace) je zmapován u 42 bodů. Nejvzácnější biotop M4.2 (štěrkové náplavy s židoviníkem německým) se dokázalo prokázat pouze v jediném bodě. Bohužel je prokázán výskyt biotopů silně ovlivněných člověkem (X), kde nachází své refugium široká škála invazních neofytů, zejména křídlatky (Reynoutria spp.) a netýkavky žlaznaté (Impatiens glandulifera), které je nutné za podpory veřejnosti redukovat. Procentuální zastoupení jednotlivých biotopů na přelomu srpna a září roku 2014 je následující: L2.2 (54,75 %), L2.4 (0,66 %), L3.2 (3.09 %), K2.2 (11,92 %), M1.4 (0,44 %), M4.1 (9,27 %), M4.2 (0,22 %), X7A (5,52 %), X7B (10,82 %), V4B (2,21 %) a T1.1 (0,50 %). Výstupem práce je tematická mapa s vyobrazenými biotopy, která představuje kvalitní podklad pro budoucí monitoring a optimalizaci managementu nejen z hlediska rekreačního využití.
Contact: Ing. Jaroslav Blahuta Phone: +420 776 274 950, e-mail: [email protected] prof. Dr. Ing. Miloslav Šlezingr E-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Lenka Gernešová E-mail: [email protected]
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- 86 - HEAVY HORSES IN CITY FORESTS OF OSTRAVA
Jiří Kadlec, Zlata Matysová Department of Forest and Forest Products Technology Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The city forests of Ostrava are used for recreation activities of city inhabitants. The city forests manage forests with respect to forest management needs and with respect to recreation activities. The aim of this paper is to show how important are heavy horses in forest management of city forests. We analysed conditions in city forests and utilisation of heavy horses in logging operations among years 2003 - 2012. Heavy horses skidding had in average 32 % portion on total harvested timber.
Key words: skidding, logging, terrain conditions, recreation
Introduction In the history of mankind horse was one of the most exploited animals. Since its domestication people tried to adapt this animal his ideas and especially different needs. The various types of horses then used always to specific functions. Horses had mostly two important roles – so called cold blood were used for transport of loads and so called warm blood become riding horses. For its versatility horses were exploited in agriculture, armies, mining operations in various other industries, probably the most however, performed the function of a means of transport, whether directly or hitching up the wagon. (Vogel, 2012) Working horses were always closely connected with agriculture. The horses were in the forests exploited centuries ago, whether for skidding and transport of timber, the transport of seedlings, in the minor forest produce, and as a riding horse for forest service or in hunting activities. (Dušek, 1992) Heavy horses can continue to play a role in human society, not only in the agricultural field but in all sectors: in cities and towns, for work and recreation, and for therapeutic purposes. (Leslie, 2013) The aim of this paper is to show how important are heavy horses in forest management of city forests.
Materials and methods Description of forest district Ostrava city forests and greenery, Ltd. was done from forest management plan. Company forest evidence was used as a source of information about volume timber felled on forest district. We calculated volume of felled timber for each skidding technology and calculated portion of each skidding technology used on forest district for period 2003 - 2012.
Results and Discussion Ostrava city forests and greenery, Ltd. was established in November 1st 1992. Total forest land area is 1101,68 ha. Tree species composition in forest stands is composed of Norway spruce with portion of 20,3 %, Oak species with portion of 19 %, European beech with portion of 13,5 %, European larch and Maple species each with portion of 7,5 % and other tree species with small portion. There are three forest categories: commercial forest covered 7,26 % of forest district forests, protective forests covered 0,24 % of forest area and majority of forest area is classified as special purposed forests with portion of 92,5 %. Special purposed forest category is composed of recreation forests which are dominant category, another two categories are protection of water resources and medicinal and mineral water resources. Terrain conditions on forest district are suitable for use of farm tractors with skidding equipment on 85 % of forest land with slope inclination up to 25 %, 10 % of forest land is accessible with skidder 40 %, where slope inclination is up to and 5 % are terrains with slope inclination more than 40 %.
Table 1 shows the proportion of skidded timber by heavy horses or in combination with machine, and using only machine, mostly tractor. In almost all years prevails skidding with tractor, but since 2005 we can observe a slow increase in the use of an animal skidding. This increase peak in 2010, reaching the 54% share of animally skidded timber compare to 46% portion of tractor skidding. The highest amount of timber were skidded by horses in 2004, when was animally skidded 4.930,88 cubic meters of timber. Despite the largest volume in the total compared with tractors this year horses had a portion of only 26 % of the skidded timber, which was this year the highest total felling for whole period due to bark beetle salvage felling. Average portion of horse timber skidding for whole 10 years period is 32 %. Low concentration of timber is typical for salvage felling and it is very suitable to use horses in that conditions. Spinelli et all (2013) showed similar results in protective forests where animal skidding has
- 87 - economic sense. We have to mention that usage of heavy horses has positive influence on environment because horses are renewable source of energy which do not need fossil fuels and have zero carbon dioxide cycle as proved Engel et all. (2012).
Tab. 1: Portion of timber skidded by heavy horses Year Way of skidding Volume (m3) Portion (%) Horses 3 659,40 30 2003 Tractors 8 441,60 70 Horses 4 930,88 26 2004 Tractors 14 373,12 74 Horses 2 611,58 25 2005 Tractors 7 911,42 75 Horses 3 533,89 31 2006 Tractors 7 997,11 69 Horses 4 636,90 32 2007 Tractors 9 969,10 68 Horses 2 755,04 32 2008 Tractors 5 943,96 68 Horses 3 279,11 47 2009 Tractors 3 701,89 53 Horses 2 511,34 54 2010 Tractors 2 125,66 46 Horses 1 876,62 35 2011 Tractors 3 558,38 65 Horses 1 576,84 33 2012 Tractors 3 251,16 67 Horses 31 371,60 32 2003 – 2012 Tractors 67 273,40 68
Twelve coachmen worked on forest district during observed period with different portion on total volume of skidded timber by horses. The company organizes the event "Day of the forest" to the public, when coachman presented to the public, how the horses are used in forestry and how to work with the horse in timber skidding. This action is very popular among city people and people are very happy to meet horses and they would like to see more horses in forest when they are walking in it.
Conclusion Heavy horses have still important role in timber skidding operation. It is one of the nature friendly technologies which we can decide to use in forestry. Majority of city forest area is classified as special purposed forests with portion of 92,5 %. However portion of timber skidding by heavy horses is declining in last years, people who visit forests prefer to see horses in skidding operation rather than tractors and skidders. It is just question of economy if horses survive in forestry because many coachmen have problems with growing costs and stagnated incomes for their work. Tourists prefer usage of heavy horses in skidding operation especially for tourists with small children is meeting with horses welcome distraction of their walks.
References Dušek, J. et al. (1992): Chov koní v Československu. Praha: Zemědělské nakladatelství Brázda, 176 s., ISBN 80-209-0168-X Engel, A.-M., Wegener, J., Lange, M. (2012): Greenhouse gas emissions of two mechanised wood harvesting methods in comparison with the use of draft horses for logging. European Journal of Forest Research. 131, 4, p. 1139-1149. ISSN 1612-4669
- 88 - Leslie, S. (2013): The new horse-powered farm: tools and systems for the small scale, sustainable market grower. Suite : Chelsea Green Publishing. 346 p. ISBN 978-1-60358-416-6 Spinelli, R., Lombardini, C., Magagnotti, N. (2013): Salvaging windthrown trees with animal and machine systems in protected areas. Ecological Engineering, 53, pp. 61- 67. ISSN: 0925-8574 Vogel, C. (2012): Já kůň. Velká kniha péče o koně. Praha: Knižní klub. 216 p., ISBN 978-80-242- 3524-0
Acknowledgement The paper was written with the support of the Research programme of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, IGA No. 71/2013.
Souhrn Společnost Ostravské městské lesy a zeleň, s. r. o. jsou převážně využívány k rekreačním účelům a z celkové výměry 1101,68 ha je do kategorie lesů zvláštního určení zařazeno 92,5 % plochy obhospodařovaných lesů. Kromě péče o rekreační potenciál lesů se společnost věnuje i řádnému lesnickému hospodaření, kde po provedené těžební činnosti je třeba soustředit dříví z lesních porostů na odvozní místo. Terénní podmínky na sledovaném území jsou optimální pro využití univerzálních kolových traktorů na 85 % plochy majetku. Traktory jsou dominantním prostředkem pro soustřeďování dříví a podíl na celkovém soustřeďování dříví v letech 2003 – 2012 činí 68 %. Soustřeďování dříví koňskými potahy na sledovaném majetku ve stejném období dosáhlo podílu 32 % z celkových těžeb, přičemž se na soustřeďování dříví podílelo celkem 12 kočích. Výhodou chladnokrevných koní jsou nižší náklady na soustřeďování dříví a také pozitivní přijetí rekreanty, kteří pozitivněji vnímají využití koní při soustřeďování dříví než využití traktorů. Zvláště u rekreantů s malými dětmi je setkání s koňmi vítaným zpestřením procházky.
Contact: Ing. Jiří Kadlec, Ph.D. Phone: +420 541 134 152, e-mail: [email protected]
Bc. Zlata Matysová E-mail: [email protected]
- 89 - CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT OF CLIMBING SECTORS
Ivo Kohn1, Aleš Bajer2 1Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2Department of Geology and Pedology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Rock faces provide one of the best environments where rare plants can grow and animals can live. The rock itself is also a memoir of natural history. This sensitive habitat is changing in respond to behaviour of rock climbers and is threatened to be damaged. Management of rock climbing in these areas can be done by examining of climbers preferences. We can treat rock climbers as a social category with its trends in behaviour. Thanks to social networks we can track ascents of each route and provide some analysis. For management of climbing sectors is important to know which routes are preferred to another. Dangerous routes and routes with lower or higher grade have fewer ascents than safe routes and routes with middle grade etc.
Key words: nature conservation, climbing route, rock climbing
Introduction Rock climbing reached amazing amount of practitioners during last years and it is one of the most popular outdoor activities. Management of rock areas (nature conservation authority or climbing clubs) is trying to deal with this increase of visitors. There are numerous methodological sheets (Hušek 2008) and different policies published (Cater 2008, The Access Fund 2008, UIAA 2012), user guides and visiting rules hanged on the internet [1] as an appropriate response. Main documents in the Czech Republic are “Rules of climbing” [2]. All of it has one common goal – Sustainable development. Climbing activity in its own definition uses rock surface as a tool. And each tool is exposed to wear and risk of damage or destroy. More on that if the tool consists of biotopes where rare plants grow and animals live. Impacts of rock climbing on plants, diversity, genetics, and animals were examined not by one author. There is some evidence of changing the population size and species composition (Kelly and Larson 1997, Camp and Knight 1998, Wezel 2007, Rusterholz, Verhoustraeten and Baur 2011), genetic variance (Vogler and Reich 2011), age structure (Kelly and Larson 1997) and so on. These impacts are mostly in correlation with the usage of the site by climbers.
Fig. 1: A schematic breakdown of a climbing area (S. Dieckhoff in A Guide to Climbing Management – The Access Fund, 2008)
- 90 - Most researchers pay attention to the impacts and few are interested in climber’s behaviour. Some effort can be seen in guides mentioned above (see Fig. 1). The closest study to our mind set is by Merrill and Graefe (1996). There is some correlation between how the climbing area is equipped (top- rope anchors, short length of approach…) and the attractiveness for beginners and all climbers tend to prefer route characteristics to general settings of the site. We think that this is the key moment for understanding the preferences. All climbers (traditional and sport climbers) agree that managers do not adequately understand the activity of climbing (Monz, Smith and Knickerbocker 2006).
Materials and methods We choose the number of climbers as an indicator of usage of ecosystems. There are a lot of problems connected with analysing climber’s attendance so we will stick to analysis within one climbing sector. Comparing several areas or provide some prediction would demand much more sources of data and to compare many characteristics, especially those spatial ones (infrastructure, distance from town, demography, health, wealth…), but also rock type, quality and composition of rock, historical development of climbing site (e.g. “soft” vs. “hard” grade) and many others..
We tried something like historical development in grades and count of routes (Kohn, Bajer 2012) from a long term view but we are worried about usage of this method in practice. Thanks to the internet we can now track ascents of each route in databases like 8a.nu [3] or in Czech Republic it is lezec.cz [4]. In the case of lezec.cz satisfactory quantity of ascents is publicly available since 2002, some ascents are even older. This data are suitable for analysis especially with the characteristics of climbing route - grade, height and number of bolts. Last two were used to create an index of dangerousness. Length of the possible fall probably influences the fear of the climber thus his decision to climb or not to climb the route.
“Kozel” climbing area in Chřiby hills and “Indie” in Moravian Karst were chosen as model rock faces. Both are quite frequently visited, well bolted and they have full spectrum of grades - in case of Kozel up to 9+ UIAA, in case of Indie up to 11 UIAA. Both are nature conservation representatives. Kozel from large coarse grain Quartz Glauconite sandstones is protected by state of National Monument and Indie from Devonien and Rif limestones is part of Protected Landscape Area Moravian Karst and Natural Reservation “Sloupsko-Šošůvské jeskyně”.
Results The original thought was to analyse these numbers by regression analysis. Linear, polynomial and exponential regression provided R-squared around 0,3-0,5. Making decisions from these models would cause maybe more harm than usage. Each route is too specific to generalize and compute some universal equation. The characteristics showed to be more like specification of the climbing sector e.g. Indie is well bolted, the average distance between bolts is 3,64 m with some extremes (old, historical routes).
Fig. 2: Dangerousness vs. grade - Kozel
Rock face Indie is almost the same situation as above figure (Kozel), but the trend in Moravian Karst is to bolt safely almost everything, even easier routes. We can observe a trend, where harder routes are better bolted than the easier ones (Fig. 2). It is logical, climbers will mostly accept higher risk in easier routes, where the chances of fall are smaller (except routes with high risk, see Fig. 3 and 4).
- 91 -
Fig. 3: Dangerousness vs. Number of ascents – Kozel
Fig. 4: Dangerousness vs. Number of ascenst – Indie
The queen of decision making – grade. The relationship is surprisingly weak. But in general - easier and harder routes are less often climbed than routes with middle grade.
Fig. 5: Number of ascents vs. grade - Indie
Discussion We have to say some notes about the source of data. First, we assume that number of ascents in database is somehow in correlation with reality, but despite its potential being a sample, the level of approximation is unknown, because the sample is not subjected to sampling design or to organized research. Second, the act of adding an ascent to database is accompanied with certain paradigm: - Submitting the ascent is mostly one time activity. But the route is climbed by the same climber more times than once during years.
- 92 - - Thus more powerful climbers will submit the easy ascent once but they will climb it next visit again before climbing harder route. - Easier routes are climbed by one try (On-Sight, Flash) or small amount of tries, but harder routes are subjected to training in terms of PP or RP style (one ascent but many tries). Here are some examples [4]: o On Kozel - “Devizový příslib” (grade 9- UIAA): 11% of ascents OS and Flash, 89% of ascents PP, RP… o Pieta (grade 5- UIAA): 81% of ascents OS, the rest PP, RP… - So the second one was obviously under the climbers maximum, next time climber can climb it to get warm, 7before he will try the first one. - What about the middle grade? Strong climbers will send it OS, but weak climber will have to train it. o Mazácká (grade 7- UIAA): Ratio between OS-like and PP-like ascents is 55:45 o So easy routes have fewer ascents in database but hard routes are climbed many times to get one ascent submitted. Real usage thus correspond approximately with the data and it can look somehow like this:
Fig. 6: Rough approximation about how the real usage of ecosystem can look like for Indie, it corresponds with the number of ascents
- Besides these notes, there is one big disadvantage. The internet database will never be a good resource of data because of lack of discipline and unknown process of decision done by climbers. Some of them published their ascents only for routes with high grade or those they are proud of. I have seen ascents submitted even twice (first as PP, then as RP). So, having all this notes on mind, there are these characteristics: number of ascents, number of bolts, length of the route and grade of the route which are possibly in some relationship. (Only ascents are from the internet database, the others are from reality.)
Classical statistics methods are good for classical earth sciences like biology, chemistry and so on… The Economist, statistician and philosopher Nicolas Nassim Taleb says that there are two worlds to study by statistics – Mediocristan and Extremistan (2007). The main thought is – were extremes can be huge and have large influence on the average (like wealth of 100 people were Bill Gates will blew up the average) the dataset belongs to extremistan – than classical Gaussian probability based statistics should not be used. We think that this is our case. Number of ascents can be infinite and have huge influence on the average. (It is very probable that on the rock face there is some “star” route which everyone would like to climb.) Simply told, assumptions are not met here. He recommends using Mandelbrotian distribution. But why we should use such mathematics? Conclusions are intuitive and most of them are result of common sense, only supported by data. (Classical definition of sociology: scientific approach to “beer themes”).
- 93 - The data have one additional attribute - date of the ascent. From short-term view we can observe trend in dynamics of climbing in each area. Shame we don’t have statistics about the usage of the server, but the providers didn’t respond to any email or application.
Fig. 7: Development in submitted ascents on server lezec.cz
There is obvious correlation (corr=0.96, spear.=0,88), but how far is the correlation caused by the traffic of server we don’t know. We assume that the traffic of sever was main driver of submitted ascents during period 2002-2007, since than it can be some other factor (weather, economic situation…).
Conclusion Management of rock climbing areas is based on regulations based on nature conservation in general, climbing rules mainly solving the bolting problem and the tradition of the sport and somewhere between climbers alone, obeying or disobeying these rules. There is no systematic exploration of the activity and nobody is concerned about the development of rock climbing in present. The management lives its own life and managers should learn how to understand the climber’s preferences in each climbing sector. They should be able to say where the routes are “overbolted” or where the climbers tend to gather. This is maybe not a problem for small areas but in large areas where managers can’t have a good overview about the situation it is essential.
References Camp, R. & Knight, R. (1998): Effects of rock climbing on cliff plant communities at Joshua Tree National Park, California. Conservation Biology, 12(6), pp.1302–1306. Available at: ISI:000077423400022. Cater, C. et al. (2008): High impact activities in parks: Best management practice and future research, CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd. Available at: http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/2635/. Hušek, J., 2008. Metodický list AOPK ČR: Horolezectví. , pp.1–8. Kelly, P. & Larson, D. (1997): Effects of rock climbing on populations of presettlement eastern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis) on cliffs of the Niagara Escarpment, Canada. Conservation Biology, 11(5), pp.1125–1132. Available at:
- 94 - Rusterholz, H., Verhoustraeten, C. & Baur, B. (2011): Effects of long-term trampling on the above- ground forest vegetation and soil seed bank at the base of limestone cliffs. Environmental management, 48(5), pp.1024–1032. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21863373. Taleb, Nassim Nicholas (2007): The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable, Random House, ISBN 978-1400063512. The Access Fund (2008): Climbing management: A Guide to Climbing Issues and the Development of a Climbing Management Plan, The Access Fund. PCN 2001130563. Available at: http://www.accessfund.org/site/c.tmL5KhNWLrH/b.5033997/k.B91C/Climbing_Management_Planning. htm. UIAA (2012): UIAA policy on the preservation of natural rock for adventure climbing, Union Internationale Des Associations D’Alpinisme (International Mountaneering And Climbing Federation). Available at: http://theuiaa.org/upload_area/Commissions/Mountaineering/13-01-2014-revision-The- Preservation-of-Natural-Rock-for-Adventure-Climbing.pdf. Vogler, F. & Reisch, C. (2011): Genetic variation on the rocks–the impact of climbing on the population ecology of a typical cliff plant. Journal of Applied Ecology, 48(4), pp.899–905. Available at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01992.x. Wezel, A. (2007): Changes between 1927 and 2004 and effect of rock climbing on occurrence of Saxifraga paniculata and Draba aizoides, two glacial relicts on limestone cliffs of the Swabian Jura, southern Germany. Journal for Nature Conservation, 15(2), pp.84–93. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138107000052.
World Wide Web sources: [1] Climbing management [online]. [cit.2015–4–8]. Available online:
Souhrn Na bouřlivý rozvoj sportovního lezení v posledních letech reagoval management skalních oblastí (orgány ochrany přírody, horolezecké kluby) vydáváním různých metodik a návštěvních řádů. Snahou je tak vytvoření trvale udržitelného rozvoje skalních oblastí s omezením negativních dopadů lezecké aktivity na biotopy hostící vzácné druhy rostlin a živočichů. Porozumění chování lezce a jeho preferencím je klíčem k úspěšnému směřování managementu. Díky internetovým databázím skalních cest je možné vysledovat dle počtu zapsaných přelezů, které cesty jsou vystaveny zvýšené rekreační zátěži a jak je počet přelezů ovlivněn charakterem lezeckého sektoru. Indie v Moravském Krasu je například velmi dobře odjištěným sektorem, kde se průměrná vzdálenost mezi jištěními pohybuje kolem 3,6 m. Průměr zvyšují některé extrémy v podobě starších cest, které mají nižší počty přelezů. Klasifikace je pro většinu lezců rozhodujícím kritériem. V obecné míře můžeme říci, že nejvíce lezené jsou cesty střední obtížnosti, které jsou lezeny výkonnými lezci tzv. „na rozlez“ a zároveň jsou nacvičovány lezci méně výkonnými. Dle data přelezu lze usoudit, jak může vypadat návštěvnost v jednotlivých sektorech, ačkoliv nelze říci, jaký vliv má návštěvnost webu. Analýzou oblíbenosti cest lze pak ve větších oblastech určit problémová místa, na která se management může soustředit.
Contact: Bc. Ivo Kohn Phone: +420 732 200 645, e-mai: [email protected]
Assoc. Prof. Aleš Bajer, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 040, e-mail: [email protected]
- 95 - CHINA CLAY PITS – FILL UP THEM OR FULFIL THEIR TOURIST POTENTIAL?
Kamila Botková Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The impact of excavation on entire landscape is negative. Without any doubts, stone quarries, sand pits or spoil heaps damage the original land. Nevertheless, many studies proved also potential of these sites to enhance geodiversity and biodiversity, depending on many factors as size of the pit, raw material and technology of exploitation, type of restoration and management applied. Restoration can be led also in the way of future tourist interest. China clay pits are specific for their colour, chemism and other attributes. This paper presents some examples of china clay pit restoration from abroad with the emphasis on their tourist use and states future perspective for possible restoration and tourist potential of china clay pits in the Czech Republic.
Key words: kaolin pit, tourist activities, natural restoration
Introduction Surface mining in open quarries and subsequent reclamation processes affect landscape in many ways, in most cases negative (Hütl & Schneider 1998; Hütl & Bradshaw 2001). When excavation is finished, different methods to restore the site can be applied, following Czech legislation. In the Czech Republic, traditionally forestry, agricultural or hydrotechnical restoration practises are refered (Štýs 1981). China clay pits represent a specific environment by both its chemical and physical parameters. there were 70 caolinit deposits registered in the Czech Republic in 2012, with only 15 of them being exploited (Starý 2013), mainly in the region of Karlovy Vary and Plzeň. The china clay is exploited by surface mining in storey quarries, nevertheless, also underground mines were open in the past (Nevřeň in Plzeň district, Hosín close to České Budějovice). Because of the technology of china clay progressive exploitation, working districts are opened for many decades. This fact leads to the natural succession of vegetation in the abandoned sections of the quarries. Abandoned parts of china clay pits often attract local tourists by its specific beauty and also by their blue water bodies, which often fill the bottoms. However, purposeful after-mining restoration enhancing tourist potential and value is rather seldom in the Czech Republic and the traditional agricultural and forestry reclamation prevail, even though the experience from abroad presents different services which could be provided by these specific sites.
Fig. 1: China clay open pit Chlumčany – Fig. 2: China clay open pit Otovice – is there according to the restoration plan it will be better future use then refilling and cultivation? filled up (author: Botková, 2013) (author: Botková, 2014)
China Clay pits in Cornwall The area of Cornwall, the United Kingdom, and the West Devon Mining Landscape were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2006, especially for its history in tin and copper mining. The china clay deposits in Cornwall were discovered in 1746. 120 million tons of china clay have been extracted since this time, but it is estimated that that there are still reserves which will last at least another hundred years. There are several potential environmental impacts during China Clay
- 96 - extraction. The most obvious is the visual impact of the open pit workings and their associated waste tips (there is 9 tons of waste in the production of 1 ton of china clay - although some of the “waste” is of commercial value). Of the proportion of worked land for china clay, 87% has provision for reclamation. Reclamation should include steps taken to bring the land to a required standard for agricultural, forestry and amenity uses. For Cornwall this is mainly for amenity use, the most famous being the Eden Project in Bodelva (Cornwall Field Course 2015). The Project's purpose is to demonstrate the importance of plants to people and to promote sustainable use of plant resources. Located in a former china clay quarry, the Project has restored the landscape and built two indoor biomes under large geodesic structures: a five acre rainforest and a one acre warm temperate biome (Prance 2002). Another good example of what can be done to return disused pits to beneficial use is provided by the Wheal Martin China Clay Heritage Centre at Carthew. The Museum of china clay site includes 2 old clay works. The Wheal Martyn Nature Trail shows how wildlife can thrive in an altered landscape and how quickly nature can take over when human activity ceases. It includes habitats ranging from heathland to mature beech woods, most of which were once bare industrial scars (Brook 2015). Hydrological relandscaping where public and nature interests go hand in hand can be presented by the Park Pit restoration. Park Pit and surrounding land, on Bodmin Moor in Cornwall, was bought by the water company in 2007 and was described by ecologists at the time as a "moonscape of waste sand and mica." South West Water connected the lake to nearby water treatment works to supply customers in Cornwall. It also entered into an agreement with the former owners, mining company Imerys, to manage the land as an exemplar of post-industrial restoration. Park Pit was transformed from a derelict china clay site to a public water supply and nature-rich landscape and the 125 hectares of land around the reservoir have been officially designated a County Wildlife Site. Since the initial reseeding the vegetation has continued to develop naturally and ecologists surveying the land have found two species which are very rare in Cornwall. Park Pit is only one of two sites in Cornwall for Marsh Clubmoss (Lycopodiella inundata), a nationally threatened species. Stag's-horn Clubmoss (Lycopodium clavatum) is common in northern parts of the British Isles but was thought to be extinct in Cornwal (South West Water 2012).
Conclusion Restoration aiming to the field, forest or water body will be always the most common method applied. Three examples of china clay restoration projects from the United Kingdom show broader view and possibilities for restoration. The most important factor during the restoration planning is an individual approach, which is more expensive and time-consuming but it can lead to better use of the special opportunity which abandoned open pit definetely represent, especially in the highly populated Central Europe. Therefore owners and responsible administratives should be encouraged to suggest and choose the more creative solutions for the sake of both nature and humans.
References Brook, D. (2015): The story of china clay. Harrow and Hillingdon Geological Society. Available from: http://www.hhgs.org.uk/monthly_meetings/previous_meetings/china_clay/china_clay.htm [cited 11.4.2015] Cornwall Field Course (2015). On-line course and guide from the Plymouth University. Available from: http://www2.plymouth.ac.uk/science/cornwall/ [cited 11.4.2015] Hutl, R.F., Bradshaw, A., 2001. Ecology of post-mining landscapes. Restoration Ecology, 9: 339–340. Hutl R.F., Schneider B.U., 1998. Forest ecosystem degradation and rehabilitation. Ecological Engineering, 10: 19–31. South West Water (2012): From moonscape to landscape - transforming Park Pit. South West Water, Cornwall. Available from: https://www.southwestwater.co.uk/index.cfm?articleid=10688 [cited 11.4.2015] Prance G.T., (2002): A paradise for economic botanists: The Eden Project, Economic Botany 56/3: 226-230. Starý, J., Sitenský, I., Mašek, D. et al. (2013): Surovinové zdroje České republiky. Nerostné suroviny (Ročenka 2013). - Česká geologická služba. Praha: 305 s. Štýs, S., (1981): Rekultivace území postižených těžbou nerostných surovin. Praha, SNTL
Acknowledgement The author was supported by a grant of the Internal Grant Agency, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, „The soil seed bank of china clay pits and its influence on its natural restoration as a solution for recultivation“ [13/2013].
- 97 - Souhrn Povrchová těžba znamená snad vždy negativní zásah do krajiny. Tento zásah bývá zahlazován následnou rekultivací těžebního prostoru a okolí. Mezi tradiční metody patří lesnická, zemědělská a hydrotechnická rekultivace. Cílem je většinou umožnění opětovného hospodářského využití prostoru, i když v některých případech převáží jiné funkce, například krajinářsko-ochranářská. Jedním z cílů rekultivace může být také zvýšení rekreační atraktivity území. Tento článek je zaměřen na specifický příklad těžby kaolinu. Kaolín se v České republice dobývá především v západních Čechách v okolí Karlových Varů a Plzně. I přesto, že je Česká republika významných producentem kaolínu vysoké kvality, těžených ložisek není mnoho. V roce 2012 byl kaolín aktivně těžen na 15 lokalitách (Starý 2013). Po odtěžení ložiska se většina jam rekultivuje na zemědělské a lesní pozemky, což je dáno jak tradicí, tak současným nastavením legislativy. Zkušenosti ze zahraničí však ukazují, že se k rekultivaci dá přistupovat kreativněji a vzniklý specifický prostor využít například ke zvýšení rekreační zajímavosti území. Příspěvek prezentuje oblast Cornwallu ve Velké Británii, kde je těžba kaolinu významným krajinotvorným a sociálním faktorem. Tři realizované projekty (Eden Project, Wheal Martin China Clay Heritage Centre a Park Pit) nastiňují možnosti, které kaolínové jámy představují.
Contact: Ing. Kamila Botková E-mail: [email protected]
- 98 - IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MODIFIED HESSEN METHOD IN GIS AS TOOL FOR SPATIAL DECISION SUPPORT IN THE LANDSCAPE
Vilém Pechanec, Helena Kilianová, Eva Alková Department of Geoinformatics, Palacký University, Olomouc, 17. listopadu 50, 7771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
Abstract Economic assessment of the landscape draws on a modified Hessen biotope assessment method adjusted to the conditions of the Czech Republic (Seják, Dejmal et al., 2003). The NATURA 2000 map is used as a mainly data source, following efforts to unify the methods of economic valuation of environmental assets within the European Union (Cudlín et al., 2005). For purposes of decision support, the data processing as well as the assessment itself takes place in a GIS environment and is based on implementing a method which enables partial automation, simplification and acceleration of landscape assessment procedures in the GIS environment. The valuation of the landscape, which is based on characteristics of habitats to be protected and is expressed in crowns, is one of possible tool for quantifying landscape's nonproductive functions (ecosystem services). Valuation landscape, which is based on characteristics of habitats to be protected and is expressed in crowns, is one possible tool for quantifying nonproductive functions (ecosystem services) landscape. Calculated financial value can serve as one of the arguments for nature protection against large intensive recreational / sports activities (golf courses, motocross, ski resorts ...)
Key words: expertise, landscape, valuation, Natura 2000
Introduction The modified Hessen biotope assessment method was designed in the Czech Environment Institute in 2001-2003 and draws on the principle of the environmental assessment method used in Hesse, Germany. Its key characteristic is a two-level assessment which encompasses an expert relative assessment of the environmental characteristics of given types of landscape (in points) and assigning specific financial sums to individual points. Owing to the fact that the sums are specified based on costs incurred in revitalization projects, the method is a combination of the expert and cost methods (Seják, Dejmal et al., 2003). The method assesses biotope types according to standard typology used in the Czech Republic. Natural and close-to-nature types were adopted from the NATURA 2000 system, with the exception of aquatic biotopes. These were expanded with the objective of rendering their value, which is not conditioned by the occurrence of macrophytic vegetation. For the purposes of the method, the remotely natural and alien-to-nature biotopes were newly defined (53 types instead of the 14 defined by NATURA 2000). As a result, a total of 192 biotope types are distinguished. The relative ecological value was calculated for every type, its determination being based on eight characteristics evaluated by one to six points each.
The calculation of a given biotope type value (formula 1) is a sum of point values of the first four characteristics (environmental) multiplied by the sum of the other four characteristics (rareness or vulnerability). The result is related to the maximum number of points (576), which would be achieved if all characteristics were assigned the value of six points (Cudlín et al., 2005).
[(1.+2.+3.+4.)*(5.+6.+7.+8.)/576]*100 = biotope type value (1)
The resulting table gives a clear outline of biotopes and their relative point values. Due to the fact that the lowest value of a biotope assessed by this method is 3 points, this value was changed to 0 points in biotope types fully devoid of any natural properties. The assessment of biotope type is followed by individual assessment of specific biotopes (in a given time and space). It is conducted by a field survey and used to reduce (exceptionally also to increase) the basic point values in cases when the biotope does not correspond to the description of the given biotope as provided by the Catalogue of Biotopes of the Czech Republic (Chytrý et al, 2001 In Cudlín et al., 2005). Corrections of point values use a coefficient determined on the basis of six auxiliary criteria. The calculation of the financial value of a given area requires the assignment of a specific sum to a point. This point value was determined through an analysis of restoration projects implemented under the Landscape Management Programme and the River System Restoration Programme. This price,
- 99 - which expresses the average costs required for increasing the value of 1 m2 by one point under the 136 studied projects, amounted to CZK 12.36 in 2003 (Seják, Dejmal et al., 2003). When determining the value of a given area, the individual biotope types and their surface areas are determined, their point values identified and multiplied by the correction coefficient of individual assessment, multiplied by the area of individual biotopes and the financial value of one point.
Materials and methods The methodology, which uses the layer of biotope mapping in the Czech Republic according to the NATURA 2000 methodology as input data, draws on the work of Cudlín et al. (2005). The process of biotope valuation is divided into four steps.
I. Assigning point value to a biotope. Firstly, a new field for entering the point value of biotopes needs to be created (see fig. 1). Before entering the values, types of remotely natural and alien-to-nature biotopes must be identified additionally (the so-called “X biotopes”) according to the Hessen method. This step is required because the Hessen method identifies 53 types of X biotopes, while NATURA 2000 only 14. The classification of X biotopes into biotope types according to NATURA 2000 is provided by Seják, Dejmal et al. (2003). Owing to the fact that the conversion ratio is not a simple 1:1, this step needs to be consulted with the input layer mapper or with a landscape ecologist. The new field is then filled according to the List of Biotopes of the Czech Republic published in the Valuing and Pricing of Biotopes in the Czech Republic (Seják, Dejmal et al., 2003, pp. 215 – 219).
Fig. 1: Assigning point value to a biotope
II. Calculation of the individual assessment coefficient. The calculation of the individual assessment coefficient according to first procedure (Fig. 2) is fast and simple. It involves assigning a coefficient value based on the combination of values of attributes describing representativeness and naturalness. The relevant tables for assessing individual combinations are provided by Seják, Dejmal et al. (2003). Again, problems may arise in relation to X biotopes. If the coefficient value cannot be determined from the input layer, then the given segments are assigned value 1.
Fig. 2: Calculation of the individual assessment coefficient
- 100 - III. Calculation of the individual segment value. The final calculation requires information about the area, which can be retrieved from the dataset using operation Calculate Area. The resulting price of individual segments is then obtained through a product of attribute values of “point value”, “coefficient”, “area” and price of a point related to 1 m2, whereby a particular point value is obtained through multiplication of the biotope point value and the correction coefficient. Consequent multiplication by the price will yield the price of individual biotopes and upon multiplication by the area, the specific segment price will be obtained (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Calculation of the individual segment value
IV. Visualization of results. To visualize results better, it is convenient to express the price of segments relative to m2. This is achieved when the resulting segment price is divided by the area (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Visualization of results Results This GIS approach has been implemented into the our tool for spatial decision support (Pechanec, Brus, 2012). Practically was tested at several locations in the Trkmanky basin (south-eastern Moravia). The calculation was applied to the Kobylí and Ždánice model sites. Segment price expresses the average costs required for increasing the value of 1 m2 by 1 ecological point (Tab. 1).
Tab.1: Representation of of price categories Ždánice Kobylí Value (CZK/m2) Area (ha) % Area (ha) %
< 400 439,02 37 11,29 16
401–500 199,78 17 13,71 20
501–600 191,88 16 5,85 8
601–700 188,65 16 10,23 15
> 701 167,75 14 29,21 42
More highly valued landscape segments, falling into the category of 701 and above CZK/m2, cover 42 % of the area of the Kobylí model site, although they encompass only three, yet vast segments in the centre of the evaluated site. In the Ždánice model site, on the other hand, most landscape segments fall into the category of up to 400 CZK/m2, with the remaining value segments distributed evenly throughout the site (Fig. 5).
- 101 -
Fig. 5: Price of biotopes in Ždánice model site.
Discussion Relation to the NATURA 2000 method. The NATURA 2000 method encompasses its own individual biotope assessment. Since the objectives of both assessments are not identical, the assessment criteria cannot overlap fully. Individual biotope assessment according to NATURA 2000 assesses representativeness (expressed by letter scale A, B, C, D), naturalness (A, B, C) and in forest biotopes also the age structure (P, Q, R, S). This approach is motivated primarily by the nature conservation perspective (Guth, 2002 In Cudlín et al., 2005) and as such, apart from the biotope quality itself, evaluates criteria which do not feature in the Hessen method. These include management, outlooks and possibilities of restoration. The Hessen biotope assessment method, on the other hand, focuses primarily on the current value of a biotope (to what degree the given biotope corresponds to its type) and its criteria also focus on characteristics which NATURA 2000 does not deal with, such as maturity, the relation of the biotope to the ecological stability of the surrounding landscape and its significance with respect to the broader regional context. There are two approaches towards conversion between these two methods. The first yields a resulting numerical coefficient of individual assessment based on the combination of the values of representativeness and naturalness. This procedure is fast and simple and draws on the assumption that although the assessment criteria of NATURA 2000 and the Hessen method are not identical, both assessment methods provide comparable information on biotope quality. The second approach tries to infer coefficients of individual assessment criteria of the Hessen method from all the available data provided by the NATURA 2000 method. This approach is more time-consuming and as mentioned above, some criteria cannot be inferred from the NATURA 2000 method, as the two assessment methods do not overlap completely (Cudlín et al., 2005).
Conclusion Economic assessment of the landscape draws on a modified Hessen biotope assessment method adjusted to the conditions of the Czech Republic (Seják, Dejmal et al., 2003). The NATURA 2000 map is used as a mainly data source, following efforts to unify the methods of economic valuation of environmental assets within the European Union (Cudlín et al., 2005). For spatial decision support, the data processing as well as the assessment itself takes place in a GIS environment and is based on implementing a method which enables partial automation, simplification and acceleration of landscape assessment procedures in the GIS environment.
References Cudlín, P., Kučera, T., Prokopová, M., Francírková, T., Burešová, R., Smrž, T., Boucníková, T., Hellebrandová, K., Petříček, V., Dejmal, I., Seják, J.(2005): Využití systému NATURA 2000 pro účely hodnocení a oceňování biotopů. Ekológia, 24 / 1. Pechanec, V., Brus, J.(2012): Expert system for landscape assesment based on GIS. Conference Proceedings SGEM 2012, 12th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference STEF92 Technology Ltd., Sofia, Bulgaria, pp. 369-376
- 102 - Seják, J., Dejmal, I. a kol. Hodnocení a oceňování biotopů ČR. Praha: Český ekologický ústav, 2003. 422 s. ISBN 80-85087-54-5.
Acknowledgement This article was written with the support of grant of the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic number TA04020888.
Souhrn Ocenění krajiny, která je založena na vlastnostech biotopů, které je třeba chránit a je vyjádřen v korunách, je jedním z možných nástrojů pro vyčíslení mimoprodukční funkce (ekosystémové služby) krajiny. Spočtená finanční hodnota může sloužit jako jeden z argumentů ochranu přírody proti velkým intenzivním rekreačním / sportovním aktivitám (golfová hřiště, motokros...)
Contact: Assoc. Prof. RNDr. Vilém Pechanec, Ph.D. Phone: +420 585 634 579, e-mail: [email protected]
- 103 - IMPLEMENTING RISK MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES TO MTB TRAIL INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
Tomáš Kvasnička, Hana Hermová Singltrek, s.r.o., Mechová 17, 466 04 Jablonec nad Nisou, Czech Republic
Abstract Risk management is often used as an excuse to stop MTB trail initiatives in the Czech Republic. Yet land managers in general are not acquainted with the fact that risks and hazards in outdoor recreation infrastructure can be managed with the right set of risk management tools. Therefore rather than a bureaucratic nuisance, risk management measures should be perceived as an opportunity to deliver more sustainable trails. The paper summarizes measures recommended to be taken in a trail relevant risk management program. These measures should rely on having a trail design and construction standards, establishing risk management team, designing and delivering emergency localization system, providing conditions for visitors to take informed decisions, warning against hazards, consistent monitoring and inspections of trails, and providing trail updates and closures information. When risk management gets broken down into these practical measures, it can be implemented simply and without substantial costs.
Key words: outdoor recreation infrastructure, managment program
Social fact or an excuse strategy Land managers and land owners today find themselves in a position where they feel anxious of the effect of heightened liability introduced by the trend. On the other hand public land managers and/or owners in Central Eastern European countries - and in the Czech Republic in particular - have not yet widely adopted the practices that have been developed in the U.S.A. and the UK to manage risks and liability and therefore mitigate the negative effects of liability society on public land management and recreation. Often land managers are in fact unaware that risk and liability can be managed at all. There is a tendency to turn down MTB trail projects on the basis of problems they are deemed to bring for liability and management fields. Yet up-to-date risk management procedures for trail infrastructure can help to solve most of the problems land managers are affraid off.
Founding principles of risk management Although laws in various European countries differ it is safe to argue that they function on similar principles as in the Czech Republic where the concepts of safety and risks are at stake. Solutions to risk and safety in outdoor recreation we promote here are therefore relevant not only for Czech conditions but also elsewhere in Europe: 1. There is always some level of duty of care lying with land managers 2. The duty is lowest for undeveloped land and highest for improved land. 3. The duty comes into play in situation where recreation interacts with other land uses and functions. This is most often the case with forestry and agriculture. 4. Trails are both a form of improved land and a form of infrastructure and therefore their provision brings in risk management implications. 5. Land managers generally cater for a land that has been at least to certain extend developed and that serves multiple functions. In any case having a recreational trail (or route) infrastructure placed on this land is a form of development.
New trails – more effective solutions From practical point of view risk management practices and procedures can be best developed for new formal trail products - a term that Dafydd Davis, a world renown trail designer and theoretician coins for projects of new trail infrastructure that is tightly formalised and managed. Although it is challenging to overcome initial mind-blocks land managers have about "having new trails" in situation where there is anxiety about solving risk management issues, we advise this solution as most effective to establish a template for proactive approach to risk and safety. Alhough not as effectively the principles can also be adopted to existing trails.
Distinctions in risks It is important to make an analytical distinction. Risk from staying in the outdoors needs to be distinguished from risks inherent to particular outdoor pursuits. While in the first case the dangers are coming from the natural and climatic conditions combined with the potential dangers from land use on
- 104 - visitors, in the second case the risk lies mainly in the infrastructure for outdoor pursuits (trails, ski tracks, ski slopes etc.) and the ability of participants to master them with their equipment and technique. Risks and hazards stemming from the forested natural and semi-natural environments, namely the risks of injury from falling trees and branches but also injuries from dangerous climatic events and injuries from wildlife animals are very low. Systematic attempts to manage falling trees risks in the UK have let to the establishment of the practice of active solutions for urban environments and non- intervention for forested environments. Attempts to eliminate those risks in forested areas would lead to removing most if not all trees which would negate the reason for which people visit them in the first place. While the established best practice for falling tree hazards is non-intervention, the interface between forestry (namely timber harvesting operations) and recreation is subjected to pro-active risk management in the UK. In fact the development of formal trail products (popularly called trail centres) can be perceived as a result of attempts to find a most effective solution for it.
Inherent risks Risks inherent to particular outdoor recreation activities are part of the reason why people participate in them. According to sport psychology overcoming risks is the substance of certain forms of recreational experience including mountain biking. Navigating along narrow trails demands quick reactions and technical skills that make riding mountain bikes fun. From the point of of risk management it is important to notify the user about the nature of the activity and risks inherent to it so he/she can take an informed decision to participate in it. Failure to do so can be interpreted as a negligence. The principle of informed decision in mountain biking infrastructure has demanded that there are trails with certain recognisable levels of risks. This has lead evolution of various forms of trail grading (and sometimes standards associated with particular grades). To accustom the user to the level of risk inherent in riding mountain bikes on narrow trails, it is a good practice to design trails with consistent levels of difficulty and separate trails from each other depending on their increasing difficulty.
Establishing the standard of care When establishing the level of reasonable care it is important to take following factors in mind: • there is a reduced scope for direct management intervention • excessive stress on safety will damage visitor experience and demand costly modifications of infrastructure • trail inspection and monitoring can be demanding and expensive. it is necessary to aim to a level that can be maintained consistently over time in respect to financial and human resources • there are other uses of nature / countryside / landscapes then recreation. Efforts to secure visitors‘ safety should not suppress these uses and functions.
In those countries where pro-active risk management is practiced there are two established solutions: • managers demonstrate they are behaving as a reasonable person would under similar circumstances • managers demonstrate they acted according to a defined standard of care. The more formal the product, the higher standard is demanded
Risk management program To be able to prove any or both of these two land managers and entities involved with trails should break their approach down to a set of particular management measures. The points in following list of these measures are described in later paragraphs: • Trail design and construction standards • Risk management team • Emergency localisation system • Informed decisions of visitors • Warn against hazards • Trail monitoring, inspections and record keeping • Trail updates and closures Applying the management measures needs to be balanced. On one hand they should demonstrate sufficient (= reasonable) standard of care on the other hand they should not be so strict it will not be possible to maintain them consistently over time.
- 105 - Trail design and construction standards Having a clear standard for design and construction of trails is a fundamental component of trail network. In case of a lawsuit standard can be used to prove that the trail network was designed and constructed in sufficient quality and therefore protect its designers, construction contractors, owners, operators and land management authorities. In general this principle is carried over from the construction industry where there is planning permission process instituted by state and where authorities judge whether the project meets applicable standards. While it is generally true that for constructing trails some for of planning permission is necessary the official construction standards are too generic to apply them trail construction. In countries where trail construction is common (U.S.A. and the UK) over the years a good practice evolved that can serve as a basis for creating a project’s own standard. In our experience it is advisable to break down trails into several categories based on civil engineering criteria and user difficulty and describe each of them on its own.
Risk management team In well managed trail projects it become customary to create a risk management team that will be be effective, proactive and systematic. The team usually consist of representatives of project stakeholders. Its work lies in addressing the visitor safety issues on the basis of actual day-to-day experience. The work of the team can be perceived as a demonstration of level and quality of care for visitor safety on behalf of stakeholder organisation. We advise the team to consist of persons with following competences: • trail design and management expertise • trail operator‘s representative • land owner’s representative • health emergency or mountain rescue representative
Emergency localisation system The first task of the risk management team should be creating an emergency system for fast localisation of accidents and plan for approach routes for rescue personnel. The plan should be checked and revised at least once a year for changes both in trail and in approach infrastructure. Protocols and change logs need to be kept for record.
Informed decisions of visitors Informed decision can be defined as such decision that an individual made after learning about all important facts, conditions and circumstances. It is good practice to create opportunity to present visitors with these facts so they can make voluntary informed decision whether or not they will participate in the activity and use the trail infrastructure. By making such willing informed decision visitors take on part of the responsibility for risk inherent in the activity. Informed decision therefore lessen the responsibility of trail operators, providers and owners. The information that should be conveyed is: • Riding mountain bikes has certain inherent risks and is at person’s own safety • Riding mountain bikes is subjected to access legislation (most often forestry law) • Visitors decide to use the trails at their own will • Information about the emergency localisation system • After this point it is understood that the visitor learnt about the facts, accepts them and agrees with them. The information is usually presented on the information boards at the official entry zones to the trail system.
Warn against hazards Even with all the care for the consistency of trails and their correspondence with particular standard there are likely to appear spots which include higher level of hazards or dangers such as road crossings, places with forestry traffic, places with visitors from other user groups, or sudden changes in trail character. Visitors should be warned by signs at such spots. Yet visitors should also be informed that not all dangerous spots might be signposted. This is impossible to do as the perceived level or risk / hazard varies from person to person. Also some risks are inherent in the activity (of mountain biking) itself.
- 106 - Trail monitoring, inspections and record keeping There should be a manual for trail monitoring and inspections. It is advisable that it is created by a trail designer who is knowledgeable of the desired state of trails. The manual should include the definitions of desired state, procedures for inspections and frequency for carrying them. All versions of the manual, former or current should be kept for record. Trail inspections are usually carried out by the risk management team. The frequency needs to be set realistically so that the operator and the risk management team are able to fulfill it and at the same time it is recognised as sufficient.
Trail updates and closures The current state of trails is variable depending on the time of the year, weather and forest functions and services (most importantly timber harvesting). Trail operators in cooperation with risk management team should publish trail updates and information about closures. It is advisable to post the information online, on site at trailheads and entry zones and at the beginning of affected trail section. The information should be kept for records.
References Davis, D. (2005-2013): numerous internal documents, personal communication. Coillte (2005): Recreation Policy: Healthy Forest, Healthy Nation. Coillte, Newtownmountkennedy. Maginnis, A. (2003): "Visitor Safety in Country Parks." Countryside Recreation 11(2). Pigram, J. J. and J. M. Jenkins (2006): Outdoor recreation management. London, Routledge. Visitor Safety in the Countryside Group, Ed. (2011 [2003]). Managing Visitor Safety in the Countryside, www.vscg.co.uk, Visitor Safety in the Countryside Group. Webber, P. (2007): Managing Mountain Biking: IMBA’s Guide to Providing Great Riding. Boulder, CO:, IMBA.
Souhrn Jako důvod pro odmítnutí projektů stezek pro MTB v České republice často bývá uváděna obava z možného zranění uživatelů. Správci krajiny si bohužel většinou nejsou vědomi toho, že ke správě rizik spojených s infrastrukturou pobytu v přírodě existují účinné nástroje. Jejich použití znamená určitou byrokratickou zátěž, avšak zároveň přináší velkou příležitost k tomu, aby mohlo být realizováno více udržitelných stezek jako součást péče o rekreační funkci území. Příspěvek shrnuje doporučené postupy, které by měly být zakomponovány do projektů stezek. Mezi tyto nástroje patří stanovení standardu pro návrh a realizaci sítě stezek, ustanovení týmu pro rizikový management, vytvoření bezpečnostního a záchranného systému, vytvoření nástrojů pro Informované rozhodnutí uživatelů, upozorňování na nebezpečných místech, monitoring, průběžné kontroly, protokolování náprav a upozorňování na aktuální stav, nebezpečí a uzavírky. Pokud je správa rizik rozložena do těchto praktických kroků, může být implementována snadno a bez nadbytečných nákladů.
Contact: Mgr. Tomáš Kvasnička, MA Ing. Hana Hermová Email: [email protected]
- 107 - IMPORTANT ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF NATIONAL PARK ADMINISTRATIONS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
David Březina, Petra Hlaváčková Department of Forest and Wood Products Economics and Policy, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The paper deals with the development of the important economic indicators of the National Park Administrations in the Czech Republic in the basic reference period 2005 – 2012. The selected indicators were personal expenses, cost of services, revenues from sales of product, and revenues from transfers (contribution to activities). The aggregate data were transformed from profit and loss statement of the National Park Administrations. This data are available on the website of the Ministry of Finance of the Czech Republic. In the methodological approach the modelling of time series has been used. Further the calculation of the correlation coefficient and test the significance of the correlation coefficient was calculated. The results are applicable for the actual practice, especially for the Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic.
Key words: economics, time series, correlation coefficient, national park, recreation
Introduction Organizations tasked with the management of national parks and protected landscape areas are directly involved in the promotion of a wide range of social functions associated with forests and the landscape as such as well as offering leisure time activities and edification. These organizations are not designed to generate profit: they are primarily tasked with nature conservation and landscape protection, thereby contributing to the improvement of the quality of life as required by society. (Březina, Šafařík, Hlaváčková 2013; upraveno) Their management is defined by Act No. 218/2000 Coll. on Budgetary Rules and by Act No. 219/2000 Coll., on the Property of the Czech Republic. Their accounting is governed by Decree No. 410/2009 Coll., implementing Act No. 563/1991 Coll., on Accounting. The aim of the paper is to analyse the development of major economic indicators of National Park Administrations in relation with the most important financial indicator of state non-profit organisations – liquidity (ability to pay) for the reference period 2005 – 2012.
Material and methods Theoretical Background The selected economic indicators were the major cost items – personnel costs, service costs, and revenue items – revenues from sales of own products, revenues from transfers (operational grants). All indicators were recalculated to per-hectare values and plotted in line charts. Materials Data was taken from the profit and loss statements for the period 2005 – 2012. Data for the years 2005 – 2009 was obtained from the ARIS web portal (data presentation system of the IDB ARIS database). Data for the years 2010 – 2012 was downloaded from the ÚFIS portal. Both information systems are available on the Ministry of Finance´s website. The latest data available on the MF´s portal was for the year 2012. Methodology The time series was decomposed to the trend component T which describes development of the time series. The authors used the linear trend function. Formula for calculation of the linear trend (1)
Tt Wherein: a0, a1 = are unknown parameters t = 1,2,….n is the time variable Formula for calculation of the correlation coefficient (2)
- 108 - Wherein: y = the measured value of the indicator y ̂ = the model value of the indicator y ̄ = average of indicator values The test of the correlation coefficient significance (tR) was performed by the formula (3)
Wherein: R = the correlation coefficient n = the number of measurements The null hypothesis (H0) for this test argues that the correlation between variables is not provable in the base data file. The formula of test criterion of significance of the pair wise correlation coefficient has a Student distribution with (n – 2) degrees of freedom. If | tR |> tᾳ, n – 2 (critical value), then we reject H0 (Drápela 2002). Test results were determined at the significance level α = 0.05, i.e. the reliability of tests is 95%. The actual calculation and graphical representation of results was performed in Microsoft Office Excel 2013.
Results This part of the paper contains results of the research. The authors calculated correlation coefficients for individual economic indicators and tested the correlation coefficients´ significance (see Tabs. 1, 2, 3, 4). The development of economic indicators of NP Administrations was analysed via linear-trend time series modelling (see Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4). The results of significance testing of the NP Administrations´ personnel costs correlation coefficients are shown in Tab. 1.
Tab. 1: The test of the correlation coefficient significance personal costs NP Administration The correlation NP Administration The test criterion The critical value coefficient 2.4469 Bohemian Switzerland NP 0.5474 1.6024 Administration Podyjí NP Administration 0.1923 0.4800 Krkonoše Mountains NP Administration -0.0265 -0.0649
Šumava NP and PLA Administration 0.5088 1.4476 Source: own processing
The significance tests did not prove any statistically significant correlation in either of NP Administrations. It is not possible to predict whether the trend in personnel costs will be decreasing or increasing in future years. The development of the personnel costs´ linear trend is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Development of personnel expenses in thousands CZK recalculated to per-hectare values through a linear trend in the years 2005 – 2012 Source: Ministry of Finance 2014a, b; own processing
- 109 - The results of significance testing of the NP Administrations´ service costs correlation coefficients are shown in Tab. 2.
Tab. 2: The test of the correlation coefficient significance costs of service NP Administration The correlation NP Administration The test criterion The critical value coefficient 2.4469 Bohemian Switzerland NP 0.9130 5.4819 Administration Podyjí NP Administration 0.0110 0.0269 Krkonoše Mountains NP Administration 0.6277 1.9749 Šumava NP and PLA Administration -0.0023 -0.0057 Source: own processing
The significance tests proved a statistically significant correlation in one NP Administration only. The increasing trend in service costs of Bohemian Switzerland NP Administration will probably continue in the coming years. There was no statistically significant dependence identified in other national parks. It is not possible to predict whether the trend in service costs will be decreasing or increasing in future years. The development of the service costs´ linear trend is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Development of service costs in thousands CZK recalculated to per-hectare values through a linear trend in the years 2005 – 2012 Source: Ministry of Finance 2014a, b; own processing
The results of significance testing of the NP Administrations´ revenues from sales of own products correlation coefficients are shown in Tab. 3.
Tab. 3: The test of the correlation coefficient significance revenues from sales of own products NP Administration The correlation NP Administration The test criterion The critical value coefficient 2.4469 Bohemian Switzerland NP 0.9732 10.3621 Administration Podyjí NP Administration 0.5475 1.6026 Krkonoše Mountains NP Administration 0.6907 2.3393 Šumava NP and PLA Administration 0.0977 0.2405 Source: own processing
The significance tests proved a statistically significant correlation in one NP Administration only. The increasing trend in revenues from sales of own products of Bohemian Switzerland NP Administration will probably continue in the coming years. There was no statistically significant dependence identified in other national parks. It is not possible to predict whether the trend in revenues from sales of own
- 110 - products will be decreasing or increasing in future years. The development of linear trend of the revenues from sales of own products is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Development of revenues from sales of own products in thousands CZK recalculated to per- hectare values through a linear trend in the years 2005 – 2012 Source: Ministry of Finance 2014a, b; own processing
The results of significance testing of the NP Administrations´ revenues from transfers correlation coefficients are shown in Tab. 4.
Tab. 4: The test of the correlation coefficient significance revenues from transfers NP Administration The correlation NP Administration The test criterion The critical value coefficient 2.4469 Bohemian Switzerland NP 0.7141 2.4988 Administration Podyjí NP Administration 0.7542 2.8136 Krkonoše Mountains NP Administration -0.1799 -0.4479 Šumava NP and PLA Administration 0.1290 0.3186 Source: own processing
The significance tests proved statistically significant correlations in Bohemian Switzerland NP Administration and Podyjí NP Administration. The increasing trend in operational grants to Bohemian Switzerland NP Administration and Podyjí NP Administration will probably continue in the coming years. There was no statistically significant dependence identified in other national parks. It is not possible to predict whether the trend in operational grants will be decreasing or increasing in future years. The development of the linear trend is shown in Fig. 4.
Discussion The authors studied all available foreign and domestic literature and found that monitoring of development of economically significant variables (service costs, personal expenses, revenues from sales of own products and operational grants) performed by the use of per-hectare values, linear trends, and correlation coefficients have not been carried out so far. The most consistent trend in major economic indicators was found in Podyjí NP Administration (except for operational grants where the smallest fluctuations were identified in Krkonoše Mountains NP Administration). The biggest differences (i.e. increases or decreases of an indicator´s value) were identified in Bohemian Switzerland NP (personnel costs, operational grants) and Šumava NP and PLA (service costs, revenues from sales of own products). The differences can be seen in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4. The highest personnel costs/area ratio has Podyjí NP Administration – on average CZK 2,826.05 per hectare over 8 years (see Fig. 1). The highest per-hectare service costs (especially the forest production-related services) has Bohemian Switzerland NP Administration – on average CZK 4,486.13 per year (see Fig. 2). The highest per-hectare revenues from sales of own products (especially revenues from timber sales) has Bohemian Switzerland NP Administration – on average CZK
- 111 - 3,087.43 over 8 years (see Fig. 3). The highest operational grants/area ratio has Bohemian Switzerland NP Administration – on average CZK 7,129.90 per hectare over 8 years (see Fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Development of revenues from transfers in thousands CZK recalculated to per-hectare values through a linear trend in the years 2005 – 2012 Source: Ministry of Finance 2014a, b; own processing
Conclusion The aim of the paper was to analyse the development of major economic indicators of National Park Administrations for the reference period 2005 – 2012. All the above findings about the future development of major economic indicators are based on theoretical calculations. There are many uncontrollable factors (e.g. political situation of the country, socio–economic perception of protected areas, EU strategies) which may cause an unexpected development of these indicators in the following years. The results are useful in practice mainly for the needs of the Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic
References Březina, D., Šafařík, D., Hlaváčková, P. (2013): LM3 – Local Multiplier in Environmental Economics. In Fialová, J. Kubíčková, H. Public Recreation and Landscape Protection - with man hand in hand. 1. - 3. května. 1. vyd. Brno: Mendelova univerzita v Brně, p. 77 – 81. ISBN 978-80-7375-746-5. Drápela, K., (2002): Statistické metódy II. Brno: Mendelova zemědělská a lesnická univerzita v Brně, Edičné středisko MZLU v Brně, 160 p. ISBN 80-7157-474-0. Ministry of Finance. (2014a): [online]. Profit and Loss Statements of Non-profit Organizations. Data for period 2005 – 2009. [cit. 2014-02-20]. Available at:
Acknowledgement The paper is part of the work on the Internal Grant Agency project of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno No. LDF_VT_2015010.
Souhrn Příspěvek se zabývá vývojem významných ekonomických ukazatelů správ národních parků České republiky za základní referenční období 2005 – 2012. Vybranými ukazateli byly osobní náklady, náklady na služby, výnosy z prodeje vlastních výrobků, výnosy z transferů (příspěvky na činnost). V metodickém postupu bylo využito modelování časových řad, dále byl proveden výpočet korelačního koeficientu a test významnosti korelačního koeficientu. Nejvyrovnanější trend významných
- 112 - ekonomických ukazatelů správ NP mezi jednotlivými za zkoumané období má Správa NP Podyjí (kromě příspěvku na činnost, kde nejmenší změnu vykazuje Správa KRNAP). Největší rozdíly (tzn. navýšení nebo snížení ukazatele) lze pozorovat v průměru u Správy NP České Švýcarsko (osobní náklady, příspěvek na činnost) a Správy NP a CHKO Šumava (náklady na služby, výnosy z prodeje vlastních výrobků). U Správy NP České Švýcarsko bude pravděpodobně v následujících letech pokračovat trend zvyšování nákladů na služby a trend zvyšování výnosů z prodeje vlastních výrobků. U Správ NP Podyjí a NP České Švýcarsko bude pravděpodobně v následujících letech pokračovat trend zvyšování příspěvku na činnost. U správ ostatních národních parků nebyla významná statistická závislost prokázána. Nelze předpovědět klesající či vzrůstající trend významných ekonomických ukazatelů.
Contact: Ing. David Březina, Ph.D., Phone: +420 545 134 073, e-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Petra Hlaváčková, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 075, e-mail: [email protected]
- 113 - IN PRAISE OF TREES
Milan Rajnoch Department of Planting Design and Maintanance, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Valtická 337, 691 44 Lednice, Czech Republic
The project of nature trail “In Praise of Trees” is based on the idea of beautifying a forest by sensitive insertion of garden and landscape architecture into the natural forest. The aim is not to transform the nature but based on its principles – natural spaces highlight and carefully create up them. The path is an example of interdisciplinary cooperation between forest engineers and garden and landscape architects. The nature trail is contents of the projects. This path is intended for educational needs of students at Mendel University in Brno and for general public too. Name of nature trail expresses great respect of man to trees. It is forest road which going through meadows and is finished into Arboretum of Křtiny. Thirteen genera are presented on so far implemented meadows. These genera are represented by a wide range of species and cultivars, that creates their richness and diversity. Individual trees were planted as solitary or in small groups. The intention is to create the pleasant environment of green meadows in which individual taxons are incorporated according to site requirements so that they have the opportunity to &ldqu o;show off” their natural habitus and soothed the environment to visitors. In the future the plan is to addition of fourteen spaces (poplar), roads, information boards and furniture.
Fig. 1: Map of the forest stands
Contact: Milan Rajnoch Phone: +420 519 367 271, e-mail:[email protected]
- 114 -
Fig. 2: In Praise of trees
- 115 -
Fig. 3: An overview map of road network
- 116 - INFLUENCE OF RECREATION ON WATER QUALITY ON THE BÍLÝ STREAM WATERSHED
Věra Hubačíková, Petra Oppeltová, Lucie Navrátilová Department of Applied and Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Osada Šmelcovna situated on the Bílý stream in Svratka watershed is an attractive destination for tourists, cyclists, and is used for recreation purposes. Attendance rate is high season has a negative impact on water quality of the Bílý stream. This is caused by waste water production of this Osada and mainly of the restaurant. The fact lies in an insufficient waste water management and at the same time it is proven by monitoring on the Bílý stream. There have been found high levels of selected water quality indication (COD, total phosphorus, ammonia nitrogen) according to valid Czech legislation. Based on the results of the stream monitoring a solution for waste water treatment for Osada Šmelcovna has been proposed.
Key words: recreation purposes, waste water, tourists, Osada Šmelcovna, monitoring, waste water management
Introduction There is a substantial improvement in the development of water quality in streams in recent years compared to the end of the last century but there is still some locations in the Czech Republic where there is a discharge of wastewater into some recipients and thus limits set by the applicable legislation of Czech Republic for wastewater discharges into surface waters are exceeded. This is the case even for the area of interest Osada Šmelcovna, where there is seasonal increased amount of hikers and cyclists, and that the water quality in the Bílý stream consequently changes. Therefore it is necessary to carry out remedies e.g. proposal of natural wastewater treatment. Because of its natural-organic nature it can be included into the landscape while improve water quality in the recipient.
Research Area Bílý stream springs about 2 km north of the village Skřinářov at an altitude of 605 meters above sea level, near the famous pilgrimage site named "Holy Mountain". The length of the stream is 33.9 km, the watershed area is 113.7 km2. The average flow is 290 l.s-1. The stream flows from the village Skřinářov to the area of villages Osová, Vlkov and Křoví. Then it continued to the Osada Šmelcovna up to Veverská Bítýška. Part of the valley behind the village Křoví was declared a natural park of the Bílý Stream Valley. At an altitude of 235 above sea level in Veverská Bítýška the Bílý Stream estuary as a right tributary to the river Svratka. Natural Park Bílý Stream Valley is a protected area with an approximate area of 3,500 hectares. At first, on 1st of January 1978, it was declared as a rest area, then, in 1992, it has become Natural Park. It consists of more than 15 km long White Stream flow in a narrow, wooded, rocky valley. A large percentage of forest here is composed of forests close to nature character. Osada Šmelcovna is a part of the Bílý Stream Valley. The first mention of the settlement dates back to the 13th century, when a mining settlement Podolí was established. The currant name of the settlement dates since the 1794th. Silver and iron ore mined on Šmelcovna. Iron ore smelted here and it is hence the present name Šmelcovna – from Germen word for smelting “schmelzen”. Osada Šmelcovna is divided into two villages, Maršov and Javůrek. Maršov´s part has just 6 family houses and only one is permanently inhabited. The rest of the settlement (36 houses) belongs to the Javůrek village, four of them are permanently inhabited and 32 just seasonally. About 15 family houses are occupied throughout hole summer season. Šmelcovna is a major tourist crossroads both for hikers and cyclists. Two tourist signs passes through here, a blue one from Velká Bíteš do Veverská Bítýška and a red one from Maršot to Domařov. This place is very popular one. Both hikers and cyclist have to cross the stream on several swinging footbridges and different logs on the way from Šmelcovna to a Pavlovec Mile. This adrenalin path is very popular route.
- 117 - Materials and Methods During the reconnaissance there were chosen five supply points (see the figure 1) and the stream and its surrounding were inspected. The beginning of the area of interest, the first site, is on the border of Křoví village. Next two sites are situated on the area of Osada Šmelcovna. One is above the settlement and the second one in under it. The fourth sampling profile is in the end of Natural Park Bílý Stream Valley area, above the village Veverská Bítýška. The last site is situated in the built-up area of Veverská Bítýška, about 200 m far from confluence of Bílý Stream and Svratka River. There were made four measurements and sampling on each of this sites during the year 2013 (spring, summer, autumn and winter). There were analyzed following chemical indicators: iron, sulfates, chlorides, COD, total N, total P, nitrates, nitrites, ammonia nitrogen, and phosphates. The results were compared with the environmental quality standards according to Government Regulation No. 61/2003, as amended and with Czech State Standard 75 7221 Classification of surface water quality. The measurement of selected criteria (pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, temperature) is performed in the field using a portable instrument HQd (HACH Company) and particular INTELLICAL probes. Water samples are taken into the plastic bottles and then they are analyzed in the laboratory of DALE in the spectrophotometer HachLange - DR/4000 according to the concrete methodology for given spectrophotometer. For the analyses of COD, total N, total P and ammonia nitrogen the samples were not filtered but there was necessary to mineralized them. For the rest of indicators - iron, sulfates, chlorides, nitrates, nitrites and phosphates the samples were filtered. Some of them had to be diluted due to high concentrations of its compounds (required indicators), which were higher then possible range determination on the spectrophotometer.
Fig. 1: Picture of the supply points (www.mapy.cz, edited by the author)
Results and Discussion According to he analyzes and resultes it may be stated, that there are some problematic indicators: nitrogen and phosphorus compounds and COD (see the figure 2) All other evaluated indicators did not crossover the limit value according to the Government Regulation No. 61/2003, as amended. Czech State Standard 75 7221 classifies the stream to the first class according to the concentration of dissolved oxygen and chlorides, according to the sulphates and iron the quality in on the border of first and second class, according to the conductivity to the second class, according to the nitrated nitrogen sometimes to the second and sometimes to the third class and according to the total phosphor and ammonia nitrogen the stream is classified on the border of fourth and fifth class of surface water quality. (see the figure 3, 4) High concentration of ammonia nitrogen and total phosphorus during the winter time can be caused the year-round occupancy of recreational building thanks to favorable temperatures during the autumn and winter time. The part of the stream between Osada Šmelcovna and Veverská Bítýška is significantly polluted due recreation because there is no waste water treatment before discharge point. Because of the number of year-round occupied houses (15) and tourism during the spring, summer and autumn a root waste water treatment plant could be a good possibility. It has natural character while is able to respond to shock loading. Root WWTP (see the figure 5) as proposed consists of mechanical cleaning stage -
- 118 - screens, grit chamber and settling tank, and of biological one, which consist of two fields with horizontal surface water flow. Total area of these fields is around 480 m2 according to the amount of population equivalent. There are lot number 908/2, 908/1 and 1297 which are suitable for establishing of root WWTP after purchase from landowners and removing parcels of agricultural land. Regular inspections of evidence of reservoirs (septic tanks) balancing for each recreational properties is the next possible way how to improve the water quality.
COD [mg.l-1]
71,5 SP1-Křoví 65,0 58,5 SP2-Šmelcovna 1 52,0
] 45,5 SP3-Šmelcovna 2 -1 39,0 32,5 SP4-Vev. Bítýška 1 [mg.l 26,0 19,5 SP5-Vev. Bítýška 2 13,0 6,5 NEQ No.23/2011 0,0 Coll. Spring Summer Autumn Winter date of sampling
Fig. 2: The amount of COD in the selected profiles and the level of premissible COD amount (NEQ) (author)
Total Phosforus [mg.l-1]
1,95 SP1-Křoví 1,8 1,65 SP2-Šmelcovna 1 1,5 1,35 SP3-Šmelcovna 2
] 1,2
-1 SP4-Vev. Bítýška 1 1,05 0,9 SP5-Vev. Bítýška 2 [mg.l 0,75 0,6 NEQ No.23/2011 Coll. 0,45 0,3 CSS 757221 <1mg/l 0,15 CSS 757221 <0.4mg/l 0 Spring Summer Autumn Winter Diametr date of sampling
Fig. 3: The amount of phosphorus in the selected profiles and the level of premissible phosphorus amount (NEQ,CSS) (author)
Conclusion At the Bílý Stream there can be watched only a tiny self-cleaning ability – between the Křoví village and Osada Šmelcovna. In the section from Osada Šmelcovna to its confluence with the river Svratkou it is completely impossible for there to self-cleaning processes. The water quality here is influence by wastewater discharges. There was root WWTP designed for improving of water quality in Natural Part of Bílý Stream Valley. The construction of the plant with nature-related character and the use of self- cleaning processes in soil and wetland environments will reduce the concentrations of COD, ammonia
- 119 - nitrogen and total phosphorus on the level, which will be permissible under applicable laws of the Czech Republic. While, this building does not interfere with the natural character of the area.
