Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre‑)Indo‑European Kar‑ / Kal‑ Root in the Pre‑Latin Ligurian Toponymy

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Continuity in European Toponomastics: The (Pre‑)Indo‑European *kar‑ / *kal‑ Root in the Pre‑Latin Ligurian Toponymy

Perono Cacciafoco, Francesco

2015

Perono Cacciafoco, F. (2015). Continuity in European Toponomastics: The (Pre‑)Indo‑European *kar‑ / *kal‑ Root in the Pre‑Latin Ligurian Toponymy. Annals of the University of Craiova: Series Philology – Linguistics, 1‑2, 121‑138. https://hdl.handle.net/10356/80384

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CONTENTS CONTENTS

Mirela AIOANE, Strategies of Persuasion 15 Mirela AIOANE, Strategies of Persuasion 15 Mirona BENCE-MUK, Linguistic Sign /vs/ Musical Sign in the View of Mirona BENCE-MUK, Linguistic Sign /vs/ Musical Sign in the View of General Linguistics and Integral Linguistics 24 General Linguistics and Integral Linguistics 24 Ana-Maria BOTNARU, Two Terms in Romanian Forest Terminology: Ana-Maria BOTNARU, Two Terms in Romanian Forest Terminology: Răchită (= willow; osier) and Rariúte (= sparse forest) 34 Răchită (= willow; osier) and Rariúte (= sparse forest) 34 Iustina BURCI, Romanian Rulers in Contemporary Toponymy of Oltenia Iustina BURCI, Romanian Rulers in Contemporary Toponymy of Oltenia and Muntenia 39 and Muntenia 39 Ioana-Rucsandra DASCĂLU, Latin Names of Persons in Classical Antiquity Ioana-Rucsandra DASCĂLU, Latin Names of Persons in Classical Antiquity and Romance Languages 47 and Romance Languages 47 Steliana Mădălina DEACONU, Considerations on Irène Némirovsky’s Style Steliana Mădălina DEACONU, Considerations on Irène Némirovsky’s Style in Le Malentendu 53 in Le Malentendu 53 Iulia Cristina FRÎNCULESCU - Oana BADEA, A Lexical Trip with English Iulia Cristina FRÎNCULESCU - Oana BADEA, A Lexical Trip with English – From Celtic Languages to Old English 65 – From Celtic Languages to Old English 65 Raluca GALIğA - Elena BONTA, The Linguistic Representation of Raluca GALIğA - Elena BONTA, The Linguistic Representation of Romanians in English Newspaper Headlines and its Perception by Romanians in English Newspaper Headlines and its Perception by Romanian Readers 73 Romanian Readers 73 Alina GUGA-COğEA, The Inferential Model of Communication 83 Alina GUGA-COğEA, The Inferential Model of Communication 83 Alexandra Daniela OPRICA - Tatiana A. VOROJICHTCHEVA, On Slavic Alexandra Daniela OPRICA - Tatiana A. VOROJICHTCHEVA, On Slavic Borrowings in Modern Romanian Language 89 Borrowings in Modern Romanian Language 89 Filippo PECORARI, Love, Commitment and Satire in Luigi Tenco. A Filippo PECORARI, Love, Commitment and Satire in Luigi Tenco. A Linguistic Analysis 104 Linguistic Analysis 104 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO, Continuity in European Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO, Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-)Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Toponomastics: the (Pre-)Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy 121 Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy 121 Mihaela POPESCU, Another Example of ‘Regrammatisation’: the Synthetic Mihaela POPESCU, Another Example of ‘Regrammatisation’: the Synthetic Future in Spanish 139 Future in Spanish 139 Gabriela RUSU-PĂSĂRIN, Audio-Visual Entertainment, Between Comedy Gabriela RUSU-PĂSĂRIN, Audio-Visual Entertainment, Between Comedy and Ridicule 149 and Ridicule 149 Mariana SĂNDULESCU, 2.0 Didactics in Teaching/Learning L2 Italian Mariana SĂNDULESCU, 2.0 Didactics in Teaching/Learning L2 Italian Language for Special Purposes 156 Language for Special Purposes 156 Lavinia SIMILARU, Proverbs in “The Works of Persiles and Sigismunda” Lavinia SIMILARU, Proverbs in “The Works of Persiles and Sigismunda” and their Romanian Translation 164 and their Romanian Translation 164 George SOSIN, “Imagen” or the Arabesque of Imagination in Scientific Job George SOSIN, “Imagen” or the Arabesque of Imagination in Scientific Job Advertisements 171 Advertisements 171