Ammonia Nitrogen [mg.l-1]
SP1-Křoví 8,0 SP2-Šmelcovna 1 7,0 6,0 SP3-Šmelcovna 2
5,0 SP4-Vev. Bítýška 1 ] -1 4,0 SP5-Vev. Bítýška 2 [mg.l 3,0 NEQ No.23/2011 Coll. 2,0 (0,23mg/l) CSS 75 7221 <0.7 mg/l 1,0 0,0 CSS 75 7221 >0.4 mg/l Spring Summer Autumn Winter Diametr date of sampling
Fig. 4: The amount of Ammonia Nitrogen in the selected profile and the level of premissible Ammonia Nitrogen amount (NEQ,CSS) (author)
Fig. 5: The Root WWTP Šmelcovna (www.mapy.cz, edited by the author)
References Government regulation No. 23/2011 Coll. about indicators and values of permitted pollution of surface waters and waste waters, essentials permit to discharge wastewater into surface waters and sewers and sensitive areas Klen, J. Výlety po blízkém i vzdáleném okolí Brna ... a občas i dál: Údolí Bílého potoka [online]. [cit. 2014-01-24]. Available at: http://turistaky.jaromirklein.net/udoli-bileho-potoka.php Pitter, P.(2009): Hydrochemie. 4., aktualiz. vyd. Praha: Vysoká škola chemicko technologická v Praze, 579 s. ISBN 978-80-7080-701-9.
- 120 -
Fig. 6: Sampling profile SP1 (author) Fig. 7: Sampling profile SP2 (author)
Fig. 8: Sampling profile SP3 (author) Fig. 9: Sampling profile SP4 (author)
Fig. 10: Sampling profile SP4 (author) Fig. 11: Osada Šmelcovna (author)
Fig. 12: Osada Šmelcovna – bistro (www.geocaching.cz)
- 121 - Acknowledgement The paper was created with support of Internal Grant Agency MENDELU project TP 9/2014 "Categorization of selected streams based on their degree of self-purification capacity with respect to land use".
Souhrn Osada Šmelcovna na Bílém potoce v povodí Svratky je turisticky atraktivní lokalita, která je využívána jak pro rekreační účely, tak jako oblíbený cíl cyklistů. Sezónní návštěvnost této oblasti se negativně projevuje na jakosti vody Bílého potoka. Tento negativní vliv je dán produkcí odpadních vod (OV) z této Osady a především produkcí OV z restauračního zařízení. Tento fakt vychází z nedostatečného čištění OV a zároveň je podložen monitoringem na Bílém potoce. Na základě výsledků monitoringu potoka, kdy byly zjištěny zvýšené hodnoty vybraných ukazatelů jakosti vody (především CHSK, celkový fosfor, amoniakální dusík) dle platné legislativy ČR, bylo navrženo řešení nakládání s OV pro osadu Šmelcovna. Vysoké hodnoty koncentrací amoniakálního dusíku a celkového fosforu v zimním období lze vysvětlit i tak, že rekreanti se v této oblasti, díky nadprůměrným teplotám v loňském podzimním a zimním období, zdržovali celoročně.
Contact: Ing. Věra Hubačíková, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 132 465, e-mail: [email protected]
- 122 - INFLUENCE OF STABILIZATION THE BANKS ON THE QUALITY OF WATER IN THE RESERVOIR
Miloslav Šlezingr1, Jaromír Blahuta1, Hana Uhmannová2 1Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 Institute of Water Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno University of Technology, Veveří 331/95, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The bank stabilization is a hot issue currently. The research area “Osada” is located on the left bank of Brno Reservoir. There are erosion walls 2.5 to 6 meters tall. The area of banks is considerably damaged and the progressing erosion has become a threat for the buildings standing higher on the banks, including the roads. The length of the bank section we were to restore is 500 meters. The bank is formed from eroded bedrock, gravel sand with clay and loess loam. The bank is slightly stabilized by the roots of grown trees as the bank gradually passes into a forest. We will also present the effect of clay from the erodible banks on water quality.
Key words: stabilisation, water quality, dam, bank, erosion,
Introduction During the construction of the extremely technologically complex waterworks, the obvious basis is the perfect stability of the dam and flawless functioning of all its technical components. However, before the dam commissioning, the parts of the reservoir shoreline, where damage due to the operation of the waterwork is to be expected, should be stabilized. The rapid growth of building-up of large water reservoirs in the 20th century caused spreading of the bank stabilization research. The attention was paid to the influence of waterwork on its vicinity, wave regime respectively, due to the shoreline deterioration, predominantly caused by wind-driven waves. The main sources of damage to the reservoir banks come from wind-driven waves, or waves caused by vessel movement. These cause the bank erosion, abrasion (Paulo et al. 2014), (Soldo et al. 2010), (Šlezingr and Zeleňáková, 2010). Dams and levees are usually protected well by proper technical stabilization methods since their construction. Conversely the shorelines around back water zone are often without stabilization measures due to potential high expenses on the stabilization elements. Dams and levees are usually protected well by proper technical stabilization methods since their construction. Conversely the shorelines around back water zone are often without stabilization measures due to potential high expenses on the stabilization elements. The combination of same adverse factors causes the optimal conditions for wave abrasion progress. Abrasion causes the deterioration of the banks with consequent shoreline retreat and sedimentation of scoured material in the reservoir. The abrasion process takes place along steep banks of dams and these localities are prone to landslides. Wave destruction activity forms characteristic shores with typical shape.
Classification of the banks according to the degree of damage Banks of reservoirs are evaluated by the degree of damage in the basic scale 1 to 5. 1st degree of damage (height banks above 3 meters) it occurs in many reservoirs. For example - valley reservoir Brno, where the height of the banks moves 2.5 - 6 m. 5th degree of damage represents the minimal damage to the shore. This group may include for example beach, rock. Presentation degrees of damage: - 1st degree of damage - an extensive damage to banks by the most intensive erosion; the sections most exposed to waves; the slopes are steep or even vertical, resistance to damage is minimal; erosion walls are over 3 - 5 m high. - 2nd degree of damage - intensive erosion; steep, almost vertical erosion walls, 1–3 m high; the vegetation cover is inefficient regarding erosion prevention (as in the previous case). - 3rd degree of damage – erosion damage not significant, the banks consist of slightly erodible rocks; erosion walls 0.5–1.0 m high; gentle slopes of reservoir banks where the protective function of suitable riparian stands can be effective. - 4th degree of damage – very slight erosion, small amount of eroded material; erosion walls 0.5 m high at maximum, the bank consists of hardly erodible rocks or has a character of a beach; gentle slopes can be stabilized by low forest stands, grass carpets, etc.
- 123 - - 5th degree of damage - banks without erosion; consist of hardly erodible rocks; banks in protected coves, wind shade, protected by riparian stands; beach banks. The shore abrasion process is the result of wave regime, bank vegetation, human activities and climatic, geomorphologic and geologic factors. A suitable bank reinforcement may prevent creation and development of subsequent abrasive and erosive damage. The key to successful bank stabilization is to check the shore line retreat.
The most important aspects The basis for an appropriate and if possible timely bank stabilization and the minimization of negative effects on the reservoir as a whole (shoreline retreat, sediment silting, and eutrophication) is a professional assessment. According to the results of such assessment it is possible to elaborate the estimation of the shoreline retreat by either of the currently used methods (Šlezingr, 2003), (Pelikán, 2013). Bank erosion and therefore the origin and progress of bank abrasion requires three simultaneous conditions. These conditions are characterized as factors conditional to the origin of bank abrasion: 1. The bank must be composed of erodible material. 2. The slope of the bank has to be higher than 5°. 3. The wind run should be longer than 100 m, or the bank has to be strained with waves caused by vessel movement. Factors leading to the origin and following progress of bank abrasion are: 1. Wind-driven waves. 2. Vessel-driven waves. 3. Water-level fluctuation. 4. An effects of ice and thawing. 5. An effect of ice cover and floes movement. 6. An effect of water infiltration through soil. 7. Anthropogenic effects. The bank stability is radically affected in case of the origin and progress of abrasion. Due to bank erosion and shoreline retreat an irreversible soil loss occurs on forest and mostly agriculture land. A transport of sediments from eroded banks toward the reservoir bed occurs, thus decreasing its volume. The water quality of the reservoir is significantly affected and eutrophication occurs. Other material can be transported to the reservoir as well, for example forest floor cover after harvest, organic residue from agriculture land, excess fertilizers etc. The solution to the problem is proper bank stabilization of endangered areas. Basic division of stabilization measures reflects mostly the materials and approaches used. They are: - Technical stabilization (with the use of coarse stone, concrete, prefabricates, deadwood, quarry stone, gabions etc.) (Šlezingr et al. 2010). - Biotechnical stabilization (vegetated rock toe structure, vegetated placed rockfill structure, fascine gravel drum, wattle work fence filled with stone) (Šlezingr and Jedlička, 2010), (Šlezingr, 2011). - Engineering biology stabilization (vegetation stabilization carpet, sowing of grass stabilization systems, riparian suitable tree species planting, fascine cylinders etc.) Was carried out extensive monitoring of riparian abrasion on the valley reservoir Brno. One of the monitored sites are also area of “Osada”, (Fig. 1). Erosion walls are over 2.5 – 3 m high. On the basis of the agreement with the administrator of the waterworks were built to test the stabilization measures, which will be monitored. The stabilization measures were implemented experimentally in endangered area “Osada” in 2013 and 2015 (Fig.2, Fig.3). In the following period will be performed observing the influence of the built stabilization measures on the bank erosion and the collection of the material into the reservoir. The results of observations will be presented in the following period.
- 124 -
Fig. 1: Valley reservoir Brno, area of “Osada”, erosion walls are over 2,5 – 3 m Photo M.Šlezingr,
Fig. 2: Biotechnical stabilization - wattle work fence filled with stone – during construction in 2013 Photo M.Šlezingr
Fig. 3: Biotechnical stabilization - wattle work fence - construction in 2015 Photo M.Šlezingr
Conclusion The Brno Reservoir has over 4 mil. m3 of sediments. About 15% of these come from eroded banks, the rest is mostly the material washed from fields along the stream above the reservoir. As the reservoir is very popular for leisure activities, water quality is one of the main prerequisites for the development of the area (Junáková and Bálintová, 2011), (Pelikán and Marková, 2013), (Šlezingr and Fialová, 2012). These procedures considerably helped to improve the water quality in the reservoir; however, they are not sufficient to maintain the water quality (Korytárova et al. 2007), (Marková et al. 2014), Šoltész and
- 125 - Baroková, 2006). Currently, the influx of sediments (and nutrients) to the reservoir is minimized by water aerating using a set of aerators during the recreation season and dosing coagulants at the end of backwater.
References Junáková, N., Bálintová, M. (2011): Utilization possibilities of sediment waste extracted from water reservoir. Czasopismo Techniczne, 108: 89–95. Korytárová J., Šlezingr, M., Uhmannová, H. (2007): Determination of potential damage to representatives of real estate property in areas affliced by flooding. Journal of hydrology and hydromechanics, 4/2007. p. 282-285.ISSN 0042_790X. Marková, J., Šlezingr, M., Uhmannová, H. (2014): The effect of antropogenic impact on the morphology and stability of river beds. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, p.78—83. ISSN 1230- 1485 Paulo A., Galas A., Galas S. (2014). Planning the Colca Canyon and the Valley of the Volcanoes National Park in South Peru. Environmental Earth Science. 12/2014. 71: 1021-1032. Pelikán, P., Marková, J. (2013): Wind effect on water surface of water reservoirs. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis. sv.61, č.6., p. 1823 -1828. ISSN 1211-8516. Soldo, B., Oreškovič, M., Aniskin, A. (2010): Example of water waves impact on the bank slope, Journal of Landscape Management, No.2, p.40–43. Šlezingr, M., Fialová, J. (2012): An examination of proposals for bank stabilization: the case of the Brno water reservoir (Czech Republic). Moravian Geographical Reports. sv. 20, č. 2, s. 47-57. ISSN 1210-8812. Šlezingr, M., Zeleňáková, M. (2010): Natural processes of the self purification in rivers, Journal of Landscape Management, no.1/2010, p. 63–66. Šlezingr, M. (2002): Bank erosion – prognosis of the retreat of bank line of reservoirs, Journal of hydrology and hydromechanics, Vol. 50, No.4, p. 311 - 319 Šlezingr. M., Jedlička. L. (2010): Accompanying vegetation – grasslend, In Conference on Recreation and Conservation, p.17-18. Šlezingr, M., Foltynova, l., Zeleňáková, M. (2010): Assesment of the current condition of riparian and accompanying stands, In Colloquium on Landscape Management, p. 24 – 27. Šlezingr, M. (2007): Stabilisation of reservoir banks using an "armoured earth structure“, Journal of hydrology and hydromechanics, no.1/2007. Šlezingr, M. (2011): Břehová abraze, monograph, p.174: ISBN 978- 80-7375-566-9. Šoltész, A. Baroková, D. (2006): Analysis, prognosis and design of control measures of groundwater level regime using numerical modelling. Podzemná voda. Roč. 12., č.2, p. 113 – 123. ISSN 113-123: 1335-1052. Materials of Projekt FAST-S-13-1847
Contact: prof. Dr. Ing. Miloslav Šlezingr Phone: +420545134520, e-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Hana Uhmannová, CSc. Phone: +420 541 147 755, e-mail: [email protected]
- 126 - INTEGRATED TOURISM STRATEGY BASED ON COMMUNITY PLANNING
Alice Kozumplíková1, Tereza Schielová2 1 Environmentalistics and Natural Resources, Faculty of Regional Development and International Studies, Mendel University in Brno, Trida Generala Piky 2005/7, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 Local Action Group Kyjovské Slovácko – Region full of Life, Czech Republic
Abstract Community planning as a part of community led local development represents new approach to encourage local communities to developing integrated bottom-up approaches where is a need to respond actually to local challenges and stimulate innovation approaches to the development of municipalities and regions. This paper aims to represent one practical example of a collaborative formulation of main goals for integrated tourism strategy on the territory of LAG Kyjovské Slovácko - Region full of Life. A mixed-method approach was applied to explore attitude of regional subjects to sustainable tourism development in selected region. Both questionnaire surveys and personal interviews were used as well as the results (SWOT analysis) of the working group meetings with facilitator service. The results provided a basis for the formulation of problems and their solutions in the field of sustainable rural tourism. In particular, the tourism components which local stakeholders consider to be important to solve in order to increase the sustainable rural tourism potential in the region and ways of strengthening local relationships were defined.
Key words: Community Led Local Development, sustainable rural tourism, inter-municipal cooperation, LAG Kyjovské Slovácko
Introduction Community planning represents a planning carried out with the active participation of the end users (Wates, 2000). It means generally a method for planning the development of services for a selected group of people. The discussion takes place through the agency of the expert facilitator (experts in the field of management and project management). In the course of community planning different methods and analysis approaches are used, most common is the SWOT analysis. Very effective and practical leadership form of community planning are so-called round tables where the main role is played by open discussion and conversation with the assistance of the facilitator. There is not such a long tradition of community or participatory planning in the Czech Republic, unlike other Western countries. Community planning is gradually becoming part of the development strategies of local action groups (LAGs) in the Czech Republic. The European Commission perceives LAGs as a group made up of public and private partners from the rural territory that include representatives from different socio-economic sectors. They receive financial assistance to implement local development strategies, by awarding grants to local projects. A new tool, within the LEADER approach, appears for LAG´s activities in the new programming period 2014 – 2020. It is the so-called community-led local development (CLLD). According to the European Commission (2014) “CLLD is a dedicated tool for use at sub-regional level and thus complements other development support at local level. It has the capacity to mobilise and involve local communities and organisations so they can contribute to smart, sustainable and inclusive growth”. Within the CLLD the LAGs should design and implement the community-led local development strategies (and the final integrated strategy) which will be the main documents for LAGs activities. One of very important LAG´s activity in rural areas is also to support the development in the field of sustainable tourism. CLLD in tourism is closely connected with the term ecotourism. Especially in developing countries, but not only there, ecotourism seems to be a good tool for regional development within all pillars of sustainability. Community participation in ecotourism and sustainable tourism management is widely discussed (Jones, 2005; Wang, Tong, 2009; Messer, et al., 2010). This approach could be also the link to conservation practices and perspectives (Stem, et. al., 2003). The principles of community planning were also used for formulating the basic points for the integrated tourism strategy in the territory of LAG Kyjovské Slovácko - Region full of Life. The next text represents one practical approach and example of a collaborative formulation of main goals for tourism strategy in the Czech Republic.
Materials and methods The LAG ”Kyjovské Slovácko - Region full of Life” is situated in the north-eastern part of Hodonín district in South-Moravia region (Fig. 1). This region is geographically and administratively defined for the purposes of implementing the new strategy. LAG cooperates with 45 municipalities with 62 253
- 127 - inhabitants (1.1.2013). The land area is 500 km2 and population density 125 inhab./km2. This region belongs to the typical rural regions from the point of view of criteria applied by the EU. The region is well-known for rich folkloric and spiritual traditions and traditions of Moravian wine and viticulture. This region is still unaffected by tourism although the potential for sustainable tourism is great here. In the surrounding of the region are well-known tourist areas – Strážnicko, Baťa canal (European Destinations of Excellence), many wine cellars, Pálava region, Nové Mlýny dams, Lednice- Valtice area (UNESCO's World Cultural Heritage) and many others.
Fig. 1: Localization of LAG “Kyjovské Slovácko – Region full of Life” in the South Moravian Region
To obtain main goals of the paper the set methodological steps were followed. A. Questionnaire survey for representatives of 45 municipalities included into the LAG. The survey was very short and aims to the use of financial funds for tourism purposes. The questions were following. 1. Do you use/have you used financial funds for supporting activities within the tourism sector in 2007-2013? If yes, at what level? Do you plan to use the new programming period financial instruments to support tourism activities in your area? 2. Which the most significant issues do you deal with in the field of tourism? 3. For what tourism activities would be useful to ensure cooperation and community planning with other subject in your area? 4. Which areas of tourism do you want to develop? Which activities are the crucial for the development of the region? B. Recording the course and results of two working groups using the principles of community planning in the form of roundtables. The free discussion was conduct by facilitator. The working group consisted of representatives from business and non-profit organizations. The method of SWOT analysis was used and participants´ opinions on sustainable tourism in the region were reordered. The final draft of strategic goals for integrated tourism strategy for the “Kyjovské Slovácko – Region full of Life” is the result of applied methodological steps (synthesis of acquired information).
Results The questionnaire survey addressed all 45 mayors within the competence of the LAG. In terms of use of financial funds for supporting activities within the tourism sector following information has been found: 1) the most municipalities used the opportunity to finance their activities in tourism development from European funds. Almost 63 % of municipalities used also financial funds from national and 44 % from regional level as well. All asked mayors are decided to use financial support in following period for next activities supporting sustainable tourism as an important development issue in their region. The most important issue is insufficient tourist infrastructure according mayors´ opinions (34 %). The adequate tourism infrastructure is a prerequisite for effective tourism development and it may become an advantage of the region. A weak promotion (20 %) and a lack of finance (18 %) are other important issues for development of tourism in region. All mayors also support the idea of community planning in all thematic tourism issues and they prefer the cooperation on the collective propagation of the region. The tourism potential is seen in folkloric and wine traditions, cycle tourism round natural and historical monuments.
- 128 - Results of working groups using the principles of community planning in the form of roundtables is the SWOT analysis represents strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in the field of sustainable tourism in the region of LAG. Participants of round tables agreed that the main strength of the region is in its folkloric, cultural and wine traditions. These regional components form values and image of the region and it is very important to support them within the cooperation in the region. Cycle tourism and potential for adequate tourism infrastructure was also mentioned. Very strong strength is represented by active fellowships and associations which coordinate cultural, sport, social activities. Hospitality and friendliness of local residents was also mentioned as an important characteristic which can support the image of the region as a friendly place ideal for visiting. Typical weakness of the region is seen in the lack of touristic infrastructure (density and quality of trails and its bad interconnection, a lack of other types of trails as bridleways and appropriate facilities). The insufficient communication and ineffective partnerships between local entities is also considered a strong weakness. Inadequate promotion of traditional product and crafts, lack of financial support, weak promotion of the whole region as a tourist destination and also lack of interest of some citizens in regional event were mentioned as other weaknesses. Conversely, the potential for cycle tourism and agro tourism and increasing demand in this field in connection with folkloric and cultural traditions are considered as opportunities for the region. Equally important is the opportunity to seek new forms of cooperation between municipalities, local actors, public and private sectors. Finally, it is important to use possibilities of a multi-source financing. Threats are associated mainly with the depopulation and population ageing. The society fragmentation and fading need to do things together is increasingly perceived. The strong, more active surrounding regions could be also the important threat.
The final draft of strategic goals for integrated tourism strategy for the “Kyjovské Slovácko – Region full of Life” is represented by following points. The main key areas for tourism development in the region are: - Support local folklore, protection of cultural heritage and spiritual legacy; - Restoring and maintaining traditions; - Development of wine tourism; - Support community life; - Increase the attendance of local and regional events and festivities; - Support new tourism infrastructure and facilities; - Systematic care for the landscape, historical monument etc.; - Build new tourist destinations and attractions of the region; - Common promotion of whole region and its components, marketing and mutual communication within the region; - Use destination management - Effectively use of multi-source financing possibilities.
Conclusion Results aimed to a basic draft of strategic points for integrated tourism strategy for the territory of LAG “Kyjovské Slovácko – Region full of Life” is possible summarize based on the questionnaire surveys addressed 45 mayors and activities of two working groups using community planning principles in the form of roundtables. If we talk about the significance of activation of local partnerships, strengthening local binding and solving issues based on community planning, all addressed subject believe that all these components must be fulfilled for the sustainable regional development. Participants in the working groups point out mainly the bad social communication between individual subjects in the region. On the other hand, activities in tourism development could be the first example of effective form of cooperation between subjects and the possibility how to support the image and cooperation within the region through common destination management and tourism strategy based on community planning. Local stakeholders also realize that living folkloric traditions, rich cultural history and range of cultural events complemented by viticulture distinguish their region from the others. Furthermore, all respondents agree that new programming period brings the possibility of multi-sources financing and they plan to use this option in the future.
References European Commission (2010): Community Local- Led Development. Available from:http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/informat/2014/community.en.pdf
- 129 - Wates, N. 2000. The Community Planning Handbook: How people can shape their cities, towns & villages in any part of the world. Earthscan, London. 230 p. ISBN 1 85383 654 0 Wang, H., Tong, M. (2009): Research on Community Participation in Environmental Management of Ecotourism. International Journal of Business and Management. Vol 4, No. 3, pp. 131–135. ISSN 1833-8119 Jones, S. (2005): Community-based ecotourism: The significance of social capital Annals of Tourism Research. Volume 32, Issue 2, pp. 303-324. ISSN: 01607383 Stem, C.J., Lassoie, J.P., Lee, D.R., Deshler, D.D., Schelhas, J.W. (2003): Community Participation in Ecotourism Benefits: The Link to Conservation Practices and Perspectives. Society & Natural Resources Vol. 16, No 1, pp. 387-413 Messer, C.C. et al. (2010) : Community Tourism Development Manual. Regents of the University of Minnesota, 3rd edition, ISBN 9781888440515
Acknowledgement This article was supported by the project No. 7/2015 of Internal Grant Agency of Faculty of Regional Development and International Studies, Mendel University in Brno.
Souhrn Komunitní plánování a komunitně vedený regionální rozvoj se postupně stává novým přístupem v rozvoji regionů v České republice. Příspěvek prezentuje příklad využití principů komunitního plánování při sestavování strategie rozvoje turismu na území místní akční skupiny Kyjovské Slovácko v pohybu. Strategické oblasti byly sestaveny na základě výsledků dotazníkového šetření (osloveno bylo 45 starostů) a aktivit dvou pracovních skupin ve formě kulatých stolů, kde byla diskutována problematika rozvoje cestovního ruchu v regionu za pomoci facilitátora a výsledkem byla SWOT analýza možností rozvoje cestovního ruchu v oblasti. Z výsledků vyplývá, že region může svou image stavět zejména na folklorní, kulturní a vinařské tradici. Za největší nedostatek je považována slabá úroveň komunikace a spolupráce místních subjektů. Největší výzvou pro region je tvorba kvalitního destinačního managementu, rozšíření využívání principů komunitního plánování a možnost vícezdrojového financování aktivit spojených nejen s oblastí cestovního ruchu.
Contact: Ing. Alice Kozumplíková, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 136 282, e-mail: [email protected]
- 130 - MAGICAL TRAILS IN CHŘIBY MOUNTAINS
Hedvika Psotová Arvita P spol. s r.o., Příčná 1541, 765 02 Otrokovice
Abstract Magical trails are common activity of Chřiby Association. The project aims to create a network of trails connecting the lesser known places at Mikroregion Chřiby. This network bounds other activities such as vistas, panoramas, landscape, greenery, genius loci.
Key words: : trail network, local initiative, alley
Motto: Each one of us has his own path he walks, sometimes he is joined by someone left, then he has to walk alone for some time and so we all walk on year after year until we all meet on the same place. Jiří Pavlica (2014)
Introduction Chřiby - original meaning of the word "hills" - is very attractive for the diversity of wandering ways through the countryside. Numerous expeditions streamed over the Chřiby already in ancienit history. We can find many tracks here – like archaeological localities, old fortification, rocks, little caves, cairns and old trails, that most easily discover cycling, cross-country skiing, on horseback or on foot. Along rails and paths there were always alleys, which long ago was planted as a natural orientation lines, both in practical and the viewing direction. The hikers and cyclists appreciate today shading trees in hot summer days, skiers again lee in winter. Existing grown beech tree lines and guided trails undoubtedly inherently complete the genius loci and legends, which are so typically for Chřiby.
Association supporting local initiatives Chřiby Association of Municipalities Bařice-Velké Těšany, Halenkovice, Jankovice, Kostelany, Kudlovice, Lubná, Roštín, Vrbka and Žlutava accompanied by significant business partners such as Ranch Kostelany and company Rudolf Jelinek took aim - support Chřiby, this until recently neglected part of South Moravia.
Lookout tower Brdo Construction of a new lookout tower on hill Brdo became the first significant act of Association. The observation tower stands on the top of Chřiby and is there 23.90 meters high. It replaced the original wooden tower 20 meters high, which in the seventies expire. The construction was made from top quality sandstone from a quarry Žlutava and oak wood from local forests. Building was started October 28, 2001 with the foundation stone by scouts from Modrá and inaugurated three years later in 2004.
Magical trai l- conception Magic trails project is realized by members of Association like network of field trips, bike paths, hiking trails and bridleways. Based on detailed surveys of historical maps and materials were the existing communication network complemented by historic trails, as well as an established traditional ways and was designed starfish interconnection for each individual municipality. Lookout tower Brdo is there in dominant position, from which the paths diverge in all directions. The concept suggest planting of different green along selected communication path - in forests are mainly shrubs and lower trees, in the open countryside area long-lived trees and in the foothills of Chřiby traditional fruit trees. There are specific unique panoramic route and places vistas, where the green framed individual landscape segments. The choice of tree species is strictly governed by habitat conditions, but preferably are designed Chřiby typical trees, which are tied to the Celtic tree calendar. The concept also envisages the benefits of fytoncides produced trees that have a positive effect on the human body.
Implementation of the project The biggest obstacles represent the property of land. Although municipalities have owned a large portion of field and forest plots, over time the roads were moving and rutted outside ownership plot. Therefore is necessary make geodetic land lay out , what is expensive. Another barrier are protective zones of aboveground and underground network. Planting trees have to respect the protection zones.
- 131 - There is neccesary a lot of cooperation with other users of the landscape - transport, energy, farmers etc. to reach agreement with such project. In 2014 were done restoration of landscape greenery on the cadastral Kostelany – three historic routes including the "fruit", "meadow" and "forest" alleys and new system of oak alleys in Kostelany ranch. This year is developing the project "Orientation and relaxing elements mountain bike Halenkovice". Now, negotiations are underway, connected with trails situated at church property and forests, managed by Lesy ČR.
Fig. 1: Pear alley
Fig. 2: The road in Chřiby mountains
Conclusion Chřiby are rich in natural, historic and cultural attractions. Project Magical trails is based on the principle of communication - not only the creation of a system of communication routes, but also communication between members of the association in the preparation and implementation of joint projects. Myths landscape of Chřiby has great turistical and development potential. Project Magic trails offers a variety of options how to use this wonderful potential.
References Galuška L. (2004): Slované – doteky předků, Moravia magna, Moravské zemské muzeum Brno. Gojda M. (2000): Archeologie krajiny, Academie. Hrabec J., Mikula F.: Stratil K.: Chřiby, 1998 Květ R. (2002): Staré stezky v České republice, Moravské zemské muzeum Brno. Maur E. (2006):Paměť hor, Havran Praha. Pavlica J. (2014): Studiové CD Jiřího Pavlici a Hradišťanu. Prudký J. (2001):: Obnova plošné a bodové zeleně v krajině, Sborník z mezinárodního semináře, MZLU Brno. Sklenička P. (2003): Základy krajinného plánování,N.Skleničková, Praha. Storch D., Mihulka S. (2000): Úvod do současné ekologie, Portál, Praha.
- 132 - Souhrn Chřiby jsou bohaté na přírodní, historické i kulturní zajímavosti. Projekt Magické cesty je založen na principu komunikace - nejedná se pouze o vytvoření systému komunikačních tras, ale i o komunikaci mezi jednotlivými členy sdružení při přípravě a realizaci společných záměrů. Mýty opředené Chřibské lesy mají v oblasti turistického ruchu velký rozvojový potenciál. Projekt Magických nabízí řadu možností, jak tento potenciál ještě lépe využít.
Contact: Ing. Hedvika Psotová Phone: +420577 938 161, e-mail: [email protected]
- 133 - MANAGEMENT OF ECOTOURISTIC RESOURCES IN SOUTHER DOBROGEA, ROMANIA
Marius Popescu Faculty of Food and Tourism, “Transilvania”University of Brasov, Romania, 148 Castelului Street, 500014, Brasov, Romania
Abstract Southern Dobrogea is a region in South-Eastern part of Romania located between Danube and Black Sea Coast. This region has many protected areas where are preserved various components of environment. The aim of this paper is to identify protected areas as touristic resources and opportunities of capitalization for educational and scientific purpose, by ecotouristic routes. Ecotourism offers optimal conditions for motivation of touristic consumption, through education, research, recreation, and aims to protect and preserve biodiversity and landscapes. Management of these resources as part of tourism and other touristic attractions can contribute to develop of sustainable tourism in rural area from Southern Dobrogea.
Key words: ecotourism, education, rural area, Dobrogea
Introduction Southern Dobrogea is an unit of tableland located in South-Eastern part of Romania, between the Danube and the Black Sea Coast and it is a territorial system well highlighted. In this territorial system are two subsystems: natural macro-system and socio-economic macro-system. The natural macro- system components (relief, soil, water, climate, vegetation, fauna) and character of uniqueness or originality underlying to development of protected areas in this region. The geographical analysis of the territorial system is essential in defining the type of regional development, which considers the achievement of socio-economic and cultural finalities. Ecotourism is a form of tourism related knowledge and protecting the environment, biodiversity, wildlife, ecosystems focusing on the need to educate of tourists on environmental issues and means of maintaining it. It is the segment of tourism that involves traveling over natural areas relatively undisturbed, to admire the landscape and enjoy the wilds of plants and animals. In areas of ecotourism, living human communities with ancient traditions, making it necessary to protect local identity and culture for the development of tourism to be beneficial for these populations. The aim of this paper is to identify protected areas that can be used as ecotouristic resources. The optimal management of these ecotouristic resources will be a key-factor for a sustainable rural tourism in Southern Dobrogea.
Material and methods In order to identify the main touristic attractions in Southern Dobrogea issues were used both, written sources and cartographic documents and research methodology consists of bibliographic documentation, field research, identification of protected areas and development of cartographic materials to highlight opportunities for improvement of their ecotourism purposes. Protected areas as resources for ecotourism have scientific and educational role can be exploited as touristic attractions on traditional routes or as main components of ecotouristic trails and circuits with ecotouristic profile. Mapping of these aspects of natural and cultural heritage has an important role in the diagnosis and prognosis of sustainable rural tourism in this territory of Southern Dobrogea.
Results Southern Dobrogea is a Plateau Unit from South-Eastern part of Romania situated between the Danube and the Black Sea region, a typical platform, with an area of 5335 km2. The altitude of plateau presents an average of 75-100 m, the lowest plateau of Romania, with tabular appearance and smooth like a plain, but presents orientation, different slopes and fragmentation, curl and even drop altitude, with a temperate climate continental with Mediterranean influences in the South-West, and otherwise arid continental moderate slightly towards to Danube and Black Sea Coast. The flora and fauna is predominant of steppe, only the South-West area being a number of forests with diverse floristic composition. The particularities of flora and fauna, the special landforms, fossils with some stratigraphic value (some with unique value), as well as some interesting caves, imposed declaration of protected areas. All protected areas from Southern Dobrogea were declared in accordance with the specific legislation from Romania and are registered at Regional Environmental Protection Agency of Constanta. In Southern Dobrogea Plateau there are 30 protected areas, with a total area of 12,630 ha, of which: 2 zoological natural reserves (Techirghiol, Agigea Lakes), 3 botanical natural reserves (Marine Dunes from Agigea, Forests of Valu lui Traian and Neptun), 10 geological, paleontological,
- 134 - speleological of protected areas (Peretii calcarosi de la Petrosani, The neojurasic reef of Topalu, Fossil Points of Aliman, Cernavoda, Credinta, Movila Banului, the caves of Gura Dobrogei, La Adam, Limanu, Obanu Mare – La Movile), 15 mixed protected areas (Coastal marine aquatorium 2 May- Vama Veche, Allah-Bair Hill, Canaraua Fetii, Dumbrăveni, Esechioi, Fantanita-Murfatlar, Hagieni Forests Bratca, Cetate, Celea Mare-Valea lui Ene forests, Bugeac, Dunareni, Oltina, Vederoasa lakes, Swamp of stud from Mangalia). Each protected area is in the custody of Local Authorities, Regional Forestry Department or Dobrogea Litoral - Regional Water Department. The Coastal-marine aquatorium 2 May-Vama Veche is in the custody of Marine Research Institute from Constanta, The cave Obanu Mare – La Movile is in custody of Underwater and Caving Explorations Group from Bucharest and Marines Dunes Reserve from Agigea is in custody of Al. I. Cuza University from Iasi. In Figure 1 are located the protected areas with geological, paleontological and speleological specific: Botanical, geological, and paleontological natural Reserve Allah-Bair Hill, with an area of 10 ha; Geological and paleontological natural Reserves as Neojurasic Reef from Topalu (21 ha), The Fossil Points Movila Banului (11 ha), Cernavoda (3 ha); Paleontological natural Reserves as The Fossil Points Aliman (11 ha), Credinta (10 ha), Geological natural Reserve as Peretii calcarosi de la Petrosani (8 ha) and Speleological and morphogeological natural Reserve Obanul Mare si Pe tera "La Movile" (12 ha).
Fig. 1: Southern Dobrogea: Geological, paleontological and speological protected areas
In figure 2 is the location of mixed protected areas as important bird areas: Vederoasa Lake (517 ha), Dunareni Lake (704 ha), Oltina Lake (2290 ha), Bugeac Lake (1434 ha), Swamp of stud from Mangalia (98 ha) and zoological natural Reserve Techirghiol Lake, wetland of international importance, 1230 ha. Figure 3 shows the main mixed protected areas: the scientific zoological and botanical Reserve Coastal-marine aquatorium 2 May-Vama Veche (5000 ha), Botanical natural reserve Marine dunes from Agigea (8 ha), Botanical and zoological natural Reserves Hagieni Forest (432 ha, which 207 ha scientific area) Fântâniţa-Murfatlar Forest (83 ha, which 67 ha scientific area) Dumbrăveni Forest (316 ha), Esechioi Forest (28 ha), Canaraua Fetii Forest (172 ha) and Archaeological-Botanical natural Reserve Valu lui Traian (5ha).
Discussion In the context of world tourism, ecotourism has developed rapidly, attracting tourists with respect for nature and local culture. Ecotourism is based on the observation of nature, offering distinct touristic products, specific forms of cultural, scientific and research tourism in areas of outstanding biodiversity with natural reserves and local communities that have preserved unaltered customs and traditions. Ecotourism involves leadership, organization and development of tourism in order to do not disturb or destroy the natural balance, the natural environment with natural touristic resources and cultural- historical or technical-economical values and achieve their sustainable exploitation.
- 135 -
Fig. 2: Southern Dobrogea: Bird protection areas
Fig. 3. Southern Dobrogea: Forests and Forestry protected areas
Ecotourism is associated to natural reserves, which can be found, along with the function of protecting and preserving and investment for protecting, but also to support for traditional rural economic development and maintaining social and cultural - historical traditions of local communities. In association of ecotouristic resources from Southern Dobrogea can be identified trails with ecotouristic profile. The polyvalent touristic routes offers for visitors protected areas as "ecotouristic resources" or "destination of ecotouristic consumption", and other touristic resources (cultural, seaside resorts, recreational areas for fishing and water sports): A. Ecotouristic route Constanta – Vama Veche: Marine Dunes from Agigea, Techirghiol Lake, Swamp of stud from Mangalia, Hagieni Forest, Obanu Mare - La Movile Cave and Coastal- marine aquatorium 2 May-Vama Veche; B. Ecotouristic route Constanta – Ostrov: Valu lui Traian Botanical Reserve, Fantanita- Murfatlar Forest, Credinta Fossil Point, Canaraua Fetii Forest, 10 – Esechioi Forest and Bugeac Lake; C. Ecotouristic route Băneasa – Topalu – Constanta: Oltina Lake, Dunăreni Lake, Alimanu Fossil Point, Vederoasa Lake, Cernavodă Fossil Point, Movila Banului Fossil Point, Neojurasic Reef from Topalu and Allah-Bair Hill.
- 136 - The touristic management of protected areas requires the following actions: - Organizing a Touristic Information Centre; - Efficient setting of entry and exit points of the tourist spaces and reservations, itineraries; - Organization of tourist traffic by establishing tourist flows, their size, frequency, duration of visit; - Arranging the accommodations, food, sports and leisure under specific conditions, specific resources, with principles of tourism planning and development standards indicators; - Arranging ecotouristic resources for visiting; - Restoring landscapes and landmarks with risk of degradation; - Signaling ecotouristic objectives with facilities and utilities.
Conclusion Ecotouristic resources creates optimal motivation of touristic consumption through research, study, recreation, education and must be exploited so as not to distort the environment, landscape, authentic and especially the lives of animals, plants and local population. This form of tourism will help to educate of tourists in environmental issues and means of maintaining it. Ecotouristic resources are the protected areas considered "raw material" or "destination of touristic consumption" in which the touristic activity must take into account the protection and conservation of ecosystems. It is mandatory the existence of a Tourist Information Center, in order to submit access points and itineraries, without prejudice to protected elements. By harnessing of the ecotouristic potential are created optimal conditions for touristic consumption motivation, research, recreation, education, given the protection and conservation of landscapes and biodiversity. The management of ecotouristic resources is an important factor to contribute alongside other resources with cultural and agritouristic specific, for development of polyvalent sustainable rural tourism in Southern Dobrogea.
References Albu, A., Popescu, M., Pleoianu, D., Urdea, M., Mocanu, N. (2014): Management of natural and cultural heritage from Southern Dobrogea of geographical point of view. In: Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology, vol. 15, no. 4, 1893-1901, SciBulCom Ltd. Cândea, M., Bran, F. (2001): Romanian geographical area. Organization, planing, development, Economic Publishing Bucharest Drăguţ, L. (2000): Geography of landscape, University Press Publishing Cluj Glăvan, V. (2003): Rural tourism. Agritourism. Sustainable tourism. Ecotourism, Economic Publishing Bucharest Ianoş, I. (2000): Territorial Systems. A geographical approach, Technical Publishing Bucharest Popescu, M., Urdea, M. C, Prefac, Z., Cracu, G. M. (2011): Theoretical aspects of ecotourism’s role in biodiversity preserve, In: „Ovidius” University Annals, Geography Series, vol. 5, 63-68, Ovidius University Press Constanţa Popescu, M., Urdea, C. (2012): The role of tourism in economic development of Dobrogea’s rural areas, In: Agriculture Economy and Rural Development in Romania, 539-547, Romanian Academy Publishing Bucharest Trufa, C., Bran, F., Martinescu, D. M., (2009): Ecotourism and rural tourism, Alpha MDN Publishing Buzau
Souhrn Cílem tohoto příspěvku je určit chráněné oblasti, které mohou být využity i jako zdroj ekoturistiky. Optimální správa těchto ekoturistických oblastí bude klíčovým faktorem pro udržení venkovské turistiky v oblasti Jižní Dobrudža. Chráněné oblasti s možností využití pro ekoturistiku mají vědeckou a naučnou roli, kterou můžeme chápat jako turistickou atraktivitu na původních cestách nebo jako hlavní složku ekoturistických tras a okruhů s ekoturistickým podtextem. Mapování prvků přírodních a kulturních památek hraje důležitou roli při stanovování a prognóze podmínek pro udržitelnost venkovské turistiky v Jižní Dobrudži. V náhorní plošině Jižní Dobrudži se nachází třicet chráněných oblastí o celkové výměře 12,630 ha, které jsou zastoupeny dvěma zoologickými přírodními rezervacemi, třemi botanickými přírodními rezervacemi, deseti geologickými, paleontologickými a speleologickými chráněnými oblastmi a patnácti smíšen&y acute;mi chráněnými oblastmi. K propojení těchto ekoturistických prvků Jižní Dobrudži může být uskutečněno v rámci
- 137 - stávajících cest, díky nimž mohou být tyto chráněné oblasti zpřístupněny jako „ekoturistické cíle“ nebo „destinace určené pro ekoturismus“ včetně propojení dalších turistických lokalit (kulturních památek, přímořská letoviska, rekreační oblasti určené pro rybolov a vodní sporty). Využitím ekoturistického potenciálu jsou utvářeny optimální podmínky pro motivaci potenciálních turistů, výzkum, rekreaci, vzdělání, vztažené k ;ochraně a zachování přírody a biodiverzity. Management ekoturistických zdrojů je důležitým faktorem, který přispívá spolu s dalšími zdroji, jako jsou kulturní a agroturistice specifika, k rozvoji polyvalentní udržitelnosti venkovského turismu Jižní Dobrodži.
Contact: Marius Popescu Phone: +40737205381, e-mail: [email protected]
- 138 - MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL MATERIALS IN THE PAVEMENT OF LOW VOLUME ROADS
Lenka Ševelová, Elixabete Iztueta Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Low volume roads have many roles in the landscape, enabling access to forests being one of the main ones. As forest roads, apart from public roads, run through many national parks and protected areas, their use for recreational purpose is also very important. These areas often suffer from bad humidity regime that has bad effect on bearing capacity of subgrade. Moreover, construction activity in these regions is under close control of environmentalists, conservationists and users, limiting the choice of technologies and materials used. The reliability, durability and efficiency criteria, however, remain. The aim of this article is to show the problems accompanying the preparation of an appropriate material deformation characteristic (Resilient Modulus) that is able to capture the effects of humidity and at the same time is suitable for use in the numerical model based on FEM (Finite Elements Method) for design of forest roads contruction.
Keywords: Resilient Modulus, CBR cyclic, soil, capacity limit
Introduction Low volume roads are known all over the world as LVRs. They are classified depending on the quantity of vehicles that pass through them and the total weight of them. The most critical case is passing 400 vehicles whose total weight is of 10 Tn in one shaft. Furthermore, this type of roads have to deal with big loads but in comparison with public roads, the traffic is much lower. LVR roads have different functions in the landscape, being the most important enabling access to the forest, fields and towns apart from the city. Country roads are not only for transport between points where natural parks and protected areas are located, but are also used for open-air activities such as trekking or cycling. The main problem of these roads in those areas is that they suffer from high grades of humidity having a terrible effect on the capacity of the subgrade. For this reason, the construction of those roads is limited to certain technologies whose aim is to improve the natural material of the subgrade and other materials used in the layers of the pavement. However, the fiability, durability and the efficiency criteria do not vary. On the other hand, the quality and durability of the pavement depend on mechanical characteristics of the subgrade and the materials of constructive layers, more specifically on the Resilient Modulus. Moreover, humidity changes the value of this modulus and it must be compatible with different numerical model of calculus, especially the one based on FEM for analyzing the deformation of the pavement and make the simulation of its behaviour depending on the used material. For that reason, the purpose of this article is to show the verification of the CBR cyclic test developed at Delft University of Technology that was further modified at Mendel University of Brno for obtaining the Resilient Modulus.
Theory of Resilient Modulus Design of constructions is generally based on the knowledge of the value of the Resilient Modulus (MR). Resilience is known as the energy absorbed by one volume unit of a material while it deforms elastically. In other words, it is the capacity that a solid shows against stress without suffering big deformations. It is depicted in the area below the line stress as it can be seen in the Figure 1. Elastic limit, Sy, is shown in the Figure 2. It can be explained as the maximum stress that an elastic material can support without being deformed plastically. If the material suffers from higher stresses than its elastic limit, it will be deformed and it won’t recover its original shape. Once the elastic limit is reached, if the material continues suffering from stress, it will reach its fracture point, σu, and break (Figure 2.). For that purpose, it is necessary to know the elastic limit of the material. If the stress applied to it is lower, the material will not deform. Nevertheless, it is necessary to calculate the elastic limit of a material because without that value we cannot construct a road or a structure totally safe. The elasticity law, known as Hook’s law defines the relation between stress and longitudinal deformation. So directly is related to the modulus of Young (E). This modulus represents the rigidity degree of a material. Graphically is the slope between the stress (σ) and deformation (ε) in figure 2.
- 139 - Moreover, it is applied only until the elastic limit, because in upper points behave of the material changes. The equations of this law for 3D are the next ones (1):
(1)
Where: E = Young’s modulus σx = stress applied in x axe σy = stress applied in y σz = stress applied in z εx = deformation in x axe εy = deformation in y axe εz = deformation in z axe
Soil is an element that has special characteristics, because its behaviour is affected by different factors, particularly humidity and density. For that reason it is very difficult to predict its behaviour and describe it accurately. In order to simulate the real behaviour of the soil under load and at the same time to take into account the mentioned theory, it is necessary to calculate the Resilient Modulus (MR) that is equivalent to the Young‘s modulus and is pobtained from the cylic loading test (Figure 3) according to the following equation (2) :
(2)
Where: MR= Resilient Modulus [kPa] σ1 = major principal stress [kPa] σ3= minor principal stress [kPa] σd = Applied stress [kPa] εr = Relative deformation [mm]
Cyclic test from the Figure 3 simulates a constant load applied by vehicles on the road during the traffic.
Cyclic test for the determination of the Resilient Modulus The design of roads in the Czech Republic is based on the empirical characteristic of CBR (ČSN EN 13286–47). CBR test was put into practice for the first time in the 1930s in the United States of America. At the begining, this test was used for designing the thickness of construction layers. Obtained result is the percentage of CBR from the comparison between applied force to analyzed material by a plunger in a defined depth and a standard gravel. According to he Czech law TP 170, the elastic modulus for the design of roads can be obtained from CBR with the next equation (3):
(3) Where: ETP = Design modulus (MPa) CBR = California Bearing Ratio (%)
The modulus taken from the value of CBR does not respect the nature deformation characteristics and it is not equivalent to the Young‘s modulus. According to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), cyclic load tests are considered to be the most appropiate way of obtaining MR. There are different ways of obtaining this modulus from which the most complex is the cyclic triaxial test (ČSN EN 13286- 7), which consists of applying pressure to a cylindrical sample of soil in horizontal direction. Afterwards, horizontal and vertical deformations are measured with transducers and value of MR (2) is obtained, Poisson’s coefficient as well. Due to high investment and length of the test, it is not commonly used.
- 140 - As an alternative to this test, some Dutch investigations (Molenaar, 2009) conclude that Resilient Modulus could be obtained from the CBR test. This test consists of applying stress with a plunger to a cylindrical sample during some cycles. In other words, the plunger starts applying pressure until reaching maximum stress or maximum penetration and after it comes back until the contact with the sample is over. An this point, the first cycle will be finished and if cyclic test is desired, the process will be repeated starting a new cycle. The machine will repeat cycles until the elastic deformation is constant. For the Resilient Modulus (MR), the next equation (4) is used:
(4)
Where: MR = Resilient Modulus of the soil (MPa) μ = Coefficient of Poisson of the analyzed material = applied pressure by the shaft a = plunger’s ratio w = measured elastic deformation C1 = 1,797 if the mould slips; 1,375 in case of total friction C2 = 0,889 in case of slip; 1,286 if total friction C3 = 1,098 if slips; 1,086 in case of total friction
Results of CBR test With the purpose of verifying the value of Resilient Modulus obtained in CBR cyclic test, some tests were carried out with subgrade materials obtained in seven different rural roads. The tests were performed in geotechnical laboratory at Mendel University in Brno (Czech Republic) and in geotechnical laboratory GEOSTAR, s.r.o. From each road 10 profiles were taken and from each profile 6 different samples. Altogether, more than 400 cyclic tests were performed. For all materials, a classification was made based on Czech laws (ČSN 73 1001). Optimum humidity (Wopt) and maximum density (ρd,max) were also taken from Proctor Standard and stress during test CBR standard (Table 1). The verification of the Resilient Modulus determination was performed on the basic cyclic CBR test based on a Dutch theory of repeated loading during a constant penetration of a plunger. The described is marked as test T2, because it follows the standard CBR test T1. The plunger starts applying stress until that penetration and then it returns. Stress during test T2 (σ2) is too high so the reached values exceed the capacity limit of the soil. The exceeding of the capacity limit of the soil was observed also at the end of the standard CBR test as seen in Table 1 σCBR5. As cyclic test T2 exceeds the capacity of the soil, Resilient Modulus and Young’s modulus cannot be calculated correctly. For that reason, test T3 was developed at the Mendel University in Brno in cooperation with geotechnical laboratory GEOSTAR, s.r.o.. In this test, the main difference is that applied stress is defined by the maximum capacity limit of the soil. In examined case the applied stress is of the soil was 210 kPa (Table 2) and maximum deformation can be obtained.
Conclusion Data obtained from CBR test shows clearly that test T2 according to Dutch theory cannot describe correctly deformation behaviour of soil after the application of load because limit is exceeded. Whereas test T3 simulates real conditions that roads suffer while vehicles pass through them and it also respects the maximum capacity of soil. The value of Resilient Modulus corresponds to requirements of numeric models based on FEM method.
References ČSN EN 13286-7: Nestmelené a hydraulicky stmelené směsi Část 7: Zkušební metody pro zkoušení opakovaným zatěžováním v triaxiálním přístroji TP 170 Navrhování vozovek pozemních komunikací. Ministerstvo dopravy ČR, 2008. AASHTO, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, http://www.transportation.org/ ČSN EN 13286–47 Nestmelené směsi a směsi stmelené hydraulickými pojivy – Část 47: Zkušební metoda pro stanovení kalifornského poměru únosnosti, okamžitého indexu únosnosti a lineárního bobtnání. Český normalizační institut, 2005.
Acknowledgment The work was supported by the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic as the project TA01020326 "Optimization of design and realization of low capacity roads pavements".
- 141 - Souhrn Nízkokapacitní vozovky LVRs v sobě zahrnují jak cesty účelové, vozovky lesní a polní dopravní sítě, tak i komunikace využívané k volnočasovým aktivitám. Na rozdíl od veřejných komunikací, nízkokapacitní vozovky prochází řadou chráněných území, která se často vyznačují složitým vodním režimem s negativními důsledky na únosnost podloží, na druhé straně disponují vysokým rekreačním potenciálem. Tím se zužuje prostor výběru technologií i materiálů pro výstavbu vozovek. Současně však zůstávají vysoká kritéria na spolehlivost, životnost a finanční efektivitu. Kvalitní spolehlivostní návrhy konstrukcí se již neobejdou bez výpočetních numerických modelů a výstižném stanovení potřebných materiálových charakteristik, zvláště modulu pružnosti podloží, který by adekvátně reagoval na změny vlhkosti podložních zemin, a současně byl kompatibilní s použitým numerickým modelem. Těmto požadavkům vyhovují moduly pružnosti (Resilient modulus MR) stanovené z cyklických zatěžovacích zkoušek, při kterých je simulováno zatížení opakující se dopravou. Jedinou zkouškou pro jeho stanovení je cyklický triaxiální test, který je ovšem pro svoji náročnost v běžné praxi, zvláště v návrhu vozovek LVRs, nedostupný. Alternativní zkouškou je od roku 2008 i cyklický test CBR, který byl testován a rozvíjen v laboratoři Mendelovy Univerzity v Brně a v geotechnické laboratoři GEOSTAR, s.r.o. Brno. Cyklický test CBR představený nizozemskou univerzitou Delft University of Technology je založen na opakovaném zatěžování při konstantní penetraci. V textu byl značen jako test T2. V průběhu ověřování jeho realizace byl modifikován na test T3, kdy opakované zatěžování bylo prováděno za konstantního napětí. K modifikaci původního testu došlo z důvodů překračování hodnot napětí na penetračním trnu při testu T2. Byly zjištěny hodnoty napětí, které více jak desetinásobně překračují hodnoty únosnosti sledovaného materiálu. Test T2 byl tedy upraven na zatěžování při konstantních hodnotách napětí, které jsou stanovovány dle maximální únosnosti zeminy Rd. Modul stanovený stanovený tímto způsobem před porušením zeminy, na intervalu budoucího zatížení splňuje požadavky kladené na tuto veličinu
Annexes
Fig. 1: Graphic of stress vs. Deformation showing Fig. 2: Graphic of stress vs. Deformation modulus of resilience MR showing Young’s modulus
Fig. 3: Resilient Modulus obtained from the CBR cyclic test
- 142 - Tab. 1: Results obtained from cycli CBR test T2 Wop ρ σ2 MR2 Rd σCBR5 Soil Profile Clasiff. [%] [kgm-3] kPa MPa kPa kPa P-1 F8 CH 24,8 1471 1364,1 133,1 246,8 924 P-2/3 F5 ML 15,1 1780 1523,6 172,8 370,2 3628,2 Borovice P-4 F6 CI 16,4 1752 1429,4 195,2 308,5 2814,8 P-6 F6 CI 16,7 1747 133,1 172 308,5 2488 P-1 F8 CH 24,6 1492 748 81,7 246,8 1305,1 P-2 F2 CG 23,1 1548 710,3 81,8 370,2 1291 Navojna P-5 F2 CG 24,6 1475 863,6 252,2 370,2 1606,3 P-9 F8 CH 21,3 1626 1184,8 376,9 246,8 1666,7 P-10 F8 CH 20,3 1610 1977,6 300,5 246,8 3052 P-1 S4 SM 14,4 1847 1554,2 180,8 313,6 5012,5 P-3 S4 SM 12,9 1878 680,8 63,3 313,6 2892,7 P-4 G4 GM 16,2 1769 249 38,8 294,7 847,4 P-5 S3 SF 15,3 1723 1043,3 101 5,3 4466,7 Nove P-6 S4 SM 15,7 1757 1217,2 142,8 313,4 3346,8 Mesto P-7 S4 SM 14,6 1860 414,1 39,4 313,4 1043,4 P-8 S4 SM 13,3 1881 1227,4 161,8 313,6 2572,9 P-9 S3 SF 13,4 1784 1402,9 100,8 5,4 5627,4 P-10 S4 SM 15,4 1708 490,7 47,1 313,3 1255,6 P-3 S4 SM 14 1852 1422,1 337,2 313,3 3507,4 Rasna P-6 S4 SM 12 1938 1126,5 156,1 313,7 4835,2 P-2 F8 CH 22,9 1594 443,6 46,4 246,8 692,6 P-5 F8 CH 22,2 1572 797,2 111,7 246,8 1177,5 P-6 F8 CH 23,5 1576 583,6 98,4 246,8 735,4 Kultury P-7 F8 CH 22,8 1576 436,2 44,7 246,8 657,3 P-8 F8 CH 20,8 1630 702,9 66,7 246,8 1273,3 P-9 F8 CH 27,3 1493 380,2 51,7 246,8 526,1 P-10 F6 CI 25,5 1492 287,4 21,9 308,5 468,6 P-4 G4 GM 11,5 1988 114,9 11,9 295,1 297,7 Kubenka P-6 G4 GM 11,5 1970 160,6 17,1 295 398
Tab. 2: Results obtained from cycli CBR test T3 Wop ρ σ2 MR2 σ3 MR3 Rd σCBR5 Soil Profile Class. [%] [kgm-3] MPa Mpa Mpa Mpa kPa kPa P-7 G4 GM 9,8 2134 400,8 45,6 36,8 294,8 1043,4 P-8 F4 CS 11,4 2171 847,2 39,7 99,8 308,5 1689,5 P-10 S4 SM 11,2 2043 438,6 22,2 21,7 313,4 794,3 210 Kubenka P-11 F3MS 13 2079 386,1 38,7 27,8 370,2 810,5
P-12 S5 SC 5,9 2250 415,6 59,5 61,9 323,5 2064,6 P-13 F3 MS 5,3 2202 539,4 66,7 34,3 370,2 1674,1 P-14 F4 CS 10 2126 649,9 79,8 118,5 380,5 1566,5
Contact: Ing. Lenka Ševelová, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 524, e-mail: [email protected]
- 143 - METHODOLOGY OF COPPICE BIOTOPES SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT FOR ORGANISM’S SPECIES FIXED ON COPPICE DEFINED ENVIRONMENTS
Petr Kupec1, Jan Kadavý2, Robert Knott3, Michal Kneifl2 1 Department of Landscape Management; Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 Department of Forest Management and Applied Geoinformatics; Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 3 Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The presented methodology is a simple tool for assessment of coppice biotopes suitability for species bound to coppice defined environments. User of the methodology can choose one of three standard models of coppicing and two models of coppice-with-standards management. Models of management are specified by: a) length of production cycle (rotation period), b) interval between cutting interventions, c) intensity of cutting interventions. User can, with respect to interpretation of physical parameters effect and environment characteristics as a result of the management model, assess response of selected species or group of species to the development phases of forest. The result of evaluation is if standard model of coppice management are for assessed species: a) suitable, b) partly suitable or c) unsuitable. When the standard models are partly suitable for selected species, the user can define problematic phases of forest development and propose alternative ways of management with using the starting points of the models. There are also examples of reaction of selected species on standard coppice models presented in the methodology.
Key words: coppice, coppice-with-standards, biodiversity, management
Introduction The renaissance of interest in coppicing can be seen at present. Coppicing was accepted as the relevant approach to forest management at past but especially in consequence with requirement of wood production intensification the coppicing was abandoned in most of forest management units. One of the arguments for repeating introduction and using of coppiced forest not only in Czech Republic is among others effort to forests biodiversity strengthening. Increasing proportion of coppiced forests should cause increasing proportions so called bright or opened forests (Buckley 1992; Harmer, Howe, 2003). The production of fuel wood and high-quality wood sections from coppiced forests is also important argument (Kadavý et all,. 2011). Although the principles of coppice management are generally known (Konšel, 1931; Polanský, 1947; Utinek, 2009; Kadavý et all. 2011), reaction of most of the organism’s species fixed on coppice defined environments has been still the great unknown variable. The ambition of presented article is to present easy tool proposed by authors for simplification of biotopes suitability assessment just for those organism’s species whose are fixed on coppice defined environments.
Materials and methods Methodology is designed for important organism’s species potentially occurring within the forest sites where coppicing can be carried out. As for the coppiced forests on this sites, they are planned to be planted in certain proposed management models of coppicing in frame of presented methodology. As important organism’s species should be selected those organism’s species which meet criterions as follows: • represent wider group of species or in optimal case are representatives of some specific communities • their importance in the field of nature protection is given generally for example by their including to the lists of protected or rare species according to different documents (e.g. Procházka (2001); Farkač a Král (2005); Grulich (2012); Direction no. 395/1992; appendix II of the Directive 92/43/EHS etc.) Forest sites suitable for coppicing are presented in following table (tab. 1).
- 144 - Tab. 1: Forest sites suitable for coppicing Site Quality Site type Target management (forest typology) group
excellent 1L, 2L, 1U, 3U, 3L, 5L 19 1H, 2H, 1B, 2B, 1D, 2D - excl. exposed types 25 1W, 2W, 1V, 2V, 1O, 2O, 1S, 2S 25 1T, 1G 25 3S, 3B 45 3D, 3H, 4H 45
very good 1N, 2N, 1A, 2A (pure types), 1C, 2C, 3C, 3N, 4N (exposed types) 21 2M, 2K, 3M, 2S, 2B, 2D 21 1P, 2P, 1Q, 2Q, 3Q, 4Q, 3P 27 3C, 4C, 5C, 3A, 4A 31 3W, 4W 35 3N - excl. pure types, 3F, 4F 41 3K, 3A, 4A - exposed types 41 4H, 3S, 4S, 3B, 4B, 3D, 4D 45 3V, 4V - excl. waterlogged types, 3O, 4O, 4P, 3P 47
good 1M 13 1K, 2K, 1I, 2I, 2M, 3M - excl. exposed types 23 1S, 2S, 3K, 3I, 1C, 2C, 3C 23 3K, 3I - excl. exposed and pure types 43 3S, 4S - pure types 43
The goal of the methodology is to give following possibilities to its user: 1. to present forest development stages (phases) according to the standard management models in coppiced forests on the level of forest stand 2. to assess reaction of important organism’s species to the particular forest development stage defined by the management model of coppicing 3. to define if standard management model in coppiced forest are for assessed organism’s species: a) suitable - it means that standard management model can be used b) partly suitable - it means that standard management model if is necessary to use must be adjusted regarding to assessed organism’s species requirements c) unsuitable
Results The methodology procedure is divided to following steps: 1. selection of standard coppice management model or models 2. selection of the important organism’s species or group of organism’s species 3. definition of reactions of important organism’s species or group of organism’s species to the standard coppice management model or models 4. results interpretation and management recommendations proposal
User of the methodology can work with several standard coppice models defined within the methodology. Then user have to select the length of rotation period of coppiced part of forest stand. It is recommended to use the length of rotation period from 10 to 30 years (40 years in maximum). There is a generally rule stated that if the forest site is reach (has higher quality) the length of rotation period of coppiced part of forest should be low and vice versa. Selection of the important organism’s species or group of important organism’s species should follow the rules given above (chap. Materials and methods) and should be done by the expert or experts with local experiences in ideal case. The reaction of the important organism’s species or group of important organism’s species in relation to the forest development stage (phase) according to the presented coppice management models have to be assessed by user according to the scale of proposed typical reactions of organisms to the environment conditions (see tab. 2). For mentioned methodological procedure steps the basic template have to be used (see fig. 1). The proposed reaction of species or group of species is entered to it.
- 145 - The result coming from the assessment carried out in the basic template is the statement of biotope's conditioned by using of some management model suitability for particular species or group of species life.
Tab. 2: Proposed typical reactions of organisms to the environment conditions in relation to the management models Biotope´s suitability for Grade Reaction to the management model organism´s life
Management model provides conditions leading to 1 Conditions better than optimal potential expansion of population
Management model provides optimal conditions for the 2 Optimal conditions species existence leading to potentially optimal status of population
Species have no reaction to the management model´s 3 Indifferent conditions interventions
Management model provides conditions leading to 4 Negative conditions potential decreasing of population
Management model provides conditions leading to 5 Lethal conditions potential decline of population
Fig. 1: Reprint of basic template of methodology
Conclusion Article introduces methodology of coppice biotopes suitability assessment for organism’s species fixed on coppice defined environments, where authors' main goal was to create simplified tool for assessment of biotope´s determined by coppicing suitability for important organism´s species. The methodology procedure is divided into following steps: 1. selection of standard coppice management model or models 2. selection of the important organism’s species or group of organism’s species 3. definition of reactions of important organism’s species or group of organism’s species to the standard coppice management model or models 4. results interpretation and management recommendations proposal User of the methodology can work with several defined coppice management models. For important species reaction assessment so called basic template have to been used. The template is used for actual suitability of biotopes assessment with using five grades scale (from 1 - living conditions of important species better than optimal to 5 - lethal living conditions of important species). Methodology also recommends forests sites suitable for coppicing wit differentiation from good to excellent. It is supposed that methodology can serve as tool for the nature protection managers and field workers.
- 146 - References Buckley, G. P. (1992): Ecology and Management of Coppice Woodlands. London, Chapman-Hall: 336. Farkač, J., Král, D., Škorpík, M. [eds.] (2005): Červený seznam ohrožených druhů České republiky. Bezobratlí. Praha: Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR. ISBN 80-86064-96-4. 760 s. Grulich, V. (2012): Red List of vascular plants of the Czech Republic: 3rd edition. Preslia 84: 631–645. Harmer R., Howe J. (2003): The silviculture and management of coppice woodlands. Edinburgh, Forestry Commission: 88. Kadavý, J., Kneifl, M., Servus, M., Knott, R., Hurt, V., Flora, M. (2011): Nízký a střední les – plnohodnotná alternativa hospodaření malých a středních vlastníků lesa – obecná východiska. Lesnická práce s r.o., nakladatelství a vydavatelství. Kostelec nad Černými lesy. 296 s. Konšel, J. (1931): Stručný nástin tvorby a pěstění lesů. 552 s. Polanský, B. (1947): Příručka pěstění lesů. Knižnice činu, Edice dobrého hospodáře č. 3. Brno. 205 s. Procházka, F. (ed.) (2001): Černý a červený seznam cévnatých rostlin České republiky (stav v roce 2000). Příroda 18:1-133. Utinek, D. (2009): Rámcové směrnice pro pěstování středního lesa. Ochrana přírody 4:12-14. Příloha II směrnice 92/43/EHS ze dne 21. května 1992 o ochraně přírodních stanovišť, volně žijících živočichů a planě rostoucích rostlin. Vyhláška č. 395/1992 ministerstva životního prostředí České republiky ze dne 11. června 1992, kterou se provádějí některá ustanovení zákona České národní rady č. 114/1992 Sb., o ochraně přírody a krajiny ve znění pozdějších předpisů.
Acknowledgement The Article is supported by the projects of Czech Ministry of Environment no SP/2d4/59/07 Biodiversity and target management of endangered and protected species in coppiced forests within the Natura 2000 and Czech Ministry of Education no MŠMT CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0267 Coppices - production and biological alternative for the future.
Souhrn Článek představuje metodiku hodnocení vhodnosti biotopů nízkého a středního lesa pro druhy organismů vázané na tato prostředí, kdy cílem autorů bylo vytvoření jednoduché pomůcky pro hodnocení vhodnosti biotopů nízkého a středního lesa pro významné druhy organismů vázané na tyto hospodářské tvary lesa. Vlastní metodika hodnocení se skládá z následujících na sebe navazujících činností: • výběr standardního modelu nebo modelů hospodaření v nízkém a středním lese, • stanovení významného druhu nebo druhů, • definice reakce významného(ých) druhu(ů) na model(y) hospodaření v lesním prostředí, • kumulace významných druhů podle typu jejich reakce na stav a vývoj prostředí, • interpretace výsledků a návrh managementových doporučení pro vybraný druh či skupiny významných druhů. Uživatel metodiky má možnost výběru ze tří standardních modelů nízkého lesa a ze dvou modelů lesa středního a má tak k dispozici dostatek informací k tomu, aby mohl adekvátně posoudit reakci vybraného druhu či skupiny druhů na konkrétní vývojovou fázi modelu hospodaření. K hodnocení možných reakcí významných druhů na modelem hospodaření vzniklé biotopy uživatel metodiky používá “základní formulář metodiky”. Ten slouží k hodnocení aktuální vhodnosti stavu biotopu pro významný druh s využitím pětibodové stupnice hodnocení (1-podmínky nad rámec optimálních až 5- likvidační podmínky druhu). V případě nutnosti hodnocení reakcí většího množství významných druhů na uživatelem zvolený model hospodaření je doporučováno použít tzv. kumulace druhů. Metodika doporučuje vhodná stanoviště pro hospodaření ve tvaru lesa nízkého a lesa středního. Předpokládáme, že své uplatnění nalezne metodika především v řadách pracovníků se zaměřením na ochranu přírody a krajiny, dále u odborného lesnického personálu včetně pracovníků hospodářské úpravy lesů a státní správy lesů.
Contact: Assoc. Prof. Ing. Petr Kupec, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 097, e-mail: [email protected]
- 147 - METHODS FOR VISITOR MONITORING IN PROTECTED AREAS
Markéta Braun Kohlová, Jan Melichar, Kateřina Kaprová, Hana Škopková, Vojtěch Máca Charles University Environment Center, José Martího 2/407, 162 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic
Abstract In most European countries, visitor monitoring is a well-established tool for protected areas management. Increasingly, the management of protected areas in the Czech Republic has led to a growing demand for high-quality data on visitors. There exists a wide variety of methods of visitor monitoring, but the most frequently applied ones in the Czech Republic are the automatic and personal counting – usually ignoring other alternatives. The study presents a systematization of visitor monitoring methods employed in the Czech and foreign protected areas, together with a discussion on the survey purposes, strengths and weaknesses of the data collected using particular methods. The aim of the study is to increase the portfolio of considered visitor monitoring options in the Czech setting. We hope to enhance the discussion on the application of monitoring methods and conditions under which they allow to produce high-quality data and to show which method may prove useful in each specific monitoring task, considering the characteristics of the protected area, visitor population and the purpose of the survey.
Key words: visitor survey, visitor counting
Introduction Management that keeps in balance care of precious natural localities and species and offers of recreation is the basic prerequisite for sustainable tourism in protected areas (PA). However, such management requires information about the numbers of visitors, their characteristics, activities, attitudes and opinions. Therefore demand for high-quality data on visitors has increased and it raises the question which monitoring method to use. Therefore we aim at a comparison of available visitor monitoring methods with respect to their representativeness, detail of the provided information, usability for spatial and temporal aggregation and thus suitability for a monitoring action with particular purpose in the Czech setting. There exists a variety of methods of visitor monitoring, but the most applied in the Czech Republic are the automatic and personal counting and on-site questionnaire survey. The automatic counting has for instance been applied in the Krkonoše National park (KRNAP), PLA Beskydy, PLA Jeseníky and several information centres in protected areas. The personal counting has been repeatedly applied between 1997 and 2010 in Šumava National Park (NP) and Podyjí NP (Najmanová and Čihař, 2006). Also several questionnaire surveys have been conducted on-site with the aim to investigate visitors’ attitudes and perceptions, their socio-demographics or e.g. environmental awareness (Kolpron, 2005, Třebický and Čihař, 2006, Görner and Čihař, 2012) or generally on tourism with focus on satisfaction with local services (CzechTourism, Ipsos Tambor 2009; 2014). To our knowledge the only off-site survey was conducted in PLA Jizerské hory by Melichar and Urban (2008). From the new monitoring methods mobile signalisation data have been applied but mostly for the monitoring of visitors of cultural heritage sites, an exception is The monitoring of thenumber of visitor’s in Kvilda by mobile signalisation data in 2012 and 2013 (CE-Traffic a CzechTourism, 2013). Despite the available data on visitor numbers and their characteristics any systematic comparison of monitoring methods has been so far missing. Therefore we aim at a systematization of visitor monitoring methods that may be applied in the CR for the visitor monitoring in protected areas. Our analysis is based on the experiences from other countries and preliminary results of an empirical study on tourism in two PA localities, i.e. Hruboskalsko in PLA Český ráj and the central part of Šumava NP. In this study several monitoring methods were applied simultaneously to compare so that their usability for different monitoring purposes and measurement accuracy could be compared.
The purpose of the monitoring and available methods Before any administration starts planning visitor monitoring action it should be clear what the purpose of the data collection is. The following purposes are most frequent (adapted from SEPA, 2007): 1) Monitoring of visitors in localities with endangered species and habitats; 2) Monitoring of spatial distribution of visitors into an area for identification of: a) crowded localities; b) localities with colliding activities (e.g. bicyclist and hikers); and c) access to various performance groups; 3) Monitoring of demand for visitor infrastructure (parking places in particular); 4) Monitoring of demand changes due to regulatory or marketing measures; 5) Monitoring of potential changes in recreation demand.
- 148 - Depending on the purpose the monitoring may focus on changes of natural objects, visitor numbers, spatial and temporal distribution, recreational activities, visitors’ characteristics, attitudes, etc. (Jelečková, 2012; Muhar et al., 2002). There are several typologies of visitor monitoring methods in the literature. SEPA (2007) distinguishes the monitoring primarily according to: i) the place of data collection, i.e. on-site and off-site; and ii) the source of the data and used technologies: a) indirect, b) direct and c) automatic methods of monitoring. Another typology distinguishes the type of the monitoring data, i.e. a) qualitative, b) opinion, c) quantitative (Cope et al., 2000; Melville a Ruohonen, 2002). On-site monitoring is a counting or questioning of visitors, who could be found at the time of monitoring on the target area. Such monitoring is especially suitable for investigating the current loads on tracks or experiences from the current recreation. Contrarily, the off-site questioning is the survey of the general population and thus also those who do not visit the area. Indirect monitoring methods are based on the manifestation of wearing out (of tracks, pathways, vegetation) or data that have been collected for other purposes (sold entrance or parking tickets, visitor books, etc.). Direct methods are based on manual observation by personnel; automatic on mechanic or electronic counters. Whereas quantitative monitoring aims only at numbers of visitors (collected manually or automatically, with or without video recording), the qualitative investigates also visitors’ characteristics, perception, opinions and wishes. The methods employing the new information and communication technologies (ICT), such as GPS or signalisation data from mobile operators has become more common in last years (CE Traffic a CzechTourism, 2013, Eurostat, 2013). Since the particular examples of the methods come under more than one from the above mentioned categories, to facilitate the orientation we systematize them into Table 1.
Tab. 1: Available monitoring methods in protected areas
Further we compare five most prominent types of visitor monitoring methods: i) automatic counter monitoring, ii) personal monitoring and iii) personal interviews, iv) off-site questionnaire survey, and iv) monitoring using mobile signalisation data.
- 149 - Comparison The essential question for the optimal use of visitor monitoring is what the data collected by means of the particular method represent. The automatic counter (and mostly also personal monitoring) counts numbers of passing through a profile, i.e. “pairs-of-feet”. It means that if we want to know the numbers of unique visitor on-site, the counted number needs to be corrected for repeated passings of the same visitor. For instance from our counting profile at the entrance of Prášilské Lake in Šumava NP (Liščí díry) the automatic counter (on Sunday 10th August, 2015) provides the number 465, whereas the personnel counts only 290 unique visitors either coming from or leaving to the profile. Thus the division factor is 1.6 at this particular profile. However, the division factor is mostly un-known, and another monitoring method must provide it. The double counting is a significant issue for aggregation of the counts for both a larger area – because the same visitor passes more monitoring profiles - and a longer time period– because (s)he passes the same profile repeatedly. Still the numbers from the automatic counters are good indicators of the load on a particular track that can be used for optimisation of environmental stress or crowding problem in particularly localities. Moreover, it is the most suitable method for long-term counting and seasonal variations since the length of the monitoring period has a relatively limited effect on the costs. The personal monitoring does not differ in representativeness from the automatic counter. Its main advantage is that it allows collecting more detailed data. Thus we know that the total number of 307 visitors at Prášilské Lake on a concrete day came in 126 groups, i.e. with average group size 2.44, and that 9 out of these groups brought small children unable to walk the whole trip. Moreover the personal monitoring at a profile with two entrance tracks, such as Prášilské Lake, allows counting all visitors that would otherwise require two automatic counters. However since the costs for personal monitoring rise proportionally to the number of (person-) days this method is suitable only for short- term monitoring. Contrarily to both the above described methods the personal interviews on-site represents just visitors of the area. Since it is impossible to make interviews with everybody the sampling poses the major pitfall of this method. To create a representative (random) sample a sampling frame is required, i.e. at least estimated numbers of visitors at individual localities of the area in question. This is even more complicated in large areas such as central part of Šumava NP, where are innumerable localities (and entrance profiles). And as the lack of information on visitors is the dominant reason for the monitoring these numbers are mostly unknown. Even if we succeed to sample randomly we face the problem of overrepresentation of frequent and long-term visitors, since these have a higher probability to be sampled. The sampling difficulties together with the endogeneous stratification problem, i.e. that the sample includes only people who are just present in the locality and who are more probably keen visitors of nature, may inflate estimated recreation values for the locality (González-Sepúlveda, Loomis 2010). Yet, assuming we have a representative sample, then the personal interviews on-site enable to investigate visitors’ experience, recreation quality perceptions, etc. and importantly information on spatial distribution in the area, use values of the respective ecosystems’ services and recreational demand of the visitors. Furthermore the on-site interviews represent the less expensive variant of the visitors’ survey. The unbiased estimates of recreational demand of a broader region population, investigation of determinants of and barriers for the visit and non-use values of ecosystem services are the main justifications for off-site questionnaire survey. The data collected at households are representative for the general population and thus it is not necessary to correct the (willingness-to-pay and other) estimates for the above described sampling biases. On the contrary only the off-site gained values allow correcting the on-site estimates also for preferences of non-visitors. The representative data on more than one visited localities, frequency of visits and their duration enables both spatial and temporal aggregation of visits. The biggest drawback of the methods is that even a large sample from the general population - let say population of the Czech Republic - contains relatively small share of the people who have recently visited the area of interest. In our study 19% (N=345) and 18% (N=330) of the total sample (N=1800) visited Hruboskalsko in PLA Český ráj and Tříjezerní moor in Šumava NP, respectively during the summer season 2014. Thus the estimates for the group of visitors of the area(s) in question may be less robust than from the on-site survey. To minimize the problem of small share of visitors the off-site survey requires a larger sample which makes this method relatively costly. The last method included is a relatively new method, i.e. monitoring using mobile signalisation data. The data collected by mobile phone operators aim at (anonymous) representation of unique visitors. Obviously a recalculation is needed so that the data on the presence of the particular mobile phone users in the monitored areas could be related to the general population. Even though the recalculation procedure raises concerns about the representativeness of this method, its potential lies in coverage of larger areas and possibility to discover the trip duration, visitor’s residence and spatial distribution of
- 150 - the visit in a large-scale. In our study we monitored cross-visits in cadaster area of four municipalities in Šumava NP: Modrava, Kvilda, Prášily and Stožec. For instance the Modrava area covered the area which would have to be monitored by at least 7 automatic counters. Since unique individuals are monitored the method is also suitable for temporal and spatial aggregation of the total number of visitors. The data collection may be administered “from the table”. The costs and information on the visitors and uncertainty regarding the recalculation of the data are so far the major impediments for a broader utilization of this method. More detailed comparison of all described methods is in Table 2.
Tab. 2: Strengths and drawbacks of visitor monitoring methods
Discussion The decision for a particular monitoring method should further consider its accuracy. This issue raises another relevant questions such as if the automatic counters really include everybody, if it is suitable for the profiles of interest, whether the personnel manages to notice all people who pass most crowded profiles. Unfortunately these issues are out of scope of this paper. They will be however taken into account in the methodology of visitors’ monitoring planed as the main outcome of this project.
Conclusion The paper compares five direct visitors’ monitoring methods that may be considered by the management of protected areas. Their characteristics with respect to representativeness, detail of the information and aggregation potential and thus suitability for monitoring actions with different purposes are discussed.
References CzechTourism, Ipsos Tambor (2009): Výzkum zaměřený na domácí cestovní ruch - finální metodika. Available from (2014-02-11):
- 151 - Cope, A., Doxford, D., Probert, Ch. (2000). Monitoring visitors to UK countryside resources. The approaches of land and recreation resource management organisations to visitor monitoring. Land Use Policy, 2000, č. 17, s. 59 – 66. Eurostat. (2013): Feasibility Study on the Use of Mobile Positioning Data for Tourism Statistics. Available from http://mobfs.positium.ee/index.php?id=reports (2015-03-10). González-Sepúlveda, J. M. and Loomis, J. (2010). Do CVM Welfare Estimates Suffer from On-Site Sampling Bias? A Comparison of On-Site and Household Visitor Surveys. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 39/3, P: 561 – 570. Görner, T., M. Čihař (2011): Seasonal Differences in Visitor Perceptions: A comparative Study of Three Mountainous National Parks in Central Europe. Journal of Environmental Protection 2, p. 1046- 1054. Jelečková, J. (2012): Turismus a mechanismy jeho monitorování v Česku. Diplomová práce. FHS UK. Vedoucí práce Jan Melichar. Kolpron, s. r. o. (2006): Sledování procesu změn vyvolaných cestovním ruchem na životní prostředí v CHKO Český ráj. Závěrečná zpráva k projektu SM/2/69/04. LVAF (2012). Visitor Monitoring Guidelines in Protected Nature Areas. Example: Slitere National Park, Latvia. Latvian Country Tourism Association. Melichar, J. and J. Urban (2008): Modeling Recreation Demand in Urban Forests in Prague Using Random Utility Framework. In MELICHAR, Jan a ŠKOPKOVÁ, Hana (eds.) Forestry Valuation and Policy Relevance, 1. ed., p. 65-74. Melville, S., Ruohonen, J. (2011): The development of a remote-download system for visitor counting. Working Papers of the Finish Forest Research Institute 2 [2011-07-04]. Available from: http://www.metla.fi/julkaisut/workingpapers/2004/mwp002.htm. Muhar, A., Arnberger, A., Brandenbug, Ch. (2002). Methods for Visitor Monitoring in Recreational and Protected Areas: An Overview. Conference Proceedings ed by A. Arnberger, C. Brandenburg, A. Muhar, s. 1 – 6. Najmanová, K. a M. Čihař (2006): Celoroční monitoring návštěvnosti Národního parku Podyjí. Závěrečná zpráva k projektu. Available from:
Acknowledgement The work on this paper was supported by the project The use of pricing mechanism for tourism directing and financing the management of specially protected areas in the Czech Republic, No. TD020049 financed by the Czech Technological Agency.
Souhrn Tento článek porovnává nejčastěji používané metody monitoringu návštěvnosti zvláště chráněných území, tj. automatický monitoring, osobní monitoring, osobní rozhovory v místě, dotazníkové šetření obecné populace a monitoring s využitím signalizačních dat mobilních operátorů. Tyto metody jsou porovnány z hlediska toho, co sebrané počty reprezentují, v jakém detailu sbírají data a nakolik umožňují agregaci v čase a prostoru. Monitoring s využitím automatických a osobních sčítačů poskytuje data o „párech nohou“, které procházejí po monitorovaných stezkách. To představuje jistá omezení agregace těchto počtů v čase i prostoru. Počty unikátních návštěvníků, které lze dobře agregovat, získáme nejlépe s pomocí dotazníkového šetření obecné populace anebo ze signalizačních dat mobilních operátorů. Dotazníkové šetření navíc představuje nejlepší způsob sběru, chceme-li identifikovat bariéry návštěv, rekreační poptávku a ne-užitné hodnoty ekosystémů. Hlavní kladem osobních rozhovorů v místě rekreace je vysoký detail získaných dat, možnost zjišťování prostorové distribuce návštěvnosti v malém územním detailu a relativně nižší náklady.
Contact: Mgr. Markéta Braun Kohlová, PhD. Phone: +420 220 199 460, e-mail: [email protected]
- 152 - METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURE FOR THE ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF THE TFE IMPORTANCE IN LOCAL ECONOMY
Petra Hlaváčková, David Březina Department of Forest and Wood Products Economics and Policy, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The paper describes a methodical procedure, which will be used to deal with the economic part of the Internal Grant Agency project of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology at Mendel University in Brno in 2015. The project is related to research, which was conducted in the Training Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny (TFE Křtiny) area in 2013 and 2014. The aim of this research was to find usage possibilities of an alternative method to evaluate a recreational potential of the area of interest. In 2015, the economic part of research is focused on economic assessment of the TFE Křtiny importance in local economy. The need for dealing with this issue originates in growing social demands on forestry, and nature and landscape protection to develop the countryside – these demands are stated for example in international strategic objectives of sustainable development. The methodology of local multiplier calculation (LM2, LM3) will be verified within the frame of the same research. The methods of a standardized interview, analysis, comparison, consolidation and synthesis will be used. The methodical procedure for local multiplier calculation consists of four parts – a definition of the area of interest, LM2 calculation, and standardized interview and LM3 calculation.
Key words: economics, methodology, local multiplier, forestry, recreation function
Introduction Research was carried out in the area of Training Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny (TFE Křtiny) in the years 2013 – 2014 focusing on the quantification and evaluation of the area’s recreational utilisation. The objective of the research was to determine the possibilities of utilising an alternative evaluation method of the recreational potential of the area of interest. On the research participated the staff from the Department of Forest and Wood Products Economics and Policy (DFWPEP), Department of Landscape Management (DLM) and Department of Forest Management and Applied Geoinformatics. Part of the research involved a questionnaire survey in the forest district of Bílovice nad Svitavou. The economic part of the research focused on determining the level of travelling expenses of visitors and their willingness to pay for services provided by forest ecosystems and the application of the local multiplier methodology. In 2015 DFWPEP and DLM obtained an internal grant project, which continues with the research activities of 2013 and 2014. The objective of the project is to quantify and evaluate the socioeconomic effects of the forest enterprise on the local economy. The article will describe the methodical approach which will be applied to the economic evaluation of the importance of TFE Křtiny to the local economy.
Material and methods The materials for this article were obtained with the aid of secondary research that focused principally on the literary search of available domestic and foreign sources from the sphere of sustainable development, economic localisation, evaluation of the contributions of enterprises to the local economy and the calculation of the local multiplier. The project entitled “The Importance of TFE Křtiny for the Local Economy” emerged as a response to the hitherto unresolved problems of the local economy in the branch of forest management (FM), nature and landscape conservation which are derived from the objectives presented in sustainable development strategic documents on a national and international scale. Important sources of information about the objectives of the sustainable development strategy, principally focusing on interconnecting the economic, social and environmental pillars of sustainable development were Agenda 21, Local Agenda 21, and Strategic Framework for Sustainable Development and documents of the United Nations. The enhancement of socioeconomic aspects of the sustainable development of FM is presented in Resolution L1 of the Third Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (Lisbon, 1998). The National Forestry Programme II is important in terms of the Czech Republic and the importance and impact of small and medium enterprises on employment, the economy of suppliers and customers in the regions. Description, analysis, synthesis and comparison were the methods applied in the article.
- 153 - Results The project’s primary objective is to quantify and subsequently evaluate the impact of a special- purpose forest enterprise and forest management on the economic and social development of the area with the application of the local multiplier calculation methodology, and to determine potential cash flows associated with the fulfilment of socioeconomic functions of forest ecosystems in the area of interest of the TFE Křtiny. The principal objective of the project will be to achieve mutual consolidation and synthesis of outputs of the project’s partial objectives. The project’s economic partial objectives are to test the local multiplier 2 (LM2) and local multiplier 3 (LM3) calculation methodologies in the TFE Křtiny area of interest and determine the potential of socioeconomic functions of forest management for the economic development of the area of interest. The principal socioeconomic function examined in the project will be the recreational function. The methods applied in the project’s economic part will be the calculation of local multipliers LM2 and LM3, analysis, comparison, consolidation, synthesis and statistical analysis. The local multiplier calculation methodology in the sphere of nature and landscape conservation was applied by Ing. Březina at the Podyjí National Park Administration (see Březina 2014). The project’s objective is to test this methodology by applying it to the forest enterprise. The methodical procedure for local multiplier calculation consists of four parts – a definition of the area of interest, LM2 calculation, and standardized interview and LM3 calculation. Part one – the definitiv of the area of interest – has already been carried out. The municipalities in immediate proximity to TFE Křtiny were selected as areas of interest for the project which are most affected by this enterprise. This is a total of 21 municipalities. The statutory city of Brno was excluded from the area of interest because the data from this area would greatly distort the results of the research. The data required to calculate LM2 will be transformed from the TFE Křtiny information system. The LM2 will then be calculated according to Kutáček (2007a), where the total income will be added together of TFE Křtiny with the local expenses of TFE Křtiny and will be divided by the total income of TFE Křtiny for 2014. The total income of TFE Křtiny consists of items of account class 6 – Revenues, especially the revenues of account category 60, 64 and 67). The local expenses of TFE Křtiny include expenses which were spent locally, i.e. those that the enterprise spent in the demarcated area of interest. In accounting terms these are data of account class 5 – Expenses, mainly account category 50 – Consumed Purchases, 51 – Services and 52 – Personnel Expenses. When dealing with the economic part of the project the most time-consuming task will be to determine the data for calculating LM3. The data will be determined by a questionnaire survey that will be conducted in the form of a structured interview. The questionnaire survey consists of two parts. In the first part a questionnaire was drawn up for the employees of TFE Křtiny permanently residing in the area of interest. The objective of the questionnaire is to determine how the employees spend their money within and outside the area of interest. The questions in the questionnaire are based on the evaluation of family accounts used by the Czech Statistical Office. The questionnaire determines the data on the total income of the employees and the share that flows back into the area of interest, the local expenses. The second part will contain the major local suppliers generated from the TFE Křtiny information system from whom information will again be determined in the form of a questionnaire survey, or a structured interview respectively, about the level of expenses stemming from and to the area of interest. The questionnaire survey will establish the total local expenses of local employees and suppliers in the area of interest which will be used to calculate LM3. Local multiplier 3 represents the sum values of the total income of TFE Křtiny, local expenses of TFE Křtiny and local expenses of local employees and suppliers of TFE Křtiny divided by the value of the total income of TFE Křtiny. All data will apply to 2014. Based on the determined results and results of previous research in this sphere carried out by various authors and a research team, the method of comparison, consolidation and synthesis will be applied to evaluate the socioeconomic functions of forest management and the usability of the local multiplier methodology in practice.
Discussion At the beginning of the evolution, the sustainable development concept was focused on sustainability of enterprises and natural environment, respectively on the fact that the economy and the environment don’t have to limit each other. (see e.g. United Nations 1973). The third dimension of sustainable development – social – was added later to the two dimensions – environmental and economic. Currently constantly greater emphasis is placed on the third pillar of sustainable development, i.e. the
- 154 - social pillar by strengthening it at local level with regard to the economic and environmental pillar. Economic localisation is engaged in combining the pillars of sustainable development at local level. Shuman (2000) defined economic localisation. The issue of economic localisation was also addressed at the Faculty of Social Studies of Masaryk University in Brno, for example by Došek (2006); Johanisová (2007). Other authors who have been engaged over a long period with the issue of economic localisation are Douthwait (1996) and Kutáček (2007a, 2007b). Economic localisation is manifested in relation to the regional economy and policy – see for example Armstrong, Taylor (2000); Šilhánková (2012). The problem of economic localisation in the branch of forest management and nature and landscape conservation is a global problem. The need to increase the contribution of FM and nature and landscape conservation to rural development is presented in the strategic objectives of many documents dealing principally with sustainable development at national and international level (see e.g. United Nations 2014). However, none of the above-mentioned authors and publications deals with economic localisation in relation to forest management and nature and landscape conservation. A tool called local multiplier (LM) is used to determine how big a share of the financial resources spent by any institution remains in the region concerned. This tool appeared in 2002 thanks to the British independent think tank New Economics Foundation (NEF) under the direction of economist Justin Sacks (Rejmanová 2014). For example, Kutáček (2007a,b); Johanisová (2008); Březina, Šafařík, Hlaváčková (2013) deal with the issue of local multipliers. The calculation methodology was applied to a small number of final papers such as Došek (2006); Březina (2014) and Sacks (2002) as an example of a foreign author. However, the local multiplier was not used in any of the mentioned publications to determine the contribution of a forest enterprise to the local economy.
Conclusion The article presents the methodical approach that will be applied when dealing with the economic part of the internal grant project of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology at Mendel University in Brno. The objective of the project is to quantify and evaluate the impact of a special-purpose forest enterprise and forest management on the economic and social development of the area. The methods applied in the project’s economic part will be the calculation of local multipliers LM2 and LM3, analysis, comparison, consolidation, synthesis and statistical analysis. The results of the project will make it possible to quantify the role played by the forest enterprise in the local economy under the conditions concerned as one of the strategic objectives of forest management in the sphere of sustainable development. The outputs of the project will be used for further research in the evaluation of contributions of forest enterprises and organisations engaged in natural and landscape conservation to the local economy, quantification and evaluation of the function of the landscape and for the practical utilisation of the Training Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny in its operational activities.
References Armstrong, H., Taylor, J. (2000): Regional economics and policy. 3rd ed. Oxford [England]: Blackwell, 437 s. ISBN 0-631-21657-X. Březina, D. (2014): Ekonomické aspekty Správy Národního parku Podyjí. The Doctoral Thesis. Brno: Mendel University in Brno. 132 p. Management. sv. 4, č. 1, s. 7--11. ISSN 1804-2821. Březina, D., Šafařík, D., Hlaváčková, P. (2013): LM3-Local Multiplier in Environmental Economics. In Fialová, J. – Kubíčková, H. Public Recreation and Landscape Protection - with man hand in hand. 1. vyd. Brno: Mendelova univerzita v Brně. s. 77--81. ISBN 978-80-7375-746-5. Došek, M. (2006): [online]. Lokální multiplikátor jako indikátor lokalizace: případová studie subjektů ve vymezené oblasti Litoměřicka. Master’s Thesis. Brno: Masaryk University. 81 s. Available at: http://is.muni.cz. [cit. 12. 3. 2015]. Douthwait, R. (1996): Short Circuit: strengthening local economies for security in an unstable world. Lilliput Press, Dublin: in association with The Lilliput Press, xiv, 386 s. Social work skills series. ISBN 18-700-9864-1. Johanisová, N. (2008): Kde peníze jsou služebníkem, nikoliv pánem: výpravy za ekonomikou přátelskou přírodě a člověku. Volary: Stehlík, 125 p. ISBN 978-80-86913-05-6. Kutáček, S. (2007a): Penězům na stopě: měření vašeho dopadu na místní ekonomiku pomocí LM3. 1. vyd. Brno: Trast pro ekonomiku a společnost, 93 p. ISBN 978-802-5416-907. Kutáček, S. (2007b): Open space o lokálních ekonomikách a udržitelném rozvoji. Sborník ze semináře. 1. vyd. Brno: Trast pro ekonomiku a společnost, 34 p. ISBN 978-802-3996-203.
- 155 - Rejmanová, E. (2014): Ekonomická lokalizace a aplikace lokálního multiplikátoru. Bachelor thesis. Brno: Mendel University in Brno. 64 p. Available at: http://is.mendelu.cz/zp/. [cit. 27. 3. 2015]. Sacks, J. (2002): The money trail: measuring your impact on the local economy using LM3. London: New Economics Foundation, 118 p. ISBN 18-994-0760-X. Shuman, M. (2000): Going local: creating self-reliant communities in a global age. New York: Routledge, xiv, 318 p. Social work skills series. ISBN 04-159-2768-4. Šilhánková, V. (2012): Metodika sledování udržitelného rozvoje na místní úrovni. Vyd. 1. Hradec Králové: Civitas per populi, 28 p. ISBN 978-80-904671-8-7. United Nations. (1973): Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. Switzerland: United Nations. No. E.73.II.A.14. 77 p. United Nations. (2014): [online]. Sustainable Development Goals. Open Working Group. New York: United Nation. [cit. 1. 3. 2015]. 24 p. Available at http://undocs.org/A/68/970.
Acknowledgement The paper was prepared with the support of the Internal Grant Agency project of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno No. LDF_VT_2015010.
Souhrn Příspěvek popisuje metodický postup, který bude použit pro řešení ekonomické části projektu Interní grantové agentury Lesnické a dřevařské fakulty Mendelovy univerzity v Brně v roce 2015. Cílem projektu je kvantifikace a vyhodnocení vlivu účelového lesního podniku na ekonomický a sociální rozvoj území. Použitými metodami v ekonomické části řešení projektu budou výpočet lokálních multiplikátorů LM2 a LM3, analýza, komparace, konsolidace, syntéza metody statistické analýzy. Použitými metodami v článku byly deskripce, analýza, syntéza, komparace. Výsledky řešení projektu umožní kvantifikovat roli lesního podniku v lokální ekonomice za daných podmínek, jako jednoho ze strategických cílů lesního hospodářství v oblasti udržitelného rozvoje.
Contacts: Ing. Petra Hlaváčková, Ph.D., Phone: +420 545 134 075, e-mail: [email protected]
Ing. David Březina, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 073, e-mail: [email protected]
- 156 - MICROCLIMATE MONITORING FOR EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT EFFECT ON MOHELNO SERPENTINE STEPPE
Hana Středová1,3, Jaroslav Knotek1, Tomáš Středa,2, 3 1Department of Applied and Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 Department of Crop Science, Breeding and Plant Medicine, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 61300 Brno 3Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, branch Brno, Kroftova 2578/43, 616 67 Brno
Abstract Relief, geological substrate, mesoclimatic conditions and historical management contribute to specific microclimatic conditions National Nature Reserve Mohelenská Serpentine Steppe (MSS). Long-term development of mesoclimate and effects of anthropogenic activities (construction of the nearby waterworks in the 80s of the 20th century aminy others) on the temperature and precipitation conditions are evaluated for the period 1961 - 2014. Data from the nearest climatological station Hydrometeorlogical Czech Institute (Dukovany) were used. Steppe vegetation in MSS has been recently reduced by spreading vigorous trees and grasses. Current MSS care plan thus includes intense management measures (grazing, removal of shrub and tree layer). Management impacts on climatic conditions MSS will be quantified through monitoring, founded in 2014. The article evaluated the results of temperature and humidity monitoring at seven monitoring points on the MSS. Heterogenity of surface temperatures using thermal imaging is laso included.
Key words: land-use, management plan, protected areas, air temperature, air humidity
Introduction National Nature Reserve Mohelenská serpentine steppe NNR MSS (GPS 49.1075622N, 16.1853075E, near the village Mohelno, Czech Republic, Central Europe) was established in 1933 on an area of over 50 hectares on a plateau (Fig. 1) and rocky slopes (Fig. 2b) that fall along the left bank of the Jihlava River at an altitude of 260-385 MASL. Uniqueness of the steppe is given by microclimate conditions (hot, dry climate) significantly influenced by geological substrate - heating rocky surface, morphology of the terrain and its exposure and oligotrophic environment. Rock and turf steppe provides ecotope for specific animal and plant species. Botanical unique traits of steppe plants are dwarfs and nanisms. Care plan of NNR MSS involves removing of non-native tree species, reduction of pines and shrubs, mowing and grazing. The project "Implementation of measures under the plan of care NPR Mohelenská serpentine step", funded by the OPE also supports monitoring activities (among others systematic measurement of meso and micro-climate) for the evaluation of the measures. The aim is to (i) evaluate the long-term development mesoclimate in the area, including the impacts of anthropogenic activities (construction of dams Dalešice and Mohelno in the 80s of the 20th century); (ii) evaluate the climatic conditions MSS and their heterogeneity and specificity for (iii) the subsequent evaluation of stand management impact to MSS microclimate conditions.
Fig. 1: National Nature Reserve Mohelno Serpentine Steppe – the steppe part
- 157 - Materials and methods Climatological characteristics According Quitt (1971) the area belongs to the moderately warm climate MT11, which is characterized by dry, warm and long summer. Transitional periods are short, with slightly warm spring and autumn. Winter is relatively short, dry and slightly warm. According to Culek et al. (2013) the higher parts belongs into a slightly warm area MT9 and the highest into slightly warm area MT5. The warmest part of the bioregion is southeast edge that falls into a warm area T2. The river valleys are characterized by significant temperature inversions attended by extreme climate with dry and very warm southern cliffs. The northern slopes (especially on foot) are cold and wet. Mesoclimatic and microclimate monitoring Long-term climatic conditions evaluations employs the data of average monthly air temperature and monthly precipitation totals for the period 1961 - 2014 of Czech Hydrometeorological station Institute (Dukovany station, distance of about 4 km).
MSS microclimate evaluation using data from seven meteorological points established in the summer of 2014. Control climatological stations (hereinafter as „I“) on the steppe area of the valley monitors in a ten-minute step: air temperature in radiation shield at a height of 2 m above the ground (sensor DS18B20 1-Wire, Dallas Semiconductor), humidity at 2 m above the ground (sensor Honeywell HIH 4000), ground air temperature (sensor DS18B20 1-Wire, Dallas Semiconductor without radiation shield) and sensor HOBO U23 Pro V2 in radiation shield (hereinafter as „II“), ground humidity (HOBO U23 Sensor Pro V2 in radiation shield), soil temperature at 3, 5 and 8 cm (sensor DS18B20 1-Wire, Dallas Semiconductor), rainfall (automatic shuttle gauge with a resolution of 0.34 mm and collecting area of 200 cm2), the wind speed at a height of 2 m above the ground (W1 anemometer Tlusťák Praha), soil moisture at a depth of 8 cm (AMET sensors VIRRIB Great Bílovice), a global solar radiation (RT sensor Minikino - Global radiation). Data are continuously available on-line through the web site (Fig. 2a). Meteopanel will set up information for visitors, informing about current weather conditions in comparison with neighboring meteorological stations. Further six sensors HOBO U23 Pro V2 in radiation shield (hereinafter as „III“ to „VIII“) monitor ground temperature and humidity in ten-minute step were placed in the center of MSS on the rocky and wooded slopes (Fig. 2b). Sensor III - located in rocky area with scattered shrubs, sensor IV above partly grassed rocky surface, sensor V in the rocky area with scattered trees, sensor VI in area with dense seeding shrubs and trees, sensor VII in juvenescent pines canopy and sensor VIII above the grass surface in the forest of full-grown pines. In addition to point measurements, for primary thermal surveying and for identifying sites with different temperature conditions for each season Fluke Ti55 IR fusion technology IR camera Fluke Ti55 was used (Středová et al., 2014).
Fig. 2a: (left) on-line output of climatic monitoring Fig. 2b: (right) sensors of microclimatic monitoring
Results The „normal“ (i.e. 1961 – 1990) annual air temperature is 8.3°C and normal annual precipitation is 494.2 mm. This means the site is one of the driest in the country. Air temperature trend (Fig. 3 and Table 1) corresponds to the climate development in the Czech Republic, including acceleration increasing air temperatures in recent decades (Center et al., 2011; Pokladníková et al., 2009; Rožnovský et al., 2010). The average annual rainfall in the reporting period
- 158 - have not clear trend. The longest dry period occurred in the period 1988 - 1994. During the seven-year period the below average annual precipitation totals were recorded.
Fig. 3: Mean annual air temperature (Tavg), minimum annual mean monthly air temperature (Tmin) and maximum annual mean monthly air temperature (Tmax) on reference climatological station Dukovany, 1961 – 2014
Tab. 1: Mean annual air temperature (Tavg), minimum annual mean monthly air temperature (Tmin) and maximum annual mean monthly air temperature (Tmax) and mean annual precipitation total on reference climatological station Dukovany; decade averages 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2010 Tavg 8.1 8.3 8.5 9.0 9.2 Tmin -4.4 -2.5 -3.5 -2.5 -2.9 Tmax 18.4 18.6 18.9 20.3 20.3 Precipitation 524.9 467.5 490.2 463.7 516.5
Fig. 4: Basic statistic parameters (minimum, maximum, median, 5 and 95 percentil) of air temperature in various sites of MSS
- 159 - Conclusion MSS microclimate evaluation using data from seven meteorological points established in the summer of 2014. Minimum varies from -9.7 (II) to -7.8 (VI) and maximum from 31.3 (VI) to 40.7 (III). Locality III in rocky area with scattered shrubs thus proved the biggest amplitude. Contrary sensor VI in area with dense seeding shrubs and trees measured more stable temperature regime. Thermal image shows different surface conditions even in autumn when intense of solar radiation and subsequent heating of rock is not as high as in summer.
References Culek, M., Grulich, V., Laštůvka, Z., Divíšek, J., (2013): Biogeografické regiony České republiky [in Czech]. Masarykova univerzita, Brno. 447 p., ISBN 978-80-210-6693-9. Pokladníková, H., Fukalová, P., Rožnovský, J., Středa, T. (2009): Specifics of temperature extremes in the conditions of the urban climate. In: Sustainable development and bioclimate. Stará Lesná: Geophysical Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences and Slovak Bioclimatological Society of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, p. 217-218. ISBN 978-80-900450-1-9. Quitt, E., (1971): Klimatické oblasti Československa [in Czech]. Geografický ústav ČSAV, Brno. 86 p. Rožnovský, J., Středa, T., Litschmann, T., Pokladníková, H., Fukalová, P. (2010): Mesoclimate as a part of recreation potential of the landscape on the example of the Moravian Karst. In: Recreation and Environmental Protection. Krtiny: Mendel University in Brno, p. 60-64. ISBN 978-80-7375-398-6. Středová, H., Středa, T., Vysoudil, M. (2014): Cave rock surface temperature evaluation using non- contact measurement methods. Acta Carsologica. 43, 2-3, p. 257-268. Středová, H., Středa, T., Chuchma, F. (2011): Climatic factors of soil estimated system. In: Bioclimate: Source and Limit of Social Development. Nitra: Slovak Agricultural University, p. 137-138. ISBN 978- 80-552-0640-0.
Acknowledgement The paper was supported by project of National Agency of Agricultural Research (NAZV) Ministry of Agriculture No. QJ1230056 „The impact of the expected climate changes on soils of the Czech Republic and the evaluation of their productive functions“.
Souhrn Charakter reliéfu, geologický podklad, mezoklimatické podmínky a historický management přispívají ke specifickým mikroklimatickým podmínkám Národní přírodní rezervace Mohelenská hadcová step (MHS). Dlouhodobý vývoj mezoklimatu v oblasti a dopady antropogenní činnosti (mimo jiné výstavba blízkých vodních děl v 80. letech 20. století) na teplotní a srážkové podmínky jsou hodnoceny pro období 1961 – 2015. Použita byla data z nejbližší klimatologické stanice Českého hydrometeorologického ústavu (Dukovany). Stepní porosty MHS jsou v posledních desetiletích redukovány rozrůstáním dřevin a šířením vzrůstných druhů trav. Součástí aktuálního plánu péče jsou tak intenzivní managementová opatření (pastva, odstraňování keřového a stromového patra). Dopady managementu na mikroklimatické poměry stepi budou kvantifikovány prostřednictvím monitoringu, založeného v roce 2014. V článku jsou také hodnoceny dosavadní výsledky teplotního a vlhkostního monitoringu na sedmi monitorovacích bodech na území MHS. Součástí mikroklimatických analýz je plošné měření heterogenity teplot povrchu pomocí pozemního termálního monitoringu IR kamerou.
Contact: Ing. Hana Středová, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 132 408, e-mail: [email protected]
- 160 - MONITORING OF THE NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
Jiří Kadlec1, Jitka Fialová2 1Department of Forest and Forest Products Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic, 2 Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Non-wood forests products (NWFPs) are wide group of forest products which are obtained from forest ecosystems. The aim of research is monitoring of utilisation of the NWFPs in the Czech Republic. We are looking for products which are actually utilised by inhabitants or which are on market. We make monitoring of the NWFPs in literature and actual usage of these products by consumers. Result of our research is database which can help to user in orientation in NWFPs and support decision making of forest owner in management of these products.
Key words: mushrooms, berries, greenery, medicinal plants
Introduction The FAO definition (FAO, 2015) non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are of “biological origin other than wood derived from forests, other wooded land and trees outside forests”. NWFPs offer wide range of many different products. NWFPs can be derived from trees, understory plants, fungi or animals. They are collected from natural forests, or produced in plantations and agro forestry systems. Non-wood forest products start to grow in importance for rural development in many parts of Europe. Many people are dependent on NWFPs in their livelihood or as a source of their income. Many new products and especially extracts are promising new sources for pharmacy and food industry. Super foods are new trend in human nutrition. Forest fruits and plants belong to super food concept. (Anonymous, 2013) Šišák (2006) described importance of non-wood forest products for Czech households in his research. Picking of non-wood forest products is important activity of tourists and they are frequently looking for mushrooms and forest berries as declare Blaj (2013). The aim of the paper is introduction of European project which deals with NWFPs and similar project in the Czech Republic.
Materials and methods There is description of two projects concerning with non-wood forest products. First project description introduce European COST project with its aims and structure. Description of project aims of Czech project dealing with non-wood forest products is shown in the second part of the paper.
Results and Discussion The aim of the Action COST FP1203 is to build a multidisciplinary European-wide network of NWFP researchers and managers, who will review current knowledge, highlight existing innovation, share information, identify research topics, seek research synergies and generally increase European knowledge about NWFP ecology, modelling, management and economics. Specific objectives of this Action are: i) to identify and describe existing NWFPs for the major types of forested ecosystems in Europe; ii) to review knowledge on NWFPs ecology and the potential threats or changes that might be expected for each group of NWFP in relation to climate change across Europe; iii) to compile existing data and models on NWFPs and identify gaps in data and devise new protocols for NWFP data collection and modelling; iv) to conceptualise NWFPs production systems, discussing the management of NWFPs in relation to traditional forest management systems for timber production and the need of an integrated forest management considering the MSFM paradigm; v) to address the economics, social/cultural aspects, tenure rights and legal frameworks of NWFPs including valuation, marketing, and policies, as well as, their role for the Green Economy. vi) to highlight existing innovation on NWFPs and their production systems in Europe within the work to be carried out by research area and by NWFP group. Action is divided into four working groups and four task forces. Working Group 1: Mushrooms and truffles; will select species where the work to be carried out by the Working Group will be based on and taking into account their importance in the European context.
- 161 - Working Group 2: Tree products; will select which NWFPs of tree origin the most important to be carried out, taking into account their importance in the European context. Working Group 3: Understory plants; will select which NWFPs of plants will be the focus of the work to be carried out, taking into account their importance in the Europe. Working Group 4: Animal origin; will be focusing on animal products from hunting, fishing and insect products. Task force 1: Identification and ecology of NWFPs in Europe; will make a review of the state of the art and identification of knowledge gaps in the ecology of European NWFPs. Task force 2: NWFP data and models; will work on a review of European NWFP data and models, including identified data needs. Task force 3: Optimising co-production of NWFPs; will identify different management models for optimizing NWFP production under different forest management conditions. Task force 4: Economics, marketing and policies for NWFPs; will collect data on national level (institutional frameworks) as well as in empirical case studies. Results of the Action will be a database of European NWFPs, a database of European NWFPs stakeholders and a book on “Sustainable management of European non-wood forest products” summarising the main findings and conclusions of the Action. Project COST LD14054 Non-wood forest products in the Czech Republic is aimed to collect data for main European Action. Many different products are harvested from the forest stand across Europe. In the Mediterranean are part of the young shrubs and mosses collected for ornamental purposes and aromatic species of wild plants are collected to obtain essential oils, which are used in the food industry and perfumery. Medicinal plants are collected in Central and Eastern Europe and forest fruits are harvested in the countries of Northern Europe, in both cases, both for commercial and non-commercial purposes. However, the lack of data on the actual quantities harvested and sold biological and environmental issues, production and modelling the impact of the collection on long-term protection of the ecosystem. This project, both at national and European level, will contribute to sustainable forest use and encourage biological diversity, where NWFPs are an essential part of forest ecosystems. The importance of NWFPs for the development of rural areas is very high and the results of the project should be a very useful source of information for rural development. Some of NWFPs have the potential for commercial use on a national, or European level, and thus to economic benefits in the regions. However, there is the lack of accurate data on individual NWFPs, which are necessary for its own sustainable use of NWFPs. The project should eliminate this information gap. Project results will be professional publications, which will raise awareness of the professional community in general and specifically about NWFPs possibilities of their utilization, management and ecology. Awareness of the scientific community can indirectly encourage further research, which will be followed by the creation of the database. They can inspire further research especially in the use of extracts of forest trees and plants that have their potential applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industry. Results of the project (database) can be potentially utilisable by state and local governments for their decisions in the regions. This project results may contribute to the development of regions, increasing their economic independence, contribute to reducing unemployment in marginal rural areas. These marginal localities are especially in mountainous forested areas of the Czech Republic, with great potential for the use of NWFPs. The user base for the application of the results is very wide. It is a scientific community that the results of the project will encourage their further research. The second major groups are forest owners and managers, who can use the results of the project for decision-making in forest management and use other products from the forest in their commercial activities to increase the revenue of the forest. The third group of users of the project may constitute employees of state and local governments, who will use the results to check sustainable resource use of NWFPs in the territory. We focused on gathering information on the use of non-timber forest products in the Czech Republic during 2014. Basis of literature search that identify non-wood forest products, which have been used historically, and partly in the present, was created in the first stage of the project. Literature search will be extended next year by another currently used non-wood forest products and foreign sources, where we focus on products that were not described at Czech publications. We processed data for preparation of European NWFPs database in 2014 and we will continue in cooperation on collecting data for developing of European NWFPs database in 2015.
- 162 - Conclusion European action is opened to all people who are engaged in any field of non-wood forest products. Final European database will be open to anyone who would like to know details about NWFPs in any European region. Project results of the Czech project will be open to anyone who would like to know more information about specific non-wood forest product.
References Anonymous (2013): 12 "superfoods" you should be eating. Harvard women's health watch, Vol. 20, Is. 7, p. 1-7. ISSN 1070-910X Blaj, R. (2013): The forest and forest products - basis for sustainable tourism. 15th International Conference "Romanian rural tourism in the context of sustainable development: present and prospects", Vatra Dornei, Romania, 23-25 May 2013; p. 149-154. ISBN 978-606-687-017-7. FAO. What are non-wood forest products? Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization http://www.fao.org/forestry/nwfp/6388/en/, accessed 22.2. 2015 Šišák, L. (2006): Importance of non-wood forest product collection and use for inhabitants in the Czech Republic. Journal of Forest Science, Vol. 52, Is. 9, p. 417 - 426. ISSN: 1212-4834.
Acknowledgement The paper was written with the support of the Research programme of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, COST LD14054 - Non-wood forest products in the Czech Republic.
Souhrn Nedřevní produkty lesa jsou velkou skupinou plodů, hub, léčivých rostlin a různých částí dřevin, jež se používají k dekoračním účelům. Cílem projektu, který se zabývá mapováním nedřevních produktů lesa, je shromáždit informace o produktech, jenž se v České republice využívají pro osobní potřebu tak I v komerční sféře. Výsledkem projektu bude databáze produktů, které lze získat z lesního ekosystému a bude přístupná na hlavních webových stránkách evropského projektu, jehož cílem je propojit znalosti o nedřevních produktech v celé Evropě. Výsledky projektu budou sloužit nejen vědecké obci, pro kterou mohou být impulzem pro výzkum v dané oblasti, ale také pro vlastníky a správce lesů, jimž usnadní rozhodování v případě využívání nedřevních produktů lesa.
Contact: Ing. Jiří Kadlec, Ph.D. Phone: +420 541 134 152, e-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Jitka Fialová, Ph.D. Phone: +420 541 134 096, e-mail: [email protected]
- 163 - NEW METHODS OF SURFACE AND TERRAIN MAPPING AND ITS USE IN LANDSCAPE AND NATURE CONSERVATIONS
Tomáš Mikita Department of forest management and applied geoinformatics, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Within the paper is presented the method of airborne laser scanning (ALS) with focus on the use of processed ALS data in landscape and nature protection. ALS allows detailed remote mapping of land surface and terrain with all natural phenomena. On the example of ALS data from the area of Moravian Karst are described methods of detection and identification of karst formations and rock outcrops in forests based on processing of Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of high accuracy in GIS environment. After verification are results of such detection useful for detailed mapping of such phenomena and may improve its protection and increase tourist importance and recreational potential of area.
Key words: airborne laser scanning, karst, outcrops, GIS
Introduction The increasing capabilities of GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and accuracy of geographically referenced data has provided the basis for more detailed terrain analysis and modeling. Research on terrain-related surface features is highly dependent on terrain data collection and the generation of digital models (Melinda et al., 2013). New remote sensing technologies such as airborne laser scanning (ALS) increases the accuracy of generated terrain models. The ALS system or LIDAR (light detection and ranging) is based on the principle of the analysis of laser pulses which are emitted from an aircra ft, moving at a certain distance from the scanned object. At the same time for each laser pulse emitted from a source its current position in the space is recorded by means of differential GPS and inertial navigation unit (INU). The laser pulse hits an object and it is reflected in the form of an echo back to the sensor and the distance it travelled is measured. The pulse is reflected from each area surface of an object which creates an echo string – from the highest (closest to the sensor) area surfaces to the lowest ones, in order to create a dense field of geographic coordinates in places where laser pulses were reflected from the surface (Baltsavias, 1999). Airborne laser scanners emit short laser impulses (ca. 10 ns) with the wave length of mostly 1040– 1060 nm and divergence < 1 mrad towards the earth’s surface in a plane perpendicular to the flight direction. Depending on the flight height, a reasonable diameter of footprint of laser on the earth surface may vary from 10 cm to as much as 4 m. The field of vision throughout the flight depending on the scanner type varies from 45° to 75°. ALS can be used both by day or night, in cloudy weather or where there is a thin coat of snow. However, it is not possible to be used when it is raining or snowing. When a laser pulse from the LiDAR sensor encounters a soft target such as a forest canopy, a portion of the laser beam continues downward; the last returns recorded by the sensor represent the elevation of the ground, or "bare earth" surface. This characteristic of ALS allows to create highly detailed and accurate terrain models even in heavily wooded areas (Jacobsen et Lohmann, 2003). Laser scanning imposes high demands on processing possibilities of available technology as there is a large amount of data at high accuracy of scanning. The gained data (point cloud) is usually processed by two basic methods: filtration (its task is to separate points corresponding to a required object) and classification (where individual surfaces are separated). These processes may be automatic or semi-automatic; a fully automatic filtration and classification does not always provide the best results. It is used in zonal and global filters while the biggest differences are between types of land cover representing urban area and continuous vegetation (Jacobsen et Lohmann, 2003). As technology evolves, there is also the progressive use in forestry and agriculture, as this data can be a good source for creating accurate DMT, which become effective tools in forest management and planning. Until recently, the data were acquired and provided exclusively by private entities and mainly based on the order. Since 2009 is carried ALS across our country in a joint project of Czech Office for Surveying, Mapping and Cadastre (COSMC), Ministry of Defense and Ministry of Agriculture called “Project of New Altimetry of Czech Republic”. The outcome of this project is to create a new altimetry of the Czech Republic in the form of so-called Digital Elevation Models of 4th and 5th generation (DMR 4G and DMR 5G) and also to create Digital Surface Model of first generation (DMP 1G). Currently is ongoing data processing and data are already available for more than half of the territory.
- 164 - In the last decade GIS has been recognized as a powerful tool for geographic analysis and has become a useful tool for cave and karst studies (e.g., Szukalski et al., 2002). GIS analysis of karst terrains have been used in various studies to delineate karst development Florea et al. (2002), Denizman (2003), Taylor et al. (2005), Melinda et al. (2013). Through spatial interpolation of available LiDAR data, depressions associated with karsting can be delineated and classified over terrains using geoanalytical methods. Research on terrain-related surface features is highly dependent on terrain data collection and the generation of digital models. Particularly in forests is identification of these objects difficult due to the lower quality and accuracy. Traditional methods such as field surveying and photogrammetry can yield accurate results; however, they are limited by time and physical constraints. ALS provides an alternative for high-density and high-accuracy three-dimensional terrain point data collection (Liu, 2008).
Materials and methods Possibilities of ALS data for identification of karst formations and rock outcrops were investigated in the surrounding of the village Babice nad Svitavou, that lies on the territory of Moravian Karst (fig 1). Moravian Karst is a Protected Landscape Area (PLA) and is the largest and the most important karst area in the Czech Republic. The karst area consists of Devon limestone lying northward from Brno. The landscape character is formed by plateaus with many sinkholes separated by deep canyon grooves (Moravian Karst, 2015).
Fig. 1: Location of Moravian Karst
For analysis was used data from so called DMR 5G in the form of pointcloud conducted by COSMC. The average density of pointcloud was 1 point per square meter. After filtration were all ground points interpolated into digital terrain model (DTM). Due to scanning period outside the growing season has DTM in forest stands high density of points reflected from the ground, especially in deciduous forest stands. Created model has finally 1 meter resolution.
Identification of depressions and sinkholes Identification of terrain depressions and sinkholes were conducted by analysis of DTM based on hydrological modeling. Sinkholes are endorheic basins and in the terms of GIS a cells or set of spatially connected cells whose flow direction cannot be assigned one of the eight valid values in a flow direction raster. This can occur when all neighboring cells are higher than the processing cell or when two cells flow into each other, creating a two-cell loop (ESRI, 2015). GIS analysis were made in ArcGIS 10.3 software with Spatial Analyst extension. To identify closed depressions within the study area, the flow direction and flow length tools were used to find basin without drain. Once the depressions were identified, the fill tool was used to create a filled DTM raster without closed depressions (fig.2). The original DTM was subtracted from the filled DTM to identify only the closed depression features (Stafford et al., 2002). Depression features were delineated so that their spatial attributes could be measured and classified for further analysis. The boundaries for the depressions were created in several steps: 1. Subtraction of DTM and filled DTM 2. Conversion of depression raster to polygons as sinkholes 3. Calculation of sinkholes deepness and area 4. Selection of appropriate sinkholes based on area (larger then 5 square meters), deepness (deeper then 0,5 meter) and spatial intersect with identified endorheic basins.
- 165 -
Fig. 2: Filling of sink in DTM (ESRI, 2015)
Rock outcrops identification Rock outcrops are defined as visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth (Wikipedia, 2015). As well as sinkholes, all these objects are not yet recorded on the maps due to the low resolution of altimetry in forests. New altimetry based on ALS brings new opportunities for identification even such objects. To identify rock outcrops within the study area, the focal statistics of elevation value range with combination of curvature classification was used. On the basis of curvature is possible to classify convex and concave terrain formations and by elevation range in surrounding of each cell we can find shifts in terrain. Final rock outcrop locations were created by combination of places with high convex curvature and high range of elevation. Finally these locations were delineated
Results and discussion Results of study show that the ALS data are suitable source for interpolation of terrain models with high resolution and the resulting models are also useful for detecting of very small objects. Used altimetry conducted by COSMC proved sufficient point density and final precision. The usage of these data for the chosen purpose may be limited by scanning period, because according to information of COSMC, the data in the study area was scanned outside the growing season. Scanning on other location with coniferous trees or during the growing season may lead to a significant reduction of terrain points due to canopy crowns and thereby may be reduced the density of points and accuracy. It was not possible yet to verify results of the research in the field, however, on the basis of visual analysis of shaded relief is possible to conclude that the identified sites correspond to terrain depressions and rock outcrops (fig. 3 and 4). Besides the identification based on the suggested methods it may be also determined the basic parameters of these objects such as area and rock crops height or depth of sinkholes. On the basis of visual evaluation, it was found that the largest errors or incorrect identification of objects is near human-made structures such as buildings, roads or ditches and for successful identification should be such objects filtered out. To verify the accuracy of selected identification methods will be necessary to carry out a verification of observed phenomena in the field.
Fig. 3: Identified and delineated sinkholes and comparison with hillshaded terrain
- 166 -
Fig. 4: Identified and delineated rock outcrop locations and comparison with hillshaded terrain
Conclusion This study utilized LiDAR data to identify depression and outcrop features in Moravian Karst in surroundings of Babice nad Svitavou village. The results of this work don´t solve evaluation of detected phenomena but concerns more on creation of suitable data processes for identification of such objects. The results show a high success rate of the selected methods for identification of sinkholes and rock outcrops and prove that the ALS data is suitable source for this kind of GIS analysis. After field verification the results can be used in nature and landscape conservation for accurate mapping of these phenomena, modification of forest management and increase the tourist attractiveness and recreational potential of area.
References Baltsavias, E. P. (1999): Airborne laser scanning: existing systems and firms and other resources. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 54: 164–198. Denizman, C. (2003): Morphometric and spatial distribution parameters of karstic depressions, lower Suwannee River basin, Florida: Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, v. 65, no. 1, p. 29–35. Esri 2015, ArcGIS Desktop 10 Resource Center. Available from: http://help.arcgis.com/en/arcgisdesktop/10.3/ help/index.html# (accessed March 2015). Florea, L.J., Paylor, R.L., Simpson, L., and Gulley, J. (2002): Karst GIS advances in Kentucky: Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, v. 64, no. 1, p. 58–62. Jacobsen, K., Lohmann, P. (2003): Segmented filtering of laser scanner DSMS. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, vol. XXXIV, part 3/W13. Dresden, ISSN 1682-1750. Liu, X. (2008): Airborne LiDAR for DEM Generation: Some Critical Issues, Progress. Physical Geography 32 (1): 1-49. Melinda G. Shaw-Faulkner. Kevin W. Stafford and Aaron W. Bryant. (2013): DELINEATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF KARST DEPRESSIONS USING LIDAR: FORT HOOD MILITARY INSTALLATION, TEXAS. In Land L, Doctor DH, Stephenson JB, editors. Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karst: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Multidisciplinary Conference, May 6-10, Carlsbad, New Mexico: NCKRI Symposium 2. Carlsbad (NM): National Cave and Karst Research Institute. ISBN 978-0-9795422-7-5. Moravian Karst. (2015): available from: http://www.moravskykras.net/en/moravian-karst.html, (accessed March 2015). Stafford, KW, Rosales-Lagarde L, Boston PJ, (2002): Castile Evaporite Karst Potential Map of the Gypsum Plain, Eddy County, New Mexico and Culberson County,Texas: A GIS Methodological Comparison. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 70 (1): 35-46. Szukalski, B.W., Hose, L.D., and Pisarowicz, J.A., eds., (2002): Cave and karst GIS: Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, v. 64, no. 1, 93 p. Taylor, C.J., Nelson, H.L., Hileman, G., and Kaiser, W.P. (2005): Hydrogeologic-framework mapping of shallow, conduit-dominated karst — components of a regional GIS-based approach, in U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, Rapid City, South Dakota, U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5160, p. 103–113.
- 167 - Wikipedia. (2015): Outcrops. Available online at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcrop (accessed March 2015)
Acknowledgement This article was prepared as a part of the research project of Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology of Mendel University in Brno IGA 84/2013 “Dynamics of natural forest recovery in ecological conditions of forest gaps in the exaple of Training Forest Enterprise Křtiny.
Souhrn V rámci příspěvku jsou řešeny možnosti využití dat leteckého laserového skenování (LLS) pro identifikaci krasových jevů (především závrtů) a skalních výchozů na území Moravského krasu v okolí obce Babice nad Svitavou. LLS umožňuje detailní mapování povrchu zemského a na základě filtrace a klasifikace bodů LLS je možné vytvářet velmi přesné a detailní modely povrchu a terénu. Cílem příspěvku je proto ukázat metody zpracování dat LLS (dat digitálního modelu reliéfu 5.generace – DMR 5G od Českého úřadu zeměměřického a katastrálního) v prostředí GIS za účelem identifikace krasových jevů a skalních výchozů na základě analýzy digitálního modelu terénu s rozlišením 1 metru. Zvlášť pro závrty a pro skalní výchozy byly odděleně vytvořeny metody automatické identifikace na základě hydrologického modelování a analýzy okolí. Výsledky na základě vizuálního hodnocení vykazují velmi vysokou úspěšnost, vzhledem k absenci terénního šetření však nebylo doposud možné provést ověření. Výsledky rovněž dokazují, že v rámci ČR celostátně dostupná data nového výškopisu (DMR 5G) jsou kvalitním produktem se širokým rozsahem použití. Na základě terénního ověření bude následně možné využít automatické postupy při mapování těchto jevů a následně při ochraně přírody a krajiny, pro úpravu lesnického hospodaření nebo ke zvýšení turistické atraktivity a rekreačního potenciálu území.
Contact: Ing. Tomáš Mikita, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 021, e-mail: [email protected]
- 168 - NUMBER OF TOURISTS AS FACTOR INFLUENCING TRAILS´ CONDITION
Juraj Švajda1, Peter Bačkor2, David Zahradník3, Marek Banaš3 1Department of Biology nad Ecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel University; Tajovského 40, 974 01 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic 2 Institute for Nature Conservation, Slovak Republic 3 Faculty of ecology and environmental sciences, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 241/27, 783 71 Olomouc – Holice, Czech Republic
Abstract Tatra National Park with 738 km2 and 600 km of hiking trails along with 3-4 million visitors, makes it one of the most visited national parks in the Slovakia. This paper examines impacts of trampling on the vegetation and soil along selected trails. The research involves the application of trail condition assessments to 9,6 km of trails with different visitation based on variety of inventory and impact indicators and standards to determine baseline condition of trails. These data can then be used for future comparison and evaluation of development trends. Trail widening and soil loss are the most important types of trail degradation. Correlational analyses of the collected data can also identify the role and influence of various factors (e.g. use level and topography). Insights into the influence of these factors can lead to the selection of appropriate management measures to avoid or minimize negative consequences.
Key words: visitors, impact, trampling, trail, indicator, Tatra National Park & Biosphere Reserve
Introduction National parks are generally established for conservation purposes, however at same time they belong to most attractive places for recreation in the world. Tatra National Park (TNP) is considered as the most visited protected area in Slovakia (Švajda, 2009). Striking a balance between preservation of natural resources and opportunities for public recreation often forces responsible authorities to make compromises between visitation impacts and protection. Number of direct and indirect effects (impacts) to resources from visitor use were described in literature – e.g. ground vegetation loss, soil compaction and erosion, shift to trampling resistant species, increased water runoff and soil temperature, reduced soil fauna, disturbance of animal species (Cole, 1989; Marion et al., 2011; Zwijacz-Kozica et al., 2013; Griffin et al. 2007). Degraded resource conditions on trails and number of visitors can have significant impacts also on perceptions of visitors (Leung & Marion, 2000; Manning et al., 2000; Streberová & Jusková, 2015). This paper presents research and assessment of visitor-related impacts to the natural resources of the park. Research involved application of trail condition assessments (Marion et al., 2011) in two valleys with different level of visitation. Results can serve as baseline for future update and the inventory of the existing trail system, assessment of the condition of the trail sections, suggestion of periodic trail system maintenance program, application of the visitor experience resource protection and other similar frameworks or establishment of visitor carrying capacities for study areas. Visitor impacts on the ecological conditions of an area are influenced more by visitor behavior, park infrastructure, and the resilience of soil and vegetation and less related to overall use levels (McCool & Lime, 2001). The research is an example of visitor impact assessment methods and procedures including indicators used for trail monitoring. Relational analyses of the collected data can identify the role and influence of casual factors (e.g. type and amount of use) and non-casual but influential factors (e.g. topography). Insights into the influence of these factors can lead to the selection of more effective actions.
Material and methods TNP is situated in the highest mountains of Carpathians Mts. along Slovak-Polish border. The major part is located in Slovakia and in 1948 was declared as national park with an area of 738 km2. In 1993 it was included in a network of biosphere reserves, together with the Polish part. Annually it is visited by about 3 – 4 million visitors (Švajda et al., 2013). The network of hiking trails with a length of 600 km is particularly popular. The study areas are two valleys – Malá Studená (MSV) accessible by trail from south with higher human impact and visitation (including mountain huts Téryho and Zamkovského chata) and Javorová (JV) accessible from northern part with low number of visitors (see fig. 1). There is marked touristic trail (green colour) starting near Zamkovského chata (elevation 1460 m asl) reaching the highest point
- 169 - Sedielko (2376 m asl) after 5,9 km in MSV. On the other side there is again green tourist trail starting near Pod Muráňom (elevation 1080 m asl) reaching saddleback Sedielko after 9,2 km in JV. Both areas are situated in national nature reserves with the highest level of protection according Slovak Act on nature and landscape protection.
Fig. 1: Location of trails in two study areas – MSV and JV in TNP
In order to quantify exact number of tourists and confirm assumptions about differences in visitation of two study valleys, a direct data collection method was used to monitor visitor numbers in the selected test area (Muhar et al. 2002). We used pyro-electric sensors Linetop with one direction records of passages in hour interval were installed at the entrance points to study areas (fig. 1). Installation, measurement, control calibration and de-installation were realized between 7.7.2014 and 26.9.2014. During October 2014 we applied impact assessment procedures (Marion et al., 2011) to two study trails. Spatial data were transferred from GPS to EasyGPS. Statistical data were transferred to Microsoft Excel for further analysis.
Results We assessed 64 sample points along a total length of 9,6 km for two trails within TNP (tab. 1). Trail grade and trail slope alignment angle were two important inventory indicators assessed in the survey (Dissmeyer & Foster, 1984; Aust et al., 2004;). Approximately 9% of the trails are located on flat terrain (0-2% grade), 50% of the trail in MSV and 56% in JV has grades exceeding 15% and 22 % resp. 28% of the trails have grades exceeding 30% (see tab. 2). The mean grade of trails in both valleys is 19% and 22%. It should be noted that many of the excessively steep alignments have constructed rock steps or ascend exposed rock faces, which are not susceptible to soil loss. Regarding trail’s slope alignment angle, only 28% of trail in JV and no sample points in MSV valley are aligned within 22° of the landform aspect or fall line (tab. 3), the path naturally taken by water running down a mountain slope. Once a fall-aligned trail becomes incised, water trapped on the tread is exceptionally difficult to direct off and can build in volume, substantially increasing its erosion. The level of erosion also increases exponentially with trail grade, though the natural rockiness of TNP´s trail treads and stonework can limit erosion. In flatter terrain, such trail alignments are susceptible to
- 170 - muddiness and widening. Fall-aligned trails with higher grades frequently require significant investments in rockwork and ongoing maintenance to keep them sustainable. Water can drain under or over such work, though freezing winter temperatures can increase danger to trail users or harm and loosen the rockwork. Mean elevation of the evaluated points is 1888,60 resp. 1756, 31 m above sea level.
Tab. 1: Inventory and impact indicators summarized by trails Inventory Indicators Impact Indicators ) 2 (%) (cm) Angle (°) CSA (cm Use Levels (visitors/day) Rugosity (cm) Trail grade (%) Slope Ratio (%) Landform grade Trail Width (cm) Slope Alignment Elevation (m asl) Maximum Incision Length Sample count m N Trail Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean MSV 4800 32 1888,59 19,47 35,47 59,38 626 0,57 2,30 111,50 389,38 6,92 JV 4800 32 1756,31 21,78 27,06 38,13 46 0,79 2,13 80,66 276,09 6,20
Tab. 2: Trail Grade – MSV / JV (Mean = 19,47 / 21,78%; Median = 15,50 / 16,50%; Range = 0-100%) Number of Number of Grade sample points Totals Totals sample points JV MSV 0-2% 3 9 3 9 2-6% 7 22 4 12 6-10% 3 9 1 3 10-15% 3 9 6 19 15-20% 6 19 5 16 20-30% 3 9 4 12 30-100% 7 22 9 28 Totals 32 ~100% 32 ~100%
Tab. 3: Trail Slope Alignment – MSV / JV (Mean = 59,38° / 38,13°; Median = 60° / 40°; Range = 0-90°) Slope Alignment Number of Totals Number of Totals sample points sample points JV MSV 0-22° 0 0 9 28 22-45° 7 22 13 41 45-68° 14 44 8 25 68-90° 11 34 2 6 Totals 32 100% 32 100%
Tab. 4: Elevation – MSV / JV (Mean = 1888,60 / 1756,31 m asl; Median = 1899,13 / 1674,25 m asl; Range = 1419-2326 m asl) Number of sample Number of sample Elevation Totals Totals points MSV points JV -1440 m asl (forest 0 0 3 9 zone) 1440-1800 m asl 13 41 17 53 (subalpine zone) 1800- m asl (alpine 19 59 12 38 zone) Totals 32 100% 32 100%
- 171 - Tab. 5: Number and percent of sample points by impact indicator category Indicator Sample points MSV / JV Percentage MSV / JV Trail Width (cm) 0-60 1 / 8 3% / 25% 60-90 5 / 12 16% / 38% 90-120 19 / 11 59% / 34% 120-150 4 / 1 13% / 3% 150+ 3 / 0 9% / 0% Mean = 111,50 / 80,66; Median = 110 / 80; Range = 39-168; Maximum Incision (cm) 0-2,5 3 / 1 9% / 3% 2,5-7,5 16 / 23 50% / 72% 7,5-12,5 12 / 6 38% / 19% 12,5+ 1 / 2 3% / 6% Mean = 6,92 / 6,20; Median = 5,75 / 5,50; Range = 1,5-17; CSA Soil Loss (cm2) 0-250 13 / 18 41% / 56% 250-500 12 / 10 37% / 31% 500+ 7 / 4 22% / 13 % Mean = 389,30 / 276,09; Median = 322,50 / 235,00; Range = 35-1230; Mean Trail Depth (cm) 0-2,5 18 / 15 56% / 47% 2,5-7,5 13 / 17 41% / 53% 7,5-12,5 1 / 0 3% / 0% 12,5+ 0 / 0 0% / 0% Mean = 3,1 / 2,8; Median = 2,4 / 2,6; Range = 0,6-8,2;
Trail width ranged from 39 to 168 cm with a mean of 111 cm in MSV and 80 cm in JV. Less than 10% of the trails (and only in MSV) exceed 150 cm in width. According historical norm used in Tatras (1,3 ± 0,2 m), trails are generally wide as it is intended by park management. From these numbers also the total area of intensive trampling disturbance for the trail system can be calculated (based on extrapolating mean trail width to the total length of TNP trail system). Maximum incision ranged from 1,5 to 17 cm with a mean of 6,92 resp. 6,20 cm. Cross-sectional area soil loss measurements (CSA) ranged from 35 to 1230 cm2, with a mean of 389 resp. 276 cm2. Extrapolating this measure by the trail system length can yield an estimated aggregate soil loss totally in m3 or on a per-km basis in m3/km. A more representative measure of trail incision is provided by calculating mean trail depth from the vertical measures recorded to compute CSA. This measure ranged from 0,6 to 8,2 cm with a mean of 3,1 resp. 2,8 cm. Finally, assessments of the tread substrate as a proportion of transect width are used to characterize the typical trail system substrates described in fig. 2. The predominant tread substrate on both trails is rock, followed by gravel and soil
Discussion Results suggest that trail width is predominantly a function of use level. Some authors (Wimpey and Marion, 2010) investigated also relation of trail width with trail and landform grade and trail slope alignment which may help to restrict lateral dispersion of hikers (e.g. with increasing trail grade). Important factors are also behavior of tourists and absence of trail borders. Tread rugosity can widen trails when hikers often looking for easier passage along trail sides. To address these problems managers can manipulate with level of trail use, create trail boarders or educate visitors how to decrease their impact on trails. Soil loss was assessed for trails using three measures: mean trail depth, maximum incision and cross- sectional area. Some studies revealed influence of level of trail use, trail grade and trail slope alignment angle to soil loss (e.g. Wimpey & Marion, 2010). Managers may have little control over level of use but could consider relocations of trail segments that are excessively steep or that are aligned closely to the fall line (landform aspect) of mountain slopes. Other option is regular maintenance and higher attention towards these sections of trails (Birchard & Proudman, 2000). Some authors commonly recommend to prevent soil loss keep grades of less than 10-12% (Hooper, 1988; Hesselbarth et al., 2007), trail slope alignment higher than 22° (Olive & Marion, 2006) and trail slope ratio less than 0,5 (IMBA, 2004). Soil erosion would be much higher than assessed were it not for the substantial amount of granitic rock in the soils and the extensive use of rock steps.
- 172 -
Fig. 2: Mean trail substrate cover as a proportion of transect (tread) width
Conclusion National parks should provide appropriate opportunities for recreation, protection and preservation of park resources and natural processes. This research provides information and basis for management of visitors and recreational impacts on resources. Variety of inventory and impact indicators and standards have been documented as baseline data about the current condition of trails, but this can also be used for future comparison and evaluation of trends. Trail widening and soil loss are the most important types of trail degradation.
References Aust M.W., Marion J.L. & Kyle K. (2004): Research for the Development of Best Management Practices for Minimizing Horse Trail Impacts on the Hoosier National Forest. Management Report. USDA, U.S. Forest Service, Final Report, Bedford, IN. 77 p. Birchard W. & Proudman R.D., (2000): Appalachian Trail Design, Construction, and Maintenance. (2nd Ed.). Harpers Ferry, WV: Appalachian Trail Conference. Cole D. N. (1989): Low-impact recreational practices for wilderness and backcountry. General Technical Report INT-265. Intermountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 131 p. Dissmeyer G. E. & Foster G. R., (1984): A guide for predicting sheet and rill erosion on forestland. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Publ. R8-TP 6. 40 p. Griffin S.C., Valois T., Taper M.L & Mills S., (2007): Effects of Tourists on Behavior and Demography of Olympic Marmots. Conservation Biology 21(4): 1070–1081. Hesselbarth W., Vachowski B. & Davies M.A., (2007): Trail construction and maintenance notebook. Tech. Rpt. 0723-2806-MTDC, USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT. Hooper L., (1983): National Park Service Trails Management Handbook. Denver, CO: USD1 National Park Service, Denver Service Center. 53 p. IMBA, (2004): Trail Solutions: IMBA´s guide to building sweet singletrack. The International Mountain Bike Association, Boulder, CO.
- 173 - Lance, A.N., Baugh, I.D., & Love, J.A., (1989): Continued footpath widening in the Cairngorm mountains, Scotland. Biological Conservation 49, 201-214. Leung Y.F. & Marion J.L., (2000): Recreation impacts and management in wilderness: A state of knowledge review. USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-15-VOL5:23-48. Manning R., Valliere W., Minteer B., Wang B. & Jacobi C., (2000): Crowding in parks and outdoor recreation: A theoretical, empirical, and Managerial Analysis. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 18 (4), 57-72. Marion J.L., Wimpey J. & Park L., (2011): Informal and formal trail monitoring protocols and baseline conditions: Acadia NP. Final report. U.S. Geological Survey, Virginia Tech Field Unit, College of Natural Resources and Environment, 95 pp. McCool S.F. & Lime D.W., (2001): Tourism Carrying Capacity: Tempting Fantasy or Useful Reality? Journal of Sustainable Tourism Vol. 9, No. 5, p. 372-388. Monz C.A., (2000): Recreation resource assessment and monitoring techniques for mountain regions. In P.M. Godde, M. Price, & F.M. Zimmermann (Eds.), Tourism and development in mountain regions (pp. 47-68). Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing. Muhar A., Arnberger A. & Brandenburg C., (2002): Methods for Visitor Monitoring in Recreational and Protected Areas: An Overview. In: Arnberger, A., Brandenburg C. & Muhar A. (eds.), Monitoring and Management of Visitor Flows in Recreational and Protected Areas. Conference Proceedings: 1-6. Vienna. Olive N.D. & Marion J.L., (2006): The Influence of Use-Related, Environmental and Managerial Factors on Soil Loss from Recreational Trails. Journal of Environmental Management 90, 10. Streberová E. & Jusková Ľ., (2015): Standards of quality for outdoor recreation in Tatra National Park: a contribution to integrated visitor monitoring and management. Eco.mont 7(1): 56-65. Švajda J., (2009): Contribution for improvement of visitor monitoring in the Tatra National Park. Eco.mont 1 (2): 13–18. Švajda J., Getzner M. & Považan R., (2013): Visitors’ perceptions and economic effects of the Tatra National Parks in Poland and Slovakia. In: Šauer P., A. Dvořák & A. Lisa (eds.), Visegrad countries – Environmental Problems and Policies: 118–126. Prague. Zwijacz-Kozica T., Selva N., Barja I., Silván G., Martínez-Fernández L., Illera J.C. & Jodłowski M., (2013): Concentration of fecal cortisol metabolites in chamois in relation to tourist pressure in Tatra National Park (South Poland). Acta Theriologica 58(2): 215–222. Wimpey J. & Marion J. L., (2010): The Influence of use, environmental and managerial factors on the width of recreational trails. Journal of Environmental Management 91: 2028-2037.