7 7 Elena Vladimirovna SUSIMENKO, Elena Yurievna LITVINENKO, Socio- Elena Vladimirovna SUSIMENKO, Elena Yurievna LITVINENKO, Socio- Cultural Factors Contributing to the Formation of the Russian Cultural Factors Contributing to the Formation of the Russian Technical University Students’ Bilingual Strategies 189 Technical University Students’ Bilingual Strategies 189 Cristiana-Nicola TEODORESCU, Haptic Communication in Foreign Cristiana-Nicola TEODORESCU, Haptic Communication in Foreign Language Teaching 201 Language Teaching 201 * * * * * * Ilona BĂDESCU, Some Considerations on Several Words of Bulgarian Ilona BĂDESCU, Some Considerations on Several Words of Bulgarian Origin Present in the Romanian Sub-dialects Spoken in Oltenia 220 Origin Present in the Romanian Sub-dialects Spoken in Oltenia 220 Mirona BENCE-MUK, The Light Metaphor in Dante’s Paradise. Compared Mirona BENCE-MUK, The Light Metaphor in Dante’s Paradise. Compared Poetic Perspectives 227 Poetic Perspectives 227 Mădălina CERBAN, A Structural Analysis of Newspaper Articles 235 Mădălina CERBAN, A Structural Analysis of Newspaper Articles 235 Diana COSTEA, The Role of Temporal Subordinates in the Temporal Diana COSTEA, The Role of Temporal Subordinates in the Temporal Coherence of a Text Sequence 241 Coherence of a Text Sequence 241 Iulia DRĂGHICI, Cosmetic Terminology in Romanian Lexicography 247 Iulia DRĂGHICI, Cosmetic Terminology in Romanian Lexicography 247 Iulia DRIMALA, The Semantic Legacy of the Medieval World: Words Iulia DRIMALA, The Semantic Legacy of the Medieval World: Words Denoting Social Ranks in English and French 261 Denoting Social Ranks in English and French 261 Oana-Adriana DU܉Ă, A Contextual Analysis of Spanish Idioms Including Oana-Adriana DU܉Ă, A Contextual Analysis of Spanish Idioms Including the Word boca and their Romanian Equivalents 274 the Word boca and their Romanian Equivalents 274 Imola-Ágnes FARKAS, Postmodifiers as Intensifiers in Romanian Imola-Ágnes FARKAS, Postmodifiers as Intensifiers in Romanian Adjectival Phrases 288 Adjectival Phrases 288 Alina GIOROCEANU, A Relevant Circumstance: The Procedural Place Alina GIOROCEANU, A Relevant Circumstance: The Procedural Place 304 304 Théophile KALBE YAMO, Urban Neo-Orality and Popular Education in Théophile KALBE YAMO, Urban Neo-Orality and Popular Education in Cameroun. A Reading of the Hymns and Mottos of Youth Associations 310 Cameroun. A Reading of the Hymns and Mottos of Youth Associations 310 Anca KISS, Irony and the Face(s) of Politeness. A Linguistic Approach to Anca KISS, Irony and the Face(s) of Politeness. A Linguistic Approach to Contemporary Political Discourse 323 Contemporary Political Discourse 323 Mihaela MARCU, The Role of Context in Specifying the Terms of Mihaela MARCU, The Role of Context in Specifying the Terms of Communication, Public Relations and Journalism 337 Communication, Public Relations and Journalism 337 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO, Pre-Indo-European Relics: the Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO, Pre-Indo-European Relics: the *borm- Root in the Pre-Latin European Context 342 *borm- Root in the Pre-Latin European Context 342 Elena PÎRVU, The Italian Verbal Form andarsene and its Romanian Elena PÎRVU, The Italian Verbal Form andarsene and its Romanian Equivalents 357 Equivalents 357 Diana SOPON, Linguistic Equity in Italian Administrative Texts: Guidelines Diana SOPON, Linguistic Equity in Italian Administrative Texts: Guidelines and Practices 363 and Practices 363 Sorina SORESCU, Scientific Coordinates in Studies on Eminescu’s Sorina SORESCU, Scientific Coordinates in Studies on Eminescu’s Stylistics. D. Caracostea 370 Stylistics. D. Caracostea 370 Adela-Marinela STANCU, French Words of Arabic Origin 379 Adela-Marinela STANCU, French Words of Arabic Origin 379 Emilia ùTEFAN, The German Preposition bei and its Functions 394 Emilia ùTEFAN, The German Preposition bei and its Functions 394 Xu DUODUO, Complexities in the Level Tone Systems of Naish Subgroup Xu DUODUO, Complexities in the Level Tone Systems of Naish Subgroup (Sino-Tibetan languages): Phonological and Phonetic Perspectives on (Sino-Tibetan languages): Phonological and Phonetic Perspectives on Qiansuo Na 400 Qiansuo Na 400 Elena-Camelia ZĂBAVĂ, From syntaxis to morpho-syntax. Theoretical Elena-Camelia ZĂBAVĂ, From syntaxis to morpho-syntax. Theoretical Benchmarks in the History of Romanian Syntax 412 Benchmarks in the History of Romanian Syntax 412 8 8 * * * * * * BOOK AND JOURNAL REVIEWS BOOK AND JOURNAL REVIEWS

LuminiĠa BOTOùINEANU, Ofelia ICHIM, European Integration/ National LuminiĠa BOTOùINEANU, Ofelia ICHIM, European Integration/ National Identity; Plurilingualism/ Multiculturality – Romanian Language and Identity; Plurilingualism/ Multiculturality – Romanian Language and Culture: Evaluation, Perspectives (Ioana-Rucsandra DASCĂLU) 423 Culture: Evaluation, Perspectives (Ioana-Rucsandra DASCĂLU) 423 JAN GOES, MARIANA PITAR (éd.), La négation. Etudes linguistiques, JAN GOES, MARIANA PITAR (éd.), La négation. Etudes linguistiques, pragmatiques et didactiques (Daniela DINCĂ) 427 pragmatiques et didactiques (Daniela DINCĂ) 427 Daniela HĂISAN, Proza lui Edgar Allan Poe în limba română (Gina Daniela HĂISAN, Proza lui Edgar Allan Poe în limba română (Gina MĂCIUCĂ) 430 MĂCIUCĂ) 430 NEXO (Revista Intercultural de Arte y Humanidades), Instituto de Estudios NEXO (Revista Intercultural de Arte y Humanidades), Instituto de Estudios Hispánicos de Canarias, nº 11, año 2014 (Gina MĂCIUCĂ) 433 Hispánicos de Canarias, nº 11, año 2014 (Gina MĂCIUCĂ) 433 Éva BUCHI, Wolfgang SCHWEICKARD (Ed.), Dictionnaire Étymologique Éva BUCHI, Wolfgang SCHWEICKARD (Ed.), Dictionnaire Étymologique Roman (DÉRom). Genèse, méthodes et résultats (Dorina Roman (DÉRom). Genèse, méthodes et résultats (Dorina PĂNCULESCU) 437 PĂNCULESCU) 437 Georgia MILIONI e Athanasia DRAKOULI, Lingue speciali e settoriali in Georgia MILIONI e Athanasia DRAKOULI, Lingue speciali e settoriali in italiano. “Istruzioni per l’uso” (Elena PÎRVU) 440 italiano. “Istruzioni per l’uso” (Elena PÎRVU) 440 Vincenzo D’ANGELO, Aspetti linguistici del romanzo italiano del Seicento Vincenzo D’ANGELO, Aspetti linguistici del romanzo italiano del Seicento (Elena PÎRVU) 443 (Elena PÎRVU) 443

9 9 CONTINUITY IN EUROPEAN TOPONOMASTICS: CONTINUITY IN EUROPEAN TOPONOMASTICS: THE (PRE-) INDO-EUROPEAN*KAR- / *KAL- ROOT THE (PRE-) INDO-EUROPEAN*KAR- / *KAL- ROOT IN THE PRE-LATIN LIGURIAN TOPONYMY IN THE PRE-LATIN LIGURIAN TOPONYMY

Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore [email protected] [email protected]

To my ‘elder brother’, Francesco C. To my ‘elder brother’, Francesco C.