Acknowledgement This research was supported by the VEGA project no. 1/0411/14 Tourist visitation as a factor influencing the diversity of organisms in protected area, UNESCO MAB Young Scientist Award 2014 and Monitoring návštěvnosti Ltd.
Souhrn Tatranský národní park se 738 km2 a 600 km turistických stezek, spolu s 3 až 4 miliony návštěvníků, z něj činí jeden z nejnavštěvovanějších národních parků na Slovensku. Tato práce se zabývá dopady pošlapávání na vegetaci a půdu po vybraných trasách. Výzkum zahrnuje aplikaci posuzování stavu 9,6 km stezek s různou návštěvností na základě různých ukazatelů. Tyto údaje pak mohou být použity pro budoucí porovnání a vyhodnocení vývojových trendů. Rozšíření stezek a ztráty půdy jsou nejdůležitějšími typy degradace. Pomocí korelační analýzy získaných dat lze také identifikovat úlohu a vliv různých faktorů (např. úroveň využití a topografie). Pohled do vlivu těchto faktorů může vést k výběru vhodných opatření pro minimalizaci negativních důsledků.
Contact: Ing. Juraj Švajda, Ph.D. Phone: +421-48-4467106, e-mail: [email protected]
- 174 - OPTIONS OF ENSURING SAFE USE OF BEACH SHORES
Miloslav Šlezingr, Petr Pelikán, Lenka Gernešová Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Bank damage caused by deflation has appeared in nearly all world reservoirs. However, bank stabilization is mostly seen as a solution and implemented only when bank damage occurs. In this case, there is a unified scheme used - a stone bank toe is constructed and the (eroded) bank sloping is restored in place of the erosion wall. Imperiled are also recreational use of the banks – beaches
Key words: stabilisation, recreation, bank, beach, erosion
Introduction Basic, yet significant issue of almost every water reservoir that is being managed in the long-term is the insurance of its bank stability. Important in this matter is the minimization of the soil loss and sediment yields to the reservoir, the prevention of bank erosion (Galas, 2008, Jedlička, 2010, Linhart, 1954). The negligence of proper bank stabilization can be the basic problem with following shoreline retreat and its transformation. The shoreline retreats mostly as a result of the progressing bank erosion. The emerging abrasion cavern becomes dangerous for buildings close to the shoreline (Kotaskova, 2010, Soldo, 2010). The shoreline retreat causes an irreversible forest and agriculture soil loss and has a significant negative effect on any activities present in the riparian zone (recreation, bankside stand establishment, cruise etc.).
Current state From the perspective of the conference topic - very important is the negative effect on the recreation function of the reservoir, as the potential movement for people as well as vessels is limited in the riparian zone, use of beaches. It is fundamental to be aware of the problem. The most important thing when projecting a dam is of course the full functionality of the dam and other components that ensure that the purposes of the water work are met. However, after the commissioning of the dam its body is filled with water and the wave effects start to take place (Korytárová, 2007, Šlezingr, 2010, Šoltész, 2007). The filling of big reservoirs can take several weeks or month (oftentimes even more). During this period, it is possible to focus on the stabilization of those parts of the shoreline that are most prone to bank erosion (which is oftentimes done) and subsequently on other endangered areas (Synková, 2009).
Fig. 1: Abrasion damaged bank of reservoir – limited of recreational uses (reservoir Brno, area Osada, foto M. Šlezingr 2012)
Possible solutions In these areas, it is imperative to design and subsequently construct stabilization measures. There are two main types of bank protection (Šlezingr, 2002, Šlezingr, 2010):
- 175 - - passive protection includes all stabilization measures that are realized directly in the protected reservoir bank (Šlezingr, 2010)
- active protection is provided by breakwaters. These can be placed either close to the bank or potentially several meters away from an already damaged bank on the abrasive platform (Šlezingr, 2010, 2007).
Reed planting or planting of suitable shrubs of willow species on the abrasion platform can be used in certain cases. It is important to use exclusively autochthonic species and their possible diversity.
Fig. 2: Adjusted Beach - suitable for recreational uses (reservoir Zemplínská Šírava, foto M. Šlezingr 2013)
Conclusion The most important is the prevention of bank deterioration in the very beginning. It is often sufficient to plan and use suitable biological or biotechnological stabilization measures (Synková, 2009, Šlezingr, 2010). After the abrasion cavern has been formed (viz the Factors leading to the origin and following progress of bank abrasion), the following shoreline retreat can be very fast under favorable conditions. It can reach up to tens of meters per year.
References Galas S., Król E. (2008): Indicators for environmental-spatial order assessment on the example of the Busko and Solec spa communes. Gospodarka Surowcami Mineralnymi, 24: 95-115 Jedlička, L., Šlezingr, M. (2010): Bankside trees and shrubs, In.: Colloquium on Landscape Management Brno MENDELU, Brno, 14–17 Kotaskova, P., Hruza, P., (2010): How to make unknovn location more attractive, In.: Conference on Recreation and Conservation, Krtiny, p. 89 - 91 Korytárová J., Šlezingr M., Uhmannová H. (2007): Determination of potential damage to representatives of real estate property in areas affliced by flooding. Journal of hydrology and hydromechanics, 55: 282-285 Linhart, J., (1954): Intenzita abrazní činnosti hladiny Kníničské přehrady, In Sborník ČS společnosti zeměpisné, no.4., 185–194 Soldo, B., Oreškovič, M., Aniskin, A., (2010): Example of water waves impact on the bank slope, Journal of Landscape Management, no.2, 40–43. Synková J. (2009): Possibility of utilization of direction construction in river revitalization [Možnosti využití usměrňovacích staveb v rámci revitalizace toku] 2009 Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis 57(5):279-284. Šlezingr, M., (2002): Bank erosion – prognosis of the retreat of bank line of reservoirs, Journal of hydrology and hydromechanics, 2002, p. 311–319, vol. 50, Šlezingr. M., Jedlička. L., (2010): Accompanying vegetation – grasslend, In. Conference on Recreation and Conservation p. 17-18 Šlezingr, M., Foltynova, l., Zeleňáková, M., (2010): Assesment of the current condition of riparian and accompanying stands, In. Colloquium on Landscape Management, Brno, p. 24 – 27
- 176 - Šlezingr,M. (2007): Stabilisation of reservoir banks using an "armoured earth structure“, Journal of hydrology and hydromechanics, no.1/2007, Šlezingr, M. (2011): Břehová abraze, monograph, p. 174 , FOLIA MENDELU 2011, ISBN 978- 80- 7375-566-9 Šlezingr, M., Zeleňáková, M., (2010): Natural processes of the self purification in rivers, Journal of Landscape Management, no.1 2010, 63–66 Šoltész, A., Baroková, D., Hašková, L. (2007): Optimalizácia vodného režimu na Medzibodroží. In: Acta hydrologica slovaca, 2007, 212 – 214.
Souhrn Poškození břehů rozplavováním postihuje celou řadu nádrží včetně těch světových. Stabilizace břehů jsou vnímány pouze jako nezbytná řešení a realizována jsou až tehdy, pokud dojde k samotnému poškození břehu. Přitom stačí použití jednoduchého řešení: v patě největšího poškození břehu umístit kamennou patku a upravit sklon erodovaného břehu, tak aby se dále eroze nerozšiřovala. Břehy je nutné chránit, protože erozí jsou poškozeny i břehy užívné k rekreaci – pláže.
Contact: prof. Dr. Ing. Miloslav Šlezingr Phone: +420 545 134 520, e-mail: [email protected]
- 177 - PLACES WITH ICE IN PROTECTED AREAS AND VISITORS
Václav Ždímal Department of Applied and Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Moravský Kras is the largest karst area in the Czech Republic and is important place for recreation activities. Moravský Kras is known primarily by caves. There are more then 1100 caves registered in Moravský Kras. The following five caves are opened to the public: Punkevní, Kateřinská, Balcarka, Výpustek and Sloupsko-šošůvské. About 400,000 people visit them every year. Deep valleys with inverse locality are interesting for tourists either. The Holštejn valley near Stará Rasovna cave belongs to the coldest sites of the Moravian Karst, which is determined by forest stand in the surroundings and by the valley orientation. Into this valley flows the cold air and snow accumulates here, which lies here significantly longer time than in the surroundings. It is terminated by the labyrinth of small phreatic tunnels and a stack of blocks leading into the half blind Holštejn valley near the sink of the river Bílá voda. These localities with ice decoration, which lasts for a few months of the year, are very attractive for visitors. The crawling through these localities is dangerous for visitors and destroys plant and animal communities. Key words: Moravský kras, visitors, ice decoration, inverse locality
Introduction Research of karst areas is today mainly amateur issue. People do it at their free time as recreation activities. Moravský Kras is the largest karst area in the Czech Republic and is important place for recreation activities. There are more then 1100 caves registered in Moravský Kras. The following five caves are opened to public: Punkevní, Kateřinská, Balcarka and Sloupsko-šošůvské. About 400,000 people visit them every year. The other caves are closed for public. Except for caves there are other interesting karst forms for tourist in Moravský kras. One of them are Deep valleys with inverse locality and snow accumulates. Microclimate of deep valleys is an important element of their formation and existence and it influences many karst and biological processes. Air circulation, temperature and humidity influence the creation of specific environment. Measurement of microclimate in inverse locality is no easy issue. This climate is frequently regarded as really constant, because its changes are small compared to the outer temperature. Thus measurements in these places require adequate equipment with necessary precision and long time, because the changes may occur in an unexpected moment too.
Materials and methods Local topographical features enhance the formation of inversions, especially in valley locations. Temperature and air humidity were measured in the Stará Rasovna valley. This valley is very interesting for visitors. The Stará Rasovna valley lies in north-eastern part of the Moravian Karst, which belongs to the geomorphological unit Drahanská vrchovina Highland (Štogr and Kučera 1997; Vít 1998). The valley system was created in Devonian limestone of the Macocha Formation. The valley lies near the village Holštejn in the Hradský valley in altitude 462 m a. s. l. It is terminated by a labyrinth of small phreatic tunnels and a stack of blocks leading into cave Piková dáma. Stará Rasovna valley is the end of the half-blind Holštejn Valley near the disappearance of the Bílá voda River. The Holštejn Valley near Stará Rasovna Cave belongs to the coldest sites of the Moravian Karst, which is determined by forest stand in the surroundings and by the valley orientation. Into this valley flows the cold air and snow accumulates here, which lies here significantly longer time than in the surroundings. Air temperature and relative humidity were measured due to character of the valley during winter season from December 27, 2013 to April 29, 2014. Measurement interval was set on 15 minutes. In the valley was located CEM DT-171 Data Logger (Shenzhen Everbest Machinery Industry Co., Ltd.; Range: Temperature: -40 to 70 °C, RH: 0 % to 10 % RH, Accuracy: Temp: ± 1 °C, RH: ± 2 %). The HOBO U10 Data Logger, placed near the cave entry, was used for measurement of external air temperature and relative humidity. For specification of the measurement methods, the Methodic of monitoring of microclimatic conditions in cave systems (Hebelka et al. 2011) was used. Data processing was performed by softwares: Microsoft Excel, HOBOware lite and STATISTICA.
- 178 - Results Temperature measurements has proven great influence of seasonality. Air temperature ranged between -11.7 and 1 °C. The temperature was bellow zero from January 22, 2013 to March 22, 2014. The temperature was a little above zero in the rest of the measuring season.
Fig. 1: Temperature in the valley
Discussion The Stará Rasovna valley is relatively frequently visited. It lies on the red tourist trail. There are snow and ice decoration from December to April. These conditions create suitable environment for specific plants and animals. Snow and ice decoration are at the same time very attractive for tourists. The tourists play with snow, destroy snow decoration, disturb mosses and other plants. This activities can disturb fragile and rare environment.
Conclusion Deep valleys at Moravský kras are inverse locality with snow and frost for a long time. The tourists endanger these localities and disturb this environment.
References Badino G, (2004): Cave temperatures and global climatic change. Int. J. Speleol., 33 (1/4), 2004: 103- 114. Hebelka J eds., (2011):. Methodic of monitoring of microclimatic conditions in cave systems. Správa jeskyní České republiky, manuscript, CHMI Praha. Přibyl J, Ložek V eds., (1992): Základy karsologie a speleologie. Academia, Praha. Štogr J, Kučera J eds., (1997): Piková dáma a Spirálka. Monografie jeskyně. J.Štogr a J.Kučera. Vít J eds., (1998): Jeskynní systém Piková dáma - Spirálová. Česká speleologická společnost ZO 6- 19 Plánivy, Brno.
Acknowledgement The author thanks the members of the Plánivy Caving Club 6-19 of the Czech Speleological Society for their help.
Souhrn Výzkum krasových oblastí je v dnešní době do amatérskou záležitostí. Lidé je zkoumají ve volném čase jako rekreační aktivitu. Moravský Kras je největší krasovou oblastí v České republice a důležitým místem pro rekreační aktivity. V Moravském krasu je registrováno více než 1100 jeskyní. Většina z těchto jeskyní je veřejnosti nepřístupná. Kromě jeskyní jsou v Moravském krasu turisticky zajímavé i další krasové formy. Jednou z nich jsou hluboká krasová údolí s inverzním charakterem. V těchto údolích je specifické mikroklima důležitým prvkem jejich vzniku a existence a ovlivňuje řadu procesů.
- 179 - Teplota vzduchu byla měřena v koncové části poloslepého údolí Stará rasovna, která leží v severovýchodní části Moravského krasu poblíž obce Holštejn v tzv. Hradském (Holštejnském), žlebu. Konec poloslepého Holštejnského údolí je tvořen bludištěm malých chodeb a sborem balvanů ústících do Ledové chodby jeskyně Piková dáma a patří k nejchladnějším místům Moravského krasu. Teplota vzduchu zde byla měřena vzhledem k charakteru údolí v zimním období od 27.prosince 2013 do 29. dubna 2014, interval měření byl zvolen 15 minut. V Ledové chodbě byl umístěn Data Logger CEM DT-171 Data Logger (Shenzhen Everbest Machinery Industry Co., Ltd.). Zároveň byl použit i Data Logger HOBO U10 pro měření venkovní teploty a vlhkosti vzduchu, který byl umístěn v blízkosti údolí. Pro stanovení metodiky měření byla použita Metodika monitoringu mikroklimatických poměrů v jeskynních systémech (Hebelka a kol., 2011). Teplotní měření prokázalo sezónní změny. Teplota vzduchu se pohybovala mezi -11,7 a 1 °C. Teploty pod nulou se držela od 22. ledna do 22.března 2014. V ostatním období byla teplota mírně nad nulou. Tyto teplotní podmínky vytváří prostředí vhodné pro určité druhy rostlin a živočichů. Zároveň jsou dlouho ležící sníh a ledová výzdoba atraktivní pro turisty, kteří návštěvami a hrami v této citlivé lokalitě narušují křehké a vzácné prostředí.
Contact: Ing. Václav Ždímal, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 132 463, e-mail: [email protected]
- 180 - PRECISION OF TRAVEL COST MEASURES IN ESTIMATION THE RECREATION DEMAND: THE CASE OF ŠUMAVA NATIONAL PARK
Kateřina Kaprová Charles University Environment Center, José Martího 407/2, 162 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic
Abstract Recreation demand models represent the core methodology for investigation of nature-based recreation patterns and recreation utility. The application depends on travel cost measure, which serves as a shadow price of visiting natural areas. However, the determination, inclusion and specification of travel cost components vary widely among studies and there is still no consensus on the geographical and economic grounds. Rarely is travel cost data obtained directly from respondents; instead, most studies have used simplifications of journey length and time cost. Mainly for larger recreation areas, this may strongly impact the results of the demand estimation and utility analysis. Based on a recent on-site survey in Šumava national park, this study presents a sensitivity analysis of the recreation demand results to the definition and level of accuracy of travel cost measure; we compare perceived and objectively defined travel cost measures at several simplification levels commonly used in travel cost studies, accounting also for the perception of time during the travel. We discuss also the reliability of respondents´ own assessments of journey distances and length. The study concludes with a number of practical implications for a more accurate and realistic basis for valuation in recreation demand studies and other travel-based techniques.
Key words: recreation demand, on-site
Introduction Nature-based recreation represents an integral part of leisure-time activities in the Czech Republic the share of which has been rising since 1990s. Simultaneously, recreation is an important factor of exploiting ecosystem services. With growing pressure on the use of natural areas for recreation, where particularly protected areas - national parks of the Czech Republic - are yearly visited by hundreds thousand to millions recreationists, the urge for research of recreation behaviour of visitors and its motives arises. Recreation demand results are, mainly in the US and western Europe, commonly used for decisionmaking about management of the site concerning future evolution of the site in terms of the width of the area accessible to the visitors, enhancing the environmental qualities of the site and equipping the site with paths or benches, or optimalisation of the visitation and setting entrance fees. The TCM estimates are also often used as a basis for cost-benefit analyses (CBA, e.g. Becker et al., 2010). In the Central Europe and the Czech Republic, the application of the results into the practice has also become important, and the focus on the precision of the estimates is therefore essential. All of the recreation demand model specifications, nonetheless, rely fundamentally on the „price“ (travel cost) definition, which enables to link the recreation use of the site to utility derived from the visit in terms of money. There is no consensus on the components of total travel cost (Birol et al., 2008), which vary among researchers, as well as their definition. This may, nonetheless, have very important effect on the estimated recreation value, which is the main output for decisionmaking (Moons et al., 2001). Our aim is to assess whether there is significant difference among particular subjectively perceived and objectively determined components of the total travel costs. As the behaviour and individual decisions of individuals about whether to visit the recreation site at all, which site to choose for recreation and how many trips to make to each of the sites, depend rather on subjective perception of the distance and cost, the recreation demand theory supports using subjective measures of travel cost. However, more frequent in the past research is the use of objective (GIS-based) measures. It is then very important to know which (if any) means of GIS definition leads to travel distance and time estimates that are similar to subjectively perceived; and on the other hand, whether the subjectively stated measures are reliable.
Data description The analysis is based on an on-site survey in the central part of Šumava National Park, which took part from May to October 2014 (covering both summer recreation peak and off-season periods). The data collection techniques included face-to-face interviews at the site and not assisted data collection at several information points.
- 181 - To model the recreation demand for Šumava National Park, socio-demographic information on the recreationists and characteristics of their trip to the site have been collected. Table 1 describes the variables used within the recreation demand analysis.
Tab. 1: Definition of variables Variable Definition Unit
No. of visits made by the respondent in previous 12 months, Visits vis it s excluding winter recreation visits
Hik ing Main activity of the respondent is hiking (0=no, 1=yes) binary
Nights No. of nights spent at the site nights Group_no No. of people travelling with the respondent persons Hotel Accomodation in hotel or guest houst (0=no, 1=yes) binary Relatives Accomodation at relatives´/friends´ house (0=no, 1=yes) binary Room Accomodation in rented room/appartment/lodge (0=no, 1=yes) binary Camp Accomodation in a camp/tent (0=no, 1=yes) binary Sex Male=0, female=1 binary Income Net monthly income of the respondent thousands CZK Age Age of the respondent years Outdoor Not-assisted data collection=0,outdoor face-to-face data collection=1 binary
Table 2 defines various travel cost specifications that have been commonly used to model recreation demand so far: subjectively stated costs, and four specifications of computed travel costs (based on centroid of the region; precise location of the start and end of the journey; shortest path; and euclidean distance – straight line). GIS data for modelling the travel cost has been collected from Czech Office for Surveying, Mapping and Cadastre, Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Road and Motorway Directorate of the Czech Republic and Šumava National Park. In the analysis, we combined the GIS data with the use of route planner www.mapy.cz. All travel cost specification are defined per person, as a sum of direct and time costs to get to and from the site. Accordingly to latest research (Czaikowski et al., 2012; Mitrica et al., 2013), the opportunity cost of time is set in all cases as 33% of the recreationist´s hourly wage rate.
Tab. 2: Travel cost specifications Direct cost of transport Opportunity cost of travelling time Cost variable Length Per km rate Travel time Opportunity cost
Calculated using Cost_perceived Stated Stated stated total direct cost
Mapy.cz fastest route, using Cost_obj1 center of the part of municipality Mapy.cz, fastest route Mapy.cz fastest route, using Cost_obj2 33% wage rate municipality center 2.51 (survey mean) GIS - euclidean distance using Cost_obj3 municipality center Calculated using mean survey speed from GIS - euclidean distance using Cost_obj4 mapy.cz (74 km/h) Šumava NP polygon
Out of the total 505 questionnaires collected in Šumava National Park, only 240 observations exhibit no missing values in some of the explanatory variables used within the estimation and are employed in the analysis. The descriptive statistics of the sample are depicted in Table 3.
- 182 - Respondents make on average 2 visits to Šumava National Park per 12 months, ranging from 1 (present) visit to 20 visits.
Tab. 3: Descriptive statistics of the sample (N=240) Variable Mean Std. dev. Min Max
Visits 2.01 2.50 1 20 Cost_perceived 654.4 344.7 86 1 865.7 Cost_obj1 643 331.4 78.1 1 891.1 Cost_obj2 640.5 331.5 74.2 1 891.1 Cost_obj3 480.9 254.1 0 1 455.5 Cost_obj4 444.4 247.9 0 1 399.1 Hik ing 0.67 0.47 0 1 Nights 5.39 2.97 0 15 Group_no 3.84 3.56 1 31 Hotel 0.55 0.5 0 1 Relatives 0.07 0.26 0 1 Room 0.17 0.38 0 1 Camp 0.11 0.31 0 1 Sex 0.45 0.5 0 1 Income 18.99 6.95 6.46 30.55 Age 41.64 12.92 15 74 Outdoor 0.57 0.50 0 1
The distribution of the variables measuring travel costs as perceived and using fastest route (Cost_obj1 and Cost_obj2) is very similar; however, the use of simplified euclidean distance (straight line; Cost_obj3 and Cost_obj4) yields apparently lower travel costs than those stated by the respondents. On the other hand, there still exist a significant strong positive correlation among each two pairs of cost measures (Pearson correlation coefficients ranging from 0.78 to 0.99 are all statistically significant at α=0.01). Apparently, the closest to the magnitude of the costs which the respondents take as relevant in their recreation decisions is the Cost_obj1 specification, which is in line with the results of Zawacki and Marsinko (1999). The difference among perceived and objective travel cost measures is, however, not caused by wrong estimation of the length or time duration of the journey by respondents, which is the main concern of demand analysts due to which perceived cost have been so rarely used in recreation demand analyses. Each of these travel cost components is highly correlated between the perceived specification and the objective specifications (Pearson correlation coefficient from 0.79 to 0.93), which means that the objections to the use of perceived costs as unreliable due to rounding errors, simplification of the real distance by the respondents etc., are not justified. As opposed to previous findings (Moons et al., 2001), in our dataset there is no evidence that the error of respondents in stating the true distance or time compared to the most precise objective measure used in Cost_obj1, would change with the length of the journey or familiarity with the site, and does not relate to the socio- demographic variables either (based on regression estimation). The true cause of the differences between perceived and objective travel cost measures is thecost per km per person (correlation 0.51-0.54), which has a large variability as perceived (in fact, reflecting the real fuel consumption of the respective car, and the number of people that share the cost of fuel in each car), while the objective measures rely on a constant per km rate, and a constant average no. of people in the car, not allowing for the variations among journeys of each respondent.
- 183 - Methods and estimation results To model the recreation demand and inspect the sensitivity of the consumer surplus with respect to the specification of the travel cost variable, we employ a single-site individual travel cost model (Haab and McConnell 2002, Parsons 2003). In this demand model, the quantity demanded by the recreationist is represented by the number of trips done to the recreation site within last year, while the price of the visit is given by different definitions of travel costs. For each travel cost definition, a different recreation demand functions is estimated, using a common set of other explanatory variables describing the trip, the recreationist and type of data collection. The estimation is based on truncated stratified negative binomial model estimated by maximum likelihood (Hilbe and Martinez-Espineira, 2005), which accounts for the specific nature of the dependent variable (nonnegative integer; on-site data collection problems such as truncation, overdispersion and endogenous stratification). The results are shown in Table 4.
Tab. 4: Recreation demand estimates Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Variable Cost_perceivedCost_obj1 Cost_obj2 Cost_obj3 Cost_obj4 /Model Parameter Std. Err. Parameter Std. Err. Parameter Std. Err. Parameter Std. Err. Parameter Std. Err. Cost -0.002*** 0.000 -0.003*** 0.000 -0.003*** 0.000 -0.003*** 0.001 -0.003*** 0.001 Hiking -0.632*** 0.228 -0.501*** 0.223 -0.488*** 0.223 -0.586*** 0.226 -0.540** 0.226 Nights 0.060* 0.034 0.054 0.033 0.054 0.033 0.048 0.034 0.051 0.034 Group_no -0.030 0.029 -0.030 0.029 -0.030 0.029 -0.029 0.029 -0.025 0.029 Hotel -1.922*** 0.302 -2.169*** 0.299 -2.149*** 0.297 -2.003*** 0.299 -2.043*** 0.301 Relatives -1.155*** 0.433 -1.197*** 0.423 -1.198*** 0.422 -1.117*** 0.431 -1.021** 0.434 Room -2.265*** 0.383 -2.568*** 0.383 -2.563*** 0.381 -2.424*** 0.384 -2.467*** 0.386 Camp -1.069*** 0.374 -1.280*** 0.369 -1.249*** 0.366 -1.197*** 0.373 -1.222*** 0.375 Sex -0.461** 0.226 -0.434* 0.223 -0.436** 0.222 -0.469** 0.225 -0.473** 0.226 Income -0.001 0.017 0.011 0.017 0.011 0.017 0.003 0.017 0.000 0.017 Age -0.002 0.009 0.001 0.008 0.002 0.008 0.001 0.009 0.001 0.009 Outdoor -0.231 0.241 -0.298 0.238 -0.306 0.237 -0.302 0.241 -0.291 0.241 Constant 1.507 1.993 2.100* 1.124 2.125* 1.093 1.846 1.444 1.756 1.475 Alpha 7.21*** 1.20*** 3.14*** 4.86*** 5.08*** N 250 250 250 250 250 Log-likelihood -264.55 -259.51 -259.39 -262.08 -261.37 Wald chi2 105*** 114.71*** 115.47*** 110.41*** 111.16*** Pseudo R2 0.210 0.225 0.225 0.217 0.219 AIC 2.31 2.27 2.27 2.29 2.29 BIC -1244.11 -1244.11 -1244.11 -1244.11 -1244.11
Statistical significance of parameters: *** α=0.01; ** α=0.05; * α=0.1
In all models, the cost variable is statistically significant at α=0.01 and works in the expected direction, irrespective of its precise definition. All models exhibit almost identical fit statistics and the likelihood ratio test (not shown in Table 4) shows no significant difference in performance of the models. Also, the use of any of travel cost specification does not alter the effects of any other explanatory variable on the predicted number of trips to Šumava National Park. We may observe that hikers make fewer trips to the site than cyclists and other recreationists; the same holds for people stay in hotels and guesthouses, at their friends or relatives houses, rent a room or stay in a camp. Women visit Šumava national park less often per year than men; nonetheless, the rest of socio-demographic variables is not statistically significant even at α=0.1, which means that visit frequency does not depend on income nor age. The demand for visits also does not change for the two subsamples of data based on different data collection techniques. Table 5 lists the estimates of welfare associated with 1 visit to Šumava National Park based on different cost specifications. The point estimates of consumer surplus vary by more than 100 CZK per visit, exhibiting a downward bias related to the level of simplification of the travel cost variable. However, all 95% confidence intervals of the objective estimates of costs contain the point estimate of CS/visit using perceived costs model.
- 184 - Tab. 5: Consumer surplus estimates (in CZK 2014) Welfare measure/ Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Cost specification Cost_perceived Cost_obj1 Cost_obj2 Cost_obj3 Cost_obj4 CS/visit 439.5 386.2 384.8 314.8 303.7 95% Lower bound 322.6 293 292 234.7 227.6 Conf. Int. Upper bound 689.4 566.4 564.3 477.9 456.2
The results show that when applying simplified travel cost measures instead of theoretically relevant perceived cost, care must be taken to report not only the point estimate (which is or may be biased downwards), but also the distribution of the estimate. Further, when implementing the welfare measures based on simplified travel cost estimation into cost-benefit analysis, it is essential to do a sensitivity analysis of the CBA results to recreation welfare estimates (for example using the 95% confidence intervals).
Conclusion The Šumava National Park is a large-sized recreational area (compared to other areas in the Czech Republic), to which many visitors come from a long distance (205 km on average) from large municipalities (51% from regional capitals, 28% from Prague). Despite of these facts, the perceptions of recreationists concerning the travel distance and time are very close to the reality and thus may be considered reliable. That enables to rely on perceived travel costs, which are supported by the recreation demand theory, also in practical analyses of recreation demand in the Czech Republic. The recreation welfare associated with 1 visit to Šumava National Park is estimated at 439.5 CZK using perceived travel cost, and at 386.2 CZK using the most precise measure of objective travel cost. The use of simplified travel cost based on euclidean distance underestimates the true distance to the site. However, the definition of travel cost variable does not affect the fit of the recreation demand model or the stability of the effect of the other recreation demand determinants. In case a simplified travel cost measure based on euclidean distance is used, the point estimate of the recreation welfare is lower by more than 100 CZK per visit. Nonetheless, the divergence is not so dramatical as in previous studies (e. g. Moons et al., 2001). The recommendation for further analyses in the Czech Republic is that when using euclidean distance, not only the point estimate of recreation utility should be reported and further employed in cost-benefit analysis, but also the distribudion of the estimate. This enables to do a sensitivity analysis of the CBA results to recreation welfare estimates – our study shows that the confidence intervals already contain the point estimate of the model estimated using theoretically sound perceived travel costs.
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- 185 - Moons, E., J. Loomis, S. Proost, K. Eggermont, a M. Hermy (2001): Travel cost and time measurement in travel cost models. Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Energy, Transport and the Environment Working Papers Series No. 2001-22. Zawacki, W., and A. Marsinko (1999): Using geographic information systems with travel cost models: A case study. Proceedings of the 2000 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium (p. 287-292). Bolton Landing, NY: USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NE-269.
Acknowledgement The work on this paper was supported by the grant GAUK No. 1544314 from the Grant Agency of the Charles University in Prague, and by the project No. TD020049 financed by the Czech Technological Agency.
Souhrn Článek představuje výsledky analýzy rekreační poptávky v národním parku Šumava, včetně citlivostní analýzy vzhledem ke způsobu definování cestovních nákladů (stínové ceny rekreace v národním parku). Z porovnání vnímaných a několika druhů objektivně stanovených cestovních nákladů vyplývá, že zjednodušení výpočtu objektivních cestovních nákladů vede k nižším bodovým odhadům rekreačního užitku spojeného s návštěvou národního parku Šumava. Pokud je však při dalším využití takto vypočteného rekreačního užitku v analýze nákladů a užitku zahrnut intervalový odhad, nemusí mít toto zjednodušení nijak dramatický dopad na závěry, které z analýzy nákladů a užitku vyplývají.
Contact: Ing. Kateřina Kaprová Phone: +420 220 199 466, e-mail: [email protected]
- 186 - PROPOSAL OF „METHODOLOGY FOR IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF THREAT HAZARD TO NATURAL COMMUNITIES OF CULTURAL MONUMENTS “
Petr Kupec, Jan Deutscher, Monika Veličková Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The paper introduces a methodology focused on the assessment of threat hazard to the vegetation of cultural monuments, parks and gardens. It has been designed as a part of the results obtained during the elaboration of a research task named „The identification and assessment of threat hazard on natural communities of cultural monuments“ guaranteed by the Ministry of Culture CR. The methodology assesses the state and possible hazards to trees and shrubs in the natural communities of cultural monuments. It works with a simplified parameterization of potential development of assessed biotopes. A part of it is also a recommended areal differentiation for the purposes of the use of the methodology.
Key words: risk assessment, natural communities of cultural monuments, potential development of natural communities
Introduction Presented paper concludes a part of the results obtained during the elaboration of a research task named „The identification and assessment of threat hazard to natural communities of cultural monuments“ focused on the formulation of a methodology for risk assessment of vegetation of cultural monuments, parks and gardens. The task has been elaborated within the project of Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic (MC CR) under the category Applied research and development of national and cultural identity (NAKI) named “Identification of important areas with cultural and historical values threatened by natural and anthropogenic influences”. The basic parameters when designing the methodology were: simplicity, easy application, relative generality and the combination of standardized approaches to woody vegetation assessment.
Materials and methods The proposed methodology is focused on the risk assessment to the vegetation of cultural monuments. More precisely, it deals with the evaluation of shrubs and trees and the threat hazard to the fulfillment of their expected function, as important aesthetic and landscape features. The evaluated parameters and their combination was chosen and drafted in a way to best mirror and maintain the velocity and dynamics of the environment rather than simple conservation of the current state. In other words, special importance is given to the perspective of the future development and its long-term sustenance in accord with the leading idea of the cultural elements’ composition, rather than to the evaluation of the current state of the vegetation as it is.
The evaluation was proposed in following parameters: A) Age structure of trees 1 – Individuals with expected lifespan of 30 years and more are predominant 2 – Individuals with expected lifespan of 10 - 30 years are predominant 3 - Individuals with expected lifespan under 10 years are predominant 90% of individuals on the locality are considered predominant. This parameter delimitates the expected lifespan of individual trees in the evaluated segment according solely to their physical vitality. No attention is paid to their health status as that is addressed in the next parameter. This parameter indicates the relationship of trees between their age and potential lifetime, resp. physical vitality (the ability to regularly grow and fruit). The parameter scale matches the resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation stated in the Results. B) The health status of trees 1 – Healthy or individuals with first symptoms of damage are predominant 2 – Individuals with little to medium symptoms of damage are predominant 3 – Dying or individuals with severe symptoms of damage are predominant This parameter indicates the health status of trees in the evaluated segment. It is diagnosed mainly as the ocular damage such as defoliation, the incidence of disease fungi and pests, irreversible damage by game. It is based on current methods of forest health assessment by ICP Forest (Strnady, 2007 –
- 187 - modified for the purposes of this methodology). The evaluation is carried out according to the number damaged trees in the segment, which indicates the total damage of the segment according to Table 1.
Tab. 1: The tree health status evaluation - simplified
Tree damage Total segment damage
Damage (defoliation) Max. % damaged trees Health status % Characteristics 0-10 11-30 31-50 50+
do - 30 healthy to little damaged 1 100 20
31 - 50 little to medium damaged 2 32 5
51 - 100 severe damaged to dying 3 84+ 30+ Zdroj: Vyskot,I.: Kvantifikace a hodnocení funkcí lesů České republiky. [S.n.]: Nakladatelství 131 Margaret, 2003. 168 s. ISBN 80-900242-1-1, modified.
The parameter scale matches the resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation stated in the Results. C) The amount of tree individuals (species) on the border of their ecological optimum 1 – up to 10% 2 – between 11 - 30% 3 – more than 30% This parameter indicates the relationship between current vegetation and the natural conditions of the site. It is a relative parameter which main purpose is to evaluate the potential resilience of trees to the stress factors of the environment based on the premise, that the closer the individual (species) is to its ecological optimum, the more resilient it is. The ecological optimum should be understood as such natural conditions where the assessed species prospers due to its natural adaptive mechanisms. For the evaluation of ecological optimum in the conditions of CR it is possible to use for example Buček and Lacina (1999). When evaluating the ecological optimum of introduced and exotic species, it is needed to proceed individually, or consult expert authorities. For simplification, if the introduced species is located in conditions similar to its original geographic area, for the purposes of this methodology, those can be considered its ecological optimum. The parameter scale matches the resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation stated in the Results. D) Age structure of shrubs 1 – Individuals with expected lifespan of 30 years and more are predominant 2 – Individuals with expected lifespan of 10 - 30 years are predominant 3 - Individuals with expected lifespan under 10 years are predominant 90% of individuals on the locality are considered predominant. Similarly to the age structure of trees, this parameter delimitates the expected lifespan of shrubs in the evaluated segment according solely to their physical vitality with the difference, that it does not evaluate individuals, rather whole communities (with the exception of solitaire shrubs). No attention is paid to their health status as that is addressed in the next parameter. This parameter indicates the relationship between the current age of evaluated shrubs and their potential lifetime, resp. physical vitality (the ability to regularly grow and fruit). The parameter scale matches the resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation stated in the Results. E) Health status of shrubs 1 – Healthy or individuals with first symptoms of damage are predominant 2 – Individuals with little to medium symptoms of damage are predominant 3 – Dying or individuals with severe symptoms of damage are predominant This parameter indicates the health status of shrubs in the evaluated segment. Similarly to the previous parameter, it is mostly evaluated for the whole shrub communities. It is diagnosed mainly as the ocular damage such as defoliation, the incidence of disease fungi and pests. Own parameterization was developed for this purpose from the modified tree health status parameterization as shown in table 2.
- 188 - Tab. 2: Shrub health status evaluation - simplified
Total segment damage Individual damage Max. % damaged shrubs Health status % Characteristics 0-30 31-50 51-100
do - 30 Healthy or little damaged 1 100
31 - 50 Little to medium damaged 2 90 10
51 - 100 Severe damaged to dying 3 90+
The parameter scale matches the resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation stated in the Results. F) The amount of shrubs (species) on the border of their ecological optimum 1 – up to 10% 2 – between 11 - 30% 3 - more than 30% This parameter works the same as in the case of trees, it indicates the relationship between current vegetation and the natural conditions of the site. It is again a relative parameter which main purpose is to evaluate the potential resilience of shrubs to the stress factors of the environment. Even for the shrubs species, for the evaluation of ecological optimum in the conditions of CR it is possible to use for example Buček and Lacina (1999). The parameter scale matches the resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation stated in the Results.
The resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation: 1 – low – low degree of threat hazard of given locality. The current state of vegetation matches the natural conditions is stabilized, with no need for treatment of improvement. In 30 years the need for treatment should be expected. 2 – medium - medium degree of threat hazard of given locality. Critical phenomena occur on the locality leading to serious threat hazard with the potential for a rapid disturbance of the current state. In 10 years the need for treatment should be expected. 2 – high – critical state, the danger of irreversible damage, degradation and devaluation. Treatment needed as soon as possible, maximum within 2 years.
Results Since the above chapter introduces the methodology for identification and assessment of threat hazard to the natural communities of cultural monuments in its basic form, the following chapter deals with its application in the field. The first task that has to be dealt with during the evaluation is to choose proper sampling size of the vegetation. The defining criterion in this case is the total area of the locality and its homogeneity. The total area is considered the whole planar acreage. The homogeneity is considered the variations in age structure, species composition and spatial distribution of vegetation. For the purposes of this methodology, segments of trees within 20 years of age difference and shrubs of 5 years of age difference can be considered as age homogeneous. The occurrence of similar species or ecologically corresponding vegetation formations of up to 5 different species in one segment can be considered as homogenous. Stands with similar height of the main canopy level, or similar structure and height in different canopy levels can be considered as spatially homogenous. Following these criteria, it is possible to carry out locality-wide evaluation on well selected transects (linear representative areas 20m wide) or on well selected sampling sites (sites or individuals reaching at least 10% of a homogeneous segment). The evaluation can be carried out either locality-wide or on well selected segments. The segmentation can be realized again by the criteria of acreage and homogeneity in a way that following installation of sampling sites within a segment is optimized. It can be stated, that there is no universal recommendation for the use of either locality-wide, transect or sampling site evaluation. However, based on the experience gained during field applications of this methodology, following scheme can be used (Table 3). A simplified approach to the evaluation is shown in Table 4.
- 189 - Tab. 3: A simple scheme for the differentiation of assessed localities Acreage more than 5 up to 1 ha 1 ha – 5 ha Homogeneity ha Set of Age, species, spatial Sampling site Transect transects Set of In two parameters one of which is Set of Transect sampling age transects sites Set of Set of Other cases Locality-wide sampling sampling sites sites
Tab. 4: A simplified approach to the assessment and identification of threat hazard to natural communities of cultural monuments
Tree vegetation
C) The amount of tree individuals (species) on Degree A) Age structure of trees B) Health status of trees the border of their ecological optimum Individuals with expected Healthy or individuals with first 1 lifespan of 30 years and more symptoms of damage are up to10% are predominant predominant Individuals with expected Individuals with little to medium 2 lifespan of 10 - 30 years are symptoms of damage are 11 - 30% predominant predominant Individuals with expected Dying or individuals with severe 3 lifespan under 10 years are symptoms of damage are 30% and more predominant predominant
Shrub vegetation
F) The amount of shrubs (species) on the border Degree D) Age structure of shrubs E) Health status of shrubs of their ecological optimum Individuals with expected Healthy or individuals with first 1 lifespan of 30 years and more symptoms of damage are up to 10% are predominant predominant Individuals with expected Individuals with little to medium 2 lifespan of 10 - 30 years are symptoms of damage are 11 - 30% predominant predominant Individuals with expected Dying or individuals with severe 3 lifespan under 10 years are symptoms of damage are 30% and more predominant predominant
Degree Resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation:
1 Low (In 30 years the need for treatment should be expected) 2 Medium (In 10 years the need for treatment should be expected)
3 High (Treatment needed as soon as possible, maximum within 2 years)
Conclusion Presented paper concludes a part of the results obtained during the elaboration of a research task named „The identification and assessment of threat hazard to natural communities of cultural monuments“ focused on the formulation of a methodology for risk assessment of vegetation of cultural monuments, parks and gardens. The task has been elaborated within the project of Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic (MC CR) under the category Applied research and development of national and cultural identity (NAKI) named “Identification of important areas with cultural and historical values threatened by natural and anthropogenic influences”. The basic parameters when designing the
- 190 - methodology were: simplicity, easy application, relative generality and the combination of standardized approaches to woody vegetation assessment. The methodology is divided into the assessment of the current state and of threat hazard to trees and shrubs in natural communities of cultural monuments. Its integral part is a recommended differentiation of types of assessment according the total acreage and the homogeneity of the locality. Up to 2014, its verification was carried out on 7 cultural monuments in total. The results of this verification are not the subject of this paper, rather they are presented in a different paper on this very conference due to the writing space limitations.
References Buček, A., Lacina, J. (1999): Geobiocenologie II. Mendelova zemědělská a lesnická univerzita Brno, 249 s Kolektiv: Monitoring zdravotního stavu lesa v České republice. Ročenka programu ICP Forests/Forest Focus 2006 a 2007). Výzkumný ústav lesního hospodářství a myslivosti, Strnady, 2007 Vyskot,I.: Kvantifikace a hodnocení funkcí lesů České republiky. [S.n.]: Nakladatelství 131 Margaret, 2003. 168 s. ISBN 80-900242-1-1
Acknowledgement This contribution was supported by the project DF12P01OVV035 „Identification of significant areas with cultural and historical values threatened by natural and anthropogenic stresses “, 2012–2015, for Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic.
Souhrn Předkládaný článek shrnuje část výsledků řešení dílčího výzkumného úkolu s názvem " Hodnocení stavu a identifikace rizik přírodních společenstev kulturních památek" zaměřenou na formulaci metodiky na hodnocení ohrožení vegetace památek, parků a zahrad. Úkol byl řešen v rámci projektu Ministerstva kultury kategorie NAKI s názvem "Identifikace významných území s kulturně historickými hodnotami ohrožených přírodními a antropogenními vlivy. Při koncipování metodiky byly základními požadavky: jednoduchost, snadná aplikovatelnost, relativní obecnost a kombinace pokud možno standardizovaných postupů hodnocení dřevinné vegetace. Metodika je rozdělena na šetření stavu a rizik stromové a keřové části společenstev kulturních památek. Její součástí je rovněž doporučená diferenciace typů hodnocení území dle jeho rozlohy a homogenity. Do roku konce roku 2014 byla provedena její verifikace na sedmi kulturních památkách. Výsledky verifikace nejsou předmětem tohoto článku, nicméně jsou z důvodu omezení rozsahu příspěvku prezentovány v jiném příspěvku na této konferenci.
Contact: Assoc. Prof. Ing. Petr Kupec, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 097, e-mail: [email protected]
- 191 - PROTECTION OF RECREATIONAL AREA OSADA WITH USING ACTIVE ANTIABRASIVE STABILIZATION OF BANKS
Lenka Gernešová, Jana Marková Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The paper deals with problems of abrasive cabins of Brno dam reservoir in Osada area, in relation of recreology. Brno dam reservoir is attractive area for a wide range, not only for residents of Brno. People are visiting this area throughout the whole year with varying intensity. Most tourists will come here mainly during the summer, but in spring and fall too. Osada area is lined by a number of cottages along the coast. The cottages are the most vulnerable to shoreline erosion. There arise several meters high cabins that must be stabilized to prevent further erosion of soil into the reservoir and thus reduce the risk to the cottages built close to the shore. One possible solution is to use an active anti-abrasive protection.
Key words: bank erosion, cabins, protection, cottage, recreology.
Introduction Abrasion or shore erosion is a natural phenomenon occurring on a number of water reservoirs. This state is very good observable especially on the coast of seas and oceans. Abrasion is a process that can be described as surface abrasion of bottom and banks by the movement of the water level (waving) associated with transporting and storing loose material. Due to this process may cause abrasion cabins; loose material is transported into the reservoir. This situation is undesirable (Šlezingr, 2011). Development of bank erosion is conditioned by several factors: the movement of the water level and the material forming the reservoir shore. The movement of water levels may be caused by the movement of vessels or by wind (wawe growth is closely related to the fetch length - Pelikán, 2013). The problem of wind-driven waves was investigated by many scientists worldwide, e.g.: Phillips and Miles (1957), and Lukáč and Abaffy (1972, 1980). The Czech scientists due to wave in their works dealt with e.g.: Kratochvil (1987), Šlezingr (2004, 2007, 2011) and Pelikán (2013). In case of Brno dam reservoir the process of bank erosion is most noticeable in the area Osada. The others parts of reservoir do not show such damage to the banks (the influence of geological conditions and the impact of bank stabilization carried out in the past). The suburban area is popular with a wide range of tourists, various visitors due to nearby cities and good accessibility (infrastructure).
Materials and methods Whole area of Brno dam reservoir is a quite attractive place for inhabitants of the Brno city and other nearby settlements. There is a very good access to public transport, car, bike or walk. Visit rate of entice reservoir area is all year. Osada area – investigate area is situated along the left bank of Brno dam reservoir. This area is the most affected by abrasion. The high of abrasive cabin reaches 6 m. This area is frequently visited by tourists. There are a many places for stay (private cottages, restaurants), places for sport and recreation activities. Many of them are located in close to the shoreline affected by abrasion. The further gradual development of abrasion may endanger these objects. Another danger can be humans life-threatening. In the summer months is possible to see the visitors walking at the edge of the shore. There is risk of breaking the shore and it’s slide down into the reservoir. In the winter months the water level in reservoir is lowered; shore zone is shifted into the reservoir. There arise beaches, which are used for walking (see Fig 1 and Fig 2). Even in this case exist the danger of a landslide the walls of abrasive cabin. For Osada area is proclaimed ban on construction because of kingfisher protection which nest in cavities perpendicular shore walls. We decided to apply there the active anti-abrasive protection of shore in our research. It’s should reduce the erosive effect of the waves. Within the research project “Active anti-abrasion structures” there were proposed and implemented types of active protection of banks.
- 192 -
Fig. 1: Walking visitors in Brno dam Fig. 2: Man with his child under reservoir abrasion cabin Results The bank of reservoir in area Osada is composed by well washed out soils prone to erosion. Furthemore, the ban on construction there doesn’t build any measures that would result in intervention to shore. It would be disturbed habitat for kingfisher nesting. In the past there have been implemented features that should protect the shore – breakwater of willow stand, double wattle fence (see Fig. 3). Within the research project there were created next protective features: gabions, single row wattle fence and palisade of stakes. The willow stand there was planted nearly 10 years ago. The stand has in term of protecting of banks, function of the breakwater. From the observation and analysis of samples is obvious that the fine eroded material is settled there. Double wattle fence – It’s wattle fence made of willow stakes with interlocking willow branches and fill up by gravel (local material). Because this fence didn’t reach the water level, was modified in year 2013 – has been extended and increased. Today the fence has form of geminate double wattle fence. Gabions, single row wattle fence and palisade – all these features are newly constructed. All features achieves water level due to reduction energy of water level waving (See Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). This year (2015) will be done measurement on all these (new and old) anti-abrasive features. The measurement will be done with using wavemeters that should capture if these protective features really dampen wave energy.
Fig. 3: Willow stand and geminate double wattle fence
- 193 -
Fig. 4: Gabion Fig. 5: Palisade
Discussion Abrasion in the framework of Brno dam reservoir is manifested especially from spring to fall, In time when the water level is maintained at a certain level. Before the onset of winter, the water level is reduced. At this time the abrasion process is interrupted because the water level is below the level of the eroded bank. The current active anti-abrasive features of bank protection should dampen energy of waving water level. All measures were proposed at the height of the water level in reservoir (in summer months) and built parallel to the shoreline. The planned research should confirm the reduction of wave energy. For better efficiency the measures could be increased beyond the water level. Implemented anti-abrasive measures don’t stop bank erosion, but rather slows. We assume a gradual clogging of the area behind the anti-abrasive feature by material from bank. This can prevent to clogging of eroded material directly into the reservoir.
Conclusion Brno dam reservoir is attractive area for tourists throughout all year. One of the well-attended area is Osada area that is situated along the left bank of reservoir. This area is notable for development of bank erosion. It’s seen there in form of up to 6 m high cabins which are not stabilized. The ongoing process of abrasion threatens buildings near the damaged shoreline – cottages, restaurants, roads and even the health and lives of visitors. Because of ban on construction (such as habitat protection of kingfisher) there is not possible to interfered into bank or changed it. In the research are proposed and built different types of active anti- abrasive protection (breakwater from willow stand, wattle fences, gabions and palisade) which should slows the process of bank erosion. The effectiveness of individual elements is under investigation.
References Kratochvíl, S., (1970): Stanovení parametrů větrových vln gravitačních vln v hlubokých přehradních nádržích a jezerech. Vodohospodársky časopis, ročník XVIII, č. 3. Lukáč M., (1972): Vlnenie na nádrži a jeho účinky na brehy nádrže. Bratislava, MS Katedra Geotechniky SVŠT. Lukáč M., Abaffy, D., (1980): Vlnenie na nádržiach, jeho účinky a protiabrázne opatrenia. Ministerstvo lesného a vodného hospodárstva SSR, Bratislava. Miles, J. W. (1957): On the Generation of Surface Waves by Shear Flows. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 3. pp 185-204. Pelikán, P., (2013): Přetváření břehů vodních nádrží vlivem břehové abraze. Dizertační práce, Mendelova univerzita v Brně, 147 s. Phillips, O. M., (1957): On the Generation of Waves by a Turbulent Wind. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, pp 417–445. Šlezingr, M., (2004): Břehová abraze. CERM, Brno, pp 160. ISBN 80-7204-342-0. Šlezingr, M., (2007): Stabilisation of Reservoir Banks Using an “Armoured Earth Structure”. Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics, Volume. 55, Issue. 1, pp 64-69. ISSN 0042-790X. Šlezingr, M., (2011): Břehová abraze – Možnosti stabilizace břehů. Folia Brno, pp 172, ISBN 978-80- 7375-566-9.
- 194 - Acknowledgement The article contains partial results of research project “Active anti-abrasion structures”, reg. no. LDF_VT_2015011, funded by IGA FFWT MENDELU Brno.
Souhrn Vodní dílo Brno je turisticky atraktivní oblastí a to po celý rok. Jednou z hojně navštěvovaných oblastí je i oblast Osada nacházející se na levém břehu nádrže. Tato oblast je význačná rozvojem břehové abraze. Ta se zde projevuje v podobě až 6 m vysokých srubů, které nejsou nijak stabilizovány. Pokračující proces abraze ohrožuje stavby v blízkosti poškozeného břehu – chaty, restaurace, komunikace a dokonce i zdraví či životy návštěvníků. Kvůli stavební uzávěře (jako ochrana biotopu ledňáčka říčního), zde není možné do břehu nijak zasahovat a měnit ho. V rámci výzkumu jsou v této oblasti navrženy a vybudovány různé typy aktivní protiabrazní ochrany (vlnolam v podobě porostu vrb, zápletové plůtky, gabionové koše, palisáda z kůlů), která by měla proces břehové eroze zpomalit. Účinnost jednotlivých prvků je předmětem zkoumání.
Contact: Ing. Lenka Gernešová Phone: +420 545 134 082, e-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Jana Marková, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 009, e-mail: [email protected]
- 195 - RAINWATER MANAGEMENT AND RECREATION IN MAINLY AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Václav Tlapák1 , Jan Šálek2 , Miloslav Šlezingr1, Petr Pelikán1, Lenka Gernešová1 1 Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 Vránova 92, Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The goals of article are economical and ecological ways management with rainwater in mainly agricultural landscape and their relationship with recreation and outdoor activities. Recreation associated with outdoor activities of this type requires revival landscape by water feature (small water stream, small water reservoir, wetland) which create small oases calm in landscape and they are situated in islands of green stands equipped by benches, tables or open shelter – gazebos, racks for bikes, crossbars for tethering horses – everything should be located on grasses places that are surrounded by higher trees providing shade. The next very important feature is planting of trees along the streams, on banks of small water reservoirs and agricultural roads. It’s necessary restoration of small water streams draining rainwater, and their integration into the landscape. All this measures accumulate rainwater, part of rain is infiltrated, enriching resources and manages groundwater level and subsidize water all the above devices in dry season. Very important elements are wetlands, reservoirs and others which are important for revival of landscape like refugium necessary for survive and succession of fauna and flora.
Key words: rainwater, oasis of calm, water regime
Introduction The current state of rainwater management in mainly agricultural landscape is unsatisfactory. Existing state of management is rather simple rainwater management consisting mostly of uncontrolled infiltration of rainwater into the soil, evaporation into the air and runoff remaining rainwater by surface, hypodermical and subsurface into drainage system, water streams and small water reservoirs. The coordination of rainwater management in urban, agricultural and forest landscape is missing. It’s necessary to use rainwater in mainly agricultural landscape for recovery landscape and create conditions for formation of bio-centrums, bio-corridors and recreation too. The recreation in mainly agricultural landscape has own specifics consisting in the use environment of the agricultural landscape, a different character from the typical recreational areas. Own solution is largely influenced by terrain topography, elevation, plant composition, ways of using landscape, network paved rural roads, layout and size urban areas and so on. The ways of rainwater management in agricultural landscape can be divided into the following groups: • Rainwater management on the land (plots) used agricultural crops typical of the region; • Captation of rainwater surface runoff and using of this water for irrigation consumptive water- intensive plants, windbreaks, alleys and so on; • Recovery landscape with new features which are derivative canals, small water streams, small water reservoirs and wetlands; • Creating of calm oases in conjunction with small water reservoir, green islands with equipment for short stays and recreation; • Proposal of protective anti-erosion measures, measures against high waters and protection of banks against flowing water and waves; • Restoration of artificial drainage and irrigation canals, small water reservoirs, small water streams and wetlands including adjustments to their surroundings; • Build and integration rural roads and trails in landscape environment including the settlement of the issue reinforcement and drainage of rainwater from the road surface and their use; • Creating rainwater supplied protective refuges aquatic animals, aquatic and wetlands plants and managed wetlands; It’s necessary to solve rainwater management in relation urban, agricultural and forest environment, mainly higher runoff from urban, agricultural areas respectively lower runoff from forests areas. Own design must be preceded by detailed meteorological, climatic, hydrological, hydro-pedological survey; determine ownership; economic, social and history-cultural exploration and so on.
- 196 - Materials and methods The keeping and using main part of rainfall in landscape is the most important task of rainwater management in agricultural landscape. Surface runoff of rainwater closely related to intensity of rainfall and intensity of their infiltration into the soil which depends on the soil particle size, structure and texture of soil, hummus content, soil hydraulic conductivity, timing of infiltration, capacity pores in soil, high of groundwater level, water capacity in agricultural areas, vegetation cover and others. Permeability of soils is desirable to increase the appropriate agro-techniques. It’s necessary to improving soil structure, increasing the humus content and increase water capacity of soils. The shaping of agricultural lands and choice of suitable crop is very effective. The technological discipline in agro works is very important – it’s necessary to restriction passes through the fields by heavy mechanics, increasing rainwater infiltration, thereby increasing recoverable reserves of groundwater. Rainwater surface runoff is collected in small streams and reservoirs used for irrigation of alley along the roads, drains and watercourses. The small water reservoirs are proposed with storage and retention area which is slowly emptying by bank infiltration and sampling measure for irrigation – see fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Small water reservoir with bank infiltration of rainfall water (Scheme - prof. Ing. J. Šálek, CSc)
The surrounding of reservoir is grassing and planting by various trees and shrubs which provide shade and create the necessary environment for recreational wellbeing. There can be small calm oases equipped with benches, tables with open shelters, bike racks, place for tethering horses and so on. For larger reservoir are proposed islets which are used for recreation or using as bathing beach. An example arrangement is shown on Fig. 2. In a flat area are applied small water reservoir of lake type, fed by rainwater – there is possible allowing fish for recreational purposes like fishing – Fig. 3. Small water reservoir positively affect s the surrounding vegetation by continuous supply of water, creates a comfortable microclimate and stays in this modified location is very enjoyable. The banks is necessary to stabilize against influence of flowing water (rainwater running down the banks, water that returning after leveling etc. – causes erosion) and against damages caused by water level waving (wind driven waves, moves of boats – causes abrasion). The stabilization may suggest like biological or technical, or combination of these both types.
Fig. 2: Small water reservoir with island used to recreation - Budkov (Project prof. Ing. V. Tlapák, CSc)
- 197 -
Fig. 3: Small water reservoir using for recreational fishing (Revitalized derivative canal of river Jihlava in Malešovice. (Project prof. Ing. V. Tlapák, CSc.)
Small water reservoir stocked mostly by rainwater has also function biological reservoirs that perennial cleansing effect of increasing the quality of surface waters. Revitalization of drainage and irrigation canals is proposed for year-round flow channel or channels where is possible to ensure the survival of aquatic organisms. Revitalizing measures are proposed in accordance with CSN 75 2101: 2009. The most important restoration measures on the canals consist mainly in restoring their basic function – the ability to lead the water, it’s segmentation and layout ensuring continuous flow of water in the channel, increasing rainwater retention in the landscape, improve water quality in canal, improved landscaping and aesthetic functions drainage channel. Along the channels is revitalized vegetation, especially herbal level, but also alleys and there is proposed the road – paved, rural road or cycle path (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Rural road run along revitalized derivative canal in Malešovice. (Project prof. Ing. Václav Tlapák, CSc.)
Rural roads run along derivative, drainage or irrigational canals are usually multi-purpose. They are usually situated on one bank, give access to various part of the channel, small reservoir, allow connection municipalities outside the main road, creating rest areas that can benefit the citizens of neighboring municipalities for walks and tourists for recreation. For this reason, it is advisable to design rural paved roads to be possible use them during all year and in cases less favorable weather conditions (Fig. 5).
- 198 -
Fig. 5: Typical cross section by rural road, revitalized drainage canal with vegetation. (Ing. P. Pelikán)
Results and Discussion Issues rainwater management and recreation in agricultural landscape can be solved by mutual agreement. Building a multi-purpose reservoir including design and planting of suitable riparian vegetation and attractive recreational features do not impair the primary function of reservoir. Similarly can be designed restoration of water streams – for example: integrate cycle path into own proposal and if it is possible, connection of exists paths/roads to new designed. However it’s necessary to respect protection of nature and landscape, but also protection of agricultural production and (in season too) try to combine the needs and requirements of different groups of all our society.
Conclusion This article is presented in the spirit of the proposal for possible adjustments in landscape which should support the natural attractiveness of landscape and if it’s possible lead to her minimal disruption. In a strongly anthropogenically influenced region of central Europe, we must learn to compromise within a multi-use landscapes. Unable to prefer ways long-term land use that lead to the collapse of landscape.
References Geiger, W., Dreiselt, H., (1995): Neue wege für das Regenwasser. Gelsenkirchen, pp. 291. Hanák, K., Kupčák, V., Skoupil, J., Šálek, J., Tlapák, V., Zuna, J., (2008): Stavby pro plnění funkcí lesa. Praha: ČKAIT, pp. 304. Holý, M., (1994): Eroze a životní prostředí. Praha: Vydavatelství ČVUT, pp. 383. Šálek, J., Kriška, M., Pírek, O., Plotěný, K., Rozkošný, M., Žáková, Z., (2012): Voda v domě a na chatě. Praha: Nakladatelství Grada, pp. 144. Šálek, J., Malá, E. (ed.), (2001): Stabilizační a dešťové nádrže. Sborník referátů z konference. Brno: FAST VUT, pp. 67. Šálek, J., Mika, Z., Tresová, A., (1989): Rybníky a účelové nádrže. Praha: SNTL, pp. 267. Šálek, J., Kujal, B., Doležal, P., (1989): Rybníky a účelové nádrže. Brno: ES VUT, pp. 144. Šáalek J., Tlapák, V., (2006): Přírodní způsoby čištění znečištěných povrchových a odpadních vod. Praha: ČKAIT, pp. 283. Korytárová J., Šlezingr M., Uhmannová H., (2007): Determination of potential damage to representatives of real estate property in areas affliced by flooding. Journal of hydrology and hydromechanics, 55: 282-285. Šlezingr,M., (2007): Stabilisation of reservoir banks using an "armoured earth structure“, Journal of hydrology and hydromechanics, no.1/2007, Tlapák, V., Šálek, J., Legát,V., (1992): Voda v zemědělské krajině. Praha: ZN Brázda, pp. 318.
- 199 - Tlapák, V., Šálek, J., Tlapáková, P., (2013): Small recreational reservoirs. In: Public recreation and landscape protection - with man hand in hand. Brno: Mendelova univerzita vBrně, pp.159 - 165. Tlapák, V., Prokop, J., (2007): Revitalizace Allahových rybníků. In: Allahy - revitalizovaná rybniční soustava. Brno: Dolní Morava - biosférická rezervace, pp. 71-75. Tlapák, V., Prokop, J. The Allahy Fishponds restoration. In: The Allahy Fishponds. Brno: Dolní Morava - biosférická rezervace, pp. 246 - 152.
Acknowledgement The article contains partial results of research project “Active anti-abrasion structures”, reg. no. LDF_VT_2015011, funded by IGA FFWT MENDELU Brno.
Souhrn Referát pojednává o využití srážkových vod soustředěných ve vodotečích a malých vodních nádržích k rekreačním účelům v zemědělské krajině. Poukazuje na zvláštnosti, které je třeba splnit, aby se tento záměr mohl plně uskutečnit. V první řadě jde o vytvoření těchto vodních prvků v krajině, jejich zpřístupnění, ochrana před erozí, korozí, zanášením a velkými vodami, ale také jejich začlenění do krajiny prostřednictvím zeleně.
Contact Prof. Ing. Václav Tlapák, CSc. Phone: + 420 731 486 930; e-mail: [email protected]
- 200 - RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNIQUE WATER TROUGH AT HARMANEC AS THE EXAMPLE OF THE ATTRACTIVENESS
Jiří Junek, Jitka Fialová, Hana Kubíčková 1 Silva Bohemica, Lesník, Les, independent journalist 2 Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Our ancestors knew how to help themselves while working in the forest without current results of science and technology. The power of water was used for skidding from the forest stands with difficult access mainly in the spring time of sufficient amount of water, as well as for the river floating. Traffic transport for dry skidding of logs and water flumes for timber skidding were made from the trees. The last preserved and still functional water flume for timber floating is hidden in the beautiful Rakytovo valley near Dolný Harmanec in the National Park Veľká Fatra. The flume is 2.450 meters long and was probably built in the 19th century. It was used for floating logs generally in the spring - in the rich water period. The flume is made entirely of spruce or fir logs. Construction of the flume consists of a transversal logs, which were used such a foundation bed of the flume and longitudinally cut logs and side logs were attached to log sideboard. The water flume is trough shaped in the cross section. Logs were skid to the flume manually or by horses in previous years before the spring floating and they had to be cut to meter long pieces or chipped. In the period of log floating, there were patrols along the flume to secure a fluent movement of timber in the flume. Patrols have to move back logs, which were wedged. Depending on the length of the flume and amount of floating logs, there were needed 40 to 80 people during the floating period. Daily output was about 150 stacked cubic meters of floated logs. The flume ended in Harmanec creek, where the logs were caught and taken out by „hooks“ eventually logs continued floating trough Bystrica creek to Banská Bystrica to the former municipal timber yard „Zábava“. In 2000 the flume Rakytovo was declared such a National Cultural Monument. After more than 100 years after the period when was built the construction of the flume, the city Banská Bystrica decided to make a reconstruction, which was in 2006. The costs of 1.5 millions Slovak crowns were covered by the project “The development of tourism infrastructure of city Banská Bystrica“, which supported the European Union, the Slovak Republic and the city of Banská Bystrica. Acknowledgement also belongs to great effort and skilful hands of staff from Municipal Forests of Banská Bystrica. This unique masterpiece of water was presented in its full beauty with logs floating demonstration during the Forestry Day events held on the 27th of April 2007, and the 25th of April 2008.
Key words: skiding, floating, sapina (rod with metal hook)
Detvan express train on the track between Banská Bystrica and Turčianské Teplice weaves a romantic landscape of forests and rocks on the border between two mountain ranges - Nízké Tatry and Velká Fatra. Detvan express train passes through two dozen tunnels. Zvolen´s diesel locomotives - front red "brejlovec", from back typical orange "orange" - leads without difficult problems to the highest point of the track - to Čemošnianský tunnel. In some places, the tunnels are so close together that neither man really is not enough to perceive the beauty of the steep canyons that separate them. This is the case of Dolný Harmanec station and a short walk outside before the station Harmanec - Jaskyňa. The express train ride takes between the two tunnels just a few seconds. The train goes over the bridge, which stands high above sheer canyons. Only few people notice in this place interesting forestry technical construction at its bottom. Construction which belongs to the first in line in the hierarchy of means of log transport. This is last Slovak water flume for logs - rizňa - which runs in Rakytovo valley since the nineteenth century. Father of woodman Ján Vajs from Dolní Harmanec remembered functional water flume, one of the last of experts for building a water flume. In Rakytovo valley, there is still no way to pulling logs. Only a narrow sidewalk wind parallel with water flume in lush vegetation. The nature is really intact here. Harmanec´s foresters from Banská Bystrica forests are really proud on their water flume. Let´s introduce a few technical data of water flume. Technical data provided Emeritus Directorate of General of Forests of the Slovak Republic, sp, Banská Bystrica Ing. Michal Štefančík, CSc. A man who is largely credited with the preservation of this forest rarity. The total length of the preserved
- 201 - section is 2.450 m, originally it was 7.000 m. It starts at the end of the valley, at an altitude of 790 m. Water overcomes slope 280 m to the mouth of the Čierný creek in water flume. On the construction of the water flume is was used spruce and fir wood, assembled into four to five meters long portions which were being formed into a trough. The individual parts are put on wooden bases long 120-140 cm, with a diameter of 20-25 cm. The bottom of the water flume is created by two or three hand-chipped trunks. Individual parts are attaching by wooden studs to the base. Wooden studs are made of hard parts of spruce branches. Once, they have even used yew wood. The advantage of wooden studs was the possibility of rapid removal of damaged parts of the flume. They have used an ax for repairing of the flume. The main advantage of wooden studs was that evenly abrasion was together with other parts of the flume. Ablation logs were not trapped, as they would when were using metal studs.
Fig. 1: Harmanec´s water flume - information board (photo by Jiří Junek)
Fig. 2: Harmanec´s water flume - it´s inauguration after reconstruction with support from EU (photo by Jiří Junek)
Fig. 3: Harmanec´s water flume ends at the hydroelectric power (photo by Jiří Junek)
- 202 -
Fig. 4: Harmanec´s water flume in the valley of Rakytovo, there are also information boards and spring (photo by Jiří Junek)
Fig. 5: Harmanec´s water flume. Historical hydroelectric power by Harmanec´s paper-mill at the estuary of the water flume (photo by Jiří Junek)
Fig. 6: Harmanec´s water flume. There were used rods with metal hooks (sapina) for removing one metre logs from the water flume (photo by Jiří Junek)
Resurgent forestry tradition is used every spring Foresters piled up heaps piece of logs along the wooden flume. See flume, if is not broken somewhere. They prepare rods with metal hooks - sapina. One April morning, foresters meet at the forest district in Dolný Harmanec and then come to Rakytovo, point of annual floating. It is not part of their daily work duties, but foresters have an interest in this unique Slovak forestry technical monument. In the past, there were several flumes in the valley of Slovak forests. Now there is survived only this one. At the estuary of Rakytovo - narrow steep valley on the edge of the Veľká Fatra - are ready "lumber- jack breakfast" for foresters, which is hearty breakfast to strengthen and boost in the morning. After it, foresters prepared logs for floating. Logs are floating in the water flume, if some log has jammed and barred the way to others, foresters release it. It is accompanied by an impressive geyser of water. Several foresters remain with the rods with metal hooks at the lower part of water flume and they pull
- 203 - out floating meter logs from the water. This requires strength and dexterity. The guys take turn. After a while they go to fortify and chat with friends who are meeting there on the occasion of floating in the water flume. Not only local foresters - workers of the Municipal Forests Banská Bystrica with Director Ing. Blažej Možucha - care about water flume and organize this event. On this event also come colleagues from state forests, state administration, conservation, from surrounding urban forests and former colleagues. Opportunity to come between foresters did not even omit the former mayor of the city Banská Bystrica Mgr. Peter Gogol immediate superior of the Banská Bystrica foresters, have came from the headquarters of the Forest of Slovak Republic, sp. He came not only for goulash. He took sapina rod and went to the valley to help other foresters. A feast for Harmanec´s foresters are sometimes those parts of spring and autumn, when there is lots of water and it´s possible floating in water flume. It is the best water level which is reaching in two- thirds of the height of the flume. Before logs floating, foresters must thoroughly inspect and remove any flaws or damage. Most often it is released sidewall. Just before the logs floating in the water flume, it is going to dam up the point of estuary to the Čierný creek. The water level rises and there is a small lake. One metre floating logs float to the surface, where they are pulling out by using rod with metal hook - sapina. Logs are throwing smoothly to the water flume because of avoiding of the jamming. There are confronts patrols - varty in the point where will be a stop and displace logs from water flume. From the lower end of water flume, there are logs shipped off to customers. Originally, around 1933, logs continued without interruption by Čierný brook into Harmanec´s paper-mill or hereafter by river Bystrica to Banská Bystrica. If you visit Harmanec´s cave, go for a walk from a nearby building Forestry Administration in Harmanec. Then go in the way of upstream Čierný brook to the small historic hydroelectric power. In the vicinity of hydroelectric power starts Rakytovo valley with the water flume at the information board. Every spring, there is Harmanec´s floating which is carry on in the second half of April. Rakytovo valley with the water flume already visited several excursions of the Czech foresters. When you are listening to the pleasant hum of bound water, may be you remember the story from your childhood on a courageous journey of princess Krasomila and king Miroslav, when they escaped from their pursuers on a log in the water flume.