Introduction Introduction This paper is aimed at reconstructing the etymological remote origins of This paper is aimed at reconstructing the etymological remote origins of some Prehistoric Ligurian place names derived from the (Proto-)Indo-European some Prehistoric Ligurian place names derived from the (Proto-)Indo-European root *kar-, ‘stone’1, plausibly constituting a ‘toponymic system’. In this specific root *kar-, ‘stone’1, plausibly constituting a ‘toponymic system’. In this specific onomastic context it is possible to connect with the *kar- root a form *kal-2 that onomastic context it is possible to connect with the *kar- root a form *kal-2 that should be not another independent stem, but a sort of ‘pseudo-rhotacistic’ variant should be not another independent stem, but a sort of ‘pseudo-rhotacistic’ variant (maybe produced by a particular process of ‘lenition’) of the same *kar-. (maybe produced by a particular process of ‘lenition’) of the same *kar-. Following this kind of etymological restitution, it could be also possible to link this Following this kind of etymological restitution, it could be also possible to link this branch of the Ligurian hinterland toponymy to names / nouns from the proto-Indo- branch of the Ligurian hinterland toponymy to names / nouns from the proto-Indo- European (and Ligurian) general lexicon associated to really peculiar hydro-geo- European (and Ligurian) general lexicon associated to really peculiar hydro-geo- morphological phenomena of that territory (the well-known calanchi, ‘badlands’, morphological phenomena of that territory (the well-known calanchi, ‘badlands’, ‘gullies’, ‘ravines’). ‘gullies’, ‘ravines’).

Preliminary Information Preliminary Information Antonio Tovar3, discussing the Hans Krahe’s work4, has drawn up a map of Antonio Tovar3, discussing the Hans Krahe’s work4, has drawn up a map of a number of European Prehistoric hydronyms (from which it is also possible to get a number of European Prehistoric hydronyms (from which it is also possible to get useful information inherently in place names) derived from a well-known (proto- useful information inherently in place names) derived from a well-known (proto- )Indo-European root, *kar- (> *kar[r]a)5 that would mean ‘stone’, ‘rock’. This )Indo-European root, *kar- (> *kar[r]a)5 that would mean ‘stone’, ‘rock’. This stem occurs in the original names of many European rivers and places. In the case stem occurs in the original names of many European rivers and places. In the case of bodies of water, *kar- would have the meaning of ‘stony river’ or ‘river flowing of bodies of water, *kar- would have the meaning of ‘stony river’ or ‘river flowing through a pebbly shore / gravel bed’. through a pebbly shore / gravel bed’. Francisco Villar6, completing the Tovar discourse, associates with the *kar- Francisco Villar6, completing the Tovar discourse, associates with the *kar- root the Indo-European stems *mal-, ‘rock’, ‘stone’, and *lap- / *lep-, ‘rock’, root the Indo-European stems *mal-, ‘rock’, ‘stone’, and *lap- / *lep-, ‘rock’, ‘stone’ (Ancient Greek ȜİʌȐȢ, Latin lapis). It could be possible to hypothesize, for ‘stone’ (Ancient Greek ȜİʌȐȢ, Latin lapis). It could be possible to hypothesize, for these two roots, a pre-Indo-European origin with a subsequent adaptation of the these two roots, a pre-Indo-European origin with a subsequent adaptation of the same to the Indo-European phonetic system in the plausible transition between pre- same to the Indo-European phonetic system in the plausible transition between pre- Indo-European and Indo-European, after linguistic contact. It seems that, Indo-European and Indo-European, after linguistic contact. It seems that, sometimes, some of these roots can invert the order of the consonantal elements sometimes, some of these roots can invert the order of the consonantal elements composing them, changing, in the plosives, the articulation’s manner. The composing them, changing, in the plosives, the articulation’s manner. The mentioned *lap-, therefore, can appear also, with the voiced labial plosive form, mentioned *lap-, therefore, can appear also, with the voiced labial plosive form, *lab- (Ancient Greek ȜȐȕȡȣȢ, ‘ax’, originally a ‘stone / stony [ritual] ax’). If the *lab- (Ancient Greek ȜȐȕȡȣȢ, ‘ax’, originally a ‘stone / stony [ritual] ax’). If the Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO order of the consonants is inverted, the root *lap- originates the word pal-a > pala, order of the consonants is inverted, the root *lap- originates the word pal-a > pala, ‘tombstone’, ‘gravestone’, attested in the Lepontic inscriptions in Northern Italy. ‘tombstone’, ‘gravestone’, attested in the Lepontic inscriptions in Northern Italy. According to Villar, in any case, it is questionable the opinion inherent in a According to Villar, in any case, it is questionable the opinion inherent in a possible pre-Indo-European origin of these roots. The consonantal fluctuations possible pre-Indo-European origin of these roots. The consonantal fluctuations seem not linked to intrinsic features of languages that presumably had their ‘births’ seem not linked to intrinsic features of languages that presumably had their ‘births’ before Indo-European (or before the possible ‘arrival’ of Indo-Europeans in their before Indo-European (or before the possible ‘arrival’ of Indo-Europeans in their European territories). They seem, conversely, connected with changes in the European territories). They seem, conversely, connected with changes in the transmission or in the adoption of this forms by – latu sensu – Indo-European transmission or in the adoption of this forms by – latu sensu – Indo-European populations. These roots, possibly non-Indo-European, precisely appear as populations. These roots, possibly non-Indo-European, precisely appear as integrated in a clearly Indo-European linguistic (and, therefore, phonetic) system integrated in a clearly Indo-European linguistic (and, therefore, phonetic) system and allow the scholars to think a) that they are, in reality, originally Indo-European and allow the scholars to think a) that they are, in reality, originally Indo-European or b) that, being pre-Indo-European in their origins, they have been transferred, or b) that, being pre-Indo-European in their origins, they have been transferred, integrated, reused, refunctionalized, and assimilated as loan-words (or ‘loan-roots’) integrated, reused, refunctionalized, and assimilated as loan-words (or ‘loan-roots’) by Indo-Europeans (and adapted to the Indo-European phonetic system) in / into by Indo-Europeans (and adapted to the Indo-European phonetic system) in / into the common Indo-European and, then, perceived and used as the other Indo- the common Indo-European and, then, perceived and used as the other Indo- European original roots. This process was realized probably inherently in the *mal- European original roots. This process was realized probably inherently in the *mal- root and also with the *kar- stem (and with the *kal- form, considerable, in this root and also with the *kar- stem (and with the *kal- form, considerable, in this context, as a variant of *kar-). context, as a variant of *kar-). Tovar7 finds traces of the existence of a pre-Indo-European hydronymy and Tovar7 finds traces of the existence of a pre-Indo-European hydronymy and toponymy connected with the root *kar- in names as Harund (Scandinavia), toponymy connected with the root *kar- in names as Harund (Scandinavia), Carron, Cart Water, Cary (Great Britain), Carad (Ireland), Harste (Germany), Carron, Cart Water, Cary (Great Britain), Carad (Ireland), Harste (Germany), Chiers (Belgium), Charentonne, Cher, Charante (France), Carusa (Italy), Chiers (Belgium), Charentonne, Cher, Charante (France), Carusa (Italy), Carranzo, Carranza, Carisa, Carantó (Spain), all derived from the presumably Carranzo, Carranza, Carisa, Carantó (Spain), all derived from the presumably non-Indo-European (at least in its origins) root / proto-form *kar(r)a (< *kar-), non-Indo-European (at least in its origins) root / proto-form *kar(r)a (< *kar-), ‘stone’, ‘rock’, presumably preserved, in Basque, as (h)arri, ‘rock’, ‘stone’8. ‘stone’, ‘rock’, presumably preserved, in Basque, as (h)arri, ‘rock’, ‘stone’8. Francisco Villar adds to the Tovar’s ‘list’ the place name Carrara (Central Francisco Villar adds to the Tovar’s ‘list’ the place name Carrara (Central Italy, Tuscany, currently in the Province of Massa and Carrara), town well-known Italy, Tuscany, currently in the Province of Massa and Carrara), town well-known for its celebrated marble stone9. for its celebrated marble stone9. The suffixation of these names, even if based on presumably non-Indo- The suffixation of these names, even if based on presumably non-Indo- European roots, coincides with the typical Old-European (Indo-European) European roots, coincides with the typical Old-European (Indo-European) suffixation. suffixation.