References Junek, J. (2002): Modrá – zelená. Ústav pre výchovu pracovníkov lesného a vodného hospodárstva SR, Zvolen. Významné lesnícke miesta na Slovensku I., kol. (2009): Lesy Slovenskej republiky, š. p., Banská Bystrica.
Souhrn Již naši předkové věděli, jak pomoci sami při práci v lese, aniž by dosavadní výsledky vědy a techniky. Síla vody byla použita pro přibližování z lesních porostů s obtížným přístupem především v jarním období, kdy bylo dostatečné množství vody. Zařízení pro suché přibližování klád a vodní skluzavky pro přibližování klád byly vyrobeny ze stromů. Poslední zachovalý a stále funkční vodní žlab pro plavení dřeva se skrývá v krásném údolí nedaleko Rakitovo Dolný Harmanec v Národním parku Velká Fatra. Náhon je 2,450 m dlouhý a byl pravděpodobně postaven v 19. století. Byl použit obecně na jaře - v období bohatém na vodu. Žlab je vyroben výhradně z smrkových nebo jedlových kmenů. Konstrukce žlabu se skládá z průřezových kulatin. Podle záznamů byl smyk na náhonu ruční nebo pomocí koní. Dříví museli zkrátit na metrové kusy nebo naštípat. V závislosti na délce žlabu a množství plovoucích kulatiny, bylo během období plavení potřeba 40-80 lidí. Denní výkon byl 150 metrů krychlových kulatiny. V dnešní době je to velmi atraktivní turistický cíl.
Contact: Jiří Junek Phone: +420 723 259 010, e-mail: [email protected]
Bc. Ing. Hana Kubíčková Phone: +420 545 134 082, e-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Jitka Fialová, MSc, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 096, e-mail: [email protected]
- 204 - RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL INCREASE OF THE AREA WITH THE HELP OF SPECIFIED ELEMENTS OF ATTRACTIVENESS
Hana Kubíčková, Jitka Fialová Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Land consolidation, respectively plan of common facilities does not accept the planning possibility of parallel recreational use of specific cadastral territory. For this reason, we propose the dividing of cadastral territory into zones of recreational attractiveness, in which will occur an existing and newly designed elements of attractiveness. These defined elements of attractiveness followed and are carried out in accordance with the comprehensive land consolidation, respectively plan of common facilities. The purpose of design of these elements is especially outline new possibilities of landscape planning in the field of recreation and recreational use of the area carried out in the context of land consolidation.
Key words: recreation, land consolidation, landscape planning, cadastral territory
Introduction Current state of the solution of land consolidation does not reflect adequately the needs of local residents and tourists for recreational use. According Vaňous (2013) land consolidation serves as a tool for the practical implementation of agricultural policies. According to him is meant a deliberate intervention in the organization of the landscape in order to more sustainable agricultural use. Pursuant to Act 139/2002 Coll., on land consolidation and land offices, as amended, with land consolidation in the public interest spatially and functionally structure the land, consolidate or split them and ensures accessibility and utilization of land and settlement of their boundaries so that to create the conditions for rational management of landowners. In this context, the original plots are vanishing while new plots are creating to which is organize the ownership rights and related easements. At the same time land consolidation provide the conditions for improving the quality of life in rural areas and improve the environment. Results of the land consolidation serve to renewal of cadastral, but are also the basis for spatial planning. In terms of recreation and recreational planning must not forget mainly recreational tolerable capacity, which characterizes the possible of recreational potential of a specific area. Combining of these ideas should lead to the creation of new ways to interconnect the plan of common facilities and recreational land use.
Materials and methods The source of inspiration for the implementation of comprehensive land consolidation is in the following of the recreational use of area may be the implementation of Local biocentre LBC 9b Močidla in cadastral territory Mořice. The area belongs to the Land Office Prostějov. Local biocentre area is 3.0017 ha. It is a wetland with small and large bank, where the palisades were plant and zone were modeled. The overall scope of measures was based on the current draft of common facilities in comprehensive land consolidation (CLC) in the cadastral territory Mořice. This newly designed element as biocentre is representing biota floodplain areas with meadows, forest and wetland. They also perform the function of publicly accessible green space as an educational area and refugium of original and people deliberately disseminated biota. The proposed planting will be increased ecological stability of the territory and improved conditions for the protection of agricultural land against water and wind erosion. There is given the option of shared use biocentre and people through the nature trails around biocentre. A prerequisite for the proposal scale, which is based on dividing the cadastral territory into zones attractiveness is the primary determination of elements of attractiveness. We divide elements of attractiveness into two types. Existing elements of attractiveness in the territory or newly defined, designed elements of attractiveness. On the elements of attractiveness, both existing and newly designed is viewed from three perspectives - from the natural, cultural and historical perspective. Based on these aspects we divided elements of attractiveness in the natural elements of attractiveness, cultural elements of attractiveness and historical elements attractiveness. Each element is assigned a point value. Specific elements of attractiveness can be incorporated into more than one category, because we are aware of possible of multi-functional character of the individual elements.
- 205 - Within the natural elements of attractiveness, we focus on vegetation and plant communities which we evaluate from the perspective of native and alien species composition (forest, solitary, avenue). Secondly, we look at the cadastral territory or it´s specific part from the view of protected plant species whose occurrence area is not part of the specially protected area or whether in the territory are found planted valuable trees and shrubs (also cultural and historical focus). From the perspective of animal communities we follow representation of protected species and migratory routes of higher mammals. In terms of rock communities, we monitor quantity and accessibility of rock formations, such as rocks, rock communities and accompanying rock flora and fauna, we also monitor the occurrence of caves, vegetation and accompanying fauna and the amount of sinkholes in the area and the accompanying fauna and flora. We do not forget on the presence of mines and associated flora and fauna, where is also taken the cultural and historical focus. From the perspective of aquatic communities we propose to monitor the occurrence and quality of water features in the landscape (streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wells), whether they are natural, revitalized, non-revitalized or are unoriginal flow patterns. Within the natural elements of attractiveness we also monitor the occurrence of significant natural areas that meet at the same time also the cultural aspect such as national parks, protected landscape areas, national nature reserves, nature reserves, national nature monuments, natural sites, the Natura 2000 sites (sites of European importance and bird´s sites), areas protected by the Ramsar Convention, important landscape elements and territorial system of ecological stability found in the given cadastral territory in the context of measures to protect and improve the environment. Within the cultural elements of attractiveness, we are observing whether the castles, forts, ruins, forts and settlement occurrence in the specific cadastral territory. Technical buildings (water and windmills, ponds, raceways). We also do not ignore the small sacral inventory, such as crosses, calvary, chapel, where it is evident significant historical attractiveness of the element as well. We also explore verge of positive / negative events (eg. the battlefield) within the cultural elements of attractiveness. From the perspective of sports enjoyment, we explore a number of sports grounds and sports complexes, respectively natural areas for sports, outdoor swimming pool (lakes, quarries) in the territory. We look about the access for cycling, bridle path, cross-country skiing trails and sidewalks in the context of arrangements for access to properties in the land consolidation and also their mutual connection or collision. We also intend on the disclosure territory for seniors, families with strollers and disabeled people. In this context we focus mainly on the quality of the road surface and special routes and their difference of heights in the study area, the availability of higher class communication and the amount of available rest areas. These elements are recorded in the designed tables for exist and newly designed elements of attractiveness. The background must also be educational function of the area. We refer to the technical and cultural buildings in the territory of the museum, natural areas and nature trails, mining areas and newly established units (heap dumps, quarries, etc.), tree-lined avenue, cemeteries. Elements of attractiveness have multifunctional character in our opinion. So the historical elements of attractiveness are freely reflected into accordance with cultural elements. We mean castles, forts, ruins, fortresses, settlement and also archaeological findings. Furthermore, small sacral inventory, such as crosses, calvary, chapels. Technical buildings (water and windmills, ponds, raceways). Verge of positive/negative events (eg. the battlefield legend, a miracle, saying murtuary, conciliation stones, genius loci). Also mining areas, historical formations (heap dumps, quarries, etc.), tree-lined avenue and cemeteries.
Results We present a proposal on the table to fill existing or newly designed feature below. It is useful especially during field reconnaissance surveys within the boundaries of land consolidation, where we can define the existing elements or to make a preliminary draft of the new elements that could be later incorporated into the design of a new land consolidation. Existing elements or redefined proposed elements of attractiveness would be related to a particular parcel.
- 206 - Tab 1: Existing element or the newly designed element of attractiveness (adjusted by Muchová, Hrnčiarová and Petrovič, 2013) Existing element of attractiveness/ newly designed element of attractiveness Official Name Local Name Cadastral Territory Parcel Number
Projection to another cadastral territory Type of holding Method of use
Characteristics of element of attractiveness
The current state of the element of attractiveness Incorporating of element of Incorporating of element of attractiveness in nature conservation attractiveness to the natural (yes-no), the degree of protection characteristics of the cadastral territory
Incorporating of element of Incorporating of element of attractiveness to the cultural attractiveness to the characteristics of the cadastral historical characteristics of territory the cadastral territory
Their combinations
Negative phenomena influencing element of attractiveness Design Measures landscape-ecological management landcape engineering
Proposals for legal protection and degree of protection
Discussion We consider principal means of increasing the recreational potential of the cadastral territory by defining of existing and newly proposed determination of elements. On the basis of well-defined elements we can also plan a socio-economic use of a specific territory and raise awareness of the population about the natural, cultural and historic features appearing in the cadastral territory of the municipality. For this purpose it will well served locating table for existing and newly designed elements of attractiveness, which is connected with a specific plot that can be used within a terrain reconnaissance carried out in complex land consolidation. We will continue with review and revised where necessary on above-described elements of attractiveness in specific cadastral territories in order to eliminate systematic errors and to further integration with land consolidation, respectively tie in measures resulting from the plan of common facilities.
- 207 - Tab 2: Proposal scoring for natural elements of attractiveness (only part) NATURAL ELEMENTS OF ATTRACTIVENESS Vegetation, plant communities The original species Alien species composition (1 Species composition composition (3 p.) p.) forest solitaire tree-lined avenue
Interesting vegetation yes no Points 3 p. 0 p. representation of protected species, but in a lower number Points 1 p. 0 p. planted valuable trees, shrubs (cultural-historical perspective)
Tab 3: Proposal scoring for the historical elements of attractiveness HISTORICAL ELEMENTS OF ATTRACTIVENESS Points 7p. 0p.
Castles, forts, ruins, fortresses, settlement Archaeological findings Points 5p. 0p.
Technical buildings: water and windmills, raceways, ponds Points 3p. 0p.
Small sacral inventory, such as crosses, calvary, chapels Verge of positive/negative events (e.g. the battlefield legend, a miracle, saying murtuary, conciliation stones, genius loci) Cemeteries Mining areas and newly established units (heap dumps, quarries, etc.) Tree-lined avenue
Conclusion Linking land consolidation and recreation is still in our conditions unsolved and neglected topic. We are aware that the current situation of the solutions of land consolidation does not allow concurrently solving of recreational function of the specified area because of the legal and methodological arguments. Therefore, we seek above all a new perspective on this issue, which could help to open discussion on changes in solution of land consolidation and recreation. Our biggest concern in the recreation is directed to local residents, respectively residents of a specific cadastral territory. For this reason, we receive more convenient to relate the recreation and land consolidation, respectively recreational potential of the cadastral territory in the form of existing and newly designed elements of attractiveness and their accessibility for residents of a specific cadastral territory, which is solved in comprehensive land consolidation. Nowadays more than ever has a cultural landscape multifunctional character when the designer must locate array of diverse interests on a particular cadastral territory according Kubíčková and Fialová (2014). According them, it is important take a think about the man and his option for recreational rest in the cultural landscape (especially in the agriculturally used).
- 208 - References Kubíčková, H., Fialová, J. (2014): Rekreační využívání krajiny a jeho vazba na pozemkové úpravy. In: Fialová, Jitka (eds.). Konference krajinné inženýrství 2014. 1. vyd. Brno: Česká společnost krajinných inženýrů, s. 216. ISBN 978-80-87384-06-0. Muchová, Z., Hrnčiarová, T., Petrovič, F. (2013): Miestny územný systém ekologickej stability na účely pozemkových úprav. 1. vyd. Nitra: Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita v Nitre, s. 138. ISBN 978- 80-552-1127-5. Soutěž „O nejlepší realizované společné zařízení v pozemkových úpravách v roce 2008“. Pozemkové úpravy: Časopis pro tvorbu a ochranu krajiny: teorie a praxe. 2009, roč. 17, č. 69, s. 17. Vaňous, M. (2013): Pozemkové úpravy v naší historii. Pozemkové úpravy: Časopis pro tvorbu a ochranu krajiny: teorie a praxe. roč. 21, č. 1, s. 10-11. Act 139/2002 Coll., „o pozemkových úpravách a pozemkových úřadech, ve znění pozdějších předpisů“
Acknowledgement The paper was written with the support of the Internal Grant Agency No. 2015026/2015.
Souhrn Jsme si vědomy toho, že současný stav řešení pozemkových úprav neumožňuje souběžně řešit z důvodu legislativních a metodických rekreační potenciál území. Proto se snažíme především o nový pohled na tuto problematiku, který by měl přispět k otevření podmětné diskuze na změnu v řešení. Náš největší zájem v oblasti rekreace směřuje na lokální obyvatele, resp. obyvatele konkrétního katastrálního území obce. Z tohoto důvodu vztahujeme rekreaci na pozemkové úpravy, resp. stanovujeme rekreační potenciál katastrálního území za pomoci existujících a nově navržených prvků atraktivity a jejich následné dostupnosti pro obyvatele konkrétní obce řešené v komplexních pozemkových úpravách. Z tohoto důvodu považujeme vymezení existujících a stanovení nově navržených prvků za stěžejní prostředek zvýšení rekreačního potenciálu katastrálního území, na základě něhož je pak možné plánovat socio-ekonomické využití konkrétního území obce.
Contact: Bc. Ing. Hana Kubíčková Phone: +420 545 134 082, e-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Jitka Fialová, MSc, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 096, e-mail: [email protected]
- 209 - REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS FOR STAIRS AND STAIRWAYS IN NATURE
Pavla Kotásková Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Staircase in nature belongs to structures, where prevails purpose. Aesthetic importance cannot be ignored. In the natural environment, it is suitable to use natural materials: wood and stone. Stairs should copy the terrain to act as naturally as possible. When we design the stairs, it is necessary to comply with certain requirements in order walking the stairs was comfortable and safe. For this reason, in some cases it is suitable to design staircase made of steel or reinforced concrete. It should be incorporated at the location where the best fit into the natural environment. Construction elements in nature should not be disruptive.
Key words: wooden structures, stair treads, railings
Introduction Stairs and staircases are used for the communication connection between the two different height levels. Staircase should be designed, where the slope of the tour was higher than 10 °. It is the overcoming of height higher than 1 m at 6 m in length. The different height levels may be overcome by one or two steps or stairs. Three more steps are considered as a staircase. Staircase must be comfortable and safe during ascent and descent. Pedestrian perceived very negatively any deficiency in the design of stairs. During the design, it is necessary to respect the fundamental provisions of the applicable standards ČSN 73 4130 Schodiště a šikmé rampy - základní ustanovení a ČSN 74 3305 Ochranná zábradlí.
Materials and methods The individual steps set up in series creates a stair flight. Passage width of the stair flight, which is measured as the horizontal distance between the outer edges of the flight should match to the width of the path, which is adjacent to the stairs. For the passage of adult humans it is recommended 600 mm (can be reduced to 550 mm). For passing two persons is required minimum width 900 mm. It is recommended to design multiple of width, which is necessary for the passage of an adult, and which can be reduced to 550 mm (fig.1). We distinguish between direct stair flights, which is made up from straight steps. Ground plan shape of the stairs is a rectangle. If you need to change the straight direction (we need to turn), we design a mixed or circular stairs. These are composed of oblique steps. Ground plan shape of the stairs is a trapezoid. Pitch line - an imaginary line of the staircase output, that connects the front edges of the steps is situated on the ground plan in the axis of the flight. For mixed or circular stairs is situated on a ground plan at a distance of 1/3 the width of the flight, measured from the outer edge of the stair flight. When passage width is larger than 1800 mm, the pitch line is placed in the axis of the stair flight. On the pitch line of the stair flight, the step must have designed dimensions (tread and rise of the step). Tread of the steps with a curved pitch line is measured as bowstring of the arc at the intersection of the pitch line with the edges of subsequent steps. (ČSN EN 15567-1) In the stair flight, all steps should have the same rise. The rise of a step is measured as the vertical distance between the scales (the upper surfaces of steps) of two consecutive steps in the flight. The width of the flight is measured as the horizontal distance between the front edges of two consecutive steps in the flight. (Klimešová 2007) The ratio between the rise and tread of the steps is given by: 2 x h + b = 630 mm Wherein: h – rise [mm], b – tread [mm].
Slope of stair flight is the basis for the total rise of terrain stairs. Slope (gradient) means the angle between connectors of the front edges of the steps and the horizontal plane. Minimum recommended rise is 80mm. For slope between 10° to 20°, the rise of the steps is until 130mm. When the slope of the slight staircase 20° to 25°, the rise is from 130 to 150mm. The optimum rise is 150mm. Greater tendency is not recommended for use in the field. The slope less than 10 ° overcomes by using oblique surfaces - ramps. Sometimes we need to overcome the larger height difference on a relatively
- 210 - small area. It's mostly on trails that are difficult to access eg. in the rocks. Here it is necessary to use a much larger slope. There is a possibility to use a stairs with treads between or steep stairs. Steps then have a rise of 180-240 mm. These stairs have a slope from 35 ° to 60 °. Above this inclination, we design ladders. Number of steps is based on height, which we need to overcome by staircase. If we want to design more than 10 degrees and the situation on the ground it allows, it is appropriate to divide the staircase on more flights and separate by intermediate landing. Outgoing walker in this case see a flat surface of the landing, which keeps wellbeing in his mind. It is recommended that the height level of the landing does not exceed the height of the eyes average man i.e. 1650 mm (fig. 2). Depth of landing on which we don’t change the direction must be at least equal to the sum of 630 mm and a tread of the step to move on well. Finally, in general: l = n x 630 + b Where l is the length of the landing, n is the number of steps, b is the tread of the step.
Landings which serve to rest, or even stop, may be implemented as a ramp with an inclination up to 10 °. If the staircase is within five steps and follow the terrain, it is not necessary to design the railing. For staircases above 5 steps, it is recommended, to ensure the safety of persons moving on the stairs, to design railings placed at least on one side. The minimum allowable height of the railing is 1000 mm. When the depth space is not more than 3.0 m, the height may be reduced to 900 mm. If the depth space is at most 12.0 m, the height of the railing should be 1100 mm. If the depth space is at most 30.0 m, the height of the railing must be 1200 mm. (Hykš, Gieciová, 2008)
Fig. 1: Passage width of the stair flight
Fig. 2: The elevation of the landings: 1- unsuitable 2 - suitable
- 211 - Results When building stairs outdoors on hiking trips we have to reckon with the fact that the stairs will be exposed to all weather conditions that can be extremely different during the year. In summer, in the sunshine temperatures can reach up to 40 ° C in winter even - 20 ° C. Is it necessary to substantial influence - rain, ice and snow. Terrain staircase must be, as each staircase, stable, solid, non-oscillate and wear resistant. For this reason it is necessary to give special attention to the choice of materials and way of founding. Each scale and landings should have a slight inclination about 1% towards the riser to allow water to drain without a problem. On the stone steps and stair we use quarry stone, which should be placing in unmade ground, not into the bank. We select stones, which have one plane surface. They are massive and heavy to ensure sufficient stability. The individual steps are built on dry, without mortar, joints shall be supplemented by smaller stones and fill in by soil, like dike. If there is requirement for stable staircase, you can build from quarry stones and connect with cement mortar.
Fig. 3: Molded gratings PR
Discussion Wood and stone are the most natural materials for staircase used in the landscape. Yet, sometimes we have to use a different material. For hard accessible places and where degradation of wood elements required very expensive maintenance or frequent replacement it is preferable to use metal structures. Currently used steel structures which are used on steps are molded gratings PR (fig. 3). Their advantage is easy to maintain even in the winter months, when snow usually falls through the gratings. We should be aware that this element does not fit into the natural environment. That is why we place it only in exceptional situations.
Conclusion Often it exists naturally beautiful places eg. the gorge, that ordinary tourist does not have the opportunity to visit. Suitable construction of bridges, staircases and ladders allow that this place becomes the destination for trips also for less experienced hikers (fig. 4). In addition to the suitable materials natural - wood and stone, we use in exceptional cases, concrete or steel structures (fig. 5). In a humid environment, wooden stairs can be slippery. It is appropriate to design the railing in these places. For higher security, it is recommended to provide railings on both sides.
- 212 -
Fig. 4: Staircases and footbridges in the gorge
Fig. 5: Steel structure of staircases
References ČSN 73 4130: Schodiště a šikmé rampy - základní ustanovení. Český normalizační institut, Praha 2010. Klimešová, J. (2007): Nauka o pozemních stavbách: modul M01. Vyd. 1. Brno: Akademické nakladatelství CERM, 57 s. ISBN 978-80-7204-530-3. Hykš, P, Gieciová, M. (2008): Schodiště, rampy, žebříky. 1. vyd. Praha: Grada, 160 s. ISBN 978-80- 247-2688-5.
Souhrn Schodiště v přírodě patří mezi stavební konstrukce, u nichž převažuje účel. Nelze však přehlížet i estetický význam. V přírodním prostředí bude vhodné použít přírodní materiály: dřevo a kámen. Schody by měly kopírovat terén, aby působily co nejpřirozeněji. Při návrhu je třeba dodržet určité požadavky, aby chůze po schodišti byla pohodlná a bezpečná. Základem pro návrh výšky terénního
- 213 - schodiště je stanovení sklonu schodišťového ramene. Při stavbě schodišť v přírodě na turistických cestách musíme počítat s tím, že schody budou vystaveny všem přírodním klimatickým vlivům a podmínkám, které se v průběhu roku extrémně liší. Je nutné počítat s podstatnými vlivy dešti, námrazy či sněhu. Terénní schodiště musí být, jako každé schodiště, stabilní, pevné, nesmí se kývat a odolné proti opotřebení. Z uvedeného důvodu je nutné věnovat mimořádnou pozornost výběru materiálu a způsobu založení. Stupně mají mít mírný sklon přibližně 1% směrem k podstupnici, aby z nich voda mohla bez problému odtékat a nezůstávala na stupnici. Na kamenné schody a schodiště používáme lomový kámen, který by měl být ukládán do rostlého terénu, nikoliv do násypu. Vybírají se takové kameny, které mají jednu plochu rovnou. Jsou masivní, těžké, aby zajistily dostatečnou stabilitu. Jednotlivé stupně se staví na sucho, bez malty, spáry se doplní drobnějšími kameny a zasypávají zeminou, podobně jako suché zídky. Jestliže je požadavek na stabilnější schodiště, je možné schodiště z lomového kamene spojovat cementovou maltou. Dřevo a kámen je nepřirozenější materiál pro schodiště použité v krajině. Přesto se někdy neubráníme použití i jiných materiálů. V případě špatně přístupných míst, kde by degradace dřevěných prvků vyžadovala velmi nákladnou údržbu nebo častou výměnu je výhodnější využít kovových konstrukcí. V současné době se využívají ocelové konstrukce, které mají na stupně použity lisované rošty PR. Jejich výhodou je jednouchá údržba i v zimních měsících, kdy sníh většinou roštem propadá. Měli bychom si být vědomi, že do přírodního prostředí tento prvek nezapadá, proto je umísťujeme jen opravdu ve výjimečných situacích. Ve vlhkém prostředí mohou být nejen dřevěná schodiště kluzká. Je vhodné v takových místech navrhovat zábradlí. Pro vyšší bezpečnost se doporučuje opatřit zábradlím po obou stranách. Mnohdy jsou přírodně krásná místa např. soutěsky, kam se nemá možnost běžný turista dostat. Vhodnou konstrukcí lávek, schodišť a žebříků se tato místa mohou stát cílem výletů i pro méně zdatné turisty. Kromě vhodných materiálů přírodních - dřevo a kámen, použijeme ve výjimečných případech i železobetonové nebo ocelové konstrukce.
Contact: Ing. Pavla Kotásková, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 010, e-mail: [email protected]
- 214 - REROUTING FINLAND´S AGROFORESTRY SCHEME
Henri Vanhanen, Rainer Peltola Natural Resources Institute Finland – Luke, Joensuu, Yliopistonkatu 6, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland
Abstract Agroforestry has long traditions in Finland in form of wood pastures and reindeer herding. However latter is nowadays the only form of agroforestry which is widely practiced in northern parts of Finland as area coverage of wood pastures has declined steeply form the beginning of 1950´s. Finland has vast resources of forest, the total forest coverage being 71,6 % of Finland’s total land area. This number is one of the highest in the world. However, new innovative and active agroforestry measures distinctive to the environment and culture has not been developed in the past though forests hold several, readily available Non-wood Forest Products (NWFP`s). Forests have mainly been seen as a source of timber and pulp and the awareness of multiple uses of forest has not been come to prominence until 1990´s. Berries and mushrooms are Finland’s most important NWFPs. They are collected from the wild for incomes and recreation. The yearly value of forest berry- and mushroom harvests varies from 4 to 25 million € and from 300 000 to 4 million €, respectively. Berry- and mushroom harvests vary greatly between years, depending on weather conditions affecting the flowering, pollination and fruiting body formation. As wild berries and mushrooms are the most important NWFP´s in Finland, MTT Agrifood Finland (as from 1.1.2015 Natural Resources Institute Finland – Luke) started to develop innovative, active agroforestry methods for high-yielding and constant berry and mushroom production. Two projects were launched; LUSTI in 2010 and RahaRääseikkö in 2012. Both of them were funded by the EU Rural Development Programme for Mainland Finland 2007-2013. Project LUSTI – Securing the Availability of Nature Derived Berries with Cultivation Practices, aimed to test the feasibility of several agroforestry - based cultivation practices to ensure higher and more stable wild berry harvests. Project RahaRääseikkö aimed to develop mushroom production methods in low productive forests. Both of these projects aim to shape new cultural identity for Finnish agroforestry. These projects are presented briefly in this article.
Key words: agroforestry, berries, lingonberry, bilberry, mushrooms, Inonotus obliquus
Introduction Agroforestry is a traditional land use practice in which livestock is herded or crops are cultivated in forested areas. It is a relatively new name for a very old practice which was once widely practiced throughout Europe. Agroforestry practices are commonly associated with the farming systems in tropics, but in Europe it is the oldest form crop and livestock production (Mosquera-Losada et al. 2009). Due to intensification of both agriculture and forestry, agroforestry practices gradually disappeared during the 20th century, when these two land - use practices were considered to be more effective when separated (McAdam et al. 2009). In many cases practicing agriculture – especially forest pastures - in forest was considered to be harmful for effective forestry. Although agroforestry has been in decline in Europe during the 20th century, there is nowadays growing interest towards it. More overly it is seen and should be seen as a sustainable way of land management and not as conflicting between agriculture and forestry. Agroforestry systems have been developing especially in southern and central Europe, where forest farming, silvoarable, silvopasture, riparian buffer strips, improved fallow, multipurpose trees, woodland orchards and many other agroforestry practices are adopted (Mosquera-Losada et al. 2009). In Finland agroforestry exists as wood pastures and reindeer husbandry. Beside these, also small scale beekeeping is practiced to produce specialty honey from flowers of forest berries such as bilberry, lingonberry and cloudberry. The areal coverage of wood pastures has declined steeply form the beginning of 1950´s reflecting the trend in Europe and the growing importance of forestry in Finnish society (Vainio et al. 2001). Reindeer herding which is widely practiced in northern parts of Finland has grown as reindeer meat is seen as highly valued and priced foodstuff. The lack of development of new agroforestry systems distinct to Finland or Northern Europe has not been developed though for example in Finland the total forest coverage is 71,6 % of total land area. This number is one of the highest in the world. Although this resource would offer interesting business opportunities in addition to tree production, new agroforestry systems and related business models are lagging behind as compared to other Europe. As several pulp- and paper mills have been closed due to severe structural changes in Finnish forest sector, there has been demand for new operation models, new forest derived products and services (see Hetemäki et al. 2011). Also the change in national forest legislation in year 2014 gives more freedom for the forest owners
- 215 - when deciding forest management practices. It has been stated that joint production of timber and bilberries may have a surprisingly strong effect on both the profitability of forestry and optimal stand management (Miina et al 2010). Berries and mushrooms are Finland’s most important NWFPs. They are collected from the wild mainly for household use and recreation purposes, but also by professional pickers. As mushroom and berry crops in forests are not actively managed, the crops vary greatly between years. The yearly value of forest berries and mushrooms varies from 4 to 25 million € and from 300 000 to 4 million €, respectively (MMM 2009). The huge difference between years creates challenges for the berry- and mushroom refining industry which is dependent on availability of the raw material. Uncertainty between years decreases the investments in refining and huge amount of the yearly crop is sold directly as a raw material, without refining and increment value from refining. There are several active agroforestry measures developed for both forest berries and mushrooms, but none of them have been trialed or applied in Finland. Mushrooms have been cultivated as an agroforesty practice in China as early as 600 C.E. (Chang 1993) and there are well developed cultivation methods for lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) in North America (Yarborough 2012, Drummond et al. 2012). In the following chapters we will present two projects which aim to develop innovative agroforestry measures distinctive to the environment and culture. Two projects that were launched were LUSTI – Securing the Availability of Nature Derived Berries with Cultivation Practices and RahaRääseikkö – cultivation of Pakuri (Inonotus obliquus).
LUSTI – Securing the Availability of Nature Derived Berries with Cultivation Practices LUSTI-project started in 2010, it aimed to test the feasibility and economy of several cultivation practices to ensure higher and more stable wild berry harvests from agricultural and forested land in Kainuu and Lapland regions. Bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) and lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) are derived from forests for both domestic and wholesale markets. Currently berries are collected from the wild and Everyman´s right, which is applied in Finland and in other Nordic countries, allows collecting them no matter who owns the land. Most of the yearly crop is collected from Northern Finland, North-Karelia, Kainuu, North Ostrobothnia and Lapland but the crop varies significantly from year to year (Picture 1). Currently most of the harvest (80%) is collected by foreign workers, mainly from Thailand, since locals pick berries mostly for household use. These pickers do not have a formal employment relationship. Instead, they act as “freelancers”, selling the berries they have picked and covering the expenses through part of their berry-incomes. Foreign berry-pickers have roused a debate in Finland, in which accusations of human trafficking, labour deprivation and misuse of everyman´s right have been presented. (Rantanen & Valkonen 2011, Peltola 2013). Yearly variations of crop and uncertainty of availability of foreign work labour creates unsustainable situation for wholesale markets and refinement industry. Though Finland boasts one of the biggest wholesale companies in the world of wild berries, significant refinement industry is lagging. One of the reasons for this is the unstable influx of raw material.
Fig. 1: Yearly amounts (kg) of berries for wholesale markets. Lingonberry – upperline, billberry. MMM 2009 - Marsi 2008
All of the R&D targets in LUSTI - project (cultivation of lingonberry on agricultural land, developing pollination services/ enhanced pollination (bumblebees, solitary bees) and production of specialty honey for lingonberry and bilberry) aim to increase berry yields in select areas in order to concentrate harvest management and logistics. Preliminary results of the project are promising. In cultivation trails lingonberry yields have been up to 2-5 metric tons per hectare on farmland and with solitary- or honey
- 216 - bee - enhanced pollination on forested land the increase of bilberry harvest has been two- to threefold (Peltola et al. 2014, Vanhanen & Peltola 2015, Lasala et al. 2015). In future the project will be continued by adopting more practices from V. angustifolium cultivation from North America in order to develop methods especially for forested environment using existing Vaccinium vegetation.
RahaRääseikkö – cultivation of Pakuri (Inonotus obliquus) RahaRääseikkö (direct translation MoneyThicket) -project started in 2010 in co-operation with the University of Eastern Finland’s Forest Department. Project aimed to develop production methods for specialty mushrooms. The project´s target species was pakuri (I. obliquus) which grows as pathogen in living birch trees (Betula sp.) eventually killing its host. pakuri forms sterile conks on the side of the tree (Picture 2.). The conks are collected and used in, for example, beverages and nutraceuticals. It is highly valued in Asia due to its medicinal properties (Glamočlija et al. 2015). Although being an effective pathogen in forests managed for tree production, its value can exceed almost tenfold the value of the tree in which it grows. The stumpage price (€) for birch varies from 16 to 20 €/m3 (MetInfo 2015). The price of dried pakuri is 30 - 60 €/kg, single birch trunk can host several conks. This makes active collection and production of pakuri an intriguing option for forest owners as the profit from it goes directly to the forest owner as collecting pakuri is not considered to be a part of every man´s right like berry picking.
Fig. 2: Pakuri, a sterile conk of Inonotus obliquus. Photographer: Kai Pulkkinen.
In Finland, consumption of pakuri in beverages and nutraceuticals has increased.. Traditionally, pakuri was used in Tikka-tea (“Woodpecker-tea”), which was also commercially available. In Asia and Russia the market demand for pakuri is mostly supplied by raw material originating from Far East Russia (Pilz 2004). In current situation, pakuri refinement industry in Finland obtains the raw material from contract collectors and pakuri is collected from selected areas to ensure high quality of the raw material. RahaRääseikkö project started to test the feasibility of cultivation practices to ensure higher and more stable crop from forested land by using living birch trees as a growing media. Wild pakuri strains were collected from several parts of Finland and the fastest growing strains were selected for field trials. These field trials were started in 2013 and final results are expected in coming years. However, preliminary results were gained in fall 2014 as small scale conk formation was already observed on birches inoculated with I. obliquus hyphae. Cultivation of pakuri is possible in areas in which the tree production is marginal in terms of forestry – i.e. the average tree growth is 0.1 – 1.0 m3/ha/yr. In such a case the production of pakuri does not compete with tree production. In some cases cultivation could also be incorporated to current forest management practices such as thinning. Constant supply of raw material by cultivation would ensure the availability of pakuri for refining industry and improve its competitiveness also in international markets.
Discussion In Finland time is prominent for R&D of NWFP sector due the changes in the operational environment as new income sources and value chains are sought by both the forest owners and the forest industry. Finnish forest sector is often seen as conservative and slow regenerating as compared to other, more “modern” sectors like mobile- and game industry or even agricultural sector in which new ideas, innovations and crop plants are swiftly adopted and measures put to practice. This is quite understandable as the cycle time of tree production (time between final felling) is long, 60 – 120 years
- 217 - in Finland. However, wild berry- and mushroom harvests recur yearly and even pakuri should be collectible after 10 – 15 years. With current R&D, yields of NWFPs could be increased with novel agroforestry practices. Some of the processes may evolve bottom-up, without governmental incentives, but as many of the companies in NWFP sector are small and middle sized enterprises their influence is limited when nationwide forestry practices with long traditions should be adjusted. Therefore ruling bodies and authorities in question should be active when seeking ways to adjust regulations which are restrictive and limit the development NWFP entrepreneurship. New innovations in primary production for NWFP´s have and are been developed and also forest management practices are sought to increase the berry and mushroom yields. The profitableness of joint timber production and NWFPs may well exceed the profitableness of a model in which forests are harnessed for sole timber or NWFP production (Miina et al. 2009 and 2010, Turtiainen et al. 2013, Kurttila et al. 2013). Such a paradigm changes are always challenging, especially in the case of agroforestry, as the agroforestry practices are often considered to be obsolete. However, history teaches us about consequences when well-established practices are valued too much. Back in the 19th century, tar was the most important exported product of Finnish forests. When iron replaced wood in ship construction, demand of tar collapsed and many respected tar companies went to bankrupt. Those companies which were enlightened enough to change their business approaches flourished later in, for example, sawmill business.
References Chang S. (1993): Mushroom biology: The impact on mushroom production and mushroom products. In: Chang S., Buswell J. & Chiu S. (Eds.). Proceedings of the First International Conference on Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products. Chinese University of Hong Kong. 392 p. Drummond, F., S. Annis, J. M. Smagula and D.E. Yarborough. (2009): Organic Production of Wild Blueberries. I. Insects and Disease. Acta Hort. 810. p. 275-286. Glamočlija J. Ćirić A., Nikolić M., Fernandes Â., Barros L., Calhelha R., Ferreira I., Soković M., van Griensven L. (2015): Chemical characterization and biological activity of Chaga (Inonotus obliquus), a medicinal “mushroom”, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 162. p.323-332. Hetemäki L., Niinistö S., Seppälä R. & Uusvuori J. (Eds.) (2011): After the structural change – The future of forest use in Finland (In Finnish). Metsäkustannus Oy. 140p. Kurttila M., Miina J. & Salo K. (2013): Forest management and commercial mushroom yields in spruce stands in Eastern Finland. Non-Wood Forest Products, Health and Well-Being, Korpilampi, Espoo, Finland; 11/2013. Lasala I., Leinonen R., Manninen O., Pohjola P. Pohjoismäki J. Peltola R. & Vanhanen H. (2015): Pollinator Fauna of Boreal Lingonberry and Bilberry Redefined. manuscript. MMM 2009. MARSI 2008 – Amounts forest berries and mushrooms for wholesale in 2008. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. McAdam J., Burgess, P., Graves A., Rigueiro-Rodríguez A. & Mosquera-Losada M. (2009): Classifications and Functions of Agroforestry Systems in Europe. In: Rigueiro-Rodríguez A., McAdam J., Mosquera-Losada M., (Eds.) Agroforestry in Europe - Current Status and Future Prospects. Advances in Agroforestry 6. Springer Netherlands. 450p. MetInfo (2015): Birch timber and pulpwood stumpage prices €/m³ during 9/2014–2/2015. Natural Resources Institute Finland - LUKE, MetInfo (http://www.metla.fi/metinfo) retrieved 11.4.2015. Miina J., Hotanen J., Salo K. (2009): Modelling the abundance and temporal variation in the production of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) in Finnish mineral soil forests. Silva Fennica 43: 577– 593. Miina J., Pukkala T., Hotanen J. & Salo K. (2010): Optimizing the joint production of timber and bilberries. Forest Ecology and Management 259(10): 2065-2071. Mosquera-Losada M., McAdam J., Romero-Franco R., Santiago-Freijanes J. & Rigueiro-Rodríguez A. (2009): Definitions and Components of Agroforestry Practices in Europe. In: Rigueiro-Rodríguez A., McAdam J., Mosquera-Losada M., (Eds.) Agroforestry in Europe - Current Status and Future Prospects. Advances in Agroforestry 6. Springer Netherlands. 450p. Peltola R. 2013. Berry phone of Lapland. MTT Raportti 93. MTT Jokioinen. 26p. Peltola R., Manninen O., Leinonen R. & Vanhanen H. (2014): Boosting pollination services in northern boreal forest. In: Tolvanen A. & Hekkala A. 2014. The 9th European Conference on Ecological Restoration – Abstracts. 231 p. Pilz D. (2004): Chaga and other fungal resources: assessment of sustainable commercial harvesting in Khabarovsk and Primorsky Krais, Russia Winrock International, Arkansas. 54 p. Rantanen P. & Valkonen J. (2011): Foreign forest berry pickers in Finland. (In Finnish). Reports – Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. The European Union’s external relations fund. 84p.
- 218 - Turtiainen M., Miina J., Salo K., Hotanen J. (2013): Empirical prediction models for the coverage and yields of cowberry in Finland. Silva Fennica 47(3). 22p. Vanhanen H. & Peltola R. (2015): Annual Report – LUSTI Securing the Availability of Nature Derived Berries with Cultivation Practices –project (In Finnish).19p. Vainio M., Kekäläinen H., Alanen A. & Pykälä J. (2001): Traditional rural biotopes in Finland. Final report of the nationwide inventory (In Finnish). The Finnish Environment 527. 163 pp. Yarborough D. (2012): Establishment and Management of the Cultivated Lowbush Blueberry. International Journal of Fruit Science 12(1-3):14-22.
Acknowledgement LUSTI-project was funded by Lappi and Kainuu ELY-centers from the Rural Development Programme for Mainland Finland, Raha Rääseikkö – project was funded by several Leader LAGs (Local Action Group): Joensuu Area, Vaara-Karjala, Veej´jakaja, Elävä Kainuu, Oulujärvi, Myötäle, Nouseva Rannikkoseutu, Outokaira tuottamhan and Pohjoisimman Lapin from the Rural Development Programme for Mainland Finland as well as Finnish Cultural Foundation's Lapland Regional Fund and Marjatta and Eino Kolli foundation. We are grateful for their financial support for both of these projects.
Souhrn Agrolesnictví má ve Finsku dlouholetou tradici ve formě lesních pastvin a chovu sobů. V současné době je tento způsob praktikován zejména v severní části Finska, kde i v této části země rozloha lesních pastvin prudce klesla a to zejména v padesátých letech minulého století. Samotné území Finska má velkou rozlohu lesů s celkovým pokrytím 71,6 %. Toto pokrytí je jedním z největších v porovnání se všemi zeměmi světa. Nové inovativní a aktivní přístupy rozlišují dva rámce a to les jako životní prostředí a les jako kulturu. Dřívější přístupy nebraly v úvahu mimo-dřevní funkce lesa. Lesy byly spíše vnímány jako zdroje dřevní hmoty a celulózy, s mimo-produkčními funkcemi se začalo uvažovat až v devadesátých letech. Různé bobulovité ovoce a houby jsou ve Finsku jedním z nejdůležitějších artiklů mimo-produkčních funkcí lesa. Tyto komodity jsou získávány za účelem rekreace a prodeje. Roční tržní hodnota těchto plodin se pohybuje mezi 4 – 25 miliony eur (u ovoce) a 300 000 – 4 miliony eur pro houby. Samozřejmě hodnota je závislá na množství sklizně mezi jednotlivými roky v závislosti na počasí mající přímý vliv na kvetení, opylování a tvorbu plodnic u hub. Lesní plody, jako jsou houby a bobulovité ovoce, jsou nejdůležitější složkou mimoprodukčních funkcí lesa, tyto plody jsou využívány zejména v MTT zemědělsko-potravinářském odvětví Finska (od 1. 1. 2015 Institut přírodních zdrojů Finska - Luke). Tento institut vznikl v rámci inovativních a aktivních metod lesnictví pro stále výnosnější produkci hub a bobulovitého ovoce. Byly vytvořeny dva projekty: LUSTI v roce 2010 a RahaRääseikkö v roce 2012. Oba tyto projekty byly financovány z Operačního programu Rozvoje venkova EU pro pevninské Finsko 2007 – 2013. Projekt LUSTI slouží k zajištění dostupnosti a udržitelnosti pěstování bobulového ovoce v lesích Finska. Projekt Raha Rääseikkö je zaměřen na vývoj produkce hub v nízkých hospodářských lesích. Oba tyto projekty mají za úkol formovat nové lesní identity finského agrolesnictví, které jsou blíže rozepsány v samotném příspěvku.
Contact: Henri Vanhanen Phone: +358 29 532 6609, e-mail: [email protected]
- 219 - RESTORATION OF ABANDONED MEANDERS – THE VIEW OF PUBLIC RECREATION AND LANDSCAPE PROTECTION
Pavla Pilařová1, Kristýna Bláhová2 1 Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic 2 SPOLEČNĚ o.p.s., Mendlovo námstí 1a, Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Presented paper deals with possible solutions for restoration of selected abandoned meanders of the river Morava within the order of kilometer 215,500 – 225,500 with the viewpoint of recreation and nature protection. Within the pertained section of the river Morava were selected 10 plots bearing remnants of former meanders of the river (oxbow lakes or cutoff stream branches or areas with certain characteristics), for which were designed restoration plans. Detailed analysis of each restoration plan showed, that the position of plots against the centre of the village, therefore accessibility of plots for local inhabitants, played important role in fulfillment of the requirements of nature protection and public recreation. The assumption, that during restoration of former meanders of the river Morava laying within urban areas or nearby them, the nature protection regulations subside to the recreation potential of the area, was confirmed. On the contrary, remote areas (unaccessible without the use of bicycle, long walk or restricted use of vehicles) brings the opportunity to fulfill nature protection requirements (maximum support of the object of protection) in the restoration plans.
Key words: oxbow lakes, water courses, revitalisation, urban areas, accessibility, leisure activities, funding
Introduction The river Morava plays important role in the historical development of our country, as the first settlement and trade routes were emerging on its banks. First documented notice of the name Morava is dated from the year 1203. (Hosák & Šrámek, 1980). The development of settlement caused changes in the primary structure of the landscape and evolvement of secondary structure of the landscape with the characterictic mosaic, which was typical in the area until the end of the 18th century. Radical intensification of agriculture in the Fifties of the 20th century was characterised by large scale farming, the last remnants of meadows and marshes were drained through the means of melioration canals and later in the Eighties with drainage system. The river itself was extremely modified by technical water management. The route of the water course was straightened with inserted arcs of great diameter and rugged cross section profile was modified into the shape of trapezium, with the toe of the slopes fortified by riprap or rockfill. Transection of the riverbed was lowered due to construction of two weirs „Tážalský and Boleloucký“, which resulted in the change of the hydraulic regime of the river and also creation of migration barriers within the water course. Some of the oxbow lakes of the river Morava are preserved in different stages of succession. It is also possible to identify areas of former meanders of the river, which have vanished in time, by the presence of characteristic wood vegetation and information from historic maps. The paper presents information about the condition of the oxbow lakes and cutoff stream branches in the area of interest and evaluates factors, which influence the restoration plans in order to fulfill the requirements of nature protection and recreation potential for local inhabitants.
Materials and methods Materials The ten kilometer long stretch of river Morava (Fig. 1) is located South below the town of Olomouc. The southern end is demarcated by a bridge (km 215,50) on a 3rd grade road between villages of Věrovany and Citov. The northern end is demarcated by „Tážalský weir“ (km 225,50). The analysis of historical maps and field research in the locality led to determination of ten plots, which bear signs of former meanders of the river Morava (Fig. 2). The current stage of sustainment and the means of communication with the river were factors, that diversified the plots into four types: • Oxbow lake – active communication with the river through upper or lower connection to the water course, • Cut off stream branch with water surface – water surface communicates with the river through underground water (4 plots in total),
- 220 - • Cut off stream branch without water surface – water from the river flows through during floods (1 plot), • Others – plot determined on the base of historical maps, characteristic terrain configuration and wood vegetation (1 plot). Ecological value was also evaluated for each of the plots: • low – area hugely anthropogenically affected (5 plots in total), • medium – area in the stage of developed succession with low anthropogenic influence, absence of protected plants or animals.(4 plots in total), • high – area with presence of protected plants or animals (1 plot). Restoration of determined areas, including the designs is still in the process of development. Overall information about the determined plots is summarized in table 1. Every plot is defined with specific code, where letters represent the name of the cadastral area, where the plot is situated (BLA – Blatec, DUB – Dub nad Moravou, CHAR – Charváty, VER – Věrovany) and numbers signify order of the plot within the cadastral area.
Methods Each restoration plan of the former meanders of the river was evaluated with number of factors: • ownership – lands affected by the designs are owned by: o private persons (PP), o towns, o Czech republic (government body with right to maintain the land), • investor of restoration: o owner of the land, o other, • source of funding: o funding from grants from EU or CZ, o funds of the investor or the owner of the land, • requirements of nature protection, • requirements of the owners of the lands, • distance from the centre of the urban area.
The aim of the analysis of the restoration plans was to figure out, which factors affected the final technical solution, which defines the future function of the plot – natural, natural with recreational aspects, recreational with natural aspects. Hypothesis stated, that the declining distance of the restored areas of the former meanders from the centre of the urban area, will result in emphasis being placed on the recreational function of the plots.
Results Defined factors were evaluated for each plot. Results are organized in table 2. Comparison of tables 1 and 2 clearly shows, that no matter the present ecological value of the plots (low, medium or high), the aim of the nature protection is sustainment, strenghtening or restoration of the ecological value of the former menaders of the river. This demand can be expected due to present state of the river and its flooding area, where any remnant of area with nature-like character surrounded by landscape with intensive agriculture, should be supported. The nature-like character of the designs is also supported by the law num. 114/1992 Sb., about nature and landscape protection, which defines the plots as „significant landscape component“ and these plots also represent part of territorial system of ecological stability. The requirement to enforce a plan, which would apart from nature protection, enable recreational usage of the area evolved from the owners of the lands. Table 2 and map in Fig 3 clearly demonstrates, that for plots nearby (up to 500 m) the urban centres, is the recreational function emphasized more likely, than for those situated further. Results confirmed the hypothesis, that when dealing with designing plans for restoration of former menaders of the river Morava situated in urban areas or near them, the emphasis is placed on the recreational function of the area at the expense of nature protection requirements. On the contrary, designs planned for areas reachable with difficulty, can implement the nature protection purpose as the primary aim of the restoration (maximum support of the object of protection).
- 221 - Tab 1: Summarized information about determined plots of former meanders in the selected stretch of the river Morava Code of Means of communication Status of the design Category Ecological value the plot with the river Morava and restoration cutoff stream branch Restoration plan BLA1 Underground water Medium with water surface completed Upper connection through Restoration DUB1 oxbow lake Low pipe completed cutoff stream branch through DUB1 – nearly Restoration DUB2 Low with water surface disfunctional completed cutoff stream branch Restoration plan DUB3 Underground water Medium with water surface completed Restoration plan DUB4 others -- Low completed Lower connection through Restoration currently CHAR1 oxbow lake High pipe in progress Lower connection through Restoration plan CHAR2 oxbow lake Low pipe completed cutoff stream branch Restoration plan VER1 Underground water Medium with water surface completed Upper connection through Restoration VER2 oxbow lake Medium pipe completed cutoff stream branch Restoration plan VER3 Only during flooding Low without water surface completed .
Fig. 1: Selected stretch of the river Morava
- 222 -
Fig. 2: Historical map of the meandering of the river Morava
Fig. 3: Map of intersection of factors considered in the restoration plans
- 223 - Tab 2: Summarized information about determined plots of former meanders in the selected stretch of the river Morava Nature Future Code of the Source of Owner Distance Ownership Investor protection function of plot financing requirements [m] requirements the plots Sustainment Private owner of the BLA1 EU grants and No recreation to 1000 natural person land strenghtening
Town Dub natural with owner of the Possible DUB1 nad EU grants Restoration 250 - 500 recreational land recreation Moravou aspects
Town Dub natural with owner of the Possible DUB2 nad EU grants Restoration 250 - 500 recreational land recreation Moravou aspects Town Dub Sustainment natural with owner of the DUB3 nad EU grants and Recreation to 750 recreational land Moravou strenghtening aspects Town Dub owner of the 1000 - DUB4 nad EU grants Restoration No recreation natural land 1500 Moravou Sustainment Private owner of the CHAR1 EU grants and No recreation to 1000 natural person land strenghtening recreational CZ – Town CHAR2 EU grants Restoration Recreation 250 - 500 with natural OGRPA * Charváty aspects Town owner of the VER1 EU grants Restoration No recreation to 1500 natural Věrovany land Town owner of the Possible 1000 - VER2 EU grants restoration natural Věrovany land recreation 1500 Town owner of the 1000 - VER3 EU grants restoration No recreation natural Věrovany land 1500 * The Office for Government Representation in Property Affairs (OGRPA)
Conclusion The result of long-term anthropogenical influence in the section of the river Morava and its flooding area, is loss of mosaic of forests, meadows, arable land, marhses, ponds and naturally curved water courses, which led to the decline in ecological value of the area of interest. Restoration of the former meanders of the river Morava is therefore essential. The results of the analysis of the designs for restoration of former meanders of the river signify, that due to the technical limitations (present constructions, engineering mains, technological facilities) and also due to socio-political and economical factors, not all the areas of former meanders can be restored to its original natural state.
The influence of nature protection on the restoration of former stream branches of the river Morava The aim of the representatives of the Department of Nature Protection is maximum protection of former meanders and therefore the restoration designs should, according to it, aim at sustainment, strenghtening or restoration of their ecological value. Fulfillment of these requirements is supported by the fact, that most of the funding for such projects is gained from EU grants. These grants have very strict criteria for restoration designs and the success at fulfilling these criterias defines the level of financial support from EU and therefore the level of necessary funding coming from the investor of the project.
- 224 - The influence of the owners of the land in restoration designs of former stream branches of the river Morava An important role is also played by the owners of the land, where the restoration takes place. The representatives of the local towns tend to enforce such designs, which create areas with recreational, nature-like function, especially those areas near the centre of the urban area, which are easily accessible by the local inhabitants. It was learned, that the reason for the requirements of the recreational function of the restored areas, is the necessity to defend the project, which affects the budget of the towns, against the citizens of the towns. On the other hand restoration design, which brings more attractive options for leisure activities for the citizens is likely to be accepted by the general public. Therefore the representatives of local towns procure especially restoration plans of the former meanders of the river within 500 m from the centre of the urban area with emphasis on recreational function of the restored area (accessibility of water, easy movement through the restored area, character of wood vegetation and grass cover), which at the same time fulfill the criterias for grant funding.
Designs, which fulfill the requirements of nature protection as well as recreational function of the restored area In order to fulfill the requirements of all interested parties, it is advisable to divide the restored area into two sections according to their future function. One section strictly nature-like with specific management (often extensive character or completely left to its own development) and another section designed for recreational use with intensive management (regular cutting, forming of wood vegetation and eradication of unwanted self seeding of wood vegetation). It is beneficial to place a „buffer zone“ between these sections.
References ATELIER FONTES, s.r.o. (2015): Studie proveditelnosti revitalizace řeky Moravy a její nivy v ř. km 215,500 – 225,500. Hosák, L., Šrámka, R. (1980): Místní jména na Moravě a ve Slezsku II., Academia, Praha, 962 str.
Acknowledgement The paper was prepared mainly thanks to support of the company ATELIER FONTES, s.r.o., which also produced part of the materials.
Souhrn Obnova ploch bývalých meandrů v předmětném úseku řeky Moravy má vzhledem k nízké ekologické hodnotyě zájmového území své opodstatnění. Avšak, jak výsledky analýzy návrhů obnovy bývalých meandrů řeky Moravy naznačují, nejen díky technickým limitům (současné stavby, vedení inženýrských sítí a technologických zařízení), ale také díky socio-politickým a ekonomickým vlivům nelze veškeré plochy bývalých meandrů řeky Moravy navrátit do původního přirozeného stavu.
Vliv ochrany přírody na obnovu bývalých ramen řeky Moravy Snahou orgánů ochrany přírody je maximální ochrana současných ploch bývalých meandrů. Naplňování podmínek a požadavků orgánů ochrany přírody podporuje fakt, že finanční zdroje potřebné pro realizaci návrhů jsou čerpány především z dotačních titulů Evropské unie. Příslušné dotační tituly mají velice přísná hodnotící kriteria projekčních návrhů a od naplnění jednotlivých kritérií se odvíjí výše finanční podpory a s tím spojená výše potřebného dofinancování z vlastních zrdojů investorem akce.
Vliv vlastníků návrhy dotčených pozemků na obnovu bývalých ramen Moravy Z výsledků analýzy návrhů obnovy bývalých meandrů řeky Moravy vyplynula snaha vlastníků, jimiž jsou v zájmovém území převážně obce, prosadit takové návrhy, které budou vytvářet plochy s přírodě- rekreačním či rekreačně-přírodním charakterem, a to u ploch, které se nacházejí v blízkosti center obcí a jsou pro místní obyvatele snadno dostupné. Z šetření na místních samosprávách obcí bylo zjištěno, že důvodem požadavků obcí na možnost rekreačního využití obnovovaných ploch, je potřeba obhájení realizace stavby, která zasáhne do obecního rozpočtu, před samotnými obyvateli obce. V případě návrhu obnovy, který zatraktivní obec a její bezprostřední okolí, je zásah do obecního rozpočtu před obyvateli obce snázeji obhajitelný. Z tohoto důvodu prosazují zastupci místních samospráv především obnovu ploch bývalých meandrů
- 225 - řeky Moravy do vzdálenosti 500 m od center obcí s důrazem na takové technické řešení návrhu, které naplní požadavky na rekreaci a zároveň naplní hodnotící kritéria pro přijetí žádosti o dotaci. Řesení návrhu splňující požadavky ochrany přírody i rekreačního využití Při snaze zkloubit podmínky orgánů ochrany přírody a požadavky samotných vlastníků návrhy dotčených pozemků na tvorbu nových atraktivních prostor pro volnočasové aktivity místních obyvatel se nejvíce osvědčilo rozdělení plochy na dílčí plochy dle budoucího funkčního charakteru. Tedy v rámci obnovované plochy vymezit prostor „čistě pro přírodu“ s příslušným budoucím managementem (extenzivní charakter či úplné ponechání plochy samovolnému vývoji) a prostor pro rekreaci s intenzivním managementem (pravidelné sečení ploch, formování výsadeb a odstraňování náletů dřevinné vegetace). Mezi tyto dvě rozdílné funkční ploch je vhodné situovat tzv. přechodovou plochu.
Contact: Ing. Pavla Pilařová, Ph.D. E-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Kristýna Bláhová E-mail: [email protected]
- 226 - SOIL EROSION RISK IN THE CATCHMENT AREA OF THE WATER RESERVOIRS
Martina Zeleňáková, Vlasta Ondrejka Harbuľáková, Zuzana Kárászová Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Vysokoskolská 4, 042 00 Kosice, Slovak Republic
Abstract Soil erosion is one of the major soil degradation processes, which greatly contribute to reducing of its quality. It leads to loss of the most fertile surface layer of agricultural land and it causes also to the loss of nutrients, humus (soil organic matter) and reduction of microbial activity. Long-term, intense impact on soil erosion processes can lead to a complete erosion of fine particles, which ultimately means the demise of the land itself. Therefore, it is necessary to solve the risk of soil erosion mainly for purposes of the spatial planning. The aim of the paper is evaluation of the erosion processes in the area of small water basins Hrcel, Nizny Zipov a Velke Ozorovce. In consequence the proposal of erosion measures in the basin's water bodies are described. Paper presents determination of erosion – soil loss calculation using suitable methods for this assessment. The results are supplemented by using different methods of soil loss calculation.
Key words: assessment of soil erosion, erosion degree, soil loss
Introduction As the human population has expanded, more and more land has been cleared for agriculture and other pursuits that degrade the soil and make erosion more likely to occur. The effects of soil erosion go beyond the loss of fertile land. It has led to increased pollution and sedimentation in streams and rivers, clogging these waterways and causing declines in fish and other species. And degraded lands are also often less able to hold onto water, which can worsen flooding. Sustainable land use can help to reduce the impacts of agriculture and livestock, preventing soil degradation and erosion (https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation). Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the physical characteristics of each soil. Texture is the principal characteristic affecting erodibility, but structure, organic matter and permeability also contribute. Generally, soil with faster infiltration rates, higher levels of organic matter and improved soil structure have a greater resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam-textured soils tend to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand and certain clay-textured soils (http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/12-053.htm). Soil erosion has a special position between land degradation processes. Although the compaction of soil and chemical pollution of soils can be very dangerous, it can be said that soil erosion is the most serious degradation processes, often leading to the complete loss of fine soil and to extinction of the soil. No other environmental process work for so long and so wide. (Ilavská, 2005) This paper aims to monitoring erosion and transport processes in small water basins catchments Hrcel, Nizny Žipov and Velke Ozorovce in the eastern Slovakia using appropriate methods for the evaluation of these phenomena. As an appropriate method for determining the long-term average soil loss is universal soil loss equation (Universal Soil Loss Equation - USLE). Under this method, there are many possibilities of erosion classification e.g. by Act no. 220/2004 Coll., by Kozbel et al. (2005), by Vasku (1991), by Zachar or according to Research Institute of Soil Science and Conservation (RISSC). In the paper classification according to Act no. 220/2004 Coll., according to Vasku (1991) and RISSC are shown and discussed. Subsequently, the proposed anti-erosion measures in selected small water basins catchments are presented.
Material and methods Erosion vulnerability of the area, respectively its potential of erosion is erosion denuding of soil (soil layer thickness expressed in mm/year), which would happen at the selected area, when there is forest or permanent grassland removed. (Fialová, 2010) Also this state came to pass when there should lacked of soil protective vegetative cover or any technical, hydro-agro, biogenic erosion control measures. (Šlezingr, 2012, Galas, 2013) The maximum value of soil loss caused by water (which allows stable and economically maintain soil fertility) is known as the admissible soil loss. Its value varies according to the depth of the soil. Limit values of soil loss in accordance with Law no. 220/2004 Coll. are shown in Table 1.
- 227 - Tab. 1: Limited values of soil loss [3] Shallow soils (up to 0.3 m) 4 t.ha-1.year-1 Middle deep soils (0.3-0.6m) 10 t.ha-1.year-1 Deep soils (0.6-0.9m) 30 t.ha-1.year-1 Very deep soils (more than 0.9m) 40 t.ha-1.year-1
Fig. 1: Graphical position of limited values of soil loss in condition of Slovakia [8]
From the older sources of erosion intensity measurements next assessment of soil erosion are known: Indicative values for the assessment of “normal” (natural, geological), “mild” (weak) and “moderately accelerated” (which is exceptional) and “strongly accelerated”. Erosions values of soil loss as a part of the agricultural system are listed in Table 2.
Tab. 2: Description of soil erosion intensity in relation to soil loss degree [9] Soil loss Soil loss Description of soil erosion intensity [t.ha-1.year-1] [mm.year-1] less than 0.8 less than 0.05 normal (natural, geological) 0.8–4.0 0.05–0.3 weak (mild) 4.0–10.0 0.3–0.7 moderately accelerated (conditionally tolerate) 10.0–20.0 0.7–1.4 strongly accelerated 20.0–30.0 1.4–2.15 exceptionally accelerated more than 30 more than 2.15 Disastrous
Depending on the intensity, the erosion can be divided to harmless - normal, or harmful - accelerated. Harmless, normal erosion occurs with low intensity, the creation of soil profile is in balance with its disruption. The thickness of the soil profile does not decrease; changes are only in the texture of soil horizon, which becomes coarser. In case of harmful, accelerated erosion the loss of soil is faster than the formation of the soil profile, which leads to decrease of profile or to total perishing.
Study areas The aim of the paper is the evaluation of soil erosion in the catchment area of small water basins. Also proposals of appropriate erosion control measures are described.
¾ Small water basin Hrcel Village Hrcel is located in the Eastern Slovakia lowland, near Zemplinske Mountains. The village is situated about 15 km from the district city Trebisov and 30 km from Velke Kapusany. Elevation of the village is 120 m asl. Water basin is built in Hrcel stream and is located eastward of the built-up area of the village (Fig. 3). Parameters of the Hrcel small water basin are: Total volume of the small water basin is 50.5E103 m3, when storage volume is 37.4E103 m3 and 3 3 retention is 13.1E10 m . Maximum elevation Hmax is 117.3 m asl., flooded area is 3.98 hectares and average depth is 1.5 m.
- 228 -
Fig. 2: Map of selected water reservoirs
Fig. 3: Small water basin Hrcel
¾ Small water basin Nizny Zipov Village Nizny Zipov is located in the south-western part of the Eastern Slovakia lowland, bordered by Podslanska highlands on the west. The village covers an area of 1716 km2 and lies at an altitude of 132 m asl. The purpose of the small water basin (Fig. 4) was the accumulation of the water for irrigation purposes. A secondary objective was formation a suitable environment for fish and ducks farming. Currently the reservoir does not have an irrigation function anymore. The small water basin is located to west from the village at Zipovsky stream at 0.8 river kilometre. The small water basin is formed by the front embankment; the other two sides are bounded in naturally raised terrain. Parameters of the small water basin Nizny Zipov: Total volume of the small water basin is 178E103 m3, storage volume is 120E103 m3, retention is 3 3 3 3 30E10 m and permanent volume is 28E10 m . Maximum elevation level Hmax is 139 m asl., flooded area is 5.9 hectares and average depth level is 2.5 m.
- 229 -
Fig. 4: Small water basin Nizny Zipov
¾ small water basin Velke Ozorovce Velke Ozorovce is located in the Trebisov city district, in region of South Zemplin. The municipality has an area of 1377 hectares. The reservoir is situated in the cadastral territory of Velke Ozorovce in the south, about 1500 m from the village at Ciza stream. The small water basin is formed of the front embankment; the other two sides are bounded in naturally raised terrain. Its main objective is to provide water for the irrigation of land. Another purpose of this small water basin is fish farming. Parameters of the small water basin Velke Ozorovce: Total volume of the reservoir is 1.158E103 m3, when storage volume is 0.538E103 m3, retention is 3 3 3 3 184.6E10 m and permanent volume is 19.7E10 m . Maximum elevation Hmax is 162.3 m asl., flooded area is 8.05 hectares.
Fig. 5: Small water basin Velke Ozorovce
Results and discussion In Table 3 results of evaluation of erosion intensity in studied small water basins catchments according to different methods of assessment is presented. As it is presented in Table 3, the soil loss is According to Law No. 220/2004 Coll. almost in the all studied small water basins threaten by soil erosion (except Velke Ozorovce – 3rd plot). Results gain from evaluation by Vasku (1991) shows strongly accelerated erosion in small water basin Hrcel, and in case of 3rd plot of Velke Ozorovce. In this small water basin very dangerous – extremely accelerated erosion was calculated in the rest plots. According to this method, Nizny Zipov suffers for moderately accelerated erosion. Different conclusions were found out according to Research Institute of Soil Science and Conservation (RISSC) where the disrupted 3rd plot of Velke Ozorovce is threaten by moderate erosion and the rest plots are under strong erosion. Small water basins Hrcel and Nizny Zipov are threaten by strongly and moderate erosion, respectively in compliance with each selected methods of erosion assessment.
- 230 - Tab. 3: Assessment of soil erosion according to difference sources
According to Law According to rate of soil According Reservoir Plot No 220/2004 Coll. loss (Vasku, 1991) to (RISSC)
Yes, strongly 13.94 threaten 0.98 strong 1401/1 accelerated t/ha/yr by soil mm/yr erosion erosion Hrcel erosion Yes, strongly threaten 0.88 strong 1301/1 12.58 accelerated by soil mm/yr erosion t/ha/yr erosion erosion Yes, moderately 6.297 threaten 0.44 moderate 6603/1 accelerated Nizny t/ha/yr by soil mm/yr erosion erosion Zipov erosion Yes, moderately 5.79 threaten 0.40 moderate 6602/1 accelerated t/ha/yr by soil mm/yr erosion erosion erosion Yes, extremely 23.87 threaten 1.67 8801/1 accelerated strong t/ha/yr by soil mm/yr erosion erosion erosion Yes, extremely Velke 16.62 threaten 1.16 strong 6802/2 accelerated Ozorovce t/ha/yr by soil mm/yr erosion erosion erosion No strongly 8.6 threaten 0.60 moderate 7705/1 accelerated t/ha/yr by soil mm/yr erosion erosion erosion
Conclusion There is no doubt that soil erosion is a critical environmental problem throughout the world´s terrestrial ecosystems. The most serious form of soil degradation is from accelerated erosion. In paper the evaluation of the erosion processes in the area of three small water basins Hrcel, Nizny Zipov a Velke Ozorovce are presented using three methods of assessment. In case of small water basin Hrcel and Nizny Zipov the result were similar for each method of assessment. Disproportions were found out for small water basin Velke Ozorovce, where different intensity of erosion was calculated for each selected method of erosion evaluation. These results correspond with slopes inclination. The smallest erosion vulnerability is for small water basin Nizny Zipov, located (very low inclination of slopes) and the greatest erosion vulnerability was calculated for Velke Ozorovce (steep slopes). I also explain calculated differences for each method of erosion assessment.
References Act No. 220/2004 Coll. on protection and use of agricultural land Available at: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/12-053.htm Available at: https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation Fialova, J., Vyskot, I. (2010): The changes in the values of ecological-stabilization functional potentials of forests in the model area Český les. Folia Oecologica. 2010. sv. 37, č. 1, s. 16--22. Galas, S., Galas, A., Fialova, J., Kubickova, H., Slezingr, M. et al. (2013): Environmental impact assessment process in the field of recreation in the V4 countries. Journal of Landscape Management. sv. 4, č. 1, s. 12-18. Ilavská, B., Jambor, P.,Lazúr, R. (2005): Identifikácia ohrozenia kvality pôdy vodnou a veternou eróziou a návrhy opatrení, Výskumný ústav pôdoznalectva a ochrany pôdy Bratislava Šlezingr, M., Fialova, J. (2012): An examination of proposals for bank stabilization: the case of the Brno water reservoir (Czech Republic). Moravian Geographical Reports. sv. 20, č. 2, s. 47--57.
- 231 - Vašků Z. (1991): Sylaby přednášek z protierozní ochrany pro krajinné inženýry. Prague: Katedra biotechnických úprav krajiny, LF VŠZ. Zastúpenie kategórií pôd ohrozených vodnou eróziou. Available at: http://www.podnemapy.sk/portal/reg_pod_infoservis/vod/vod.aspx
Acknowledgement This paper was written thanks to support from project VEGA 1/0609/14.
Shrnutí Při sledování eroze vybraných vodních nádrží bylo zjištěno, že největší erozní ohroženosti je v oblasti vodní nádrže Veľké Ozorovce, kde je největší sklon svahů. Nejmenší erozní ohroženosti je v oblasti vodní nádrže Nižný Žipov, která se nachází v rovinaté oblasti.
Contact: Assoc. Prof. Ing. Martina Zeleňáková, PhD., Phone: +421 556 024 270, e-mail: [email protected]
- 232 - SOUNDSCAPE: IMPORTANT ATTRIBUTE OF PLA MORAVIAN KARST LANDSCAPE CHARACTER
Eva Kostková Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The sound is an important part of landscape characteristic, but it is often neglected. It could have a big influence on the whole landscape, but the major part of this study is focused on recreational potential. The noise pollution could debase the landscape character and change the whole value of the landscape. This study deals with evaluation of acoustic conditions (soundscape) in PLA Moravian Karst. Eleven soundtracks were recorded there in different places in spring 2012. The locations for recording were chosen to best represent the territory and contain all types of landscape in PLA Moravian Karst. Also various types of forest are compared. Soundtracks were analysed and sounds were filed in to categories which Raymond Murray Schaffer has defined. Output of this study is overall evaluation of sound characteristic in Moravian Karst.
Key words: landscape, sound, acoustic ecology, audiodiversity
Introduction Landscape, as the primary space for the life of plants, animals and humans, offers a number of ways for it to view and assess. Although the initial assessment will be visual, at least for the human population, other landscape constituents may be equally important. Even landscapes of high value may become damaged through sound pollution to such extent that they directly affect the viewer's perception and final feeling. The latter then may be completely negative even if that involves a landscape assessed positively from all the other aspects. On the other side of the imaginary spectrum, there are landscapes that are influenced positively by sound, so their value and recreational potential becomes amplified in the eyes of the observer, although they may not involve sites of extreme importance in terms of visual assessment. The study of sounds of landscapes, acoustic ecology, or soundscape, thus provides another dimension of environmental assessment. Primarily, it is assessment by humans, since it is humans who carry out all the measurements, recordings and subsequent evaluation of sounds in the landscape. Determining how noise pollution affects animals in the landscape is very difficult but potential for observing certain regularities in their ethology exists here as well. Analysing soundscape forms an important part of the overall landscape character assessment. It gives the viewer a better possibility to assimilate with a certain territory and realise the dimension of sound in the landscape. Acoustic ecology therefore does not aim to evaluate only the landscape character; it also seeks to grasp the importance of sound as a landscape constituent and, as a result, understand the landscape as such.
Materials and methods The Moravian Karst has largely a levelled surface which is however dissected with very sharp, 100- 200 m deep-cut valleys that in the northern portion can be described as arid karstic canyons. There are relatively highly allochthonous watercourses flowing into the karst from the surrounding non-karstic regions, particularly from the highlands of Drahanská vrchovina; these sink at the edge of the karstic area, flowing through it underground into karstic springs found on the western limit of the bioregion. (Culek, 1996) The Moravian Karst is the largest and most karstified territory of the Czech Highlands. In terms of typology, it is a holokarst, i.e. full karst with a significant expansion of the surface and underground karstic phenomena. (Němec, Pojer, 2007) Cambisols are the dominant group of soils throughout the district. According to Quitt, E. (1971, 1984), the district is nearly fully located in a moderately warm climatic region, the sub-units of which are distributed from the warmest and driest to the coldest and wettest areas in the valley of the River Svitava symmetrically towards the eastern and western borders of the district. The vegetation of the territory is mainly influenced by the geological substrate. For the Moravian Karst, potential natural vegetation involves flower-rich sedge beech woods, Melica beech woods or woodrush acidophilous beech forests (very rarely). The backbone of the existing local vegetation consists of flower-rich beech woods, particularly the subalpine Dentario enneaphylli-Fagetum association. Sites that were selected for the recording always represented a certain type of landscape that is spatially reproducing in the Moravian Karst (Fig. 1.) Evaluating soundscape chiefly aims at detecting the sounds that represent the real status of the landscape at a certain place while describing
- 233 - observer's feelings very well. Since this particular case involved an individual landscape, defined mainly by karstic phenomena, the method of determining the recording sites aimed at capturing this aspect in the recordings. To allow for at least general comparison of the sound tracks against each other, the recording included a "blank sample", i.e., a sound track recorded in indoors in the cave of Kateřinská jeskyně. This is not a strict silence; rather, it involves a specific, naturally formed landscape with minimal noise load. Subsequently, recordings were taken mainly based on the vegetation cover and land use, i.e. the sites involved various types of woods, agricultural areas of arable land, and a meadow. Recordings were also taken that were assumed to have the dominant representation of sounds of anthropogenic origin. In this case, it was an interior of the municipality of Křtiny and places near caves which are exposed to intense pressure from tourism. The recording made use of Hi-MD WALKMAN MZ-RH1 (Sony©) and microphone ECM-C10, also of the SONY© brand. Edition and evaluation by Audicity programme (Fig. 2.)
Results Items defined from each recording were always as follows: Soundmark - sounds of anthropogenic or natural character which directly define a specific place in the landscape and are typical of the site. Examples of natural soundmarks may include a waterfall or thermal geyser, while soundmarks of anthropogenic origin may include e.g. church bells or noise from mining. Keynotes - background sounds; perceived rather subconsciously, they are less distinct. Sound signals - distinct sounds, perceived to a greater extent. As part of the imaginary scale of sounds in the landscape, these can be referred to as "foreground sounds".
The sites were classified based on the landscape character as natural sites (# 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 10) and anthropogenic sites (# 2, 8 and 11). The key sound signals were subsequently defined in the recordings and split as well into the natural and anthropogenic categories. This evaluation found that site 7 and site 9, defined as natural sites, featured a predominant anthropogenic sound signal. In contrast, a natural sound signal prevailed on site 8 and site 11, defined as anthropogenic sites. The habitat of deciduous wood (site 10) was also observed to feature a higher audiodiversity in comparison with mixed woodland (sites 1 and 6).
Discussion The assessment was particularly about the description of the sound constituent of the environment and its relationship to anthropogenic activities in the landscape. Audiodiversity, i.e. the variability of sounds that are possible to record within a given territory, forms another evaluation component. The process of evaluation found a heavy tourism impact on sites 7 ("Skalní mlýn") and 9. (entrance into the cave of Sloupská jeskyně). The presence of a large number of tourists is also the reason for the prevailing sounds of anthropogenic origin that suppress those of natural origin. This reduced the overall visual attractiveness of the territory of a considerable value in terms of tourism. In contrast, site 8 (a footbridge over the creek near the entrance into the cave of Sloupská jeskyně) and site 11 (a field near Vilémovice) are locations defined primarily by natural sounds. This is due to the presence of natural sites in a close proximity to the recording places. Audiodiversity was observed to be higher in the habitat of deciduous woods compared with mixed woodlands. This outcome, however, should not be considered conclusive due to the small number of sites. Within a certain area, audiodiversity is also heavily tied to the immediate climate, season or time of day when the recording was taken. Therefore, assuming any relationship between the type of vegetation and sound diversity should only be theoretical. The hypothesis, however, would require a rather extensive research. Visual assessment of the landscape presents only one of the possible efforts to understand it. Acoustic ecology provides more ways of viewing the landscape, assessing it and understanding its links and patterns. Aspects that are perhaps partly overlooked when evaluating by sighting, but perceived very intensely when analysing, include tourism. With the caves of Punkevní jeskyně with the Macocha Gorge still remaining the most visited natural monument in the Czech Republic, the anthropogenic pressure on the territory is striking in the event of the Moravian Karst. The aim of this work was thus not only characterise the Moravian Karst Protected Landscape Area in terms of sound, but also to identify potential risks to the region.
- 234 -
Fig. 1: Map of the sampling sites
Fig. 2: Example of the recording – site # 9 - entrance into the cave of Sloupská jeskyně
Conclusion As part of the project to assess soundscape of the Moravian Karst, eleven soundtracks from various sites were recorded in the territory of the protected landscape area and subsequently edited using the Audicity program. Their content was evaluated using characteristics and methodology of Raymond Murray Schaffer, the founder of the field of acoustic ecology. Three basic sound characteristics were determined for each recording: soundmarks - sounds of anthropogenic or natural character that directly define a certain point in the landscape; sound signals - distinct sounds, intensely perceived "in the foreground" and keynotes, i.e. little perceived sounds "in the background". The evaluation of the recordings shows that soundmarks of purely natural character
- 235 - can be recorded only in forest ecosystems which are not close to any tourist destination of major attractiveness. In contrast, there are a number of valued natural sites, particularly nearby karst caves, where the tourism pressure on the territory can be very well observed using sound recordings. The survey yielded a finding that natural monuments that form important tourism sites are affected by recreation activities to such extent that for some visitors they may lose attractiveness. This example confirms the fact observed in many other cases that recreationally attractive natural monuments cease to be attractions for certain groups of tourists from a certain moment onwards because the place makes it not possible to find natural ecosystems and valuable landscapes as it would be the case when the site was visited by fewer tourists. The Moravian Karst is a specific landscape, full of valued ecosystems. A number of these are preserved through effective conservation management mainly as a result of Moravian Karst PLA Administration. The conservation of local natural values in the future will simultaneously lead to maintaining the specific soundscape of local landscapes.
References Bárta, F. (2007): Krajina v České republice. Editor Jan Němec, František Pojer. Praha: Pro Ministerstvo životního prostředí vydal Consult. ISBN 978-80-903482-3-3. Culek, M. (2005): Biogeografické členění České republiky. 1.vyd. Praha: Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, 2005, 589 s. ISBN 80-860-6482-4. Chráněná území ČR. Vyd. 1. Editor Peter Mackovčin. Praha: Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny, c2007, 932 s. ISBN 978-808-6305-028. Wrightson, K.. An Introduction to Acoustic Ecology. , 1999. Lercher, P a B Schulte-Fortkamp. (2003):The relevance of soundscape research to the assessment of noise annozance at the community level. Nový, R. (2009): Hluk a chvění. Vyd. 3. V Praze: České vysoké učení technické, 400 s. ISBN 978-80- 01-04347-9. Trojan, J. (2011): Akustická ekologie a soundscape v kontextu multimédií. Vyd. 1. Praha: Triga pro Akademii múzických umění v Praze, 116 s. ISBN 978-80-904506-4-6. Truax,B. (1999): SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY. Http://www.sfu.ca/~truax/wsp.html: the world soundscape project [online]. vyd. [cit. 2012-03-31].
Acknowledgement This study was realized as a part of „The Education and teamwork in areas of intensive land reclamation disturbed by human activities CZ.1.07/2.3.00/09.0090“ project, (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, European Social Fund) and by support of „Sustainable management of mixed forests in highland areas – Fluxes of elements and biogeochemical nutrient cycles LD14018“ project. (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports)
Souhrn Krajina jakožto primární prostor pro život rostlin, živočichů a člověka nabízí mnoho možností jak na ni pohlížet a jak ji hodnotit. I krajiny velmi hodnotné mohou být zvukovým znečištěním natolik poškozeny, že přímo ovlivňují vnímání a koncový pocit pozorovatele. Ten pak může být zcela negativní a to i v případě že se jedná krajinu po všech ostatních stránkách hodnocenou kladně. Stejně tak ale i krajina degradovaná může po stránce zvukové působit stabilně a pozitivně. Hodnocení zvukové stopy určité krajiny (soundscape) je vždy subjektivní. Tato studie si však kladla za cíl alespoň rámcově stanovit pravidla pro hodnocení zvuků, jakožto podstatnou součást hodnocení krajinného rázu. V rámci projektu hodnocení soundscape Moravského krasu bylo nahráno 11 zvukových stop z různých lokalit na území chráněné krajinné oblasti. Následně byly tyto nahrávky upraveny za pomocí programu Audicity a jejich obsah byl vyhodnocen pomocí charakteristik a metodiky zakladatele oboru akustické ekologie, Raymonda Murraye Schaffera. U každé nahrávky byly stanoveny tři základní zvukové charakteristiky: Soundmarks – zvuky antropogenního nebo přírodního charakteru, které přímo definují určité místo v krajině, sound signals – zvuky výrazné, intenzivně vnímané, „v popředí“ a keynotes – zvuky málo vnímané, „v pozadí“. Jednotlivé lokality byly také zařazeny do kategorie „přírodní“, nebo „antropogenní“. Z vyhodnocení nahrávek vyplývá, že soundmarks čistě přírodního charakteru je možné zaznamenat pouze v lesních ekosystémech, kde nejsou v blízkosti žádné významné turisticky atraktivní destinace. Oproti tomu je mnoho přírodně hodnotných míst, zejména v okolí krasových jeskyní, kde je turistický tlak na území na zvukových záznamech velmi dobře zaznamenatelný. Výsledkem pozorovaní je tedy zjištění, že místa turisticky významná jakožto přírodní památky jsou rekreací natolik poznamenána, že mohou pro některé návštěvníky ztrácet atraktivitu. Moravský kras je specifická krajina plná hodnotných
- 236 - ekosystémů. Mnoho z nich je díky účinnému managementu ochrany zachováváno, zejména zásluhou správy CHKO Moravský kras. Zachování místních přírodních hodnot v budoucnu povede i k zachování specifického soundscape místní krajiny.
Contact : Ing. Eva Kostková Phone: +420 774 156 772, e-mail: [email protected]
- 237 - TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF FOREST TIMBER HAULING ROADS AND THEIRS RECREATIONAL SUITABILITY
Petr Hrůza Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The reinforcement of forest roads is a broad issue that encompasses different solutions. They must take into account that the primary reason for the road reinforcement is the timber transport during which there are heavy pressures of the transport machinery axles on the road surfaces due to the weight of the transported timber. In some cases, timber transport is accompanied with a requirement of an all-year-round operation, i.e. timber transport under all weather conditions. However, also the economic aspect of the reinforcement is considered as forest roads are roads with a low intensity of transport. Last but not least, the reinforcement of forest roads must meet the growing demands of the forest visitors concerning its aesthetics and the utilisation of forest roads for sports purposes. All together, this puts high demands on the construction and the methods of forest road reinforcement so that all of the above listed objectives are met and forest roads fulfil the requirement for multifunctional use. This paper presents the historical development of the reinforcement of forest roads as well as different types of reinforcement used throughout the history and the present, so that forest visitors get an idea about the technologies for their construction. At the same time, it must be pointed out that each technology currently used is more or less suitable for the particular purposes of the utilisation of forest roads.
Key words: forest road, reimforcement, technologies
The Subject Matter The first attempts of road reinforcement appeared around 4000 BC in Great Britain (Lay, 1992) with pole timber used in corduroy roads. This type of reinforcement was especially used on sites with a low bearing capacity affected by water, where putting the pole timber across the road created a wooden bar which more effectively spreads the pressure from vehicle axles over the area. The presence of water prevents contact between air and wood and thus reduces the rate of the decomposition of the pole timber. Even today, we can find remnants of this type of reinforcement from the 16th century, for example in Germany (Johnson, 2014). Another type of reinforcement, also from the past, although still used in some developing countries (Winkler, 1999), is the technology called stone pitching. This technology can be commonly seen in forest roads construction in the past that are still in use by hauling vehicles in Europe (Hrůza, 2013). It is a base layer of larger pyramid-shaped quarry stones, with a width of 10 to 15 cm, a length of 15 to 30 cm and a height of 15 to 25 cm, and a rectangular base. They are placed manually positioned close together, with the tip upwards and the longer dimension across the road so that, if possible, the adjacent rows are locked together. After a certain area is stone pitched, the projecting parts of the stones are hammered out and the fragments are used to wedge the spaces between the pitch stones. After the wedgingprocess, the surface should be continuous. The thickness of the pitching layer is usually 15 to 25 cm. If the road is inclined, stone pitching is laid in the direction against the incline so that the stones lock well together (Makovník, 1973). The disadvantage is that the stones must be laid manually, the work is strenuous and cannot be mechanised. Another drawback is that unless the wedging is perfect, the transport loading is borne by individual stones and the axle pressures are not spread over the area. Due to these drawbacks and thus the time demands of the construction, the use of stone pitching as reinforcement on forest roads has been abandoned (Makovník, 1973). These historical reinforcement technologies do not meet the current needs of timber transport and neither forest visitors, both hikers and cyclists like them as the resulting surfaces are very rough and uneven. The pitching technology was first replaced with a layer of coarse crushed stone by a Scottish builder, John Loudon McAdam (in 1816). He first crushed the stone mechanically directly at the extraction spot and transported the crushed stone by vehicles to the road subgrade as a reinforcement layer. Coarse crushed stone of a larger faction is still called macadam after this innovator. Gravel of large grain, called macadam, was spread out in 15 to 20 cm layers and rolled out with heavy static rollers. As the gravel layers can be laid using machinery, the macadam base layer gradually replaced the stone pitching reinforcement. However, the rolled layers had fairly large voids among the stones and the surface did not meet the requirement of uniform pressure on the subgrade. Therefore, the road surface got significantly deformed by the vehicles. The builders started to look for a technology to fill in the macadam voids and level and close the surface,
- 238 - ideally using the material that remains after stone is crushed to macadam. This technology is called water-bound macadam and was especially used in the first half of the last century. It is basically a layer of coarse gravel with slurry. The method of water-bound macadam consisted of spreading crushed coarse gravel and its grouting by the binding slurry. The spread gravel layer is compacted (rolled), first using the dry procedure, then gently sprayed with water. The rolling is finished when the gravel stops moving and the gravel grain laid under the roller does not get pressed in but is crushed. The voids in the compacted gravel layer are filled with the slurry. It can be made directly at the location of the road or in mixers (Jurík, 1984). The amount of slurry used to fill the voids in the gravel should not be more than 20 to 25% of the volume of the compacted layer (Jurík, 1984). A major disadvantage of this type of reinforcement is the sensitivity of the loamy sand cement to humidity; it can only be used in locations not affected by water. The material characteristics of water-bound macadam report the modulus of elasticity to be 500 MPa (TP 170, 2010). This type of reinforcement does not satisfy the needs of the current hauling machinery as regards the bearing capacity; however, it is the best surface for hiking and sports purposes as it is natural, flexible, and absorbs impacts. In the second half of the last century, the technology of penetration macadam that is a form of a technology of grouted courses began to prevail in the forest roads of the Czech Republic. It consists of a reinforcement layer composed of coarse aggregate grouted with a bituminous binder and filled with spread and compacted (stone) aggregate. Based on the type of coarse aggregate, this can be fine penetration macadam with the aggregate fraction of 16 to 32 mm and a total layer thickness of 5 cm, or coarse penetration macadam with the aggregate fraction of 32 to 63 mm and a total thickness of 10 to 20 cm. The layer of penetration macadam is carried out in several stages. The foundation is coarse aggregate, which is usually spread by a grader. After spreading and the levelling of the coarse aggregate, pre-compacting is carried out by a smooth roller without vibration. To avoid crushing the coarse aggregate, moderately heavy rollers are used. The stone layer is grouted by distributors. Immediately after the asphalt binding, an amount of crushed aggregate, enough to fill in the voids in the gravel, is dosed onto the surface using a shredder; it is then immediately rolled. More aggregate is only added to the spots that are not sufficiently filled. The spread aggregate is levelled using a frame brush during compaction so that the spaces in the gravel are well filled but the gravel mosaic remains visible. Vibrating of the fine aggregate and the concurrent compacting of the layer must begin immediately after the spreading and is carried out by a vibrating roller. The wearing course of penetration macadam has to be coated (ČSN 73 6127-2). The material characteristics of penetration macadam report the modulus of elasticity to be 800 MPa (TP 170, 2010). This technology is not very popular among forest visitors due to its frequent damage as well as its uneven and sharp surface. This technology was gradually replaced, the main reason was that the asphalt binder used in the forest to grout the coarse aggregate contained tar and its application in asphalt emulsions was rejected to protect the environment. As a result, not only was environmental protection enhanced but also the quality of the asphalt emulsion increased. However, the disadvantage was the increased economic costs of penetration macadam. Also, the rate of asphalt emulsion hardening without the tar component is considerably faster and thus it is very difficult to reach complete grouting of the coarse aggregate. Considering also the economically disadvantageous local repairs of damaged penetration macadam, the use of this technology has been gradually reduced to a minimum. Penetration macadam has been replaced with the technology of unbound layers, especially Type 1 unbound mixture, less vibrated gravel. These technologies are used in classical road construction as a road base layer. However, they could be used as the surface layer of forest road reinforcement in the forest as the intensity of transport is low and some of the roads are only used seasonally. Type 1 unbound mixture is the most advanced type of unbound layer within road building and it also has the highest load bearing capacity. It is a layer made of unbound mixtures of crushed aggregate with texture from 0 to 32, or 45 mm with the optimum moisture, spread and compacted under conditions ensuring the maximum possible load bearing capacity. The design of the mixture must be done in compliance with the provisions of the standard (ČSN EN 13285) along with the exact procedure of construction works (ČSN 73 6126-1). Unbound layers are spread in one or more layers by finishers or graders. When the work is of a small scale and done in small areas, it is possible to use any other appropriate machinery; alternatively, it can also be done manually. In manual work, the mixture cannot be thrown by shovels but it is recommended to form small piles and spread those. The spreading of an unbound mixture has to begin immediately after its delivery in order to maintain the optimum moisture. Compaction can be performed by a vibrating tandem roller with two smooth drums. When the work is of a small scale and done in small areas, in the proximity of drainage fixtures or curbs, it is possible to use vibrating plates, rammers and manual rollers. The mixture must be produced and delivered so that its moisture when laying and compacting meets the standard (ČSN EN 13285), regarding the aggregates, the shape of the granularity curve and the determination of the optimum moisture of
- 239 - aggregates to achieve the maximum volumetric mass of compaction. The modulus of elasticity of the Type 1 unbound mixture has to reach a value of 600 MPa. This technology best suits the multifunctional purposes of forest hauling roads, including the recreation purpose. The financial costs of their construction are minimized and this reinforcement is able to meet high demands. Its sole disadvantage is the limitations in all-year-round timber transport. Another type of unbound layer used for the reinforcement of forest roads is the vibrated gravel. It is an older technology of reinforcement and actually the predecessor of Type 1 unbound mixture, which only came into use when the development of stone crushing was allowed. Crushing machines which were able to produce small crushed stone and compacting instruments able to compact not only by pressure but also vibration were necessary. Thus, it was possible to fill in the original macadam skeleton by fine aggregate and create a continuous layer with minimum voids. This layer better resists the pressures from the axles of transport machinery, it does not break and has a better resistance to water. The basis of the gravel layer of vibrated gravel is a coarse aggregate of fraction 32 to 63 mm, which is usually spread by a grader. After the layer spreading and levelling, a vibrating roller is used. It is recommended that before the roller is used the stone layer is moisturised. After the setting of the coarse aggregate, the fine aggregate with a maximum grain size of 16 mm is spread. The ideal aggregate fraction and amount needs to be established experimentally for each given condition. In practice, usually the fine aggregate fractions 0 to 16 mm, or 0 to 8 mm are, used, at an amount of 30- 35% of the weight of the coarse gravel skeleton. The maximum amount of the fine aggregate is restricted by the following requirements: after vibrating the fine aggregate, the structure of the coarse aggregate must be apparent; the fine material must not be compacted, but only the voids need to be filled. Before compaction, it is recommendable to moisturise the layer; however, if a fraction at the lower limit of texture is used, it is difficult to vibrate it in. After vibrating, the stone skeleton must be filled coherently at least to a depth of 100 mm. The smallest thickness of the vibrated gravel is 2.5 times the largest grain, i.e. 150-200 mm, the optimum thickness is 250 mm. The modulus of elasticity of vibrated gravel has to reach 500 MPa (TP 170, 2010). This technology is less popular for recreation purposes, due to its roughness; it is also less suitable for cycling as the surface gets disintegrated resulting in worse riding comfort. Currently, we can also see compacted asphalt courses of bituminous mixtures in forest roads. Compacted asphalt courses have better properties in terms of production technology than penetration macadam; therefore, they have started to replace it in the designs of surfaces that should be operated on all-year-round. In addition, technological processes and machinery for repairs of damaged compacted asphalt courses are already of a better quality than in the second half of the last century in the era of penetration macadams in forest roads. Bituminous mixture is a mixture of aggregates with a continuous or interrupted granularity curve. The aggregate forms the skeleton in which individual grains touch and wedge into each other and are cemented by an asphalt binder. The most commonly used asphalt mixture in forest roads is asphalt concrete. Asphalt mixtures are continuously spread by finishers, exceptionally, use of a grader or manual implementation is possible. Compaction needs to be performed by means of high-performance vibrating or oscillating rollers, heavy static rollers and tyred rollers. Tyred rollers are convenient when compacting thicker subgrade layers of asphalt concrete to prevent cracks, seal the surface, etc. The surface of the wearing course of asphalt concrete is compacted until the static effect of the roller leaves visible traces. Coarsening is done using aggregate of fraction 1 to 3, 2 to 4, or 2 to 5 mm (ČSN 73 6121). Material characteristics of asphalt concrete based on type state have a modulus of elasticity of 5500 MPa, or 7500 Mpa (TP 170, 2010). Asphalt layers are becoming more popular due to their possible all-year-round use for timber transport as well as the dustless character, suitable for hiking, and smooth surface preferred by some of the cyclists. However, from the economic point of view, this solution for forest road reinforcement is the most expensive.
References ČSN EN 13285 (736155). (2006): Unbound mixtures – Specification. Prague: Český normalizační institut, 24 pp. ČSN EN 14227-3. (2013): Hydraulically bound mixtures - Specifications - Part 3: Fly ash bound granular mixtures. 36 pp. ČSN 73 6121 (73 6121). (2008): Road building - Asphalt Pavement Courses - Construction and conformity assessment. Prague: Český normalizační institut, 36 pp. ČSN 73 6126-1 (736126). (2006): Unbound courses - Part 1: Construction and conformity assessment. Prague: Český normalizační institut, 12 pp. ČSN 73 6127-2. (2008): Road building – Grouted courses – Part 2: Penetration macadam. Prague: Český normalizační institut. 8 pp.
- 240 - ČSN 73 6127-4. (2008): Road building – Grouted courses — Part 4: Aggregates bound by fly ash suspension. Prague: Český normalizační institut. 8 pp. Hrůza, P. (2013): Demonstrative Construction on the Mokradni Forest Road with Natural Reinforcement and Leisure Facilities. In Public Recreation and Landscape Protection-with man hand in hand. 1. ed. Brno: Mendel University in Brno, p. 24-26. ISBN 978-80-7375-746-5. Johnson, W., P. (2014): The Corduroy Road from Fairfax Court House to Fairfax Station. The Fare Facs Gazette. 11(2). p. 4-11. Jurík, L., et al. (1984): Lesné cesty. Bratislava: Príroda, 407 p. Lay, M., G. (1992): Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles that Used Them. Rutgers University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-8135-2691-4. Makovník, Š., et al. (1973): Inženierske stavby lesnícke: Projektovanie a stavba lesných ciest, Projektovanie a stavba objektov na leských cestách. 1. ed. Bratislava: Príroda, 709 pp. TP 170 (2010): Design of road pavements, Prague: MD ČR, 2010. 100 pp. Winkler, N. (1999): Environmentally sound forest infrastructure development and harvesting in Bhutan. Rome: FAO. 75 p. ISBN 1014-9945.
Souhrn Zpevňování lesních odvozních cest je široká problematika, která v sobě zahrnuje různé způsoby řešení. Ty musí vzít v úvahu, že prvotním důvodem zpevnění je doprava dříví, kdy dochází, vzhledem k hmotnosti odváženého dříví, k maximálně dovoleným tlakům náprav odvozních souprav na jejich povrch. V některých případech je odvoz dříví spojený i s požadavkem celoročního odvozu dříví, to znamená za každého počasí. Vždy je zde také kladen důraz na ekonomický způsob řešení zpevnění a to vzhledem k tomu, že se jedná o komunikace s nízkou intenzitou dopravy. V neposlední řadě musí zpevnění lesních odvozních cest plnit i narůstající požadavky návštěvníků lesa na jeho estetiku a sportovní využití lesních odvozních cest. To vše společně klade vysoké nároky na výstavbu a způsoby zpevňování lesních odvozních cest tak, aby byly splněny všechny tři výše uvedené požadavky. Tento článek popisuje historický vývoj zpevňování lesních odvozních cest a různé typy zpevnění používané v současné době tak, aby návštěvníci lesa měli představu o technologii jejich výstavby. Společně s tím uvádí, že každá technologie je více nebo méně vhodná pro jednotlivý účel jejich využití.
Contact: Assoc. Prof. Ing. Petr Hrůza, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 085; e-mail: [email protected]
- 241 - THE CONFLICTS IN FLOOD ROUTING THROUGH THE RECREATIONAL RESERVOIR HOSTIVAŘ IN PRAGUE
Jaromír Říha Institute of Water Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno University of Technology, Veveří 95, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The main purpose of the Hostivař dam in Prague is recreation when the reservoir level has to be maintained on prescribed level. The second declared purpose of the scheme is flood attenuation at which operational manual recommends to pre-empty the reservoir. Obviuosly these requirements suffer from certain inconsistency in manipulation with water level. During the flood in June 2013 with approximate return period of 500 years several facilities downstream of the dam were flooded by relatively rapid increase of water level in the Botič stream downstream of the Hostivař dam in Prague. The blame was thrown on the improper manipulation with appurtenant works of the dam and the complaints insist on the flood attenuation effect declared in operation manual. The study on the correctness of the operation at the dam during the flood proved proper and optimal operation with only minor flood attenuation effect. The main declared purpose - recreation - does not allow significant pre- emptying of the reservoir which has only limited volume to attenuate more extreme flood discharges.
Key words: purpose of the reservoir, operation manual, dam Hostivař, flood attenuation
Introduction In general most of water reservoirs in the Czech Republic are managed as multipurpose. However during their design and construction usually one or two purposes were set as principal. During last two decades the emphasis has been layed on the flood protection function of the reservoirs which asked for the reservation of certain flood attenuation volume. This usually brings a conflict between original and newly proposed reservoir purposes. Water supply, hydropower generation or recreation usually call for the full reservoir. On contrary flood attenuation needs some free reservoir volume which can be reached by permanent or temporary drop in reservoir water level. In June 2013 the Bohemian part of the Czech Republic was exposed to extreme flood reaching locally 500 year´s return period. All affected dams sustained such extreme peak discharges without any safety problems. However the expectations of the society and affected population about the dams´ efficiency in flood attenuation were not fulfilled. Subsequent studies showed that the operation of all dams was performed according to operation rules and with maximum care. Obviously other purposes and functions of the dams have to be taken into account in the operation of dams during floods. One of such widely discussed cases was the Hostivař dam in Prague. Its main purpose is recreation when the reservoir level has to be maintained on prescribed - contracted operational level. During the peak flood discharge at the Hostivař dam several facilities downstream of the dam were flooded by relatively rapid increase of water level in the Botič stream. The dam owner was accused by improper manipulation with appurtenant works at the dam. The detailed study proved proper and optimal operation. It was shown that relatively small reservoir volume is not capable to attenuate such extreme floods.
The Hostivař dam The Hostivař dam is located on the territory of the city of Prague on the Botič stream at the stationing 13.55 km. The Botič is a right bank tributary of the Vltava River (Fig. 1). The river basin of the Hostivař Dam has an area of about 94.8 km2. In the catchment a significant portion of the agricultural and forest land has been transformed into industrial areas with impervious surfaces. This has probably altered runoff conditions in comparison with its original state. On the streams in the catchment there are 8 gauging stations (Fig. 2) with level recorders indicating discharge; 3 of them are also equipped with rain gauges.
- 242 -
Fig. 1: Map of the Czech Republic featuring the area of interest
Fig. 2: Map of the Hostivař Dam basin (bullets indicate gauging stations)
The dam was completed in 1961. The maximum dam height is 13 m; maximum reservoir volume is 1.845 mil. m3. The flood retention volume is 0.375 mil. m3. The main purpose of the dam is recreation, flood attenuation is declared as supplementary purpose which in fact has only a minor effect in the case of floods with return period N < 20 years. The dam is equipped with bottom outlet - three pipes of diameter 500, 700 mm and 500 mm with total capacity about 8.2 m3/s. The spillway is composed of four gated sections each with a span of 2.7 m with the total spillway capacity about 70 m3/s at the maximum reservoir water level and opened gates.
- 243 - The flood in June 2013 Extreme flooding in Central Europe began after several days of heavy rainfalls in late May and early June 2013. The flooding and damage primarily affected southern and eastern Germany, western regions of the Czech Republic and Austria. The flood wave progressed down from the tributaries to the principal receivers, which included the Danube, Vltava and Elbe rivers. Records show that floods in the relatively small fan-shaped Botič catchment exhibit quite a steep front, meaning such floods can arrive in few hours. This experience was verified during the 2013 flood at the Botič catchment, where the daily precipitation locally exceeded 115 mm and the inflow to the Hostivař reservoir increased from 20 m3/s (5-year flood discharge) to 70 m3/s (200-year flood) within less than 3 hours. After another 4 hours the inflow discharge to the reservoir had increased up to 85 m3/s, which corresponds approximately to the 500 year´s discharge. The total volume of the flood wave was 8.9 mil. m3, which exceeded the flood retention volume of the reservoir by about 24 times. Even a preliminary estimate shows the reservoir only had a minor effect on the routing of such an extreme flood. The flood routing through the Hostivař reservoir was governed by the dam operation manual. After the maximum reservoir water level was exceeded, operators managed to open the gates relatively rapidly with the aim of not exceeding the maximum safety check flood level (249.30 m ASWL). As the warning system did not sufficiently keep up with the speed of the flood’s arrival and the operating procedures employed to deal with it, in the area downstream of the dam some inhabitants were endangered during the flood wave and some moveable properties such as vehicles were not evacuated. This resulted in subsequent complaints and accusations against the dam owner. In order to verify that the dam had been operated and maintained correctly several hydrological and hydraulic studies were carried out including the study detailed below.
Hydrological study To verify the flood routing procedures also in relation to other reservoir functions (mainly recreation) a detailed comprehensive study of the local rainfall-runoff process, dam operation, and the hydraulic behavior of appurtenant works was carried out. The aim of the study was also to specify flood attenuation potential of the reservoir and to recommend possible improvements. The study employed all available geographical data about the catchment, data from 6 gauging stations in the reservoir catchment concerning e.g. rainfall, water stage and discharge observations, and information about the water levels in the reservoir during the flood. The capacity of the appurtenant works was assessed via the detailed verification of dimensions, structures and equipment based on available drawings and on-site inspection. The accuracy of measurements of all relevant variables at the dam site was also checked and taken into account. The procedures adopted during the flood which were recorded in the dam book were compared with the data from gauge stations and published weather forecasts. Rainfall-runoff modeling was carried out using ZABAGED basic topographic data and CORINE maps (COSMC 2009) assembled and adjusted for the Hostivař Dam catchment area (Fig. 2). The modeling of the process was carried out by the HEC-HMS (2010) and GeoHMS (2013) program packages. Precipitation totals were taken from rainfall recorders. The runoff modeling results were compared with the hydrographs calculated at the level recording stations in the catchment and also with outflow hydrograph from the reservoir. Another indicator was the movement of the reservoir water level. The resulting outflow and inflow hydrographs during the flood and the behavior of the reservoir water level over time are shown in Fig. 3. The modeling showed that the time lag between the reservoir outflow and inflow fronts was about 4.5 hours; the flood attenuation effect was from approx. 85 m3/s (peak inflow discharge) to approx. 76 m3/s (outflow), i.e. about 9 m3/s. This abnormal effect was caused by the delayed opening of the spillway gates and the resultant considerable rise in the reservoir water level up to 248.98 m ASWL (still lower than maximum safety check flood level of 249.30 m ASWL). In case of reliable flood forecast it is recommended to pre-empty the reservoir by earlier increase of the outflow discharge up to 5 m3/s. In case of summer pre-emptying the dam owner is obliged to inform all reservoir users who may be aggrieved by the drop of reservoir water level. Those are owners of swimming pools and switchbacks at the banks of the reservoir.
- 244 -
Fig. 3: The outflow and inflow hydrographs, water level
Part of the study involved simulating the outflow hydrograph during dam operation when carried out according to the operation manual. In Fig. 4 it can be seen that if the dam is operated according the operation manual, the peak outflow discharge is about 79.5 m3/s, which is about 4.5 m3/s higher than the real peak during the flood in June 2013. Also, the increase in the outflow discharge is more rapid, i.e. it accelerates from 10 m3/s up to 55 m3/s in only 5 minutes. This does not correspond with the physically practicable time required for opening the gates. Also, downstream of the dam the arrival time of the real flood in June 2013 was approximately twice longer as that when operated according the operation manual.
Fig. 4: Comparison of the real and hypothetical outflow occurring if the dam is operated according to the operation manual
Conclusions and recommendations The study proved that the flood attenuation effect of dams depends strongly on the other purposes for which they are designed, and on the corresponding available flood retention volume at the moment of the flood’s arrival. In the case of relatively small catchment areas like that of the Hostivař Dam, the flood intensity and arrival time is significantly influenced by land use changes, i.e. the transformation of agricultural and forest land into industrial areas. A certain effect can also be achieved by the operation
- 245 - of appurtenant works before and during the flood. However from Figs. 3 and 4 it can be seen that on the rising limb of the hydrographs between the discharges 65 and 70 m3/s the inflow is equal to outflow with stagnating reservoir water level. This operation overrides the effect of all previous manipulation (including pre-emptying) on the flood attenuation. In connection with the future performance of the dam and related flood services the following recommendations were made in the study: - Newly built industrial and warehouse facilities should be equipped with efficient retention and infiltration systems which eliminate rapid runoff from solid impervious surfaces. - The operation manual must be rewritten and improved, taking into account the new experience obtained during the flood in June 2013. It was recognized that pre-emptying of the reservoir has practically no effect on the flood attenuation. Moreover in the case of faulty or inaccurate flood forecast with lower flood volume the reservoir may suffer from the water deficit which harms the reservoir use for recreation. - A warning plan should be drawn up for the Hostivař Dam, for the owners of the recreational facilities and also for the area below the dam. It should be based on the general weather forecast (which for such a small catchment is of limited reliability and general significance), data online from the gauging stations in the catchment, and on the current situation at the Hostivař Dam and anticipated operational measures to be taken.
References COSMC. (2009): Fundamental basis of geographical data (ZABAGED). Czech Office for Surveying, Mapping and Cadastre, Prague. HEC-HMS (2010): Hydrologic Modeling system. Version 3.5. USACE, Washington, DC, 2010. HEC-GeoHMS (2013): Geospatial Hydrologic Modeling Extension. Version 10.1. USACE, 2013.
Acknowledgement This paper is the result of projects entitled Advanced Materials, Structures and Technologies, code LO1408 AdMaS (Advanced Materials, Structures and Technologies) UP and The Use of Infiltration Methods and Their Assessment, code TA02020386 (Technological Agency of the Czech Republic).
Souhrn Hlavním účelem vodního díla Hostivař na toku Botič v Praze je rekreace. Poloha hladiny vody v nádrži je v letním období vázána smluvně mezi vlastníkem díla Hlavním městem Praha a nájemci koupaliště a tobogánu. Druhým účelem vodního díla je dle manipulačního řádu zmírnění průběhu povodní. Při prognóze povodně se doporučuje předvypouštět nádrž. V červnu roku 2013 byla východní část České republiky zasažena extrémní povodní. Doba opakování na přítoku do nádrže Hostivař byla zhruba 500 let. V článku jsou uvedeny výsledky hodnocení průběhu povodně v červnu 2013 v povodí Botiče a způsob manipulace na přehradě Hostivař. Ukázalo se, že nádrž svým relativně malým retenčním ale i celkovým objemem nemá významnější protipovodňový účinek. V případě nespolehlivé - nadhodnocené hydrologické předpovědi může předvypuštění nádrže vést ke stavu, kdy se nádrž po povodni nenaplní a tím dojde k porušení smlouvy mezi vlastníkem díla a provozovateli rekreačních zařízení. Závěrečná doporučení směřují k úpravě manipulačního řádu a vypuštění ochranné funkce z účelů nádrže. Omezený transformační účinek nádrže lze považovat za vedlejší účinek vodního díla.
Contact: Prof. Ing. Jaromír Říha, CSc. Phone: +420 541 147 753, e-mail: [email protected]
- 246 - THE IMPACTS OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION ON CULTURAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN MALÁ FATRA NATIONAL PARK (WESTERN CARPATHIANS)
Ivan Vološčuk1, Peter Sabo1, Martina Škodová2, Juraj Švajda2, Anna Dobošová3 1Institute for research of landscape and regions, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel University, Cesta na amfiteáter 1, 974 00 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic 2Department of Biology nad Ecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel University; Tajovského 40, 974 01 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic 3 State Nature Conservation of the Slovak Republic, Malá Fatra National Park Directorate, Hrnčiarska ul. 197, 013 03 Varín, Slovak Republic
Abstract The Cultural Ecosystem Services provide recreational, educational, spiritual and aesthetic benefits to people. The prime areas for natural-based tourism (and other forms of recreation) are evidently those that are legally protected, since they offer the best guarantee for maintaining their attractiveness in the long term. Indeed, the authenticity and quality of an environment, or of some particular feature of it, is frequently the primary motivation for tourists. The landscape of Malá Fatra National Park is very attractive for tourists due to the very diverse geological substrate, with changing varied minerals of different erodoproofness, in shallow layers, which leads to a high diversity of relief. Smoothly modelled shapes of core granites and quartzites are changing with morphological depressions in marls, shales, and sandstones. In contrast, upon limestones and dolomites of Triassic age, karst phenomena have developed including canyons, chasms, gorges, caves, towers, cliffs, etc. A representative example of high landscape attraction for tourists is Vrátna Valley, with small settlement Štefanová. The surrounding landscape of this settlement was for the long term used for agriculture. Traditional management of mountain meadows was based on grass cutting once per year and on extensive usage of pastures for sheep and cattle grazing. Since 1990 these meadows were given back to their original private landowners because of restitutions. However, during last years majority of these landowners have no more managed these meadows (also due to economic reasons). In abandoned meadows started dendroflora succession and landscape in Vrátna Valley is changing in front of our eyes. In 2014 the scientific team of Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica resumed the bio-ecological research in Vrátna Valley to detect changes in biodiversity and ecosystem structure on a long temporal scale. Special attention will be given to dendroflora succession on meadows, which changes also the landscape character and biodiversity structure.
Key words: ecological succession, cultural ecoservices, ecotourism, recreational activities, abandoned meadows, Malá Fatra National Park
Introduction Ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services. Provisioning services provide direct ecosystem products (e.g. crops, fruits, game and fishes, fuel, wood, fibre, water, genetic and medicinal resources). Regulatory services provide benefits from regulation of ecosystem services (e.g. regulation of climate, soil protection, pollination). Cultural services denote non-material benefits (e.g. aesthetic, recreational, scientific, educational and spiritual benefits). Supporting services are crucial for safeguarding life on the Earth (e.g. soil formation, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, habitats for biodiversity). The human species, while buffered against environmental changes by culture and technology (to a certain extent), is fundamentally dependent on the flow of ecosystem services. The conceptual framework for the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment posits that people are integral parts of ecosystems and that a dynamic interactions exists between them and other parts of ecosystems. The growing anthropogenic pressure approaches or overshoots the biosphere limits (Rockström et al., 2009) and drive, both directly and indirectly, changes of ecosystems, thereby causing changes in human well-being (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). The total global value of the whole ecosystem services in 2011 was calculated to 125 trillion of USD (Costanza et al., 2014). However, we face the degradation of the 60 % of global ecosystem services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Although the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment emphasizes the linkages between ecosystems and human well-being, it recognizes that the actions people should take that influence ecosystems result not just from a concern about human well-being but also from considerations of the intrinsic value of species and ecosystems. Intrinsic value is the value of something in itself and for its own sake, irrespective of its utility for people.
- 247 - High biological complexity of organisms and ecosystems causes that changes in drivers that indirectly affect biodiversity (e.g. growth of the human population, consumption, change of the lifestyle and technology), can alter also drivers directly affecting biodiversity (e.g. land.use change, pollution, overexploitation, invasive species and climate change). These result in changes to ecosystems and the services they provide, thereby affecting human well-being. The causes of changes in biodiversity and the ecosystems include, for example, changes in traditional local land use and land cover. After leaving the traditional method of using agricultural land in Vrátna Valley started ecological (mainly dendroflora) succession, which changes landscape characteristic and biodiversity of ecosystems. In terms of the recreational use, Malá Fatra Mts.became in the 20thcentury the second most attractive mountain areas in Slovakia (the first one arethe High Tatras). Vrátna Vallley has become the center of summer and winter recreation and mountain tourism. This valley includes also the permanent settlement Štefanová actually consisting of about 30 families. From the 19th century surroundings of this settlement were used only for farming – sheep and cattle grazing and mowing meadows. The transfer ofownership of landto the original owners after 1990 and also economic depression of the Slovak agriculture led to the abandonment of traditional agriculture and orientation to tourism led to the rebuilding of housesfor recreational purposes. On the abandoned meadows and fields secondary vegetation succession began, shrubs first and the trees later. This caused a subsequent change in biodiversity of ecosystems and characteristic features of traditional agricultural landscapes. The attractiveness of the recreation area for a long-term recreation is valued according to weighted proportions of the following recreation factors: climate, water (esp. waterfalls), rugged topography (according to altitude, surface formation and presence of rock and caves), organic life (forest cover, vegetation, wildlife), national monuments, and – in negative sense – pollution and other forms of habitat degradation, e.g wood cutting, soil erosion on touristic trails and trampling of vegetation (Papánek, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1978). All this factors are significant for Vrátna Valley.
Study area The westernmost mountainous area of the Western Carpathians is Malá (Small) Fatra, which is divided into 2 subunits: Krivánska Fatra and Lúčanská Fatra (Midriak, 2003). The Malá Fatra orographical complex is the third highest in the Western Carpathians after the High and Low Tatras. It is located in north-western part of the Slovak Republic. In 1967 the Krivánska Fatra Mts were declared as Landscape Protected Area (LPA) Malá Fatra (Pagáč, Vološčuk, 1983), and in 1988 this area was declared as the Malá Fatra National Park (NP). The territory of the NP is approximately equal to the Krivánska Fatra orographic complex. The area of the NP is in the shape of an asymmetric ellipse with the length about 26 km and the width about 12,5 km. The total area of the national park territory is 45 892 ha. The core zone is spread over 22 630 ha, whereas the area of the peripheral protection (buffer) zone is 23 262 ha The elevational range of the NP is from 358 m (Hradský potok stream) up to 1709 m (peak Veľký Kriváň). There are 30 strict protected areas (nature reserves) in Malá Fatra NP. The complex geological evolution, the great variety of relief and a full range of altitudes with bright micro and mezo climatic ratios, necessitated a great variety and richness of flora and fauna (Vološčuk, 1999). Scientific research of Krivánska Fatra Mts. landscape and ecosystems dates back to 18 century. Deepening scientific research occurred in the 19th and 20 th century (Pagáč, Vološčuk et al., 1983). In 1972 – 1974 the former Administration of Malá Fatra LPA organized the complex landscape ecological research. The results of research were published in the scientific monograph (Janík, Stollmann et al., 1988). In the years 1970 - 1988 the Administration of Malá Fatra LPA organized inventory research of all natural reserves in LPA with the aim to apply and transform scientific knowledge into practical management of ecosystems. In 1995 - 1998 Department of Forest Ecology of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Zvolen realized Grant project No. 95/5305/590 GAT “Quantification of anthropogenic load regions Mala Fatra on biotic and abiotic indicators and biodiversity" (Korňan, 1998). In 2014 the research teamwork of the Research Institute of Landscape and Regions of the Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica, started in Malá Fatra NP a scientific research within the framework of grant project VEGA No 1/0255/14 “The dynamics of landscape structure, diversity of phytocoenoses and indication of solar energy dissipation in selected ecosystems of the Malá Fatra National Park“ planned for the years 2014 - 2016. The repeated landscape-ecological and forest and non forest geobiocoenological research of Malá Fatrais focused on two landscape-ecologically different areas. The first area are unique limestone- dolomite complex ecosystems in National Nature Reserves of Vrátna Valley (Rozsutec, Chleb, Tiesňavy) with adjacent grasslands and communities in altitudinal range of 600 to 1 610 meters. The second group is the geobiocoenoses of crystalline rocks (granodiorite) in the western part of the Malá Fatra, altitudinal range from 360 to 1369 mabove see level.
- 248 - Materials and Methods The research areas are situated on meadows surroundings of the Štefanová settlement and on forest beech ecosystems of Rozsutec National Nature Reserve, situated in successional stages of optimal and aging. The ecological studies on grassland communities focused on mown meadows and non- mown meadows located above the village Štefanová, at the foot of National Nature Reserve Rozsutec. In high diapas on meadows merge in to the original beech forests with spruce and maple. Phytosociological records (forest plant communities in an area of 20x20m) collected summer aspect of forest and non-forestplant communities. Phytosociological relevés were performed by the conventional methods of Zürich-Montpellier school (Braun-Blanquet, 1964; Westhoff, van denMaarel, 1978). Abundance and dominance of the vascular plant species were noted according to the modified 9- membered Braun-Blanquet scale (Backman et al., 1964). In the botanical entries of grassland communities helped Dr. Anna Dobošová, botanist of Malá Fatra National Park. In the forest communities three layers were distinguished-herbaceous layer E1, shrub layer E2 (1-3 m) and tree layer E3 (height more than 3 m). The results were analysed in EXCEL and JUICE programmes (Tichý, 2002). The names of plant species are listed by according to Marhold and Hindák(Marhold, Hindák, 1998). In this paper only partial results of research in the summer 2014th are presented. The analysis of phytosociological relevés enables to describe the temporal changes in vegetation, and to assess the environmental changes based on indirect information provided by the Ellenberg indicator values (Križová, Nič, 1997). During ecological succession the complexity of the ecosystem increases. Our methodologyof the ecologicalcomplexity assessment isbasedonevaluation of both of its functional and structural dimensions. This includes the assessment of the relativecapacity of individual ecosystems to dissipate solar energy as well as the calculations of species diversity and anthropophytisation of vegetation (Jörgensen, Svirezhev, 2004; Sabo et al., 2011). As the capacity of solar energy dissipation (SED) by ecosystem depends also on other environmental factors (esp. on the flow of solar energy, air and soil temperature and humidity), the SED of individual ecosystems can be compared only if the measurements are realized parallelly and in blocks of relatively stabile anticyclonal weather. Our research project VEGA is focused also on dendroflora succession in non-forest ecosystems (meadows) on derelict and abandoned meadows and on bio-ecological assessment of extent of promotion or expansibility trees, by the way the timber growing (Vološčuk et al., 2011). The data will be used in order to forecast trends and changes caused by changing of ecological conditions. The Vrátna Valley in Malá Fatra NP in terms of tourism is a very attractive area. The research on framework of VEGA project in 2015 – 2016 will focus on analysis of the current state of tourism pressure on conservation and then to predict the future development of tourism in order to support the potential of ecotourism for sustainable development of the region.
Results and Discussion Ecological characteristics of meadows in Vrátna Valley near Štefanová settlement expressed by Ellenberg ecological numbers is shown in Table 1.
Tab. 1: Ecological characteristics of the first studied meadow patches near Štefanová Continen Soil reac- The site / Ellenberg number 1 Light Warm Moisture Nutrients -tality tion (pH) Mowed meadow site (S1 – 49 °14 7,4 4,6 3,6 5,0 6,4 4,6 '10,9'') Reliability (average proportion of plants 0,97 0,31 0,87 0,88 0,69 0,84 evaluated with an Ellenberg number) Unmowed meadow site (S2) 7,2 5,0 3,9 5,5 6,5 4,6 Reliability of Ellen. numbers calculation 0,93 0,55 0,79 0,74 0,57 0,79 (relat. abund. of the evaluated taxons) Beech forest site (S3) 4,3 4,7 3,7 5,3 6,8 5,4 Reliability of Ellen. numbers calculation 47 31 43 41 30 41 (relat. abund. of the evaluated taxons S1: Shannon - Wiener index: 3,28; Evenness: 0,83; Species richness: 53 S2: Shannon - Wiener index: 3,46; Evenness: 0,87; Species richness: 54 S3: Shannon - Wiener index: 2,87; Evenness: 0,74; Species richness: 49
In the case of abandonment of traditionally mowed meadows the spontaneous succession can be assumed during which grasslands are gradually overgrown by shrubs and trees (beech, maple, fir, spruce less) and former meadows are transformed into forests. Perhaps it can be seen on the
- 249 - example of former meadows of Štefanová that after leaving cutting 40 years ago, mostly overgrown with spruce mixed in maple and beech. As can be seen from table 1 succesion includes a shift of the phytocoenoses composition towards species requiring more nutrients. The ecological characteristics of natural beech forest expressed by Ellenberg ecological numbers is shown in Table 2.
Tab. 2: Chemical analysis of Cambisol on marly limestones in beech forest research plot S3 (Vološčuk, 1981) Depth cm Soil reaction pH/H2O C % N % C/N 0 – 3 6,10 - - - 3 – 15 7,18 4,97 0,386 12,8 30 – 40 7,88 2,33 0,182 12,8
Ecological succession can be explained by means of the non-equilibrium thermodynamics theory (Kay, 2000). According to it, in the sense of the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics an ecosystem „is compelled“ to react to the growing supply of nutrients and energy accumulated during succession in biomass and in soil. This growth of the supply of available energy leads to the spontanneous development of more complex dissipative structures and dissipative processes (Jörgensen, Svirezhev, 2004). This includes spontaneous change of the biocoenosis composition with the „aim“ to increase its capacity to dissipate both incoming solar energy and accumulated one (in the form of organic compounds) through new pathways. This is the way to renew the ecosystem energetic balance and is reflected also in the increase of the proportion of K-strategists (on the cost of r-strategists decline) and increase of the size of the gilds on higher trophic levels, due to higher amount of energy accumulated on lower trophic levels (Würtz, Anilla, 2010). Overgrowing by trees and change of meadows into forests has no direct negative impact on recreational land use. However, saving at least some of the abandoned species rich meadows (below the timberline) will contribute to development of new, soft ways of tourism, esp. ecotourism, based on environmentally friendly trips into wildlife (Ceballos – Lascuráin, 1996). Apart from the increased quality of the authentic tourist experience, ecotourism supports also wildlife protection and economy of local communities. Succession processes of shrubs and trees on abandoned pastures can be evaluated from two aspects. Scientific environmental aspect involves a different view of botanists and foresters. From a botanical scientific point of view overgrowing meadows shrubs and trees causes a reduction in herbs and grasses biodiversity. This can have a negative impact on the cultural ecosystem services. Tourists mostly positive perceive a colorful spring and summer aspect of the foothill grassland communities, because it produce positive aesthetic experience. This aspect also show text on panels of educational nature trails throughout the Vrátna Valley. On one of the panels is the text “I am plucked a flowers and they strife, I caught a butterfly and died in my palm, I understand that beauty can be touched only with the heart”. From the perspective of botany and recreational tourism is overgrowing trees of meadows aegative phenomenon. A similar view has Dobošová on the succession in the sub-alpine meadows of Mala Fatra (Dobošová, 2002).From the point of view of the forest overgrowing of abandoned meadows is natural successional process, which aims to forest climax. In terms of recreation is very important to the tourist trail was a good view of the attractive landscape with dominating cliffs, ridges, waterfallsand canyons. Forestry ecologists perseived positive transformation of meadows to forsts because of the increased resilience of ecosystems. Botanically researchers point out, however, negative effect of reduction of biodiversity. The gradual overgrowing of grassland areas by trees results in a substantial change in the diversity of the herb layer. This is, however, recognized only by scientists and experts. Tourists in their “short term view” mostly do not see a change of grassland space in to forests as something negative. However, there are studies that manlooking at the landscape suits just an open space with flowering meadows, which are for the average touristits charm. In terms of tourism, it is necessary esp. to recalla very bad state of hiking trails (severe erosion, shortening paths, bare rooted trees, trampling of vegetation) in some parts of the Small Fatra National Park and its national nature reserves.
Conclusion In this paper we present a gradual change of grassland communities into forests due to abandonment of mowing and grazing by local people of Štefanová village. The theory of non-eqilibrium thermodynamic teaches us that abandonment of the management of the meadows below the timberline necessarily leads to ecological succcesion, the main driving force of which is the energy which accumulates in the biomass of abandoned meadows. This process is in the current socio-
- 250 - economic situation unstoppable because the people of the Štefanová settlement no longer use their land for agriculture but are focused on tourism development. Effect of succession of dendroflora in the abandoned meadow communities sharply changes the diversity of herbaceous communities. But currently it does not havea high negative impacton the capacity of cultural ecosystem services-the aesthetic perception of landscape, recreation, leisure, exploring enormously interesting karst relief of gorges and rocky towns, etc. However, also the interest in nature tourism is growing (and is expected to grow) and its sustainable soft form is represented just by ecotourism. From this point of view, the complete loss of species rich seminatural meadows below the timberline would mean also a decrease of available options for future ecotourism trails in the area. Therefore we recommend the local inhabitants, the municipality in Terchová and the tourist agencies to join their capacities and to safeguard mowing of meadows at least on a small and economically feasible proportion of these meadows. This would be an investment both to biodiversity protection as well as to the ecotourism development in the area.
Acknowledgement Thanks to the support of the project VEGA No 1/0255/14The dynamics of landscape structure, diversity of phytocoenoses and indication of solar energy dissipation in selected ecosystems of the Malá Fatra National Park.
Souhrn Kulturní služby ekosystémů představují pro člověka rekreační, výchovný, duchovní a estetický užitek. Primárními územími pro přírodní turistiku (a také jiné formy rekreace) jsou evidentně ta území, které mají právní ochranu, protože poskytují nejlepší záruku zachování jejich atraktivity v dlouhodobém horizontu. Pro turistiku zpravidla jsou prvotní motivací autenticita a kvalita přírodního prostředí, nebo některých jeho složek. Krajina Národního parku Malá Fatra je pro turistiku velmi atraktivní díky velké rozmanitosti geologického podkladu, s velkým počtem hornin různé odolnosti vůči erozi, s velkou rozmanitostí povrchových tvarů a vysokou biodiverzitou. Na podloží slínů, břidlic a pískovců se vyskytují měkce modelované povrchové tvary. Na vápencích a dolomitech jsou vyvinuty atraktivní krasové jevy (kaňony, soutěsky, propasti, jeskyně, kamenné věže, mohutné soutěsky, kužely a pod.). Reprezentativní ukázkou atraktivní země pro turisty je Vrátna dolina s malou osadou Štefanová. Okolí této osady se dlouhodobě využívalo na zemědělství. Tradiční management těchto horských luk byl soustředěn na sečení luk jednou ročně a na extenzivní pasení ovcí a dobytka. Po roce 1990 v rámci restituce tyto louky a pole byly vráceny původním vlastníkům. V posledních desetiletích je však vlastníci pozemků nevyužívají tradičním způsobem (příčinou jsou i ekonomické podmínky). Na opuštěných loukách a pastvinách se začala šířit dřevinná vegetace a krajina Vrátné doliny se na mnoha místech očividně změnila. V roce 2014 tým vědců Univerzity Mateja Bela v Banské Bystrici v rámci vědeckého grantu začal uskutečňovat bioekoliogický výzkum ve Vrátné dolině, zaměřený na studium sukcese dendroflórou na opuštěných loukách v okolí osady Štefanová, která způsobuje změnu krajinného rázu a struktury biodiverzity.
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Contact: Prof. Ing. Ivan Vološčuk, DrSc, E-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Peter Sabo, CSc, E-mail: [email protected]
RNDr. Martina Škodová, PhD, E-mail: [email protected]
Ing. Juraj Švajda, PhD, E-mail: [email protected]
RNDr. Anna Dobošová E-mail: [email protected]
- 252 - Annexes
Fig. 1: Meadows around Stefanová serttlement Fig. 2: Mowed (right) and nonmowed (left) in Vrátna Valley meadow
Fig. 3: Succession of dendroflora on Fig 4: Succession of spruce on subalpine nonmowed meadow meadows in Medziholie saddle under Veľký Rozsutec peak
Fig. 5: Climax Beech Forest under Veľký Fig. 6: Bad state of hiking trails –bare rooted Rozsutec peak (research area S3) trees
Fig. 7: Erosion on hiking trail
- 253 - THE RESTORATION OF AN OLD EXTENSIVE ORCHARDS - THE REALIZATION PERSPECTIVE
Jan Deutscher Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The current European Operational Programs in environmental conservation and protection available in the Czech Republic for the past 5 years significantly affected the selection of implemented measures. Among the supported environmental friendly measures was the restoration of old extensive orchards. This brought up many questions as well as challenges on how to best address the issues connected with the projection, planning and implementation of the renewed orchards all finally leading to the restoration itself. It also showcased the rather unpleasant current state of these often abandoned landscape features. Using own experience with the creation of such orchards, the author discusses the aims of their restorations, their traditional as well as recent usage but most importantly, the staging of the restoration itself like ground preparation, turf establishment, tree planting and tree protection. Finally potential aftercare and maintenance is presented.
Key words: European Operational Programs, tree planting, orchard maintenance
Introduction The traditional orchards where often founded on communal land and were managed by the municipality. They would be founded on steep slopes, in rough terrain or other places not suitable for agriculture. Therefore, the shape of old orchards was often small irregular and somewhat nature-like. As opposed to productive orchards, trees would be used in standard (or half-standard) forms with trunks of 2 meters or more to ensure longevity. Oftentimes, the municipality would rent individual trees in a public auction each year to the people who would then take care of the trees in their own way, being able to sell or use the fruit from the tree as their own. This way the whole community would participate in the management of the orchard and the orchard would become a permanent source of income for the municipality and the people alike. Certain families or individuals would hire the same tree each year. This way, important bonds would be formed by the people to the landscape. The sward of the orchard floor would be oftentimes used for either grazing grounds for cattle or as a source of hay, therefore repeated management measures would be carried out somewhat unconsciously, yet functionally. The trees would get pruned by their tenants and the sward would be mowed or grazed. This way, traditional extensive orchards have become a semi-natural habitat that has played an important integral role in the rural landscape for centuries as a source of livelihood, aesthetic and cultural value, recreation, biodiversity and in many cases erosion control (Ekodomov, 2012, Barašová, 2013). A big portion of the traditional orchards have been abandoned and neglected in the last 20-30 years in the Czech Republic (CR), following the changes in 1989 (The Velvet revolution). The reasons are many, mostly connected to the instability of the political regime leading to shattered land ownership and breakage of the bonds people formed to the landscape, people refusing to live on the countryside and moving to cities as a result of change in the social paradigm. Nonetheless, abandoned orchards are a common thing in the current countryside. The condition of the neglected orchards and its trees may vary. Usually after 20-30 years of spontaneous natural development, the old fruit trees are swamped by dense thicket of scrub (rose Rosa canina, hawthorn Crataegus monogyna, blackthorn Prunus spinosa, hazel Corylus avellana etc.) or shadowed by fast-growing forest tree species (Aspen Populus tremula, field maple Acer campestre, hornbeam Carpinus betulus, ash Fraxinus excelsior and other species). The restoration is therefore a rather complex task often requiring a lot of ground works and mechanization. Careful assessment is vital for deciding what management measures should be undertaken in order to restore the orchard. However, they should always include the management of the old trees, planting new trees and the management of the orchard floor and any other important features such as hedgerows, ponds etc. With the introduction of European operational programs in 2007, a paradigm shift took place in what is actually possible to carry out in the landscape. Before this “age of grants” the activities of nature protection and conservation were mostly limited to special protected areas. In 2007, the open landscape became the playground of choice, thus enabling to finally take care of old abandoned landscape formation, such as old extensive orchards.
- 254 - Materials and methods As stated above, the original purpose of the orchard was mostly fruit production along with grazing. However, this might not be the case when restoring it. It is important to take into account the future usage of the orchard. Usually it will be a combination of modest fruit production and grazing possibilities, preservation of its aesthetic, historical and cultural value and nature protection. Any human activities such as bee-keeping, haymaking, juice production should be welcomed and supported. All of this will help the orchard to “stay alive” and not be neglected again. The aims and objectives will likely affect the way the whole restoration goes, types of tree planted, management of old trees, fencing, tree guards etc. Once the assessment has been done and aims have been defined, the restoration should proceed in following stages: 1. Orchard floor preparation, 2. Old tree management, 3. Turf establishment, 4. Tree planting, 5. Maintenance
Orchard floor preparation Orchard floor preparation includes all the works needed to obtain a clean-tilled orchard floor for future turf establishment and tree planting. It consists of eradication of unwanted tree species and scrubs and tillage to achieve a flatter orchard floor (Herrera, 2005). The fruit trees need a special micro- climate with sufficient sun and air. Even though, some shrub species might be of botanical or wildlife interest, those should be only confined to grow in the peripheral parts of the orchards along its edges. Amongst the fruit trees all shrubs and other vegetation should be removed. Practice shows that it is possible and very efficient to burn the wood material on the spot as long as there are open spaces in the orchard where the fire can burn without damaging the fruit trees. Very important is to remove all the belowground parts of shrubs as well to prevent them from coppicing. Coppicing of stumps is a rapid process in the 3-5 years after thinning and can cause huge problems with proper turf establishment and orchard management and requires demanding field work which is both pricy and time consuming. Also if the cutting of coppice is not carried out periodically it can cause the failure of the whole restoration. The easiest way is to use a forestry mower/mulcher of acceptable size that is capable of preparing the orchard floor up to 20 cm below ground which should be sufficient to prevent the coppicing of stumps and roots. Also, the mulch material is appropriate for following turf establishment.
Old tree management Old trees take a long time to grow and their aesthetic, cultural and historic value increases over time. It can be argued that the trees are the most important part of the orchard. Therefore special care should be devoted to them. The trees should be checked individually. However, their condition is very hard to evaluate if located in a dense canopy of overgrowing shrubs and forest trees. Oftentimes, proper assessment is only possible after the orchard floor has been cleared. It is useful to divide the trees into categories according to the type of treatment. It should be sufficient to define trees that will be either cut down or pruned or left as torsos. Most of the trees should be restoratively pruned and remedied if at all possible. However, their expected life span should be taken into account (apple/cherry 80-120 years) (TIN018, 2010). If their potential future is short, close to 10 years, it is reasonable to consider their replacement. At the same time if the trees are damaged by a pathogen or cause a hazard to people and livestock their removal is well justifiable. A nice way of preserving the value of old trees as well as their function as habitat for insects, birds and wildlife as a whole is to leave some dead trees standing as torsos. Branches should be shortened and the tree should be cut lower to minimize the hazard of fall. This way, the tree does not take up much space, yet provides an increased ecological value to the locality.
Turf establishment In the extensive orchards the turf plays a very important role. Not only is it a level, solid working area for labor and equipment as in productive orchards (Huffman, 2013) but more importantly is a habitat for helpful insects for pest control such as Ladybird Coccinela sp., Lacewing Chrysoperla sp., Ground beetle Carabus sp., Giant Ichneumon Rhyssa sp. or arachnids. Therefore it is important to use a mixture of grass and plant species typical for rich florid meadows (Ekodomov o.s., 2012). At the same time some fruit tree pests develop on certain hosts which should be avoided, such as reed Phragmites sp., hops Homulus lupulus (Pultar, 2007). The best time to plant grass seed is early fall. Ideally, the grass seed should be planted on a wetter day after all mechanization has finished to avoid compaction and rutting to obtain the best possible conditions: a proper seedbed, cooler temperatures, and good soil moisture.
- 255 - Tree planting Tree planting should be carried out according to the legislative framework by the norms ČSN DIN 18 915 -18 920 Sadovnictví a krajinářství (horticulture and landscaping). It is important to choose appropriate planting material. It is most suitable to use the same tree forms and species and planting pattern as in the original orchard, usually standard- or half-standard-form trees. That way the continuity of the orchard is ensured and the restoration can be gently integrated in the landscape. The key action remains proper tree guard. There are a number of options and each of them has its limitations. As usual, a combination of several attitudes brings the best results. Where it is reasonable, standard forestry fencing should be used. It is the best possible protection against big game and roe- deer in the early years after planting and can be easily removed after the danger has passed (approximately 5 years). However, the fence does not protect against another important species, the hare is capable of jumping right through the fence. Therefore individual tree protection is also required. Also, the young trees need to be protected from weed, most importantly during the first 3 month after planting. To ensure a big enough weed-free area around young trees, mulching can be used as it suppresses weeds as well as keeps moisture in the soil.
Maintenance The maintenance can be divided into two parts, maintenance of the turf and maintenance of the trees. According to the objectives and purposes of the restored orchard defined before its restoration, the maintenance may differ as well. Nonetheless, the grass will come up 2-3 weeks after a good rain and it is important to start the first mowing early enough to prevent weed escapes from choking out the grass and/or going to seed. Following this early period the turf should be mowed repeatedly and periodically 2 times a year. The time of the mowing should correspond to the mixture of the species in the turf to allow full flowering of the species. The maintenance of the trees in an extensive orchard has its own specifics. The pruning should maintain the balance between the needs of the tree and the organism living in it. The pruning should not be done too often rather the tree should be left to grow according to its own nature. However maintenance pruning should be carried out to remove dead or damaged parts of the tree, when showing obvious signs of disease, decay etc. It is best if the pruning is carried out in the long-term repeatedly every once 3-5 years, rather than heavy pruning in a one-off hack, which may result in over-pruning and damage to the tree vitality (Boček, 2008).
Results With the current changes and paradigm shifts to both the society and the grant politics of European Union the attention in nature protection and conservation in the CR turns to the open landscape scale. This means that it is reasonable to expect an increased attention of stakeholders (mainly municipalities) towards old extensive orchards as one of the most interesting landscape features in the countryside. Many of the old orchards have been neglected and abandoned in the last 20-30 years. Because of the current high demand for building sites and arable land it will probably not be too common to create new orchards, rather the restoration of old abandoned ones will be demanded. While the original purpose of the extensive orchards was mostly fruit production along with grazing, it will probably not be the exact same case when restoring it. Usually it will be a combination of modest fruit production and grazing possibilities, while at the same time the preservation of its aesthetic, historical and cultural value and nature protection. Any human activities such as bee-keeping, haymaking, juice production should be welcomed and supported. All of this will help the orchard to “stay alive” and not be neglected again. Before any restoration activities take place in the orchard a thorough assessment should be elaborated. During this assessment the expected purposes of the restored orchard should be defined so that they can be properly addressed during the restoration process. The restoration process itself consists of consecutive steps. The first step is the orchard floor preparation. The easiest way is to use forestry mower/mulcher of acceptable size that is capable of preparing the orchard floor up to 20 cm below ground which should be sufficient to prevent the coppicing of stumps and roots. Secondly, after the orchard floor has been prepared, proper assessment of trees is enabled. It is useful to divide the trees into categories according to the type of treatment. It should be sufficient to define trees that will be either cut down or pruned or left as torsos. Next step is the turf establishment. It is important to use a mixture of grass and plant species typical for rich florid meadows to enable a nature-like vegetation to grow underneath the trees to support the habitat for helpful insects for pest control. Tree planting should follow according to the legislative framework by the Czech standards for horticulture and landscaping. It is vital to use proper tree guard against game damage and mulching against weed. The maintenance can be divided into two parts, maintenance of the turf and maintenance of the trees. The turf should be mowed repeatedly and periodically 2 times a year while the pruning of the trees
- 256 - should be carried out in the long-term repeatedly every once 3-5 years, rather than heavy pruning in a one-off hack, which may result in over-pruning and damage to the tree vitality.
Conclusion The traditional extensive orchards have become over the years a semi-natural habitat that plays an important integral role in the rural landscape as a source of livelihood, aesthetic and cultural value, recreation, biodiversity and in many cases erosion control. Rather than create new extensive orchard, the restoration of old abandoned orchards should be encouraged and supported. Since a social paradigm shift is happening these days where people are turning back to their origins and traditional land use, the restoration of extensive orchards plays a key supportive role not only in future nature conservation and protection but also as way of maintaining traditions and historic cultural values.
References Boček S. et al. (2008): Ovocné dřeviny v krajině. Sborník přednášek a seminárních prací. Hostětín, ISBN 978-80-904109-2-3 ČSN DIN 18 915 -18 920 Sadovnictví a krajinářství Huffman L. (2013): Orchard floor management in new apple orchards. Soil Management For Orchards And Vineyards, OMAF and MRA Factsheet Order No. 92-120. Available at: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/hort/news/hortmatt/2013/13hrt13a4.htm Pultar O. (2007): Využití odporu prostředí, biologických a bioracionalních metod k ochraně ovocných dřevin proti škůdcům. In Boček, S. Ovocné dřeviny jako součást dřevinných formací v kulturní zemědělské krajině II. Brno: Mendelova zemědělska a lesnicka univerzita v Brně, 2007. s 46–66. ISBN 978-80-7375-096-1 TIN018 Natural England Technical Information Note. 2010. Traditional orchards: restoring and managing mature and neglected orchards. Natural England, 1 East Parade, Sheffield, S1 2ET.
Souhrn Zaměření operačních programů Evropské unie během uplynulých 5 let v ochraně přírody a krajiny směrem k volné krajině umožnilo mimo jiné obnovovat staré zanedbané extensivní sady. Z tohoto důvodu je nutné zodpovědět otázky spojené projektováním, plánováním a realizací těchto obnov. S využitím vlastních zkušeností při realizaci obnov opuštěných extensivních sadů autor popisuje možné cíle obnovy sadů, jejich tradiční a současné využívání a zejména jednotlivé realizační kroky při jejich obnově.
Contact: Ing. Jan Deutscher, Ph.D. Phone: +420 777 594 967, e-mail: [email protected]
- 257 - THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE RESILIENCE MODULE
Ortiz de Zarate Gorka, Lenka Ševelová Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The design of each structure and its subsequent life and reliability, in general, depends on many factors. From the properties of structural materials, through the use of the calculation model and the method of determining the characteristics of the material input to the technological application. In each activity some uncertainties and even human error could occur, similarly also in the process of selection and execution of the tests. The most important input data for the design of pavements of rural roads is the resilience module of the subsoil. It is also important to know the phenomena that affect its behaviour and how do they modify it. The uncertainties of the input variables that affect the behaviour of the structure can be respected by using modern numerical simulation methods, which need proper and quality input parameters. This article presents the statistical treatment of resilience module obtained from the CBR test cyclic peformed in the laboratory.
Key words: Cyclic CBR, module of resilience, rural roads, Box-Cox transformation, Spearman’s correlation coefficient
Introduction The Low Volume Roads (LVRs) offer almost endless possibilities for users. They are named as that because the number of vehicles using them is lower than in a conventional road, for the reason that they are located in difficult places to reach where the environmental value is high. Therefore, this type of pavement can offer many possibilities for the users, due to the fact that it can be used by recreational or industrial vehicles, or pedestrians, cyclists etc. But at the same time, they must fulfil with the technical exigencies of the heavy traffic loads as well as with the necessities of the leisure activities. The performance of the constructions are generally influenced by objective factors, such as type of pavement, dimensioning of the layers, received loads, variation of the mechanical properties of the soil and the moisture. However, there are certain types of uncertainties that must be analysed. These variabilities are collected in the reliability theory, in which three types of uncertainties are discussed: physical uncertainties, where the applied loads, geometry of the structure and properties of the material are analysed; statistical uncertainties and model uncertainties, taking into consideration difference between idealizations used in the model and real behaviour. In order to design more reliable, durable and effective rural roads, a numerical simulation model was created based on the finite element method (FEM), to analyse various types of uncertainties that affect the behaviour of pavement construction. This type of model requires appropriate input variables, which must be compatible with the material of the model of the FEM method. The main objective is to obtain the elastic modulus of the material, as it is the most important characteristic of the soil input variables. The elastic modulus represents the relationship between load and deformation, and varies depending on humidity and density. Its detailed preparation influences the accuracy of the design. From all the modules offered by the geotechnical practice, the resilience module (MR) of the cyclic test was selected, as recommended by ASSHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials), which aptly describes the behaviour of the natural material after the application of the load, and at the same time is able to introduce the influence of moisture. In order to get that module, cyclical test CBR test T2 was applied with a constant penetration, according to the Dutch theory (Molenaar, 2009) and test T3,with a constant stress, developed by Mendelu University in Brno (Ševelová, Hauser, 2014; Arbid, Ševelová, 2013). For the analysis, samples have been taken from 7 rural roads, divided into a minimum of 10 profiles each. 12 samples have been tested from each profile, 6 with optimal moisture and 6 saturated. These gives a total of more than 800 samples analysed. All samples also have been classified by the Unified Soil Classification Systems (USCS), through a system of tests according to Czech normative (Table 2). Furthermore, the optimal humidity and maximum density were obtained from each sample by using the test Proctor Standard (ČSN EN 13286–2, 2005).
- 258 - Statistical analysis The content of this article is focused on the statistical uncertainties. These are dependent of the amount of data available for the analysis and they increase with the absence of information. In the majority of the cases, uncertainties involved in the problem are solved by assigning a probability function with estimated parameters distribution from the information collected and/or based on subjective information or past personal experience. These parameters are dependant of the amount of data collected. For time reasons, as a cyclic test takes about 5 hours to be completed and the quantity of planned tests is really high, only 6 samples have been analysed from each profile, in order todetermine the resilient module MR. Before starting with the statistical analysis, a review of the collected data was performed in order to rule out the remote measurements, to eliminate the errors in the preparation of the sample or the ones that could occur during the tests.
Analysis of normality Once the reject was done, the statistical analysis could start. The first hypothesis was that the distribution of the data should be normal, due to the fact that the difference of moisture and density between samples of the same profile was really low. Therefore, it was decided to use Gauss curve to obtain the probability that had a random chosen data to be within the stabilized limits. To apply this method, first of all, the average of the resilience module of the 6 samples was obtained, as well as the standard deviation of the data. Once these parameters were obtained the limits were stablished. After looking at the data, it was assumed that a difference of 10% between lower and upper limit would be the most appropriate. So to calculate the settled limits, the values were the 95% and the 105% of the average module. With those parameters chosen, the variable must be typified and the probability, of a random chosen data to be within the confidence limits, calculated. It can be seen in the example of Table 1.
Tab. 1:Example of data collection method and values of Gauss campaign DATA OF THE SAMPLES TEST 2 SOIL
OF PROFILE / ROAD W opt p max W real p real , CBR2 CAMPAIGN OF GAUSS
TYPE %kgm ‐3%kgm ‐3MPaAVERAGE DEVITION LIM MIN LIM MAX PROBABILITY 15,80 1766 29,57 15,83 1800 31,68 P‐4 / Nove mesto 16,2 1769 14,55 1822 27,65 38,80 17,19 36,86 40,74 8,76 15,84 1818 36,08 16,50 1804 69,04 11,76 1982 9,46 13,15 1982 12,32 P‐4 / Kubenka 11,5 1988 12,64 1988 9,25 10,31 2,14 9,79 10,83 18,96 12,78 1970 7,77 13,08 1970 12,75 10,90 1989 16,90 11,92 1975 21,20 G4GM 11,84 1973 14,00 P‐6 / Kubenka 11,5 1970 17,14 2,39 16,28 18,00 28,12 10,67 2004 16,34 10,30 2002 16,34 11,03 1998 18,05 11,82 1910 52,42 12,24 1895 56,05 12,55 1894 34,82 P‐7 / Kubenka 12,4 1950 45,65 10,65 43,37 47,94 16,64 13,34 1888 35,23 11,47 1912 57,15 12,03 1907 38,25
As can be seen in the probability column, the values are quite low. Specifically, and after analysing all data of all roads, the average of the probability is only 18%. Because of that, another type of distribution should be found in order to get closer to the real situation. So to get it, statistic software has been used, called Minitab 16. By means of this tool, different trends that could follow the data have been analysed. For this, the analysis has focused on the distributions: normal, lognormal, exponential, Weibull and Box-Cox transformation. Once the results were analysed, even though there was not a clear trend for all the soils, it was observed that the Box-Cox transformation would get the highest average probability, specifically 60%, as it is shown in Figure 2. For this reason, it was necessary to analyse this statistical method, since it is quite unknown.
- 259 - Box-Cox transformation Box-Cox transformation is a potential transformation used in statistics to correct biases in the distribution, to correct unequal variances and mainly to correct the non-linearity in the relationship (improve correlation between variables). This transformation gets the name of the statisticians George E. P. Box and David Cox (1964). Very often, it is necessary to transform the data of the variables of a given observation in such a way that it is adapted to comply with the requirement of normality and that approaches the normal distribution to be able to make a statistical analysis or modelling. Since many of the statistical analyses only work under normal conditions, this transformation allows to apply many techniques from statistics, that otherwise would not be valid. To achieve such normality with lowest error as possible, a fit must be done between a predictor variable and other to predict, by using iterations. This process is called “Box-Cox method” and its formula can be seen in equation (1). In this formula, x is the data to transform and α is the parameter of change, as λ.
(1) The aim of the Box-Cox transformation is to convert the variable x in such a way that it is which will be as close as possible to the normal distribution. Usually the iterative process called “Golden Search” is used. This algorithm starts with the minimum value of lambda established, then the Box-Cox transformation is applied and finally the error is calculated with the previous function. This process is repeated continuously for several lambda values (until the maximum value of lambda is reached) while adjusting the value of it in which the error of the function is minimal. All this would transform the data in the most optimal way. The last step is to verify whether the transformed variable really gets significantly close to the normal distribution. For this purpose a study of normality has to be done to the initial data as well as to the transformed one, in order to see the difference. It can be seen in the example of Figure 1 that the difference is considerable, due to the fact that in the original data the curve is much more extended and the curve unclear, as can be seen in the Figure 1A. While, in the transformed data, Figure 1B, the handing out is much more concentrated around the average, so the distribution is clearly more reliable.
Fig. 1A: Distribution of the data without transformation Fig. 1B: Distribution of the data after the Box-Cox transformation
Once it is observed that the distribution is closer to the normal, the statistical analysis with the new data could be carried out. Specifically, the most suitable average of the module has to be found. For that purpose the average of the transformed variable must be found because it would be the value that better represents the behaviour of the soil of that profile. With the average obtained, by using the inverse of the Table 1, the value would be transformed to get the real average in the initial scale, MPa (using the value of lambda and alpha obtained).
Spearman’s correlation coefficient Afterwards having done the statistical calculus to get the MR value, the relationship between module and the effects of moisture and density was found. The relationships between these parameters were obtained by the Spearman’s correlation (ρ) (Bonett DG, Wright TA, 2000). This coefficient is a measure of correlation between two continuous random variables. To calculate its value the data are ordered and replaced by its respective order. Then the equation (2) is applied.
- 260 - (2) Where, D = difference between the corresponding values of the order x-y N = number of couples analysed It ranges between -1 and 1, indicating negative and positive associations respectively. That is, if the correlation is of 1, it would indicate a direct strong correlation, while if it is of -1 the correlation would be reverse and strong. In case the coefficient is of 0, it would represent that there is no correlation.
Results Results of the analysis of normality As it is explained above, after having seen that the probability that randomly selected data would be located within the confidence limits was so low (18%), it was decided to discard the procedure of the Gauss curve. Therefore, another distribution that identify better with the data should be found. To do so, some distributions were analysed: normal, lognormal, exponential, Box-Cox transformation and Weibull. Once the optimal distribution for each profile was found, it was observed that the normal and lognormal distributions had an average probability of around 45%. Conversely, Weibull and exponential average likelihood were of less than 15%. But between all of them the highest average probability was obtained by the Box-Cox transformation, with a 60%. For those reasons the Box-Cox transformation was selected for statistical analysis in order to determine the mean value of the Resilient modulus. The results of the different odds in each soil profile can be seen in the Figure 2, where in the X axis a number have been given to each profile depending the type of soil, starting with G4GM and finishing with F8CH according to the order shown in Table 2. In the Y axis, the probability values of the analysed distributions are located.
1
0,9
0,8
0,7 Normal Box‐Cox 0,6 Lognormal Exponential 0,5 Weibull
Probability Lineal (Normal average) 0,4 Lineal (Box‐Cox average)
0,3 Lineal (Lognormal average) Lineal (Exponential average) 0,2 Lineal (Weibull average)
0,1
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Samples Fig. 2: Probability that the data follow the distributions analysed
Results of the Box-Cox transformation The Box-Cox transformation is the statistical method that can get the best values of mean resilience module. This is because the probability of a randomly selected data to fit that distribution is 60%. Moreover, using traditional statistical methods, such as the Gauss curve, the results were not reliable due to the fact that only the 18% of the data would be within the confidence limits. Apart from that, the samples of each profile are not enough, so the Box-Cox transformation also helps with the lack of them. Taking all that into account the Box-Cox transformation was chosen as the best method to get
- 261 - the mean value of the resilience module of each soil profile. Once the Box-Cox transformation was applied as it is explained above, the most real mean values of the modules were obtained, as it is shown in the Table 2.
Tab. 2: Results of mean modules and Spearman’s correlation DATA OF THE TEST CBR CYCLIC SOIL SAMPLES AVERAGE MODULES SPEARMAN`S CORRELATION
OF PROFILE / ROAD W opt p max GAUSS BOX‐COX W and , CBR p and , CBR
TYPE % kgm ‐3 MPa MPa P‐4 / Nove mesto 16,2 1769 38,80 32,84 1,00 ‐0,10 P‐4 / Kubenka 11,5 1988 10,31 10,14 0,50 0,10 P‐6 / Kubenka 11,5 1970 17,14 16,88 0,41 ‐0,06 G4GM P‐7 / Kubenka 12,4 1950 45,6544,67 ‐0,77 0,77 P‐5 / Nove mesto 15,3 1723 101,02 98,24 0,60 ‐0,50
S3SF P‐9 / Nove mesto 13,4 1784 100,77 98,90 0,81 ‐0,71 P‐1 / Nove mesto 14,4 1847 180,81 169,32 0,45 ‐0,30 P‐3 / Nove mesto 12,9 1878 63,27 58,49 ‐0,60 ‐0,30 P‐6 / Nove mesto 15,7 1757 142,79 140,74 0,10 0,90 P‐8 / Nove mesto 13,3 1881 161,77 162,87 ‐0,70 0,67 P‐10 / Nove mesto 15,4 1708 47,10 44,55 ‐0,06 ‐0,26
S4SM P‐3 / Rasna 14,0 1852 337,24 335,04 ‐0,40 0,80 P‐6 / Rasna 12,0 1938 156,12 146,19 0,80 ‐0,40 P‐10 / Kubenka 15,5 1751 22,17 22,52 0,60 0,50 P‐7 / Nove mesto 14,6 1860 39,43 36,78 ‐0,26 0,66
P‐12 / Kubenka 10,1 2061 50,89 49,74 ‐0,30 ‐0,50 S5SC P‐2 / Navojna 23,1 1548 81,84 83,48 ‐1,00 0,90 P‐5 / Navojna 24,6 1475 252,20 243,29 1,00 0,40
F2CG P‐1 / Kultury 23,1 1577 69,08 68,53 0,09 ‐0,26 P‐2 / Rasna 15,3 1782 71,36 69,36 0,40 0,90 P‐3 / Kultury 21,4 1578 241,56 240,85 ‐0,94 ‐0,77 P‐3 / Kubenka 10,8 1969 114,30 115,36 0,90 ‐0,70 P‐5 / Kubenka 13,3 1862 23,58 23,15 0,03 ‐0,03 F3MS P‐11 / Kubenka 14,5 1832 38,68 37,21 0,09 ‐0,09 P‐13 / Kubenka 10,9 2013 66,70 67,02 ‐0,37 0,60 P‐1 / Rasna 16,0 1778 150,50 138,68 ‐1,00 0,10 P‐5 / Rasna 14,2 1818 91,63 91,16 0,20 ‐0,60
F4CS P‐4 / Kultury 21,1 1599 111,52 109,91 0,49 ‐0,31
P‐2,3 / Borovice 15,1 1780 172,78 167,430,00 0,00 F5ML P‐4 / Borovice 16,4 1752 195,24 168,46 ‐0,60 0,41 P‐6 / Borovice 16,7 1747 171,98 165,67 ‐0,06 0,06 F6CI P‐10 / Kultury 25,5 1492 21,92 22,10 ‐0,37 0,60 P‐1 / Borovice 24,8 1471 133,14 129,68 0,43 ‐0,49 P‐1 / Navojna 24,6 1492 81,73 81,62 ‐0,80 ‐0,20 P9 / Navojna 21,3 1626 376,88 396,63 ‐0,70 0,70 P10 / Navojna 20,3 1610 300,53 298,17 0,10 ‐0,20 P‐2 / Kultury 22,9 1594 46,43 45,59 0,20 ‐0,77 P‐5 / Kultury 22,2 1572 111,72 111,60 ‐0,54 0,66 F8CH P‐6 / Kultury 23,51576 98,37 96,68 ‐0,40 ‐0,30 P‐7 / Kultury 22,8 1576 44,67 44,74 0,14 0,14 P‐8 / Kultury 20,8 1630 66,67 65,09 ‐0,54 0,83 P‐9 / Kultury 27,3 1493 51,74 49,64 0,83 ‐0,71
Results of the Spearman`s correlation In order to try to find the relationship between the module and the parameters of moisture and density, the correlation of Spearman was applied as explained above. The results obtained from the correlation coefficient are could be seen in Figure 4. Apart from that, it was thought that there should be correlations that are not obvious at first glance. Because, as the experience has shown, the correlation
- 262 - between parameter above or below the optimal value is not the same. That is why the analysis should be divided in two parts. The first would be the soil profiles where the humidity or density during the test is lower than the optimal. In the second group there would be the soils where the real humidity or density is higher than the optimal. For that analysis, first those 43 profiles were divided into the two groups. 13 tested profiles have been found with moisture contents below the optimal. From which 8 had a positive correlation coefficient. On the other hand, 17 profiles were found with moistures above the optimal. Where, 9 of those followed a negative correlation. In addition, there were certain profiles where moistures have been very close to the optimum, that is, there were values of moisture above and below the optimum, exactly 13 profiles. From which, 6 have a possible correlation, but not obvious because of the heterogeneous distribution of the parameters. The last correlation to be analysed was the one between density and resilience module. For this reason the 43 profiles were divided again into the 2 groups. There are 14 profiles which have a density below the maximum density, of which, 10 have a positive correlation. In the other group there are 25 profiles of which 17 have a negative correlation. Finally, 4 profiles with variable density above and below the maximum density were found. Among them, there are 2 that could have a possible but non- obvious correlation.
Conclusions After analysing all data, there has been considerable shift change in the approach to the variability of mechanical properties of the soil. Initially it could be thought that the difference between samples of the same profile of the road should not be too large, due to the fact that they are obtained from the same place. We might also fall into the mistake of thinking that the difference between profiles should not be very large because they are a few meters away, but this is not so, since the mechanical properties are very different from each other, varying the resilience module even in a 200%. This is because even the type of soil is different, according to the soils classification USCS or also because of the impossibility of preparing samples in an identical manner. Ones the Spearman’s correlation is analysed, it can be said that it was not a clear behaviour of the soil at first glance. But after dividing the profiles into groups depending on whether the humidity and density of the samples were above or below the optimal humidity and maximum density a relationship have been found. More specifically, when the humidity or density of the samples are placed below the optimal, the correlation is positive, this is, that if moisture or density grows the module would grow. On the contrary, if the samples are above the ideal, the correlation will be negative, so if the humidity or density increases the module would decrease. Therefore, it can be said that it follows the expected behaviour, because when the values of the parameters of the samples get closer to the optimal the module gets higher. Despite this, the need to increase the number of samples per profile was detected, to confirm the correlation between the module of resilience and the density or humidity. Due to the fact that there are several profiles that do not follow the expected behaviour. Finally, an increase of the samples is needed to develop the behaviour of humidity and density during T3 of the CBR cyclic test.
References Moolenar, A.A.A (2009): Repeated load CBR testing, a simple but effective tool for the characterization of fine soils and unbound materials. Delft, the Netherlands Ševelová, L., Hauser, J., P (2014): Automatic control equipment geotechnical equipment for measuring soil bearing capacity and methods of work with this device Arbide Ostolaiz, M., Ševelová, L. (2013) Verification of cyclic CBR test with constant stress. Journal of Landscape Management. sv. 2, č. 4, s. 43--47.ISSN 1804-2821. ČSN EN 13286–2 Nestmelené směsi a směsi stmelené hydraulickými pojivy - Část 2: Zkušební metody pro stanovení laboratorní srovnávací objemové hmotnosti a vlhkosti - Český normalizační institut, 2005. Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes: Annual Book of ASTM Standards, D 2487-83, 04.08, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1985, pp. 395–408 Bonett DG, Wright, TA (2000): Sample size requirements for Pearson, Kendall, and Spearman correlations. Psychometrika. 65: 23–28. TP 170 Navrhování vozovek pozemních komunikací. Ministerstvo dopravy ČR, 2008.
- 263 - Acknowledgment The work was supported by the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic as the project TA01020326 "Optimization of design and realization of low capacity roads pavements".
Souhrn Životnost a spolehlivost každé konstrukce závisí na mnoha faktorech. Od stanovení materiálových vlastností, přes použitý výpočetní model a jeho schopnost adekvátně vystihovat popisovanou realitu, až po technologii realizace. Každý z těchto faktorů vnáší do procesu nejistoty dané proměnlivostí vlastností použitých materiálů, přirozenou variabilitou procesů až po chyby způsobené lidským selháním. Moderní numerické simulační metody jsou schopny vliv těchto nejistot ve vstupních veličinách respektovat a začlenit do výpočtu. Nezbytnou podmínkou je vedle vhodného materiálového modelu také adekvátní příprava vstupních materiálových veličin, a to v dostatečném množství pro statistické vyhodnocení. Modul pružnosti podloží je zásadní materiálovou charakteristikou citlivou dle výsledků testů zejména na vlhkost a objemovou hmotnost, a tím i na laboratorní přípravu vzorků pro jeho stanovení. Příspěvek předkládá statistické zpracování laboratorních výsledků modulu pružnosti (Resilient Modulus MR) podloží z inovativního cyklického CBR testu. Byly realizovány dva postupy stanovení modulu; test stanovení modulu pružnosti při konstantní penetraci podle nizozemské teorie (Molenaar, 2009) a jeho modifikace probíhající při konstantním napětí (Ševelová, Hauser, 2014). Byly testovány materiály podloží sedmi účelových komunikací, tzv. nízkokapacitní vozovek LVRs, vždy na šesti nebo deseti profilech, ze kterých bylo připraveno 400 vzorků při optimální vlhkosti a maximální objemové hmotnosti podle zkoušky Proctor standard. Výsledky laboratorních zkoušek cyklického CBR testu byly podrobeny statistické analýze s cílem stanovit průměrnou hodnotu měřeného modulu pružnosti MR s ohledem na pravděpodobnost chování a dále ověřit citlivost této veličiny na jiné materiálové charakteristiky. Jak ukazují hodnoty vlhkostí a objemových hmotností vzorků z cyklického testu CBR, naměřené moduly pružnosti se pohybovaly ve značně širokých intervalech i při přesném dodržení postupů přípravy vzorků. Pro statistickou analýzu byly vybrány základní druhy rozdělení: Gaussovo normální rozdělení, lognormální, exponenciální a Weibullovo. Nejednoznačnost získaných výsledků a nemožnost stanovit společnou pravděpodobnostní funkci vedla k aplikaci transformace Box-Cox, při které bylo dosaženo uspokojivé pravděpodobnosti a bylo možné stanovit průměrné hodnoty modulů pružnosti. Pro citlivostí analýzu stanovení vlivu vlhkosti a objemové hmotnosti na modul pružnosti byl použit Spearmenův korelační koeficient. Míru vlivu bylo možno posoudit po rozdělení sledovaného souboru dat na vzorky s hodnotou vlhkosti, resp. objemové hmotností, pod optimální vlhkostí, resp. pod maximálni objemovou hmotností a na vzorky nad těmito hodnotami. Toto rozdělení prokázalo jednoznačnou přímou závislost mezi modulem a danými materiálovými charakteristikami. Při rostoucí vlhkosti do její optimální hodnoty rostla hodnota modulu pružnosti. Při dalším růstu nad vlhkostní optimum modul klesala Stejný proces bylo možno sledovat i pro vliv objemové hmotnosti. S jejím růstem k maximální hodnotě tento modul rostl, po jejím překročení klesal. S ohledem na velmi malé změny ve vlhkostech cca 2-3 %, resp. objemových hmotnostech cca 1-3 %, lze konstatovat vysokou citlivost modulu pružnosti na změny vlhkosti, resp. na zhutnění materiálu. Získané výsledky prokazují vysokou proměnlivost mechanických vlastností přírodních materiálů zemin a s tím související problematiku přípravy vzorků.
Contact Ing. Lenka Ševelová, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 524, e-mail: [email protected]
- 264 - TOURIST AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT OF ROZTOCZAŃSKI NATIONAL PARK – PRESENT STATE AND PERSPECTIVES
Emilia Janeczko1, Małgorzata Woźnicka1, Krzysztof Janeczko2 1 Department of Forest Utilization, Faculty of Forestry Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland 2 Department of Forest Management Planning, Geomatics and Forest Economics, Faculty of Forestry Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Abstract This paper presents the results of the inventory of tourist and recreation facilities in Roztoczański National Park, the where forest cover up to 95%. Roztoczanski National Park is a Particular area because of the unique qualities of the natural environment. It is also very attractive Perceived as because of the Possibility of Achieving the Objectives of tourism and recreation. The inventory of tourism and recreation facilities together with recognition of environmental-risk Arising from its use, recognition of tourism need and preferences and the estimation of tourism capacity can serve as a basis for identifying principles of tourism and recreational use of Roztoczański National Park.
Key words: protected areas, tourism and recreation development, tourism planning
Introduction Tourism is seen as a form of economic activity with most significant potential to generate future employment and growth in the EU's gross domestic level (Message from the Commission, 2007). Tourist activity is one of the measures of standard of living and an indicator of the development of civilized societies. Its development helps to generate new jobs and entrepreneurship, improving the quality of life of local communities, increasing the competitiveness of the regions, activation of both urban and rural areas. Important positive aspect of tourism development is greater attention to spatial order, aesthetics and the natural environment. However, like any other tourism manifestation of human activity that may be the source of many environmental risks. The share of tourism in environmental degradation is estimated at 5-7%, with 40% from industry, agriculture or 15% (Labaj 2003). The threat to the quality of the environment is also ill-planned tourism infrastructure. Tourism is seen as one of the factors leading to landscape fragmentation. Tourism and recreation can not be done in a manner invasive and exploiting the natural and landscape. Its sustainability is particularly important, given that currently in Europe, the number of visitors in natural areas is increasing, including national parks primarily. These areas are, by Coccossis et al. (2002), a target destination place for about 40 - 60% of tourists and tourism in such protected natural areas is currently 7% of all international tourism expenditure. The aim of the article is to indicate the possible direction of the development of tourism and recreation in the National Park Roztoczański based on tourist-recreation infrastructure resources , and to determine the characteristics of tourism and to analyze indicators of tourist capacity of the Park.
The subject of the research Roztoczański National Park is one of 23 national parks in Poland, covering a total area of 316 748 hectares, which is about 1% of the country. The park was established in 1974 to protect the most valuable natural areas mites. Originally the Park area was 4801 ha and has now increased to 8483ha, out of which 8102 ha (95.5%) is covered by forests. The park is located in the central eastern part of Poland, in Lublin province. The main watercourse flowing through the area of the park is the river Wieprz. Some streams start here: Świerszcz and Szum. The Park there were also created four artificial lakes: Echo, Florianka, Kościelny, and Czarny (Grabowski 2007). The diversified terrain, as well as the diversity of geological, hydrological and soil mean that the Park has as many as 21 forests and 28 non-forest plant communities . The most valuable of them are: fir forest, which is 8% of the forest area and the carpathian beech forest covering 25% of the RPN. Roztoczański National Park is not only a characteristic area because of the unique qualities of the natural environment, but also the area is perceived as very attractive due to cultural values. The Park and its immediate surroundings were a place of fighting during the First and Second World War, and as a result of previous acts of war, in the Park we have eg. the cemetery which reminds of the pacification of Socha village in 1943, made accessible through the natural path to Beech Mountain and the Pole Hill monument commemorating the Battle of Panasówka in 1863. The current shape and character of the settlement buildings and the park is the result of activities Zamoyski Code, as well as the result of war and the subsequent disruption of post-war land parceling
- 265 - (Cygnarowski 2007). The largest urban center in the area is Zwierzyniec, which is the headquarters for Roztoczański National Park.
Tourist and recreational management of the Roztoczański National Park The Park is a place conducive to any active tourism and sightseeing. The Park and its vicinity allowes other forms of tourism, and hence, there are many options for getting around the area eg. equestrian tourism and water tourism (Grabowski 2004). For users doing the park area on foot, there are nine tracks with a total length of 18 km. They show the natural wealth of the Park, its diversity of landscapes and unique cultural values. In the future it is planned to lay six additional tracks cognitive ie: multisensory Geological path, the path to the White Mountain, the path to the Bear Mountain, Zwierzyńczyk trail, bike route - Rybakówka - Socha and Rudka-Słupy-Kosobudy (RPN Protection Plan) Through the area of the Park there also runs five transit hiking, whose total length, within the RPN, is 34 km away. Cycling in the Park is developed on the basis of four bike trails with a total length of 17 km. The Park runs a reserve Polish horse breeding. Suitable conditions allows off-road horse riding tourism. It is possible learn individually to ride a horse at Rybakówka, as well as explore the nearby village on carriage rides, after prior consultation with the Boss of the park. Using the horse drawn carriage in the Park is allowed only on the way to Florianka, sightseeing on suitable public roads. Roztoczański National Park was established to protect the unique landscape, which consists of: nature and harmoniously integrated into monuments of Roztocze. You can admire the landscapes, among others, through observation points located on Beech Mountain, on a sand dune in the vicinity of the "Echo ponds", along the route to Florianka, on Polak Hill. In the park there are special facilities for the disabled. Suitable for people with physical disability is the path to "Echo Ponds", and the viewing platform above the same pond. Outside the designated nature trails, hiking and cycling routes, a very popular place for recreation in the park are the „Echo ponds", created in the years 1929-1934 on the site of wetlands located in the flat valley of the river Świerszcz. The team of four ponds fed by the waters Świerszcz. Its depth varies from 0.5 to 1.5 m. The ponds are filled in early spring, when autumn water is drained. Adjacent to wooded dunes, the largest of the ponds is a popular vacation spot and for many years serves as a resort(Grabowski 2004). The objectives related to tourism, recreation and education are following: Educationa Museum Centre – Zwierzyniec, Forest Chamber in Florianka and a farm of Dębowiec Warblers (formerly Krzywe). The Museum and Education Center was open for use in 1994. Cooperation with nearby schools, organizing fieldwork and provides an extensive collection of literature as natural. Chamber of Forest and Forester Komanówka are located in Florianka, about 6.5 km from the Zwierzyniec. Forest Chamber was established in 2004 on the basis of the reconstructed buildings of forester from 1830. The aim of the revitalization of this object was to demonstrate the habitat and the agro-forestry economy conducted in the late thirties of the twentieth century. It is lacated at this point a tour desk carrying educational activities. The Forester Komanówka base has served as educational tourism since 2007. Here are implemented programs relating to the functioning of a nearby path dendrochronologically. There are so called wooden books, allowing to acquire knowledge of the species of trees and shrubs met on the track, as well as cabinets and panels make learning easy. Educational objectives also meets today Dębowiec Forester. Within the pens you can admire the old outbuildings and orchard, which is dominated by old varieties of trees. Now, in the summer, the settlement Dębowiec Roztocze is the seat of the Horse Guard Association for Nature Conservation them. Wielkopolska Cavalry Regiment 25 (Niczyporuk 2005). The increased influx of tourists into the Roztoczański PN, especially in the summer, favors the development of the village adjacent to the Park. Park does not have its own catering, and the possibility of renting buildings for accommodation is limited. The accommodation facilities in the vicinity of the park is dominated by agro-tourism and private houses. They occur most frequently in Zwierzyniec, as well as in the village Socha and along many routes frequented by tourists Zwierzyniec Krasnobrów (Grabowski et al 2011).
Tourism and recreation in the Roztoczański National Park In Roztoczański National Park there are not any constant, systematic studies and observations on tourism. According to the decree 7/2014 Director PN Roztoczański penetration in the Park can be carried out during the year, in daylight, from sunrise to sunset. Interest group sightseeing Park can not exceed 60 people. Walking through the Park’s nature trail on Beech Mountain in a group of more than 10 people is allowed only with a guide RPN authorized by Director or other person authorized by the Director of the Park. The tourist season begins in May and lasts until September and peak traffic falls
- 266 - for the holiday period: July, August. Useful for estimating tourism is the statement made by the Centre for Museum Education (OEM) Grabowski 2011. For example, in 2011 the number of visitors to the OEM amounted to 23,088 people in the next year rose to 23,293 people. Forest Chamber in 2012, a total of 1805 tourists, about 547 more than last year. The increasing number of people participate in the open air photographic competitions organized by the park, school ecological events. Based on the records of tourists, it is estimated that since the 90s the Park is visited annually by about 120 thousand people, but the number of organized tourist groups ranges from 400 to 600. In this case, there has also been a slow increase in the number of tourists in groups of family and friends (Grabowski et al 2011 ) From the survey (Gucma 2013) conducted among users of cycle routes in RPN most tourists in RPN are young people aged 26-35 years old (about 35%) and 18-25 years (approximately 20% of the respondents ). Quite a large group (18%) were aged 56-65 tourists in years. The vast majority of tourists (70%) had a higher education. 6% and 8% of respondents had basic vocational education. Among the tourists dominated by residents of large cities (about 53% of respondents). The lowest percentage of respondents (13%) were residents of rural areas.
Tourist capacity of Park For the first time tourist absorbency in the Park was set in 1998 in the framework of the Plan for Protection RPN (Gucma 2014). Then it was determined that the bandwidth of nature trails is 520 people / day, hiking 1,200 people / day, and the capacity of bathing in ponds "Echo" 580 people / day. With the development of infrastructure, tourism and recreation park there was a need to verify these indicators. Currently the project Protection Plan of Roztoczański National Park for the years 2012-2031 re-set the maximum number of persons likely to use each of the sites available for recreational purposes. And so the ponds "Echo" can be frequented by 3,500 people of whom 250 can stay in the House of the Forest in Florianka, in the Centre for Education and the Museum - 250 people. For educational purposes, the OEM can use 150 visitors at the same time (up to 1,500 per day), with the Warblers Komanówka - 20 people, Warblers Curves - 60 people in Wojdzie Forester - Forester Obrocz 60 and - 12 people. Because of hiking trails at the same time can use 1,540, cyclists - 1080, while the paths of cognition 1630 people. It should be noted, however, that the project Protection Plan RPN finds it hard to see a methodological foundation, which was established on the basis of the above capacitive threshold. Detailed research in this area has been taken by Gucma (2014). They show that the capacity of swimming at Ponds Echo, accompanied by a beach with an area of 0.56 ha is 560 people / day. On the other hand, in a clearing on Florianka resort, with an area of 0.15H can stay at the same time a total of 15 people, which, with the opening (ten hours per day) gives 150 persons / day. Capacity of all hiking trails running through the park is by Gucma (2014), taking into account individual tourists, is only 3570 persons / day, while taking into account both individual travelers and groups - 17850 people / day. Throughput of biking tourist routs used by individual tourists is 5950 persons / day and 29,750 people / day, taking into account the groups. The total capacity of educational paths within the park were set for individual travelers and groups of tourists for 885 persons / day and 2655 persons / day. The aggregate throughput of all hiking trails, mountain biking and educational paths running through the park is therefore 10,405 people / day (considering only individual travelers) and 50255 people / day, taking into account individual and group travelers. The total capacity of the site in Roztoczański National Park which is the sum of the daily clearing capacity for Florianka resort, swimming ponds Echo and capacity of tourism and recreation routes set at 11,115 people / day in the case of individual visitors and 50,965 people / day, after taking into account both individual travelers and groups. Comparing these data with the guidelines contained in the draft Protection Plan RPN turns out that the possibility of the development of tourism and recreation in the park are much larger than assumed in the Plan of Conservation.
References Coccossis H., Mexa A., Collovini A. (2002): Defining, measuring and Evaluating carrying capacity in european tourism destinations. B4-3040 / 2000/294577 / MAR / D2, University of the Aegean, Athens. Cygnarowski A., (2007): Zwierzyniec in an old postcard and photographs. Society of Friends of Zwierzyniec, Zwierzyniec Grabowski T. (2004): South axis of educational nature Zwierzyniec - Florianka - Górecko Kościelne, Ed. Roztoczański National Park, Zwierzyniec Grabowski T., (2007): Tourist and educational Guidebook. Ed. Roztoczański National Park, Zwierzyniec
- 267 - T. Grabowski, Kałamucka W., Kałamucki K., (2011): Making Roztoczański National Park for tourism in CEPL Studies and Research in Rogow, R.13, Volume 3/28, pp. 42-47 Gucma M. (2013): Social Preferences on bicycle routes in Roztoczański National Park, the work of the Faculty of Forestry Engineering Agricultural University (supervisor: E.Janeczko), Warsaw Gucma M. (2014): Assessment of tourist capacity Roztoczański National Park, thesis at the Faculty of Forestry University of Life Sciences (supervisor: E.Janeczko), Warsaw Communication from the Commission Agenda for a sustainable and competitive European tourism COM (2007) 621, Brussels Labaj M., (2003): Protecting the landscape and the environment: Recreational tourism, and tourism specialist, (ed.) Burzynski T., Labaj M, Warsaw Nieczyporuk P., (2005): In the service of forests – History of Ordynacki Warblers cu in Roztocze Meeting, Ed TV. Roztoczański National Park, Zwierzyniec Protection Plan Roztoczański National Park (draft) http://www.bip.roztoczanskipn.pl/content.php?cms_id=210 Tourism development program for 2020 (draft). Ministry of Sport and Tourism, Warsaw 2014
Souhrn Vyváženým rozvojem cestovního ruchu se rozumí použití přírodních zdrojů takovým způsobem, který zajišťuje dlouhodobou ochranu svých aktiv. Patří mezi ně řádně naplánovaná a uskutečňovaná opatření na podporu rozvoje cestovního ruchu ochranu přírodního a kulturního dědictví a péči o místní a regionální tradice. Národní park Roztoczański z důvodu přírodních a kulturních hodnot je oblastí zvláštního významu pro rozvoj cestovního ruchu a rekreace. Současný rozvoj cestovního ruchu a rekreace parku nabízí dostatek příležitostí. Zájem o rekreaci v parku by neměla představovat hrozbu pro jeho fungování, s ohledem na ukazatele kapacity.
Contact: Dr hab. inż. Emilia Janeczko Phone: +48 22 59 38 134, e-mail: [email protected]
- 268 - TRAINING FOREST ENTERPRISE MASARYK FOREST KŘTINY – EXCURSION GUIDE
Pavel Mauer Training Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny, Mendel University in Brno, 679 05 Křtiny 175, Czech Republic
In 2014, the Mendel University in Brno (MENDELU) reminded 95th anniversary of foundation and in year 2013 It’s 90 years since the establishment one of organizational units – Training Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny (TFE)
The company was established in 1923, 1st January with original name School forestry grange Adamov of Agricultural University in Brno. This happened after takeover of Liechtenstein confiscated property by the State which it forwarded to former Agricultural University in Brno – today MENDELU – like a school and test object. Honorary title Masaryk’s forest was awarded to company by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1932, 14th April with the consent of the first president of Czechoslovakia – T. G. Masaryk.
TFE fulfills three main functions: • provides within the pedagogical and research activities, practical facilities to students of MENDELU especially to students of degree programs Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology (FFWT). Creates conditions to university teachers for pedagogical solutions, research and testing projects; • ensures proper management of university forest property with the prestige of being one of the leaders in the sector; • serve to general public, taking advantage of their superior level of forests aesthetics and richness which provide useful functions of forests.
University forest lands have an area 10 228 ha, form a continuous complex immediately following to the northern edge of South Moravian city Brno and dating back to the town of Blansko. The forests are situated at an altitude of 210 – 574 m and mostly belong to the PLO 30 Drahanská vrchovina. The average annual temperature reaches 7.5 °C. The average annual rainfall is limiting factor and it’s only 610 mm. Described forest vegetation zones are: 1st oak zone (4 %), 2nd beech-oak zone (27 %), 3rd oak-beech zone (53 %) and 4th beech zone (16 %). Nutrient habitat predominate (63 %), the remainder being acid sites (10 %) and treated (27 %). Mainly mixed stands, characterized by a great variety of natural conditions, are formed 38 % coniferous trees and 62 % broadleaved trees. The main coniferous trees are spruce (18.8 % stand area), pine (8.3 %) and larch (8.1 %). The main broadleaved trees are beech (34.0 %), oak (14.7 %) and hornbeam (7.9 %). The average supply timber reaches 266 m3•ha-1 b.k, total current increment is 7.4 m3•ha-1 b.k. The terrain is very rugged with distinctive deep valleys and gorges, especially in the vicinity of the river Svitava and Křtinský potok. Geological subsoil is formed by granodiorites, Culm greywacke and limestone. One third of company area is located in the CHKO Moravský Kras (2 944.87 ha). This contributes to the fulfillment of aesthetic and educational functions of forests. In the past have been preserved the whole stands without any intervention with a natural species composition. From this stands gradually evolve today’s network 22MZCHÚ (three national nature reserves, fourteen nature reserves, one national natural monument and four natural monuments) with total area of 860.83 ha on land designated for forestry functions. TFE has three arboretum (Křtiny, Řícmanice and Habrůvka) with valuable collection of trees, designed to study and relax. Natural beauty is deliberately added. It is held view into the surrounding nature, modified forest glades with planting of exotic trees, underpinnings of sources for establish of wells. At selected locations are placed memorials and commemorative plaques local rarity – Lesnický Slavín. Everything serves not just to needs of the university, but also general public, walking visitors and cyclists. Tradition Silviculture TFE lies mainly in the use of finer ways of forest management with minimal clear cutting elements and use of natural regeneration. It’s possible to find forest areas where is apply selected management. It is in Czech condition unique way of management. Series of research projects is long-term solved and it is implemented a wide educational and scientific cooperation in framework of international programs. For this purpose are used forestry (eg. research area of thinning in stands of beech, spruce, fir and mixed, provenance plots of larch (Larix decidua), spruce (Picea abies), fir (Abies alba) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), three genetic bases for beech, oak and fir; seed orchards for larch, Scots pine, aspen and mountain elm) and timber (eg. Olomučany saw) demonstration objects. Already acquired and published data and results can be used for the
- 269 - professional work and study. Care is focused on upgrading existing and building new educational facilities and demonstration objects (ed. nursery centers, research stations Křtiny or timber center in Brno – Útěchov). All growing and harvesting work, forest protection and others activities are performed by TFE on three polesian (Vranov u Brna, Habrůvka and Bílovice nad Svitavou) in the course of a business. In the sawmill in Olomučany equipped by one frame and two band saws, three lumber drying, steaming chamber and assortment line; there is processed own harvested timber including the subsequent sale of lumber and implementation of fuel program. The service center in Adamov possessing repair workshops, timber transport and mechanization for terrestrial and building works is available for own company and foreign customers. Centre of seedlings, arboretums and green vegetation produces a suitable planting stock for reforestation and revegetation, including so-called execution on key. Research Station in Křtiny develops and produces forestry equipment – winches, rill planters, nursery equipment, mechanics for disrupt of land and especially several models of forest lifts LARIX. In a renovated chateau Křtiny, reshaped in modern educational center, there is possible to ordered complete provision of professional, cultural and social events including accommodation. Game management in hunting grounds of MENDELU, managed by TFE, is own-account – exercise of hunting rights is not rent but is carried on by holder of hunting grounds. Hunting right is practiced by employees of MENDELU (TFE, Faculties), students of FFWT hunting and keepers of hunting permits. Total fourteen hunting ground with area of 10 594 ha (TFE Křtiny, Hády, Bažantnice Rajhrad and Obora sokolnice) is used for practical teaching of hunting for MENDELU students, including solutions for professional work. The main game at TFE is roe, black and mouflon. Red deer and fellow deer is standardized too. The next game is hare and pheasant.
TFE is based on the tradition of leading professors specialized forest departments which were especially Rudolf Haša, Josef Konšel, Josef Opletal, Ferdinand Müller, Antonín Dyk, Alois Tichý and Gustav Artner, later for example Alois Zlatník, Bohumil Doležal, Miroslav Vyskot or Jaroslav Beneš. Currently the pivotal teachers of Faculty of forestry and wood technology and teachers of others faculties of MENDELU have own specialized laboratory, the workplace for verification of their expert opinions and new ideas, space for realization of practical education of students.
TFE holds environmental certificates – FSC since 1997, PEFC since 2003. In 2011 there has been proclaimed Forest Park Masaryk’s Forest Křtiny and more than one third forest stands belongs to the NATURA 2000 program. Not only for these reasons, but mainly for the way forest management, forest aesthetic treatment, many purposes, demonstration equipment, advanced production and database research results is the goal of both domestic and foreign excursions, student placements and internships, practical foresters and other visitors. As an important object pedagogical activities and scientific research of students and pedagogues of MENDELU, also students and professionals from the Czech Republic and abroad, Training Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny of Mendel University fulfills its mission, under the current Law on University Education no. 111/1998 Sb.
Contact: Ing. Pavel Mauer Phone: +420 516 428 822, e-mail: [email protected]
- 270 - TRAINING FOREST ENTERPRISE MASARYK FOREST KŘTINY AND THE VISITORS MONITORING
Jitka Fialová Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The monitoring of visitors in the area of Training forest enterprise Masaryk forest Křtiny was held in the years 2013 and 2014. The monitoring was done by the usage of the automatic reader. The reader was installed on the Kopanin forest road. The road leads down the valley to the Bilovice nad Svitavou. The results was compared and the statistical differences has been described. The most interesting results was the difference between the total number of visits. The total visits in the year 2014 was 11,547 visits higher than in the year 2013 (year 2013 – 29,216 visits, 2014 – 40,763 visits).
Key words: Eco-counter, forest roads, daily maximum, daily minimum
Introduction As Navratil et al (2014) stated the main goal of comprehensive monitoring of tourism and traffic in general is to provide basic information about the number of visitors, together with data on the temporal variability of traffic (within a day, week, months of the year and the seasons) and spatial distribution of traffic within the target area. Standard output is also data about visitors to the structure of thought. Monitoring visits in the recentperiod is one of the main activities of administrations over a large area of protected areas in the field of tourism (Blaha, 2010; Kala & Salov, 2010; Kos, 2010 in Navratil, 2014). About recreational land use in different contexts is also mentioned, for example Ondrejka (2013a, 2013b), Fialová et al (2014) and Galas (2013).
Methods The Partnerství, o.p.s., has installed automatic reader of hikers and bikers to the road in the district for the purposes of visitor monitoring of selected forest hauling road in Training forest enterprise Masaryk forest Křtiny (TFE). The monitoring device was installed in July 20143 and the monitoring was conducted until November 2014. Students of MENDELU in Brno performed manual calibration counting in July 14-20, 2014, in the monitoring place. The trail visitor monitoring used automatic reader Pyro Box Compact from Eco-counter. This device counts all users of trails (hikers, bikers, in-liners, etc.) without distinguishing among them. Counting is based on the temperature difference between a human body and the surroundings. The readers can distinguish the direction of the movement and are installed in the narrowest places of the trails in the way which prevents counting two persons walking side by side as one. The data are stored in one- hour intervals. The selected road is characterized in Tab. 1 - the location, or the location of the monitoring device is shown in Fig. 1. The trail is a bicycle route no. 5005 as well, green trail and nature trail Hády and Říčka valley are lead here too. Due to the width of the paths can be assumed partial underestimation of the number of users, as they can pass around adder in a plurality of adjacent aligned. For a detailed evaluation of individual sites calibrated data was used.
Fig. 1: Approximate location of the counter
- 271 - Tab.1: The locations of visitor monitoring of selected forest hauling road in the area of TFE, Bílovice nad Svitavou forest district User type Movement distinction Monitoring location Name Surface Width distinction (IN/OUT) (Type 1) Forest road Kopaniny – Ressl’s Resslova unbound 4.0 m no yes lodge mixtures
Results and Discussion In the locality of Ressl road was in the whole monitored period the amount of 40,763 visits counted in the direction IN and OUT. Monthly average record was 8,153, the daily average calculated over all days was 266 and the average hourly was 11. Other important data can be seen in the table 2. The number of visitors going to Bilovice nas Svitavou was higher than t oBrno. Between the months of July and August was recorded absolute and relative increase in the total number of users. In the coming months there has been a decline in visitors, while the highest decline was recorded in November. The reason for the decline is the end of the summer season and holidays. A similar conclusion can be applied to the individual directions. In the direction of Bílovice, the fall between October and November was 43%. The correlation between attendance Resslova locality and maximum daily temperature is 0.46, ie. the effect of temperature on daily attendance is not significant. Correlation between the visits and daily rainfall reaches - 0.18, ie. rainfall expected to have a negative impact on attendance.
Fig. 2: The comparison of the users structure in the years 2013 a 2014 (%) Pozn. Cyklisté – cyclists, Auta – cars, Ostatní – others, Pěší – pedestrians
Due to the fact that similar monitoring was conducted at the same location in 2013 (specifically, between the July 6th - November 30th 2013), data can be compared with measured values of 2014. For comparison, in both years selected period July 6th to November 30. Total attendance trails in Resslova has been higher in 2014 compared to 2013. Similarly, in the hourly and daily average.
Tab. 2: Comparison of visitors of selected forest hauling roads in the area of TFE, Bílovice nad Svitavou forest district in July 6–November 30, 2013 and in July 1-November 30, 2014 (selected indicators) Selected indicators for Resslova - 2013 Resslova - 2014 user counts Total 29,216 40,763 Sunday July 14, 2013 Saturday September 28, Daily maximum (760) 2014 (806) Thursday November 21, Tuesday July 18, 2014 Daily minimum 2013 (42) (24) The day with highest Sunday Sunday counts Hourly mean 8 11 Daily mean 197 266 Monthly mean 5,843 8,153
- 272 - The most significant differences between 2013 and 2014 can be by the monthly visits observed in August and October, when the number of visitors in 2014 exceeds that in 2013 more than 1000 entries. Busiest day in terms of attendance was between 2013 and 2014 Sunday. In 2013, followed by only a slight difference Saturday, in 2014, was also second in the order Saturday with about 4% lower attendance. In both years, around 45% of users visited the trail on the weekend. The least busy days in the two years were Monday and Friday. The hourly distribution of traffic routes in 2013 and 2014 are similar. In both years we have seen the morning peak between 11th and 12th AM and a higher utilization in the afternoon, especially from 3rd to 6th PM. The structure of users in both years was detected within the calibration census. In both years showed similar results in 2014 were reported by 4% fewer cyclists, 7% more pedestrians and 2% fewer cars. In terms of directionality in 2013 significantly outweighs the number of users moving in the direction of IN to Bílovic over those who tend to Brno. This ratio is maintained in both working and non-working days. In 2014, the direction of movement more equalized, but still prevails in the direction Bílovic.
Conclusion The evaluation resulted in both years is a basic overview of site traffic and traffic distribution in time, within months. It is important to always check the pressure of tourists to use sites and these results are important for the territory management - where to put financial resources and promote recreational attractiveness of the area, to eliminate the damage caused by excessive use of sites tourists.
References Fialová, J. et al. (2014): Visitor monitoring of selected trails in ŠLP Křtiny. In Fialová, J., Pernicová, D. Public recreation and landscape protection - with man hand in hand?. 1. vyd. Brno: Vydavatelství Mendelovy univerzity v Brně, s. 340--343. ISBN 978-80-7375-952-0. Galas, S. et al (2013):Environmental impact assessment process in the V4 countries in the field of recreation and tourism. In Fialová, J., Kubíčková, H. Public Recreation and Landscape Protection - with man hand in hand. 1. vyd. Brno: Mendelova univerzita v Brně, s. 45--50. ISBN 978-80-7375-746- 5. Navrátil, J., Knotek, J., Pícha, K., Fialová, J. (2014): Šetrný cestovní ruch ve velkoplošně chráněných územích přírody: Jižní Čechy a Šumava. 1. vyd. České Budějovice: Nakladatelství JIH. 143 s. 1. ISBN 978-80-86266-81-7. Ondrejka Harbuľáková, V., Hronský, P. (2013a): Design of water ways for recreational purposes. In: Wybrane aspekty ochrony i kształtowania srodowiska w Polsce, we wschodniej Słowacji i zachodniej Ukrainie. - Brzozow : Muzeum regionalne im. Adama Fastnachta, 2013 P. 161-175. - ISBN 978-83- 86801-78-7 Ondrejka Harbuľáková, V. et al. (2013b): Sporting and recreational functions of water streams. In: Public recreation and landscape protection - with man hand in hand... : Conference proceeding : 1st - 3rd May 2013, Brno. - Brno : Mendel University of Brno, 2013 P. 175-180. - ISBN 978-80-7375-746-5
Souhrn Návštěvnost ŠLP ML Křtiny byla zjišťována v roce 2013 a v roce 2014 za pomocí automatického sčítače umístěného na lesní cestě vedoucí od Rozcestí Kopaniny přes Resslovu hájovnu do Bílovic nad Svitavou. Údaje z obou provedených sčítání byly porovnány a byl udělán popis staitstických rozdílů. Zajímavým zjištěním bylo, že celková návštěvnost v roce 2014 převyšovala tu z roku 2013 o 11547 (rok 2013 – 29 216 návštěvníků, 2014 – 40763 návštěvníků).
Contact: Ing. Jitka Fialová, MSc, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 096, e-mail: [email protected]
- 273 - TREAT RISK ASSESSMENT ON CULTURAL MONUMENTS NATURAL COMMUNITIES - EXAMPLES OF EVALUATION
Petr Kupec, Monika Veličková, Jaroslav Blahuta Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The article presents the results which were obtained within the process of verification of the Methodology of assessment of the threat risk to the vegetation (natural communities) of cultural monuments, parks and gardens (Kupec, Deutscher, 2013). It has been designed as a part of the results obtained during the elaboration of a research task named „The identification and assessment of threat hazard on natural communities of cultural monuments“ guaranteed by the Ministry of Culture CR. The methodology was applied for the treat risk assessment of the national culture monuments´ natural communities located in three regions of Czech republic (Jihomoravský, Zlínský and Vysočina Regions). Obtained results proved the original premise, that the status of natural communities of national cultural monuments in mentioned regions is thanks to optimal management approaches practically in all cases excellent.
Key words: risk assessment, natural communities of cultural monuments, potential development of natural communities
Introduction Within the process of verification of the Methodology of assessment of the threat risk to the vegetation (natural communities) of cultural monuments, parks and gardens (Kupec, Deutscher, 2013) the natural communities of seven national cultural monuments situated within three regions of the Czech republic were assessed in 2013 a 2014. The methodology was elaborated in 2013 as a part of results of the project „The identification and assessment of threat hazard on natural communities of cultural monuments“ guaranteed by the Ministry of Culture CR. The methodology represents simplified set of standard approaches to vegetation assessment e.g. Buček, Lacina, 1999; Kolektiv 2006 and 2007; Vyskot, I. et all., 2003 etc. adjusted for specific conditions of natural communities of cultural monuments. The article present the result obtained in 2013 (Kupec, Deutscher, 2013) and 2014 (Kupec et all., 2014).
Materials and methods As was mentioned above in 2013 and 2014 seven national cultural monuments´ natural communities within three regions of the Czech republic were assessed by presented methodology in total. Specifically following national cultural monuments were evaluated: Jihomoravský Region NCM Castle Valtice NCM Baroque castle Lysice NCM Slavonic fortified settlement Mikulčice Vysočina Region NCM Jewish cemetery Třebíč NCM Church of St. Jan Nep. Žďár nad Sázavou Zlínský Region NCM Castle Kroměříž NCM Castle Buchlovice
All these localities were evaluated by the field work, where the segmentation and natural communities assessment within defined segment was the main task. The status of natural communities was in all cases classified by assessment of parameters age structure, health status and the amount of tree individuals (species) on the border of their ecological optimum presented in table 1. All the terrain data were processed in the ArcGIS working space where the orthophoto maps were used as a basic raster layer. The final values of assessment are calculated as weighted average from particular segment values, where as the weight the area of segments was taken.
- 274 - Tab. 1: A simplified approach to the assessment and identification of threat hazard to natural communities of cultural monuments
Tree vegetation
C) The amount of tree individuals (species) on the Degree A) Age structure of trees B) Health status of trees border of their ecological optimum Individuals with expected lifespan of Healthy or individuals with 1 30 years and more are predominant first symptoms of damage up to10% are predominant Individuals with expected lifespan of Individuals with little to 2 10 - 30 years are predominant medium symptoms of 11 - 30% damage are predominant Individuals with expected lifespan Dying or individuals with 3 under 10 years are predominant severe symptoms of damage 30% and more are predominant
Shrub vegetation
F) The amount of shrubs (species) on the Degree D) Age structure of shrubs E) Health status of shrubs border of their ecological optimum Individuals with expected lifespan of Healthy or individuals with first 1 30 years and more are predominant symptoms of damage are up to 10% predominant Individuals with expected lifespan of Individuals with little to medium 2 10 - 30 years are predominant symptoms of damage are 11 - 30% predominant Individuals with expected lifespan Dying or individuals with severe 3 under 10 years are predominant symptoms of damage are 30% and more predominant
Degree Resulting classification of threat hazard to vegetation:
1 Low (In 30 years the need for treatment should be expected) 2 Medium (In 10 years the need for treatment should be expected)
3 High (Treatment needed as soon as possible, maximum within 2 years)
Results Following pictures (fig. 1 - 7) present reprints of maps with natural communities of national cultural monuments segmentation sorted according to regions. Cumulated results of national cultural monuments´ natural communities are presented in following table (see tab. 2). Table shows that practically in all parameters the treat hazard (risk) is low. As the only exception can be understood the health status o trees especially in solved national cultural monuments located in Zlínský Region. According to the final assessment of natural communities of natural cultural monuments in particular regions it can be stated that the treat hazard (risk) is low (in 30 years the need for treatment should be expected) in case of solved NCM in Jihomoravský and Vysočina Regions and medium (in 10 years the need for treatment should be expected) in NCM of Zlínský Region.
- 275 - Jihomoravský Region
Fig. 1: NCM Castle Valtice Fig. 2: NCM Baroque castle Lysice
Fig. 3: NCM Slavonic fortified settlement Mikulčice
Notices: A,B,C,D,E assessed segments 0 areas excluded of assessment
- 276 - Vysočina Region
Fig. 4: NCM Jewish cemetery Třebíč Fig. 5: NCM Church of St. Jan Nep. Žďár nad Sázavou
Zlínský Region
Fig. 6: NCM Castle Kroměříž Fig. 7: NCM Castle Buchlovice
Notices: A,B,C,D,E assessed segments 0 areas excluded of assessment
- 277 - Tab. 2: Cumulated results of national cultural monuments´ natural communities Jihomoravský Region Vysočina Region Zlínský Region NCM NCM NCM NCM Church of NCM Slavonic NCM NCM Baroque Jewish St. Jan Castle fortified Castle Castle castle cemetery Nep. Žďár Valtice settlement Kroměříž Buchlovice Lysice Třebíč nad Mikulčice Sázavou Age structure of 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 trees Health status of 3 1 1 1 1 3 3 trees The amount of tree individuals (species) on the 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 border of their ecological optimum Age structure of 1 1 1 1 - - - shrubs Health status of 1 1 1 1 - - - shrubs The amount of tree individuals (species) on the 1 1 1 1 - - - border of their ecological optimum Final assess. 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Notice: - means that shrubs are not presented within the natural communities of specified national cultural monument
Conclusion The article presents the results which were obtained within the process of verification of the Methodology of assessment of the threat risk to the vegetation (natural communities) of cultural monuments, parks and gardens (Kupec, Deutscher, 2013) which was developed on the Department of Landscape Management of Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology at Mendel University in Brno. The methodology has been designed as a part of the results obtained during the elaboration of a research task named „The identification and assessment of threat hazard on natural communities of cultural monuments“ guaranteed by the Ministry of Culture CR. The methodology was applied for the treat risk assessment of the national culture monuments´ natural communities located in three regions of Czech republic (Jihomoravský, Zlínský and Vysočina Regions) in 2013 and 2014 years. Specifically, seven natural communities of seven national cultural monuments were assessed. These were divided into segments on which the following tree and shrubs layers assessment were carried out. On the base of the results it can be stated, that the level of threat risk of natural communities of solved national cultural monuments located in Jihomoravský and Vysočina Regions can be characterized as low in Zlinský Region as medium.
References Buček, A., Lacina, J. (1999): Geobiocenologie II. Mendelova zemědělská a lesnická univerzita Brno, 249 s Kolektiv: Monitoring zdravotního stavu lesa v České republice. Ročenka programu ICP Forests/Forest Focus 2006 a 2007). Výzkumný ústav lesního hospodářství a myslivosti, Strnady, 2007 Kupec, P., Deutscher J. (2013): Metodika hodnocení ohrožení vegetace památek, parků a zahrad. Průběžná zpráva úkolu MK ČR č. DF12P01OVV035 Hodnocení stavu a identifikace rizik přírodních společenstev kulturních památek za rok 2013. MENDELU v Brně.
- 278 - Kupec, P., a kol. (2014): Metodika hodnocení ohrožení vegetace památek, parků a zahrad. Průběžná zpráva úkolu MK ČR č. DF12P01OVV035 Hodnocení stavu a identifikace rizik přírodních společenstev kulturních památek za rok 2014. MENDELU v Brně. Vyskot, I. a kol. (2003): Kvantifikace a hodnocení funkcí lesů České republiky. [S.n.]: Nakladatelství 131 Margaret. 168 s. ISBN 80-900242-1-1
Acknowledgement This contribution was supported by the project DF12P01OVV035 „Identification of significant areas with cultural and historical values threatened by natural and anthropogenic stresses “, 2012–2015, for Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic.
Souhrn Článek prezentuje výsledky verifikace metodiky Hodnocení stavu a identifikace rizik přírodních společenstev kulturních památek, která byla vytvořena na ÚTOK LDF MENDELU v Brně v rámci projektu Hodnocení stavu a identifikace rizik přírodních společenstev kulturních památek. Verifikace metodiky byla prováděna v letech 2013 a 2014 přírodních společenstvech národních kulturních památek ve Zlínském a Jihomoravském kraji a kraji Vysočina. Konkrétně bylo hodnoceno sedm národních kulturních památek. Tyto byly v souladu s postupem metodiky nejprve rozděleny na homogenní segmenty, na kterých bylo následně provedeno hodnocení parametrů stromového a keřového patra. Na základě šetření se ukázalo, že míra ohrožení přírodních společenstev šetřených národních kulturních památek v Jihomoravském kraji a kraji vysočina je nízká (s nutností zásahu 30 let), ve Zlínském kraji střední (s nutností zásahu 10 let). Jako parametr, který byl hodnocen jako parametr s vysokou mírou rizika (s nutností zásahu do dvou let) lze hodnotit zdravotní stav stromového patra v případě tří národních kulturních památek.
Contact: Assoc. Prof. Ing. Petr Kupec, Ph.D. Phone: +420 545 134 097, e-mail: [email protected]
- 279 - UTILIZATION OF DARK SKY PARKS IN NATURE TOURISM
Martin Labuda Department of Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina B2, 84215 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Abstract Nature tourism is one of environmental friendly forms of tourism. Dark Sky Parks are one of important measures to support nature tourism in the protected areas. The main scopes of astro tourism are to establish Dark Sky Park and the implementation of measures focused on dark sky protection, i.e. the elimination of light pollution over model area. The region of the Nature Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide is characterised by low settlement density and large, continuous forest areas, which lead to low light pollution. It is very important from the view of ecology, e.g. by the protection of night animal species. On the other hand, these characteristics can be fully used in new tourism concept in that protected area.
Key words: light pollution, nature conservation, night sky brightness
Introduction Nature tourism should be developed not only in protected areas, but also in other regions, where it is possible to apply this form of tourism. Dark Sky Parks are important, modern and fully applicable tool of nature tourism in praxis. Their number and importance increase progressively in many countries of the world. In this paper, we point out a possibility to establish Dark Sky Park on the model area of Nature Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide. Another goal is to introduce astro-tourism as a tool for the conservation and the development of nature landscape, as well as the recovery of traditional cultural landscape ant its biodiversity. Dark Sky Park in the model area is proposed according to Dark Sky Park Poloniny.
Dark Sky Parks and the protection of dark sky One of the most progressive environmental changes is the decrease of natural darkness caused by the excessive emission of artificial light. The study of global environmental change has to take into consideration this phenomenon of light pollution (Cinzano et al., 2001). The lack of darkness in night disturbs circadian rhythm, which has negative impacts on flora and fauna. Duriscoe (2001) formulated optimistic appeal: „Unlike losing a species to extinction, topsoil to erosion, or virgin lands to development, the night sky is 100% recoverable”. There are only few areas in Europe, where night sky is not polluted by artificial light sources. Therefore, it is important to preserve the quality of dark sky in these areas and to improve it using various measures. One of them is the establishment of Dark Sky Park in such regions. The first condition for that is dark sky and the restriction of disturbing artificial light factors using effective measures (Held et al., 2013). Areas with dark sky can be established as Dark Sky Park by several organisations: • Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (RASC) • International Dark Sky Association (IDA) establishes: Dark Sky Communitie, Dark Sky Reserves , Dark Sky Parks • Starlight Initiative establishes: Star Parks, Starlight Reserves Nature tourism According to United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) nature tourism is the form of tourism, by which the observation and enjoying of nature is the main motive of travelling (UNWTO, 2002). Nature tourism is a responsible travel to natural areas, which conserves the environment. It is tourism based on the natural attractions of an area. Examples include birdwatching, photography, stargazing, hiking, fishing, and visiting parks (Nature Tourism Programme, 2014).
Materials and methods Methodological progress can be characterised as integrated and logical flow of following steps: the reconnaissance of terrain, the study and the analysis of documents and scientific literature, the mapping of external lighting, the measurement of night sky brightness. The geographical location of model area is shown on Figure 1. At present, it is almost finished the proposal of Dark Sky Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide. The selected aspects of this concept (night sky brightness measurements, involved persons and lighting plan) are introduced in this paper.
- 280 - The measurements of night sky brightness were done in Nature Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide (NP NSH) at many sites in months: January 2014, July 2014 and September 2014. The selection of suitable sites for measurements was done according to knowledge about region. Only sites, which allow the measurement of free sky without its covering or eclipse, were accepted. Another criterion was the spatial distribution of sites within NP NSH and the transport accessibility of each site.
Fig. 1: Geographical location of study area
Sky Quality Meter L (SQM-L) by Canadian company Unihedron was used to measure night sky brightness in astronomic units magnitudes per square arcsecond (mag/arcsec2). Scale is inverse, where high values mean dark sky: 21.7 truly dark sky, Milky way is visible up to horizon, black clouds 21.4 zodiacal light (in the evening in spring and in the morning in autumn) is well visible; Milky way is well visible; clouds above town are bright on horizon 20.5 Milky way is visible with low contrast, clouds are bright 19.5 Milky way is hardly discernible 18.5 few stars, very bright sky The measurement of night sky brightness took important part in the concept preparing of new Dark Sky Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide.
Results The concept of Dark Sky Park NSH was prepared using knowledge and experiences from implemented project Dark Sky Park Poloniny in Slovakia (DSP P). DSP P is located within area of National Park Poloniny on the borders with Poland and Ukraine (Figure 2). It was established on the occasion of International year of biodiversity in 2010 as the first dark sky area in Slovakia and the 20th in the world with the total area of 48 519 ha. It is characterised by extraordinary low population density (9 inhabitants per 1 km2). DSP P has the lowest light pollution in Slovakia. Average night sky brightness reaches 21.5 mag/arcsec2. It is possible to observe objects and phenomena such as zodiacal light, or gegenschein (from German, established term in English). Nature Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide is one of the darkest places in Germany (Figure 3). This region has low population density (8.7 inhabitants per 1 km2). This fact is of high ecological importance for night species protection and can be fully used for the development of offered nature tourism in the form of night sky park. In co-operation with villages, it is necessary to implement innovative external lighting, which reduces emitted light from settlements and contributes by climate protection. The cooperation of several involved persons is needed during the establishment of DSP NSH (Figure 4). On the one side, it is important to gather knowledge and experiences within topic from various aspects. On the other side, scientists from existing Dark Sky Parks and other multipliers should spread information.
- 281 -
Fig. 2: Map of light pollution in Slovakia with the location of Dark Sky Park Poloniny (left). Source: http://fjfi.cce.cz/astro/celp.jpg Fig. 3: Map of light pollution in Germany with the location of Nature Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide (right). Source: www.lichtverschmutzung.de
Regional associations of tourism bear the highest responsibility for the marketing of concept through the creating and the support of attractive activities for visitors. Nature Park Service is the main coordinator in all processes. The participation of inhabitants is necessary to achieve acceptation. The building of network among those involved persons may achieve that dark sky park will be a tool for the support of economically weak regions.
Fig. 4: Involved persons in Dark Sky Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide
The important part of concept was the selection of sites, which are suitable for astronomical observations. Selected sites had to fulfil following criterion: • no light pollution sources in visual field (360°), ideally near water level • well transport accessibility – existing infrastructure (parking places, roads, tourist paths) • suitability for tourism from species and area protection viewpoint (exclusion of sites, which are the part of NR and FFH) Following table (No. 1) shows brief overview of night sky brightness measurements at selected sites in NP NSH
- 282 - The sites, which belong to class 4 and 5, are the most important from the view of concept and realisation of Dark Sky Park NSH compare with Figure 5. They are ideal sites for astronomical observations as they reach values greater or equal to 21.40 mag/arcsec2.
Tab. 1: Distribution of sites into categories Class Value (mag/arcsec2) Number of sites
Class 1 18,5-19,49 1
Class 2 19,50-20,49 2
Class 3 20,50-21,39 20
Class 4 21,40-21,69 33
Class 5 ≥ 21,7 2
Lighting plan The goal of lighting plan is to set stable rules and directives for external lighting in proposed Dark Sky Park NSH. Essentially, there should be no inappropriate external lighting in Nature Park NSH in the future. As Figure 6 shows, the best lights are those, which’s the ratio of effectively used light is the highest (two most right lights in Figure 6). The example of such lights is shown in the Figure 7. Important parameter by the assessment of unused emitted light is Upward Light Ratio. It describes how many percent’s of light are emitted into atmosphere in imaginary circle above lighting. Optimum value is equal to 0. In this way, it is one of criterion valid for Dark Sky Park (Luginbuhl et al. 2006).
Fig. 5: Selected sites for night sky brightness measurements in Nature Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide
Fig. 6: Ratio of effectively used light by different lighting types (© S.A.F.E.)
- 283 -
Fig. 7: Examples of appropriate lighting in NP NSH (©Koch, 2014)
Discussion The concept of Dark Sky Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide is not the first planed dark sky park in Germany. Naturally dark sky is rare phenomenon in developed countries. Therefore, it is necessary to protect it. Naturally dark sky is the base condition for the establishment of Dark Sky Park, which is basis for the increase of area attractiveness from astro-tourism viewpoint. The topic of dark sky parks was discussed by several authors (Kossack 2013, Held et al. 2013, Marín et al. 2010). E.g. Kossack (2013) lists the tourism advantages of such parks on the example of Nature Park Westhavelland. The author came to conclusion that this form of tourism is not only sustainable, but it also prolong tourist season and enlarge the attractiveness of Nature Park. The concept of dark sky park enables to enlarge added value of region and its economical utilization within sustainable development in margin regions.
Conclusions Dark sky protection and light pollution elimination belong to important environmental problems in developed countries, i.e. Germany, too. The establishment of Dark Sky Park is one of useful nature tourism tools, which is basis for astro- tourism. Measurements confirmed that Nature Park Nossentiner/Schwinzer Heide fulfil difficult requests for night sky quality, as well as other requests for the establishment of dark sky park. At the same time, the basis of regional partners was created, which will further develop concept. It is assumed that it will increase added value of this margin region and it will improve its position from the viewpoint of sustainable tourism implementation.
References Cinzano, P., Falchi, F., Elvidge, C. D. (2001): The first World Atlas of the artificial night sky brightness. Padova: Universita` di Padova, Dipartimento di Astronomia, 707 pp. Duriscoe, D. (2001): Dark-Sky Park Program In: Weickelt, H. (2010): Der Naturpark Westhavelland als Sternenpark? - Aspekte von Ökologie, Beleuchtung und Tourismus. Bachelorarbeit, HNE Eberswalde: Hochschule für nachhaltige Entwicklung, 68 pp. Held, M., Hölker, F., Jessel, B. (2013): Schutz der Nacht – Lichtverschmutzung, Biodiversität und Nachtlandschaft. Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz, 189 pp. Kossack, S. (2013): Entwicklung von Erfolgsfaktoren für die touristische Nutzung von Sternenparks. Master Thesis, HNE Eberswalde, Hochschule für nachhaltige Entwicklung, 123 pp. Luginbuhl C., Jones, R., Richman, A., Moore, C. (2006): Dark-Sky Program.- Version 1.31, Arizona Marín, Cipriano, Wainscoat, Richard; Fayos-Solá, Eduardo, (2010): 'Windows to the Universe': Starlight, Dark Sky Areas, and Observatory Sites. Paris: International Secretariat of ICOMOS, 283 pp. Nature Tourism Programme, (2014): What is nature tourism? Online: https://tpwd.texas.gov/landwater/land/programs/tourism/what_is/ UNWTO, (2002): Ecotourism and Protected areas. Online: http://sdt.unwto.org/en/content/ecotourism- and-protected-areas, 93 pp.
Acknowledgement This article was supported by VEGA-Project No. 2/0133/14.
Souhrn V posledních letech výrazně stoupá poptávka po nových, environmentálně vhodných formách turismu, ke kterým patří i přírodní turismus. Zejména v západních zemích jsou etablované různé aktivity, při kterých je pozorování přírody ústředním motivem samotného cestování (bird watching, astroturismus). Posledně jmenovaná aktivita je bezpochyby environmentálně vhodnou, mající minimální negativní dopad na složky ŽP, či krajinu. Základním předpokladem pro vyhlášení území za např. Park tmavé
- 284 - oblohy je přirozeně tmavá obloha a minimální světelné znečištění, které zajišťují možnost pozorovat tmavou noční oblohu se všemi jejími specifiky. Astroturismus se stal efektivním nástrojem rozvoje rurálních oblastí již v několika zemích světa, aktuálně se etabluje v ekonomicky vyspělých zemích (Německo), kde jsou řídce osídlené oblasti, postupně vyhlašovány za Parky tmavé oblohy a tmavá noční obloha se stává předmětem ochrany ve smyslu mezinárodních pravidel. Jednou z těchto raritních oblastí je i Přírodní park Nossentiner / Schwinzer Heide, kde se dokončuje koncept Parku tmavé oblohy. Vybrané aspekty tohoto konceptu představujeme i v našem příspěvku.
Contact: RNDr. Martin Labuda, PhD. Phone: +421 260 296 589, e-mail: [email protected]
- 285 - VISITORS' PERCEPTION OF CHOSEN SUBURBAN RECREATIONAL LOCALITIES OF BRATISLAVA CITY
Katarina Pavlickova, Viera Novanska Chrenscova Department of Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynska dolina B2, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Abstract Suburban tourism is considered as a subsystem of recreational tourism. It is organized in appropriate leisure area near by cities, agricultural and residential agglomerations (Michalová, 2001). The target of its recreation-health function is focused to the regeneration of physical and mental power of people, the freshness and body amenity in their interrelationships. This is a theoretical basis of our research started in 2014 year. The main target of our research are suburban recreational localities of Bratislava city. As the initial step the method of questionary with a goal to recognize visitors´view on main components of their satisfaction with the quality of provided services on attractive localities which are appropriate for trips, walks and whole day tourings was chosen. Questionary survey was realized in natural environment of Zelezna studnicka situated in the landscape protected area Small Carpathians and natural-cultural environment of Devin castle surrounded by various protected zones and elements. The focus of our research is in a harmony with the National Tourism Development Strategy to 2020 year (MDVRR SR, 2014), concrete with the particular strategic aim: improved exploitation of natural, cultural and historical potentials of Slovakia in existing developed destinations.
Key words: survey, tourism, Zelezna Studnicka, Devin
Introduction Cities possess a various degree of attractiveness for tourism. A good outlook for further growth can be found especially in cities with a well-preserved historical centre, which have been declared historical reserves, can boast a number of natural and cultural monuments, sufficient infrastructure and organize events attractive for tourists. Tourism in cities is quite a complex phenomenon, which has begun growing significantly in the past decade. The number of city tourists has been increasing, which results in the rise of tourism intensity. Tourism in cities is concentrated in specific areas, the so–called municipal tourist districts (Hayllar, Griffin, Edwards, 2008). These areas are noted for a high amount of tourist attractions, and, as a result, a high density of tourists and services related to tourism. The expansion of urbanization is also connected to a growth in suburban tourism as well as suburban recreation. Suburban recreation is linked to natural environment, which through its quality makes it possible to enjoy one´s physical well being and mental relief. It is an asset to an activization of this area and its tourism branches, too. Recreation can take place within the site itself or in its close vicinity. Suburban recreation usually has a short-term character. Often it is only a half a day´s, one day´s or a weekend´s long recreation combined with staying overnight. Its typice feature is a small distance between a place of residence and recreation site. (Gúčik, 2010). Recreation area, where suburban recreation can take place, has a diverse character depending on what ways people spend their spare time. It is, in a broader sense of the word, constituted by places offering an oportunity to recognize arts, historical and cultural monuments, nature as well as places assigned to sport and leisure. It is important for human health and well-being to balance the growing uniformity of the environment, frequent dreariness of a job, overall hasty and overtechnized consumer way of life with beauty, uniqueness, art and closeness to nature. (Kvasničková et al., 2002). Visit rate of a recreation place depends on a quality and attractivity of environment, important is also a level of services offered as well as an accesibilty to the location. The needs of visitors are quite diverse, and can be divided into target and facilitating. In order to satisfy them there is the product of tourism, with services being its major part. The ability to satisfy the needs and fulfill visitors´ expectations is dependent on the quality of services, which reflects a sum of their usefulness attributes. Useful characteristics of services are marks of their quality (Orieška, 2011). Quality expresses a sum of usefulness attributes and characteristics of services (commodities), which give it the ability to satisfy customers´ needs and expectations. Quality does not have to be understood as the highest level, as the best and most expensive, though, as a guest may expect. As a service satisfies a customer´s needs, he understands quality as a balance of his expectations about the service (commodity) with reality. In tourism, quality is considered as one of the decisive factors in customers´ satisfaction. Characteristics of a service or offering a service may be quantitative
- 286 - (measurable) or qualitative (comparable). Decisive in evaluating the quality of service is an assessment by a customer, whose needs and expectations are fulfilled by their usefulness attributes. That is why it is necessary to emphasize the importance of the customer´s perception of quality. (Gučík, 2001). The translated article brings partial results of a study conducted in the area of Bratislava from the point of view of torurism growth.
Aim and methods of survey The major aim of exploring the city of Bratislava was, by means of a questionnaire research, to assess the perception of suburban recreation localities of the city of Bratsialava by its visitors as well as their views on main constituents of satisfaction with the quality of offered services. The explored areas of interest were locations of Zelezna studnicka and Devin, which are areas suitable for trips, walks and day-long hiking. 202 respondents were addressed. The filled-out questionnaires were received from all of the addressed respondents (100 % return). The questions in the questionnaire were answered by 102 respondents from Devin locality and 100 respondents from the locality of Zelezna studnicka. The staticstical body therefore comprised 202 respondents (n = 202). 46 % of males and 54 % of females participated in the study, with the population rating from 16 to 45 years of age being the major part. Out of all the participating, represented were respondents with university education (63 %), secondary education with school- leaving exam (31 %), secondary education without school-leaving exam (2 %) and elementary education (4 %). For the purposes of the study an interrogative method was chosen – a questionnaire suitable especially in cumulative collecting of information, but also in gaining opinions and attitudes to issues froma higher number of respondents (Halašová, 2001). The questionnaire consisted of open, scaled and semi-closed questions/items, which offered a possibility of selecting a single or multiple answers. Collecting data took place in 2014 year. Respondents were addressed in person and asked to fill in the questionnaire.
Characterization of affected area Bratislava is the largest city in Slovakia with its area of 367,58 km². In terms of geomorphological structuring, the area of the city incorporates three gemorphological bodies. All the southern and eastern part of the area is taken by Podunajska flatland, and Podunajska lowland, respectively. In the central part of this area altitude rises due to Small Carpathians mountain range, which splits into Devin Carpathians and Pezinok Carpathians. The area of the city is touched by the southern bulge of Zahorska lowland known as Borska lowland range. Several water courses flow through the area of Bratislava. Out of these, river Danube, together with its tributary river Morava, stands for the most important and commercially used. The area of the city was in 2011 year inhabited by the population of 415 589, out of which 194 279 were males and 221 310 were females. More than 75 % of its inhabitansts work in service sector, made up primarily of commerce, banking, informatic technologies, telecommunications, tourism etc. The city can be considered as one of the most signifiant Slovak tourism centers. The central part of the Old City is a historical monument zone, while the historical core together with Bratislava castle and Podhradie is a historical reserve. Moreover, Bratislava boatsts lemure zones, parks and facilities with abudance of natural features, which allow for lemure and sport opportunities as a part of suburban recreation. Zelezna studnicka belongs among the most frequently visited recreation sites of Bratislava. It´s one of the Male Karpaty forest park locations in Bratislava as well as a popular recreation and sports natural resorts in Bratislava. The Vydrica stream flows through it, which supplies four ponds in its middle with water. In the vicinity of the prime stream there are springs, wells and wetplands. A peculiarity of Zelezna Studnicka is the harmony of technical purpose buildings (mills, flumes, ponds, forest and fishing industry installations) with buildings popular with Bratislava population of all generations. Zelezna Studnicka was settled by millers, who built mills there, centuries ago. Water mills, which were first noted as soon as 1455 year, vanished and have been used as sight-seeing restaurants. They used to be the target destination of an excursion path in past. Out of these mills, the 9th one – Suchy mly, has been preserved. Klepac, originally the 7th mill, disappeared before 1970 year and is but a ruin today. A notable technical monument is the system of four lakes built in 1846 year serving as a propeller of nine Vydrica mills. Lakes are nowadays used for fishing. The city intends to use them perspectively for rowing. The instructional path Cerveny most – Zelezna Studienka – Kamzík – leads through Zelezna Studienka. The path leads through locations which are not only interesting from the point of view of recognizing historical and natural values, but also attractive for tourism.
- 287 - Devin is deemed to be one of the most beautiful locations in Bratislava. Its vicinity provides exquisite natural sceneries, interesting cycling routes, touristic paths, proximity to Small Carpathians. Among tourist attractions belongs Devin castle, too. At present Devin castle and his nearest proximity count as the most popular short hike paths out of the capital. Apart from the chance to visit the castle itself, it offers opportunities for walks on the riverside of the Danube under the castle rock, beside Morava and across adjacent streets of Devin (local part of Bratislava). The increased interest of tourists is reflected and adjusted in the offers of refreshment and restaurant services near the entrance to the castle premises as well as on the Danube riverside. Both localities and their environment are wellknown also by their natural beauties full of protected areas (see table 1). Zelezna studnicka is situated on the boundaries of Protected Landscape Area Small Carpathians as well as close mountains toward Devin castle.
Tab. 1: Protected areas of Zelezna Studnicka and Devin (SOP SR, 2015) Landscape Year of Level of Type Name Protected Expanse (ha) declaration protection Area (revision) Devin
Devinska hradna NPP - 1,7000 1985 skala 4 Small NPR Devinska Kobyla 101,1157 1964, 1986 Carpathians 4
PP Devinska lesostep - 5,0966 1992 4 Devinske aluvium CHA - 253,1600 1999 Moravy 4
34,3772
PR Slovansky ostrov - (protected 2009
zone 2,5562) 5 CHKP Vapenicky potok - 2,5161 2007 4 Small PR Fialkova dolina Carpathians 20,5879 1993 5 Zelezna Studnicka PP Rosslerov lom - 2,3828 1990 4 Notes: NPP – National Natural Monument, PP – Natural Monument, NPR – National Natural Reservation, PR – Natural Reservation, CHA – Protected Area, CHKP – Protected Cultural Monument
Instead of that Zelezna studnicka locality is intersected by SCI (SKUEV0388 Vydrica) and close to Devin castle is located as SCI (SKUEV0280 Devinska Kobyla) so SPA (Dunajske luhy). From the poit of view of wetlands close Devin castle locality is located the internationally important wetland Morava River floodplain.
Analysis and interpretation of results Obtained data from 202 questionnaires were qualitatively evaluated. Tables showed results in quantity rates (%). At the beginning were respondents asked for „What was a main reason for visiting the locality?“ The evalutaion is representing by the table 2.
- 288 - Tab. 2: Main reason for visiting the locality
Type of Reason Devin (%) Zelezna studnicka (%)
Relaxant 64 56 Nature beauties 54 37
Culture and history 39 4 Šport 19 34 Other: visiting the playground and/or 0 9 sportground Other: to take a dog out for a walk 2 0
Other: friends´ meeting 3 2
Other: health walk 0 1
As we can see visitors of Devin locality came there mainly for a leisure (64 %), nature recognition (54 %), culture and history (39 %). Zelezna studnicka area was mainly visited for the purpose of leisure (56 %), nature recognition (37 %) and sport (34 %). To the locality of Devin came 38 % respondents by city public transport, 33 % respondents by the car, 18 % by the bicycle and 11 % by walking. To the locality Zelezna studnicka came 55 % respondents by the car, 31 % by city public transport, 9 % by the bicycle a 5 % by walking. Respondents were also invited to evaluate their satisfaction with services quality offered at the locality. The results overview is showed in the table 3.
Tab. 3: Services evaluation Devin Zelezna studnicka Services (%) (%) 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Traffic and parking 62 19 19 0 63 22 15 0 Existing information system – tourism 49 23 22 6 53 13 34 0 marking, informatio tables Tourism information 19 11 42 28 26 8 54 12 centers Feeding and 53 10 35 2 47 25 26 2 refreshment Participation in cultural activities and 51 11 28 10 55 12 31 2 entertainment Enjoyment of sport, 56 8 26 10 92 3 5 0 relaxation Tourism services level32 30 24 14 41 28 30 1 Level of services 48 41 11 0 39 37 24 0 prices Other services (shops, municipal services, health 22 9 60 9 30 11 59 0 services, banks, post office) Notes: 1-satisfied, 2-unsatisfied 3–unused, 4-missing
Respondents of both localities used mainly traffic, feeding, sport-recreational, cultural and information services. Respondents of Devin locality were mainly satisfied with traffic and parking (62 %), possibilities for sport/leisure enjoyment (56 %) and feeding and refreshment possibilities (53 %). Unsatisfied were with the level of services prices (41 %), tourism services level (30 %) and existing information system (23 %). Respondents of Zelezna studnicka were satisfied mainly with possibilities
- 289 - for sport/leisure enjoyment (92 %), traffic (63 %) and possibilities for cultural/entertainment possibillities (55 %). On the contrary they were unsatisfied with the level of services prices (37 %), %), tourism services level (28 %) and with feeding and refreshment possibilities (25 %). At both localities respondents point out missing tourism information centres (28 % Devin, 12 % Zelezna studnicka). Finally visitors were asked about 2 open questions „What did you not like at the locality (what did you negatively amaze)?“ and on the opposite „What did you like at the locality (what did you positively amaze)?“ Resulting from answers visitors consider few parking places (16 %), weak social facilities (13 %), waste contamination (8 %), absence of waste baskets (8 %) and unsatisfied information system (1 %) as main problems. Respondents were also unsatisfied with the level of feeding facilities. At the locality Devin respondents consider weak quality of feeding facilities (14 %), absence of waste baskets (9 %), weak information system (8 %), weak social facilities (7 %), waste contamination (3 %), weak maintenance of traffic (3 %) and weak possibilities for sporting (2 %) as main gaps. Respondents of Zelezna studnicka indicated the locality as ideal for leisure and relaxation for families with children, young people and doglikers (8 %). They liked nature (32 %), playgrounds and sporting possibilities (17 %), lot of attractions (14 %), boating possibilities (6 %), reconstructed amphitheatre (5 %), tourism trails (1 %) and existing of eduactional tables (1 %). At the locality Devin were visitors fascinated with beauties of surrounding nature (52 %), activities organised on the castle Devin (11 %), cultural actions (6 %), tourism trails (4 %) and educational tables (2 %). Some of them were satisfied with services (3 %) and traffic (2 %).
Conclusion Within the acitivities of suburban recreation the influence of the age was very important. At localities mainly young people were overweigted. It could be concidered as a favorable trend, but at the other hand it must be increased sevices development for different age categories, too. Visitors mainly critically refered unsatisfied quality and sortiment of feeding/social facilities, parking and problems with waste contamination. Positively were accepted mainly nature beauties and the fact that both localities could be considered as ideal places for leisure and relaxation. To maintain the aim of the national tourism strategy, the sortiment and quality of services including traffic and parking must be increased in future. As both localities and their environment are full of natural protected areas also many restrictions are need to be maintain, especially creation of new trails at Zelezna Studnicka locality (SKUEV Vydrica), walking out-off official trails at Devin locality (SKUEV Devinska Kobyla) and using of light and sound effects on both localities.
References Gučík, M. (2001): Cestovný ruch. Bratislava : Media Trade, 105 s. ISBN 80-08-03071-2. Gučík, M. 2010. Cestovný ruch. Úvod do štúdia. Banská Bystrica : Univerzita Mateja Bela, Ekonomická fakulta, 73 - 74 s. ISBN 978-80-89090-80-8. Halašová, M. (2001): Výskumné metódy v environmentálnej výchove. Spoločenskovedná časť. Banská Bystrica : Fakulta prírodných vied Univerzity Mateja Bela, 55 s. ISBN 80-8055-488-9. Hayllar, B.; Griffin, T.; Edwards, D. (2008): City Spaces – Tourist Places: Urban Tourism Precincts. 1st ed. Oxford, (UK): Elsevier Ltd. 374 s. ISSN 978-0-7506-8195-7. Kvasničková, D. et al., 2002. Životné prostredie. Bratislava : Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo, 160 s. ISBN 80-08-03341-X. Michalová, V. et al., (2001): Služby a cestovný ruch : súvislosti, špecifiká, cesta rozvoja. Bratislava : Sprint vfra, 524 s. ISBN 80-88848-78-4. MDVRR SR (Ministry of Transport, Construction and Regional Development of the Slovak Republic), 2014: The strategy of the tourism development to 2020 year. Dostupné na: www.telecom.gov.sk Orieška, J., (2011): Služby v cestovnom ruchu. I časť. Banská Bystrica : Univerzita Mateja Bela, Ekonomická fakulta, s. 17- 18. ISBN 978-80-89090-93-8. Štátna ochrana prírody Slovenskej republiky, 2015. Dostupné na: www.sopsr.sk Štatistický úrad SR, (2012): Mestská a obecná štatistika. [online] január 2015. [cit. január 2015] Dostupné na: http://app.statistics.sk/mosmis/sk/run.html. Štatistický úrad SR, (2011): Základné údaje zo Sčítania obyvateľov, domov a bytov 2011. Dostupné na: www.scitanie2011.sk alebo www.statistics.sk.
Acknowledgement The contribution is prepared under the project VEGA 2/0133/14 „The ecological model of tourism development based on the feasibility and assumptions localization and realization of the landscape“.
- 290 - Souhrn Příměstský cestovní ruch je subsystémem rekreačního cestovního ruchu. Je to rekreace, která se pořádá ve vhodném rekreačním prostoru v blízkosti měst, průmyslových a sídelních aglomerací (Michalová, 2001). Jeho funkce je rekreačně-zdravotní, která se zaměřuje na regeneraci fyzických a duševních sil člověka, zdatnost, svěžest a tělesnou pohodu v jejich vzájemném propojení. Tato teze je základem našeho výzkumu. Hlavním cílem zkoumání je příměstský cestovní ruch ve městě Bratislava, kde jsme si na začátek zvolili prostřednictvím dotazníkového výzkumu zjistit pohled návštěvníky na hlavní komponenty spokojenosti s kvalitou poskytovaných služeb na lokalitách, které jsou vhodným místem pro výlety, procházky a celodenní turistiku. Dotazníkový výzkum byl proveden v přírodním prostředí Železné studánky a v přírodně-kulturním prostředí lokality hradu Děvín. Zaměření výzkumu je v souladu se Strategií České republiky rozvoje cestovního ruchu do roku 2020, která si jako jeden ze svých 3 cílů zvolila lépe využívat přírodní a kulturně-historický potenciál Slovenska podporou cílových míst, kde již existuje stabilizovaný poptávka klíčových trhů, tzn. nepodporovat nová cílová místa s nestabilními segmenty trhu, které nepřinesou dostatečný synergický efekt. Z výsledků vyplývá, že návštěvníci na lokalitu Děvín přišli zejména za účelem odpočinku, poznávání přírody, kultury a historie. Areál Železné studánky navštívili návštěvníci za účelem odpočinku, poznávání krás přírody a sportu. Naopak návštěvníci kritizovali zejména nedostatečnou kvalitu stravovacích zařízení a malou pestrost nabízených služeb. Vše ale třeba zlepšovat v souladu s ochranou přírody a krajiny nakolik jsou obě lokality zajímavé i z tohoto hlediska.
Contact: Assoc. Prof. Katarina Pavlickova Phone: +421-2-602 96 579, e-mail: pavlickova60@gmail
- 291 - WATER QUALITY AND RECREATION FUNCTIONS IN THE PROCESS OF ABANDONED SMALL WATER RESERVOIRS AND PONDS RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT PROPOSAL
Miloš Rozkošný, Hana Hudcová, Pavel Sedláček, Miriam Dzuráková T. G. Masaryk Water Research Institute, Brno Branch Office, Mojmírovo náměstí 16, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Small water reservoirs are one of the principal elements of agricultural landscape in the Central European context with different functions including fishing, angling, recreation activities. In the Czech Republic, small water reservoirs have a long historical tradition, related in particular with fish farming and construction of ponds. Relation between functions of selected small water reservoirs and water quality was studied at four localities. Ecosystems of monitored SWR with constructed wetland areas (littoral zones) significantly eliminated the pollution brought by the inflows (streams). It was confirmed that the character of outflow water quality changes is fundamentally influenced by the inflow water quality and recreation fish stock management.
Key words: small water reservoir; pond; water quality; angling; pond restoration
Introduction Small water reservoirs are one of the principal elements of agricultural landscape in the Central European context (Juszcak, Kędziora 2003). They represent one of the most valuable natural components of the cultural landscape, otherwise entirely transformed by intense human activities (Waldon 2012). In the landscape, small water reservoirs fulfil a number of important roles. From the environmental point of view, they are significant local biocentres increasing the biodiversity of the landscape. In addition, small water reservoirs influence the microclimate. From the point of view of the water management, they retain water within the river basin and affect its further distribution; they influence the groundwater level and the soil moisture (Kosturkiewicz, Fiedler 1996). If the retention area is handled correctly, they are able to transform the flood waves. Small water reservoir, including ponds, may also contribute to the improvement of water quality, if the principles of their correct management are observed (Rozkošný et al. 2011, Všetičková et al., 2012, 2013). Despite their irreplaceability in the landscape, small water reservoirs are among the European endangered ecosystems and they are under incessant anthropogenic pressure. The water reservoirs near large settlements and those located in intensive farming landscapes are the most sensitive ones, facing the risk of pollution by sewage, the eutrophication caused by artificial fertilisers, the drainage of littoral marshlands, etc. (Waldon 2012). In the Czech Republic, small water reservoirs have a long historical tradition, related in particular with fish farming and construction of ponds (Vrána 2004). The first ponds were established in this territory as early as in the 10th century. However, the boom of their construction dates back to the 15th and 16th centuries, connected with the flourishing and economically profitable fish farming run by leading aristocratic families. The scope of this construction activities is reflected in the estimates of the total number of ponds in the Czech Lands at the end of the 16th century, mentioning from 75,000 to 78,000 ponds with an area over 180,000 ha. However, it is not possible to identify the final scope of this phenomenon, since most ponds were suppressed at the end of the 18th century and in course of the 19th century as a consequence of the introduction of crop rotation farming, the abolition of serfdom, unprofitability of fish farming and the sugar beet growing. The ponds became new arable land, meadows and woods. Nowadays, there are around 22,000 ponds in the territory of the Czech Republic. Thus, more than two thirds of small water reservoirs were cancelled during the two centuries. The research of these defunct pond systems and their precise localisation is important for: proving or disproving the general hypotheses concerning the extinction of ponds in individual regions or confirmation of the grounds for their suppression; getting to know the local historical hydrological conditions; identification of the current use of former pond areas and their comparison with the surrounding non-pond areas (e.g. from the point of view of soil value); identification of the localities for a possible renewal of ponds, e.g. within National Programmes, such as the Programme of Revitalisation of River Systems or the current Landscape Care Programme, with a focus on the selected functions in the landscape These functions include, apart from the fish farming management, biodiversity enhancement, flood events protection, protection again arable land erosion and surface water pollution decreasing above all.
- 292 - Materials and methods The research project QJ1220233 has as a main task a determination of areas of abandoned ponds within the Czech Republic, assessment of current land-use of these areas and draft of potential restoration of ponds, not only for fish farming management, but also for other reasons including flood event protection and surface water pollution decreasing with a focus on phosphorus and nitrogen retention and removal. For the solution of these problems, it is necessary to create a spatial database mapping the areas of the historical ponds, their current use and to prepare in this way the basis for further analyses (Pavelková et al., 2012). The database of the historical ponds which was made with using of the Ist Military Survey from 1764– 1783 and the IInd Military Survey from 1836–1852, as well as the maps of the Stabile Cadastre from 1824–1843, was further analysed in the GIS environment. First of all, the current land-use in the locality of the historical pond was identified. Modified and aggregated layers of the ZABAGED vector database were used for this purpose (Pavelková et al., 2012; Havlíček et al., 2014). As a second step, we prepared information about retention capacity of different types of the small water reservoirs and about their retention of nutrients. We used information from ponds and wetlands monitored by the Water Research Institute, p.r.i. in the period 2000 – 2015. For the detailed monitoring, there were selected these localities of small multi-purpose water reservoirs, representing agriculturally managed landscape:
1. Small water reservoir - village Želeč - 49.3472344N, 17.1273514E / main functions – water retention, biodiversity support in the agriculturally managed watershed (almost 90 % of land- use – arable land) 2. Small water reservoir - village Dražovice - 49.1990025N, 16.9417000E / main functions – sporting angling, recreation 3. Small water reservoir - village Němčice - 49.4342464N, 16.7091728E / main functions – flood protection, retention reservoir, biodiversity support 4. Small water reservoir - village Velký Rybník - 49.4860272N, 15.3088683E / main functions– flood protection, retention reservoir, biodiversity support
A monitoring of water quality, including suspended solids (TSS), parameters of organic pollution (BOD, COD, TOC, DOC), nutrient balance (anorganic forms of nitrogen, total nitrogen - TN, phosphates, total phosphorus - TP) and microbial contamination parameters (Enterococci, Feacal coliform bacteria), together with a monitoring of phytoplankton was taken in the period 2013 – 2015 in selected periods of the year with regards to climatic conditions and biological processes based on previous experience (Všetičková et al., 2012). Monitoring was focused on inlet and outlet of each reservoir and on the water body of the reservoir. Water temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration, oxygen saturation, pH value and electrical conductivity were measured by HACH Lange HQ40d portable meter, in the case of a water body in different depths.
Results In this section of the article, there are presented results from two localities – Dražovice SWR and Želeč SWR. Both of the reservoirs are used for recreation activities, mainly angling. The localities are situated in catchment with dominance of arable land as a land-use. In the next tables Table 1 and Table 2, there are presented average values of water quality parameters analysed from the samples taken in the inflow and outflow profiles located at the selected retention basins. The results from Dražovice were divided into two different groups, first for the period without fish introduction into the water body at the beginning (first year) of operation. The second period represents monitoring after delivery of fish to the reservoir. Presence of fish and angling activities means changes in water quality at the outflow profile – an increasing of water turbidity (concentration of suspended solids and lower removal of phosphorus. The treatment efficiency of the Želeč SWR was high for microbial pollutants, forms of nitrogen and total phosphorus. Similarly to the Dražovice SWR, average treatment efficiency for BOD, COD and suspended solids was negative, but it is affected by biological processes occurring in the water body during vegetation periods. Organic pollution originated in the Želeč village sewer system is highly reduced with the result of primary production growing.
- 293 - Tab. 1: Average values of the water quality parameters at the inflow (In) and the outflow (Out) profiles of the Dražovice small water reservoir during the two periods in the years 2013-2015. First period (A) – the reservoir without fish, second period (B) – the reservoir with fish, sport angling
Profile BOD5 TOC TSS TN TP
mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l DR-A-In 1,48 7,0 6,6 0,83 0,06 DR-A-Out 1,67 6,85 7,3 0,640 DR-B-In 4,09 12,85 20,9 4,33 0,11 DR-B-Out 3,78 12,85 44,3 3,28 0,07 Treatment efficiency (period A) - 13 % 2 % - 12 % 22 % 100 % Treatment efficiency (period B) 8 % 0 % - 112 % 24 % 37 %
Tab. 2: Average values of the water quality parameters at the inflow (In) and the outflow (Out) profiles of the Želeč small water reservoir during the the years 2013-2015.
Profile BOD5 TOC TSS Enterococci Feacal coliform bacteria
mg/l mg/l mg/l CFU/1 ml CFU/1 ml ZEL In 6.38 7.60 10.1 29 50 ZEL Out 14.87 24.75 60.0 2 1 Treatment efficiency - 133 % - 225 % - 494 % 92 % 98 % + - - Profile N-NH4 N-NO3 N-NO2 TN TP mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l ZEL In 3.72 4.01 0.41 8.66 0.81 ZEL Out 0.49 1.12 0.08 5.07 0.46 Treatment efficiency 87 % 72 % 79 % 42 % 43 %
Discussion The extensive and semi-intensive management systems typical for Czech pond aquaculture include complex production methods with numerous important links within the pond environment itself, to other connected ponds, and to the surrounding ecosystem (Pechar, 2000). In consequence, watershed management upstream of fish ponds can significantly affect their functioning by either enhancing or reducing productivity. Further, fish pond management can substantially modify the hydrological regime and ecological quality of receiving waters (usually rivers, canals, and ponds downstream in an interconnected system), again with potentially positive or negative impacts on watershed functioning (Všetičková et al., 2012). Depending on the management measures used to improve and/or control productivity, therefore, fish ponds can either discharge harmful waste water into downstream water systems, or act as water bodies in which beneficial ecological processes, including natural self-purification (biodegradation of organic matter, nutrient retention, etc.), can take place.
Conclusion Monitored localities have a positive impact on the nitrogen and phosphorus retention and uptake from polluted surface waters and diluted wastewaters produced by settlements. Also the reduction of microbial contamination was significant by the monitored ponds and reservoirs. Ecosystems of monitored SWR with littoral zones significantly eliminated the pollution brought by the inflows (streams). It was confirmed that the character of outflow water quality changes is fundamentally influenced by the inflow water quality and recreation fish stock management.
References Havlíček, M., Pavelková, R., Frajer, J., Skokanová, H. (2014): The long-term development of water bodies in the context of land use: The case of the Kyjovka and Trkmanka River Basins (Czech Republic). Moravian Geographical Reports, Vol. 22, No. 4, p. 39–50. DOI: 10.1515/mgr-2014-0022.
- 294 - Juszcak, R., Kędziora, A. (2003): Threats to and Deterioration of Small Water Reservoirs Located within Wyskoć Catchment. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies 12 (5), 567-573. Pavelková, R., Frajer, J., Pavka, P, Dzuráková, M., Adámek, P. (2012): Identification and Analysis of Areas of Historical Ponds (Chrudimka River Basin). Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis, Facultas Rerum Naturalium, Geographica, Vol. 43, No. 2. ISSN 1212-2157. Pechar L. (2000): Impacts of long-term changes in fishery management on the trophic level water quality in Czech fish ponds. Fisheries Management and Ecology 7 (1–2): 23–31. Rozkošný, M., Adámek, Z., Heteša, J., Všetičková, L., Marvan, P., Sedláček, P. (2011): Vliv rybníků na vodní ekosystémy recipientů jižní Moravy (Impact of ponds on the recipients water ecosystems of the South Moravia Region). VTEI 53 (1), 18-21. Vrána, K. (2004): Malé vodní nádrže – součást revitalizace krajiny. In Koncepce řešení malých vodních nádrží a mokřadů. Česká společnost krajinných inženýrů při ČSSI, Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze, České vysoké učení technické v Praze, 4-14 Všetičková, L., Adámek, Z., Rozkošný, M., Sedláček, P. (2012): Effects of semi-intensive carp pond farming on discharged water quality. ACTA ICHTHYOLOGICA ET PISCATORIA, roč. 42, č. 3, s. 223—231. ISSN 1734-1515. Všetičková, L., Adámek, Z., Rozkošný, M., Sedláček, P. (2013): Environmental Impacts of Carp Pond Farming on Discharged Water Quality. World Aquaculture, roč. 44, č. 4, s. 46—49. ISSN 1041-5602. Waldon, B. (2012): The conservation of small water reservoirs in the Krajeńskie Lakeland (North-West Poland). Limnologica 42, 320-327.
Acknowledgement This work has been supported by the research project QJ1220233 NAZV Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic „Assessment of agricultural land in the areas of abandoned fishpond systems with the aim of supporting sustainable management of water and soil resources in the Czech Republic“.
Souhrn Malé vodní nádrže jsou jedním z hlavních prvků zemědělské krajiny ve středoevropském kontextu s různými funkcemi, včetně rybaření a rekreačních aktivit. V České republice mají malé vodní nádrže dlouhou historickou tradici, zejména v souvislosti s chovem ryb a stavbou rybníků. Vztah mezi funkcemi vybraných malých vodních nádrží a kvality vody byl studován na čtyřech lokalitách. Ekosystémy sledovaných nádrží s mokřadními pobřežními zónami byly schopny významně eliminovat znečištění transportované přítoky. Bylo potvrzeno, že charakter změn kvality vody v odtoku je zásadně ovlivněn kvalitou přítokové vody a vlivem rekreačního chovu ryb a sportovním rybolovem.
Contact: Ing. Miloš Rozkošný, Ph.D. Phone: +420 541 126 318, e-mail: [email protected]
- 295 - WATER QUALITY EVALUATION OF SELECTED WELLS AROUND BRNO RESERVOIR
Petra Oppeltová, Věra Hubačíková, Sabina Valešová Department of Applied and Landscape Ecology, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract Wells had always an important function in landscape, which, however, changed over time. Hunting wells formed first, then agrotechnical ones used during land cultivation. Later, they began to perform the pilgrimage and tourist function. Monitoring of several wells around Brno reservoir was the aim of this study. The actual condition of chosen wells – Slešťůvka, Veveří, Betelná, Rozdrojovická, Soví and U tří křížů - was assessed and monitoring of chosen water quality indicators was conducted. Selected physical, chemical and microbiological indicators were evaluated. The results were compared with the limits for drinking water according to Decree No. 252/2004 Sb., as amended. From the results it can be concluded that water quality in wells depends on their location in the field – there were shown effect of agriculture, transportation and settlements (wastewater discharge). Direct consumption of water is not recommended either from one of the wells.
Key words: water pollution, monitoring, microbiological analysis
Introduction Spring is a place, where the underground water rises in the surface. The well is a spring, which is modified by the human activity, e. g. walled, roofed, with drain. The wells are among the most vulnerable sources of drinkable water, because their water quality subjects to very rapid changes. They serve primarily as natural waterholes for wild animals before the human started to exploit them.
Materials and methods The labour is focused on the monitoring of water quality in selected wells around Brno reservoir. First, the detailed field survey was done and individual wells were chosen and charted. Subsequently the chosen indicators were determined right on the site together with water sampling for each of the wells. The water samples were determined in the lab of DALE (Mendel University in Brno). Water sampling of six wells (Fig. No. 1) was realized four times, 2013/03/17, 2013/09/06, 2013/02/10 and 2013/12/20. Right in the site pH, dissolved oxygen (mg/l), conductivity (µS/cm) and water temperature were determined. These parameters were measured by a multimeter HQ 30d flexi by HACH LANGE. Subsequently the concentrations of nitrate, nitrite, iron, chloride, sulphates and COD were determined in the lab of DALE (Mendel University in Brno) on the spectrophotometer DR/4000 by HACH LANGE as well. The analysis of microbiological indicators was made in the lab of the Department of Microbiology (2013/11/21) – total colony at 22°C and total colony at 36°C, coliforms and entercocoos. The last sampling from the well Veveří was not realized because of the shortage of the water. Missing chemicals for the determining of chloride were the next problem. The results of these analyses were compared with the hygienic limits for drinkable water listed in Annex No. 1 of Decree No. 252/2004 Sb. as amended (Porál veřejné zprávy). Subsequently, information boards for chosen wells were designed.
Characteristics of the wells Slešťůvka The spring is located in a small biocorridore among farmland close to the south edge of Veverská Bítýška. The well is preserved spring at which there stands the chapel of the Virgin Mary. The chapel was built in 1896 by Jan Dvořák gratitude for recovery from a serious illness. (Estudánky, 2013) Delivery tube is richly covered with moss and red cold-algae. The spring is surrounded by farmland. Coverage of the wells fluctuated during the year consequently involves a change in water quality. The well is influenced by its surrounding, which is agriculturally used. Previously, this water was considered sufficiently good quality even for infants.
Veveří There is a brick fountain east of the road under the castle Veveří close to the footbridge. This well was built in 1934. It is situated close to the bay, just above the water level of the dam. Previously, the fountain was an entrance to a secret supply corridor of the castle Veveří. Water comes largely from a
- 296 - single source of Veverka stream, which discharges in these places into the Brno dam (Drápalová et al.) The spring is very shallowly captured. Coverage varies widely, mainly during dry summer, and in winter, when there the water level of Brno dam is reduced.
Betelná This spring is located close to the bus station Rakovec-rozcestí, on the beginning of Kočičí žleb before the entrance to the Podkomorské lesy. The well is close to the unmarked forest path and it has two outflows. It is used mainly by gardeners from surrounding lodges. In previous years, the water in the well slightly exceeded the quality of infant waters. Negative affect of the surrounding facilities is reflected on the water quality in the spring.
Rozdrojovice well Above Rozdrojovice on the red-marked hiking trail Rozdrojovice spring rises. The access road and surrounding of the springs are in contrast to wells maintained. Coverage varies widely depending on precipitation. The well has a relatively low yield year-round, except a period during the spring thaw. Water has an average quality. Fountain is mainly used by cottagers.
Sova well This discrete spring is located on the yellow tourist trail linking the village Rozdrojovice with the left bank of the Brno dam. The well is on the slope of a forested hill Trnůvka, under the bike trail. Spring itself is made up of stone blocks with a statue depicting an owl. From this block water flows through a stainless steel tube and falls into the hole in the stone under which the drain is located. The spring is relatively abundant.
U tří křížů The well, so called U kamene, is located on the south side of the village Chudčice, approximately in the middle of the Calvary. Calvary was built in 1856 consisting of 14 chapels. At the point, where there was the chapel of The Saint Cross in 1784, three wooden crosses were later erected. This pilgrimage place received its present name (at Tree Crosses) because of this. (Estudánky, 2013) The spring flows from the concrete terraces, which lies beneath the chapel of St. Mary Help of Christians. It was built as a gratitude to God for such precious and healing water. Chapel was built by Josef Kotovic. Spreading of a well varies widely in the dry season.
Results and discussion The water temperatures in all wells correspond to the temperature of the air, because the wells do not seepage of deep groundwater. The limit for electrolytic conductivity according to Decree no. 252/2004, as amended, is 125 mS/m (Porál veřejné zprávy). None of the measured values do exceed this limit. Overall the highest conductivity was observed in wells Slešťůvka and Betelná (about 80 mS/m). The pH of drinking water is determined in the range from 6.5 to 9.5 (Porál veřejné zprávy), the measured values for all wells ranged in this limit. Elevated nitrate concentrations (Fig. no.2) were measured regularly at wells Slešťůvka and Betelná when the highest value exceeds the limit for drinking water of 50 mg/l. This is probably caused by runoff from the surrounding farmed land. Values above 50 mg/l were also affected by higher precipitation totals for the last 14 days prior to sampling. During the monitoring of water quality nitrite value was not measured higher than the limit for drinking waters according to Decree 252/2004 Coll. is (0.05 mg/l). COD can be viewed as a problematic indicator (Fig. no.3). The limit for drinking water of 3.0 mg/l was exceeded in almost all sampling in all wells. This is probably the organic pollution from wastewater. The concentration of sulphates at all analyzes were below the set limit of 250 mg/l.
The total iron generally ranged below the limit of 0.2 mg/l, only wells Betelná and Soví in June were found higher values (around 0.4 mg/l). A sudden increase in the concentration of iron could be caused by corrosion of pipes, where spring flows from both wells. Increased iron content is hygienically insignificant, but affects the organoleptic properties of water.
- 297 - Extremely high concentrations of chlorides (Fig. no.4) were found in a well at the castle Veveří, where the values varied between 400-500 mg/l, while the limit for drinking water according to Decree no. 252/2004 as amended, is 100 mg / l. Because high values in the different zones are consistent, it is unlikely that the cause of this phenomenon was only salinization of the road several meters from the well. Then you should see greater seasonal fluctuations. The high chloride content could be associated with contamination with sewage. In this case, the only possible source of applicable Veveří castle itself. According to the castle administration wastewater is collected in a sump and regularly siphoned off from it. But we failed to confirm or refute the fact that the contamination came from this source. To determine the exact source of contamination would need more long-term measurements, or perform analyzes at other locations nearby. The concentrations of chlorides in the other wells are below the limit for drinking water. Exposed is a fountain Betelná in which there the concentration of chlorides slightly approach the limit (Fig. no.4). The lowest concentrations are in forest wells: The Three Crosses, Soví and Rozdrojovice. Chlorides are hygienically safe for drinking water, but at higher concentrations they may affect the taste of water.
Fig. 1: Map of chosen wells (www.mapy.cz) 1. Slešťůvka; 2. Veveří; 3. Betelná; 4. Rozdrojovická well; 5. Soví well; 6. U Tří Křížů
Table no. 1 shows the results of microbiological analyzes of November 2013. Coliform bacteria are one of the indicators of faecal pollution from human and animal faeces. Intestinal Enterococci bacteria are referred to as indicators of dangerous pollution characteristic for sewage water and animal faecal wastes. The presence of Organotrophic bacteria (viable organisms at temperatures of 22 ° C and 36 ° C) represent data on the total microbial contamination. They are used to determine the ecological water quality assessments. (Ambrožová, 2004) Neither of the monitored wells did comply with the limits under applicable legislation. This is probably a long-term organic pollution caused by runoff from agricultural lands and especially from wastewater.
- 298 - Tab. 1: Microbiological analysis WELL TOTAL COLONY NO. TOTAL COLONY NO. ENTEROCOCCUS COLIFORMS AT 22°C AT 36°C LIMIT 100NMH - 200MH 20 NMH 0 0 U tří křížů 19216 2162 0 11 Rozdrojovická 231747 246162 1 49 Soví 88297 0 0 9 Betelná 243 279 1 78 Veveří 14486 351 0 547 Slešťůvka overgrown overgrown 3 540
Nitrates (NO3‐) 60 Slešťůvka
50 Veveří 40 Betelná Rozdrojovická
mg/l 30 Soví 20 U tří křížů 10
0 Limit March June October December
Fig. 2: Nitrates concentration
CODMn Slešťůvka 40 Veveří
30 Betelná Rozdrojovická
mg/l 20 Soví 10 U tří křížů
0 limit March June October December
Fig. 3: COD values
- 299 - Chlorides (Cl‐) Slešťůvka 600 Veveří 500 Betelná 400 Rozdrojovická
mg/l 300 Soví 200 100 U tří křížů 0 Limit March June October December
Fig.4: Chlorides concentration
Conclusion The results show that the water quality in wells depends on their location. Fountain Slešťůvka is located in a narrow biocorridor surrounded by fields. In this well was recorded higher nitrate content, which may be caused by fertilizer runoff from farm land. Wells Veveří and Betelná are other typical examples. Both wells are located near the road, and therefore disability signalled higher chloride content, which is probably due to winter maintenance (salting) of roads and wells Veveří also likely seepage of wastewater. Only three wells - at Three Crosses, Rozdrojovice and Soví - are the source with the appropriate content of chemicals. For these sources there is recorded exceeding the limit of measured chemical and physical parameters. These wells are located in the forest, and therefore not directly affected by anthropogenic activities. After microbiological site any of the wells has not complied with and direct consumption of water of which can not in any case be recommended. Design for public information boards at the wells, which are frequently used (Soví and The Three Crosses) was another part of the thesis.
References Estudánky [online]. [cit. 2013-11-18]. Dostupné na: http://www.estudanky.cz Drápalová, J., Skácelová, O., Hříb, J. Studánky Brna a okolí. Brno: Český svaz ochránců přírody, Moravské zemské muzeum Ambrožová, J. (2004): Mikrobiologie v technologii vod. Vyd. 1., přeprac. Praha: Vydavatelství VŠCHT, 252 s. ISBN 80-7080-534-X. Portál veřejné správy, vyhláška č. 252/2004 Sb. [online]. [cit. 2014-02-10]. Dostupné na: http://portal.gov.cz/app/zakony/zakonPar.jsp?page=0&idBiblio=57875&recShow=0&fulltext=252~2F20 04&nr=&part=&name=&rpp=15#parCnt
Souhrn Cílem práce bylo provést monitoring několika studánek v okolí Brněnské přehrady. Byl zhodnocen současný stav studánek – Slešťůvka, Veveří, Betelná, Rozdrojovická, Soví a U tří křížů a proveden monitoring vybraných ukazatelů jakosti vody. Hodnoceny byly ukazatele fyzikální, chemické i mikrobiologické. Monitoring a odběr vzorků vody proběhl v březnu, červnu, říjnu a prosinci 2013. V terénu byla měřena konduktivita, pH, teplota a obsah rozpuštěného kyslíku, v laboratoři UAKE byly hodnoceny následující ukazatele: dusičnany, dusitany, železo, chloridy a CHSK. V laboratoři na Ústavu mikrobiologie MENDELU byla v listopadu 2013 provedena analýza vybraných mikrobiologických ukazatelů - koliformní bakterie, enterokoky a celkový počet kolonií při 22°C a 36°C. Výsledky byly porovnány s mezními hodnotami pro pitnou vodu dle vyhlášky č. 252/2004 Sb., v platném znění. Z výsledků vyplývá, že kvalita vody ve studánkách závisí na jejich umístění. Studánka Slešťůvka je umístěna v úzkém biokoridoru obklopeném poli. U této studánky byl zaznamenán vyšší obsah dusičnanů, což může byt způsobeno splachem hnojiv ze zemědělsky obhospodařovaných pozemků. Dalším typickým příkladem jsou např. studánky Veveří a Betelná. Obě studánky se nachází v blízkosti
- 300 - komunikace, a proto je postižení signalizováno vyšším obsahem chloridů, které je pravděpodobně způsobeno zimní údržbou (zasolováním) silnic a u studánky Veveří také pravděpodobně průsakem odpadních vod. Pouze tři studánky – U Tří křížů, Rozdrojovická a Soví – jsou zdroje s přiměřeným obsahem chemických látek. U těchto zdrojů není zaznamenáno překročení limitu u sledovaných chemických a fyzikálních ukazatelů. Tyto studánky jsou umístěny v lese, a proto nejsou přímo ovlivněny antropogenní činností. Po mikrobiologické stránce nevyhověla žádná ze studánek a přímou konzumaci vody z nich nelze v žádném případě doporučit. Další součástí práce byl návrh informačních tabulí pro veřejnost u studánek, které jsou nejčastěji využívány Soví a U Tří křížů.
Contact: Ing. Petra Oppeltová, Ph.D. E-mail: [email protected]
- 301 - WIND FACTOR IN A PROCESS OF SHORE ABRASION IN RECREATIONAL AREA OSADA – BRNO DAM RESERVOIR
Lenka Gernešová, Petr Pelikán Department of Landscape Management, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Abstract The paper deals with long term problem of bank erosion observed along the shoreline of Brno dam backwater zone – recreational area Osada. Usually, the abrasion process is evoked by various factors however the factor of waves scouring bank toe is considered as the most significant. The permanent water table motion (wave action) and its parameters are closely related to the local wind characteristics and horizontal projection of water reservoir. The objective of research is determination of unfavourable combination of wind direction, wind speed and fetch facilitating the abrasion process in considered locality. Wind data were gained from numerical weather model GFS for the purposes of statistical processing.
Key words: bank erosion, numerical weather model, wind characteristics, wind-driven waves
Introduction The energy transferred to the water level by wind generates a range of wave heights and periods that increase as the waves travel across the available fetch length (CERC, 1973, 1977, 1984). The fetch represents the length within which the wind blows over the water table from the opposite side of reservoir to the point of interest. Wave growth is closely related to the fetch length (Pelikán, 2013). Wind with constant speed and direction causes the waves which reach its steady state limited by fetch length. Wave height becomes statistically constant in time but it differs along the fetch. The primary research of wind-water interactions and wave mechanics had been accomplished in coastal areas along the shores of world oceans and seas because a basic understanding of coastal meteorology is an important component in coastal and offshore design and planning (USACE 2002– 2011). Consequently the similar principles of water wave mechanics started to be considered in conditions of inland water bodies. The problem of wind-driven waves was investigated worldwide by many specialists, e.g. Phillips and Miles (1957), Hsu (1988) the sea conditions and Lukáč (1972, 1980) Resio and Vincent (1977), Kratochvil (1987), Šlezingr (2004, 2007, 2010), Ozeren and Wren (2009) in the conditions of water reservoirs. Experimental shoreline section is situated along the left bank of Brno Reservoir with southwest exposition. The locality is one of the most affected by abrasion in the Czech Republic, moreover there is possible to constantly monitor shoreline retreat very well. The Brno suburban area is much- frequented by tourists, plenty of vacation properties and technical and transport infrastructure is situated in the close vicinity of shorelines liable to abrasion (Šlezingr, 2007, Hrůza, 2013).
Materials and methods The available measured and archived long-term wind data do not exist for the locality of Brno Reservoir. The data of wind direction frequencies were provided by numerical model GFS (Global Forecast System). GFS is operated by the American organization NCEP (National Centers for Environmental Prediction), which is part of NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), NWS (National Weather Service), USA. Global model is run four times a day (at 00:00, 6:00, 12:00, 18:00 universal time) and an updated prediction time is up to 384 hours. The model has a horizontal resolution of 0.5 degrees, which represent approximately 50 km. The data of horizontal projection of water reservoir are necessary to calculate the fetch related to a given wind direction. Vector data were undertaken from digital water management data base (VÚV TGM). The problem of determination of unfavourable combination of wind direction, wind speed and fetch length was solved by geospatial computational methods with the aid of software ArcGIS 10.1 (ESRI) and AutoCAD Civil 3D 2015 (Autodesk, 2009).
- 302 - Results The wind data statistical processing was accomplished from GFS model archive database for period 2004 – 2013. The time step of three hours gained approximately 26 000 valid data records. Wind rose graphically represents the results of statistical analysis for the locality of Brno Reservoir (Fig. 1). Prevailing wind directions and the observed maximum wind speed for evaluated period are depicted. The values of wind speed are related to the 10m reference level above the ground.
Fig. 1: Wind characteristics for locality of Brno Reservoir
Investigated shoreline section is situated along the left bank of reservoir with southwest exposition. Consequent calculations considered only part of all wind directions from NWW to SEE with respect to the horizontal projection of water reservoir. The winds from other directions, wind-driven waves respectively, do not affect shoreline due to the wave shade (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Potential fetch variety for the point of interest – Osada
The abovementioned winds cause serious problem for the banks of Osada because these are built-up by sedimentary rock prone to be scoured by wind generated waves. The most occurring wind directions are NWW and SE. The fetch lengths related to the given wind directions were examined with the aid of ArcMap tool Euclidean Distance (Spatial Analyst, Distance). The results show the most unfavourable SSE direction as the fetch length overreaches 2 kilometers (Fig. 2). The final analysis consisted in combination of factor of wind direction frequency and fetch length (Fig. 3). The task was accomplished with the aid of Raster Calculator (Spatial Analyst, Map Algebra). The results confirmed the most unfavourable SSE wind which blows relatively frequently along very long fetch over water table. Furthermore SSE wind speeds reach also relatively high values (Fig. 1).
- 303 - However the NWW wind occur the most frequently, the fetch is shorter. Thus we can assume lower risk for the shoreline.
Fig. 3: Combination of the factor of wind direction probability and factor of fetch
Discussion The problem of shore abrasion is very complex due to many factors causing and facilitating the process. The wind is one of the most important factor because evokes wave origination and growth causing bank scouring on the point of interaction with water table (WMO, 1998). The presented model with relatively simple inputs is able to determine the most unfavourable combination of critical wind factors facilitating shore abrasion for any point of interest on any water reservoir. The gained results could be directly used for consequent modelling of wave parameters (e.g. height and period) and shore protection measures. However there is one specific anthropogenic factor inducing significant waving of water table, namely shipping, which is not taken into account in the model. The next problem is supposing the different effect of waves reaching the shore under different angle. The highest energy of waves is assumed in the case of perpendicular inclination to the bank, again oblique inclination causes the bank is milling by waves. The model does not contain such matters but it could be the subject of future research.
Conclusion Shoreline retreat in investigated recreational area Osada makes problem for properties and technical and transport infrastructure situated in the close vicinity of shorelines liable to abrasion. Wind characteristics play essential role in the abrasion process because their direct relation to the wave parameters. The objective of research was to determine unfavourable combination of wind direction, wind speed and fetch for investigated locality. The task was accomplished by method of computational geospatial processing of simple inputs – archive wind data and horizontal projection of water reservoir. The results confirmed the most unfavourable SSE wind which blows relatively frequently along very long fetch over water table.
- 304 - References AUTODESK, Inc., (2009): AutoCAD Civil 3D – User Guide, 2296 p. Cerc, 1973, 1977, 1984. Shore Protection Manual. Waterways Experiment Station, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C. Hrůza, P., (2013): Ecological criterion effect on the forest road network longitudinal gradient. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, Volume 61, Issue 6, 2013, pp 1715– 1723. ISSN 1211-8516. HSU S.A., (1988): Coastal Meteorology. Academic Press, New York. Kratochvíl, S., (1970): Stanovení parametrů větrových vln gravitačních vln v hlubokých přehradních nádržích a jezerech. Vodohospodársky časopis, ročník XVIII, č. 3. Lukáč, M., (1972): Vlnenie na nádrži a jeho účinky na brehy nádrže. Bratislava, MS Katedra Geotechniky SVŠT. Lukáč, M., Abaffy, D., (1980): Vlnenie na nádržiach, jeho účinky a protiabrázne opatrenia. Ministerstvo lesného a vodného hospodárstva SSR, Bratislava. Miles, J. W. (1957): On the Generation of Surface Waves by Shear Flows. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 3. pp 185-204. Ozeren, Y., Wren, D. G., (2009): Predicting Wind-driven Waves in Small Reservoirs. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, Vol. 52(4). pp 1213-1221. ISSN 0001-2351. Pelikán, P., 2013. Přetváření břehů vodních nádrží vlivem břehové abraze. Dizertační práce, Mendelova univerzita v Brně, 147 s. Pelikán, P., Šlezingr, M., Marková, J., Pilařová, P., (2014): Wind Parameters Related to the Wind Driven Waves on Water Reservoirs. In IV Międzynarodowa Konferencja Naukowo-Techniczna INFRAEKO 2014. Rzeszów. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Rzeszowskiej, p. 235--241. Phillips, O. M., (1957): On the Generation of Waves by a Turbulent Wind. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, pp 417–445. Resio, D. T., Vincent, C. L., (1977): Estimation of Winds over the Great Lakes. J. Waterways Harbors and Coastal Div., American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 102. pp 263-282. Šlezingr, M., (2004): Břehová abraze. CERM, Brno, pp 160. ISBN 80-7204-342-0. Šlezingr, M., (2007): Stabilisation of Reservoir Banks Using an “Armoured Earth Structure”. Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics, Volume. 55, Issue. 1, pp 64-69. ISSN 0042-790X. U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS, 2002–2011. Coastal Engineering Manual. Engineer Manual 1110 2 1100, Vol. I-VI, Washington, D.C., pp 2923. Votruba, L., Kratochvíl, S., (1987): ČSN 75 0255 Calculation of wave effects on waterworks. Vydavatelství Úřadu pro normalizaci a měření, Praha. WMO, (1998): Guide to Wave Analysis and Forecasting. 2nd edition, WMO No. 702, Geneva, Switzerland, pp 168, ISBN 92-63-12702-6.
Acknowledgement The article contains partial results of research project “Active anti-abrasion structures”, reg. no. LDF_VT_2015011, funded by IGA FFWT MENDELU Brno.
Souhrn Předkládaný článek se zabýval problematikou břehové eroze v konkrétních podmínkách vodního díla Brno, rekreační oblasti Osada. Proces eroze je vyvolán různými faktory. Nejvýznamnějším faktorem je vlnění vodní hladiny, způsobené zejména větrem. V článku je graficky znázorněno statistické zpracování směru a intenzity větru ve formě větrné růžice. Dalším významným a řešeným faktorem je délka rozběhu větru. Oba tyto faktory byly zahrnuty do výpočtu, který vyhodnotil pro oblast Osada jako nejnepříznivější směr působení větru jiho-jihovýchodní s délkou rozběhu větru přes 2 km. Tento vítr fouká velmi často a má velkou délku rozběhu větru – model tak potvrzuje nebezpečnost takového větru ve vztahu k břehové erozi.
Contact: Ing. Lenka Gernešová Phone: +420 545 134 082, e-mail: [email protected]
- 305 - WINTER RECREATION AND AVALANCHE DANGER IN THE WESTERN TATRAS
Matúš Jakubis Department of Forest Harvesting, Logistics and Soil/Land Ameliorations, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, 960 53 Zvolen, Slovak Republic
Abstract In the Slovak Republic, as in many other countries, are the winter recreation and various winter sports increasingly more polular. In addition of the High Tatras, are the Western Tatras one of the most popular areas for winter recreation in the Slovak Republic. In this area is fewer visitors than in the High Tatras and therefore is there more comfort with unique ambience. In the Western Tatras are the largest areas of avalanche paths in the Slovak Republic (8173.1 ha). In winter are the avalanches for the visitors in the mountain areas of Western Tatras very dangerous. The article deals with analysis of fatal accidents caused by various reasons (including avalanches) according to the records which are taken from the data of the Mountain Rescue Service Headquarters in Horný Smokovec. From 1911 to 2011 were in the Western Tatras 147 fatal accidents which are analyzed in the article from different aspects.
Key words: tourism, mountain areas, disasters, fatal accidents
Introduction The issue of avalanches has been known from ancient history. Avalanches were first mentioned in writing as the cause of death of Hannibal's (*247 BC - †183 BC) soldiers during passage through the Alps (218 BC) in the Second Punic War (218 BC to 201 BC). These historical records about avalanches are known from the works of several authors - Cornelius Nepos (Roman biographer, *about 100 BC - †between 27 – 24 BC), Titus Livius (Roman historian, * 59 BC – †17 AD), Silius Italicus (Roman poet, *25 or 26 AD – †101 AD), Polybios (Greek historian, *about 203 – 200 BC – †about 120 – 118 BC), Plutarchos (Greek historian and writer, *about 45 AD – †about 125 AD). In the Alpine countries are avalanche disasters mentioned in the literature for centuries. These disasters have been often recorded at the historical paintings, too (Fig. 1). Nevertheless, avalanches are remain one of the greatest dangers for visitors in the high mountains in winter. In the Slovak Republic, as in many other countries, the winter recreation and various winter sports are increasingly more polular. In addition of the High Tatras, the Western Tatras are one of the most popular areas for winter recreation. In this area is fewer visitors than in the High Tatras and therefore is there more comfort with the unique ambience and many opportunities for winter recreation. Overview of the number and size of avalanche paths in the mountains of Slovakia are given in Tab. 1. In the Western Tatras occurs 755 of avalanche paths with an area of 8173.1 ha. The largest avalanche in the Western Tatras is considered the enormous avalanche, which fell in March 25, 2009 in Žiarska valley. The length of tear line of this avalanche was estimated at 1500 - 2000 m, avalanche area was 28 ha and snow deposition masses in the valley accounted for more than 20 m, the volume of the compacted snow in the avalanche was 1.89 million m3, the total amount of snow in an avalanche was estimated at 2.5 million m3. Avalanches often threaten the ski and snowboarding slopes, trails for cross-country skiing, hiking trails, roads in the valleys (Fig. 2), mountain huts. Avalanches also devastate forest ecosystems over large areas (Fig. 3). Many authors in Slovakia and abroad addressed the issue of avalanches and their dangers for the mountain visitors (KŇAZOVICKÝ 1984, ATKINS 2000, HARVEY ET AL. 2002, McCLUNG, SCHAERER 2006, STATHAM 2008, LIZUCH 2009, TECHEL, ZWEIFEL 2013 etc.).
Materials and methods The article deals with analysis of fatal accidents caused by various reasons (including avalanches) according to the records which are taken from the data of the Mountain Rescue Service Headquarters in Horný Smokovec (available at http://www.hzs.sk/horska-zachranna-sluzba/smrtelne-nehody- zapadne-tatry/). From 1911 to 2011 were in the Western Tatras 147 fatal accidents which are analyzed in the article from different aspects. The fatalities were evaluated by months of the year, causes of accidents, days in the week, nationality of the visitors, and decades, too.
- 306 - Tab. 1: Avalanche paths in the Slovak Republic (MILAN, 2006)
Mountain range Number of avalanche paths Area of avalanche paths (ha) Tatras 2664 11 899.7 thereof: Western 755 8 173.1 High 1749 3 121.4 Belianske 160 605.2 Nízke Tatray 656 5 704.9 Veľká Fatra 158 1 412.8 Malá Fatra 201 1 300.1 Chočské vrchy 17 43.0 Oravská Magura 1 14.2 Total: 3697 20374.7
Fig. 1: Painting from around 1740 showing avalanche disaster (Composite authors 1989)
Fig. 2: The face of an avalanche struck the road and walking trail in the valley (Photo: Author archive)
- 307 -
Fig. 3: Avalanches devastate forest ecosystems over large areas (Photo: Author archive)
30 25 17% 25 22 15% 18 13 12.2 20 8.8%
10 14 6.8% 9.5% 13 15 8 8.8% 5.5% 6 6 10 4.1% 4.1 5 5 3,4% 3.4% 5 2 1.4%
0 123456789101112UNKN.
Fig. 4: Fatal accidents by month
50
45
40 49 33.4% 35
30
25 32
20 21.8% 8 22 15 5.4% 19 15% 4 10 12.9% 13 2.7% 5 8.8% 0 FALL FREEZE HEART FAILURE UNKNOWN AVALANCHE EXHASUSTION LIGHTNING
Fig. 5: Fatal accidents by cause
- 308 - 35
30
31 25 21.1% 30 20.4 20
15 19 17 12.9% 11.6% 10 15 10.2% 13 11 11 8.8% 7.5% 5 7.5%
0 MON TUE WED THU FRI SAT SUN UNKN.
Fig. 6: Fatal accidents by days of the week
70
60
62 50 42.2
40 49 30 33.4%
20
25 3 3 5 10 17% 2% 2% 3.4
0 PL SK CZ D H OTHER
Fig. 7: Fatal accidents by nationality of visitors
Results Evaluation of fatal accidents by months of the year shows Fig. 4. Most fatal accidents happened in December (25, i. e. 17 %) and June (23, i. e. 15 %). At least accidents happened in November (2, i. e. 1.4 %), April (5, i. e. 3.4 %) and August (5, i. e. 3.4 %). Evaluation by causes of accident (Fig. 5) confirms that most fatal accidents are caused by falls from hight (49, i. e. 33.4 %). Avalanches are the second leading cause of death (32 fatal accidents i. e. 21.8 %). The results of the analysis showed that greatest number of accidents by days of week (Fig. 6) has become a Saturday (31, i. e. 21.1 %) and Tuesday (30, i. e. 20.4 %) and the smallest number of accidents has become in the Thursday and Sunday (11, i. e. 7.5 %). Evaluation of the accidents by nationality of the visitors (Fig. 7) has shown that most fatalities suffered by visitors from Czech Republic (62, i. e. 42.2 %) and from Slovak Republic (43, i. e. 33.4 %). Evaluation by decades (Fig. 8) shows that most fatal accidents happened in last five decades (from 1961-1970 with 8 fatalities to 2001-2010 with 40 fatalities).
- 309 - 45 40 40
33 35 30 30
25 20 20 Number of Death 15
8 10 6
5 2 3 3 0 0 1911-20 1931-40 1951-60 1971-80 1991-00 1921-30 1941-50 1961-70 1981-90 2001-10
Fig. 8: Fatal accidents by decades
Fig. 9: Avalanche cadastre in frequency of occurrence of avalanches (Composite authors 1984)
Conclusion With the increase of winter recreation in the mountains, increases the risk of avalanche accidents. Currently, the avalanche paths in many countries are at present processed and recorded in the maps of avalanches which showing their occurrence, frequency (repetition) and the potential impact (Fig. 9). Knowledge and respect of these avalanche maps, actual information and instructions of mountain rescue services can significantly contribute to the reduction of fatalities caused by avalanches in mountain areas during winter recreational activities.
- 310 - References Atkins, D. (2000): Human factors in avalanche accidents. Boulder, CO: Colorado Avalanche Information Center, p. 46 – 51. Casale, R., Margottini, C. (eds.) (2004): Natural Disasters and Sustainable Development. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer – Verlag, 397 p. Composite authors (1984): 100 Jahre Wildbachverbauung in Österreich. Wien: Bundesministerium fűr Land und Forstwirtschaft, 282 p. Composite authors (1989): Wildbäche und Lawinen. Gefahren erkennen. Vorsorge treffen. Műnchen: Oberste Baubehorne im Bayerischen Staatsministerium des Innern, 88 p. Harvey, S., Signorell, CH., Genswein, M. (2002): Avalanche accidents in back country terrain of the Swis Alps: New investigation of a 30 year database. British Columbia, Penticon: International Snow Science Workshop – Rescue and Survival, p. 449 – 455. Jakubis, M. (2006): Lesníci, lesy a protilavínová ochrana krajiny. Lesník, 2006, 3, s. 4-8. Kňažovický, L. (1984): Nebezpečenstvo hôr. Bratislava: ČZTV, 126 p. Lizuch, M. (2009): ABC Lavín. Vysoké Tatry: Horský internetový klub, 79 s. McClung, D., Schaerer, P. A. (2006): The Avalanche Handbook. Seatle, WA: The Mountaineer Books, 288 p. Milan, L. (1981): Spracovanie katastra lavínových terénov a ich topografickej charakteristiky v horstvách Slovenska. Geografický časopis, 33 (2), s. 145-166. Milan, L. (2006): Lavíny v horstvách Slovenska. Bratislava: Veda, vydavateľstvo SAV, 152 s. Statham, G. (2008): Avalanche hazard, danger and risk – a practical explanation. Whistler: Snow Science Workshop, p. 224-227. Techel, F., Zweifel, B. (2013): Recreational avalanche accidents in Switzerland: Trends and patterns with an emphasis on burial, rescue methods and avalanche danger. Grenoble – Chamonix Mont– Blanc: International Snow Science Workshop, p. 1106 – 1112. http://www.hzs.sk/horska-zachranna-sluzba/smrtelne-nehody-zapadne-tatry/
Souhrn V Slovenské republice, tak jako v mnoha jiných zemích Evropy a světa, jsou zimní rekreace a různé zimní sporty stále více populární. Po Vysokých Tatrách jsou v rámci Slovenské republiky Západní Tatry jednou z nejatraktivnějších a zároveň nejvyhledávanějších oblastí pro zimní rekreaci. V této oblasti je podstatně méně návštěvníků než ve Vysokých Tatrách a je tu větší klid na odpočinek. Pohoří je známé množstvím různorodých příležitostí na zimní rekreaci a zimní sporty, ale i jedinečnou přírodou. V zimním období mohou být návštěvníci Západních Tater na více místech ohrožováni významným nebezpečím - lavinami. V Západních Tatrách se nacházejí největší plochy lavinových území ze všech horstev Slovenské republiky (8173,1 ha). Článek se zabývá statistickou analýzou smrtelných nehod způsobených několika příčinami, včetně lavin, podle údajů, které zveřejnilo Ředitelství horské záchranné služby se sídlem v Horním Smokovci. Od roku 1911 do roku 2011 bylo v horských oblastech Západních Tater 147 smrtelných nehod, které jsou v článku analyzovány z několika hledisek. Nejvíce fatálních neštěstí se stalo v měsíci prosinci (25, tj. 17%) a červen (22, tj. 15%). Z uvedeného počtu nehod zapříčinili laviny 32 úmrtí (21,1%), nejčastější příčinou smrtelných úrazů byl pád z výšky (49 úmrtí, tj. 33,4%). Podle dní v týdnu se nejvíce smrtelných nehod stalo v sobotu (31 úmrtí, tj. 21,1%) a v úterý (30 úmrtí, tj. 20,4%). Podle národností zahynulo nejvíce návštěvníků z České republiky (62, tj. 42,2%) a Slovenské republiky (49, tj. 17%). Na základě analýzy smrtelných nehod podle dekád od roku 1911 do roku 2010 jsme zaznamenali výrazně stoupající trend zejména po roce 1961. Největší počet smrtelných nehod v rámci sledovaného období se vyskytl v poslední dekádě (2001-2010), v níž bylo zaznamenáno až 40 úmrtí.
Contact: Prof. Ing. Matúš Jakubis, PhD. Phone: +421 45 5206 272, e-mail: [email protected]
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- 312 - Paměť krajiny, s.r.o. je společnost, důvodem jejíhož vzniku je společná láska a úcta k české venkovské krajině, tak typické svojí rozmanitostí a členitostí. Znovuoživení krajiny se snažíme dosáhnout vytvářením a obnovou starých alejí, extensivních sadů, výsadbou remízků a dalších krajinných prvků, které z české krajiny vlivem hospodaření minulého režimu takřka vymizely. Společnost je uskupením tří krajinných inženýrů, kteří mají víceleté zkušenosti, jak s prací projekční, tak realizační činnosti v terénu. Naším cílem je zkrášlovat českou krajinu, která je svojí podobou jedinečná na světě, a která pro nás vždy bude krajinou, kterou nazýváme domovem.
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Realizační činnost ve volné krajině. Celistvost a hlavní filosofie služeb nabízených naší firmou spočívá v unikátním přístupu k celé problematice. Přestože nabízíme možnost oddělené projekční činnosti a následné realizace návrhu dalším zhotovitelem, preferujeme možnost podílet se na celém procesu od samotné myšlenky návrhu výsadby, přes projekci, podání žádosti až po samotnou realizaci projektů. Fakt, že máme zkušenosti jak s projekcí, tak s vlastní realizací výrazně zvyšuje kvalitu dodávaných služeb. Také nám to umožňuje chápat problémy realizačního rázu lépe, než firmám specializovaným pouze na projekci. Neboť, jak známo z mnoha odvětví lidských činností, rozdíl mezi teoretickým návrhem a realitou v terénu bývá mnohdy enormní.
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- 313 -
Title: Public recreation and landscape protection – with man hand in hand! Editors of the proceeding: Ing. Jitka Fialová, MSc., Ph.D.; Dana Pernicová Publisher: Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno Print: ASTRON studio CZ, a.s.; Veselská 699; 199 00 Praha 9 Edition: 1st Edition, 2015 No. of pages: 314 No. of copies: 120 ISBN 978-80-7509-251-9 ISBN 978-80-7509-249-6 (Online) ISSN 2336-6311 (Print) ISSN 2336-632X (Online)