The *kar- Root The *kar- Root The possibly pre-Indo-European root *kar- could be also at the origin of the The possibly pre-Indo-European root *kar- could be also at the origin of the genesis of the Indo-European stem / proto-form *kartu-, at its turn at the origin of genesis of the Indo-European stem / proto-form *kartu-, at its turn at the origin of the Ancient Greek adjective țȡĮĲȪȢ, ‘strong’, and verb țĮȡĲȪȞȦ (epic form) / the Ancient Greek adjective țȡĮĲȪȢ, ‘strong’, and verb țĮȡĲȪȞȦ (epic form) / țȡĮĲȪȞȦ, ‘to strengthen’, and of the Gothic hardus, ‘hard’ (Latin ardǎus). The țȡĮĲȪȞȦ, ‘to strengthen’, and of the Gothic hardus, ‘hard’ (Latin ardǎus). The same root / proto-form *kartu- and the derived forms share the same basic / same root / proto-form *kartu- and the derived forms share the same basic / original meaning, ‘hard’. The ‘hardness’ (not necessarily ‘non-breakable hardness’) original meaning, ‘hard’. The ‘hardness’ (not necessarily ‘non-breakable hardness’) implied by this ‘semantic cluster’ is understood as a physical property (for implied by this ‘semantic cluster’ is understood as a physical property (for example, ‘the hardness of the stone’)10. example, ‘the hardness of the stone’)10. The *kar- root, in its (Ligurian) ‘variant’ *kal-11, can be also recognized – The *kar- root, in its (Ligurian) ‘variant’ *kal-11, can be also recognized – among others – in the Italian word calanco, apparently uncertain in its etymology. among others – in the Italian word calanco, apparently uncertain in its etymology. Giacomo Devoto and Gian Carlo Oli define calanco as a “Narrow and deep Giacomo Devoto and Gian Carlo Oli define calanco as a “Narrow and deep 122 122 Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy erosion’s furrow with many ramifications, limited by thin ridges, generally devoid erosion’s furrow with many ramifications, limited by thin ridges, generally devoid of vegetation; it is a phenomenon from predominantly clay soils, produced by of vegetation; it is a phenomenon from predominantly clay soils, produced by runoff and/or washing out waters. The calanchi are widespread in the Emiliano- runoff and/or washing out waters. The calanchi are widespread in the Emiliano- Romagnoli Apennines (Northern-Central Italy)”12. It is necessary to precise that the Romagnoli Apennines (Northern-Central Italy)”12. It is necessary to precise that the calanchi are (hydro-)geo-morphological phenomena really common also in Liguria calanchi are (hydro-)geo-morphological phenomena really common also in Liguria (North-Western Italy), especially in specific areas of the Ligurian hinterland. (North-Western Italy), especially in specific areas of the Ligurian hinterland. Devoto and Oli think that the word calanco derives from the term, defined by them Devoto and Oli think that the word calanco derives from the term, defined by them as “Mediterranean” (i.e. “pre-Indo-European”), cala (< *kal- ~ *kar-)13, merged as “Mediterranean” (i.e. “pre-Indo-European”), cala (< *kal- ~ *kar-)13, merged with the “Mediterranean Ligurian” (always using their terminology) suffix -anco. with the “Mediterranean Ligurian” (always using their terminology) suffix -anco. Using “Mediterranean”, Devoto and Oli clearly refer to a possible pre-Indo- Using “Mediterranean”, Devoto and Oli clearly refer to a possible pre-Indo- European substrate. When scholars thought that the Indo-European came from European substrate. When scholars thought that the Indo-European came from Northern or Central Europe, it was hypothesized that the Indo-European Northern or Central Europe, it was hypothesized that the Indo-European populations settled in the Mediterranean area (essentially Ancient Greeks and populations settled in the Mediterranean area (essentially Ancient Greeks and Latins) found, in the three Mediterranean peninsulas, non-Indo-European (pre- Latins) found, in the three Mediterranean peninsulas, non-Indo-European (pre- Indo-European) communities. From their non-Indo-European language(s) the Indo- Indo-European) communities. From their non-Indo-European language(s) the Indo- Europeans would have had their so-called linguistic substratum. In this context, the Europeans would have had their so-called linguistic substratum. In this context, the definition “Mediterranean substratum” had its origin and its foundation. Such a definition “Mediterranean substratum” had its origin and its foundation. Such a “pre-Indo-European substratum” was hypothesized, of course, also in India, in Iran, “pre-Indo-European substratum” was hypothesized, of course, also in India, in Iran, and in Anatolia. The notion of “Mediterranean substratum” was extended, and in Anatolia. The notion of “Mediterranean substratum” was extended, therefore, to all those areas. Scholars postulated, subsequently, that also Central therefore, to all those areas. Scholars postulated, subsequently, that also Central and Northern Europe were inhabited by non-Indo-European populations before the and Northern Europe were inhabited by non-Indo-European populations before the presumed ‘arrival’ of the Indo-Europeans. For that reason, the definition presumed ‘arrival’ of the Indo-Europeans. For that reason, the definition “Mediterranean”, applied to every “Indo-European substratum”, seems to be “Mediterranean”, applied to every “Indo-European substratum”, seems to be ‘meaningless’, since almost nothing is known (with the exception of the hypothesis ‘meaningless’, since almost nothing is known (with the exception of the hypothesis of their existence) about the languages possibly spoken in the whole Neolithic of their existence) about the languages possibly spoken in the whole Neolithic Europe (and also in more ancient and remote times, starting, at least, from the Europe (and also in more ancient and remote times, starting, at least, from the Upper Paleolithic) and about their plausibly mutual relationships. Upper Paleolithic) and about their plausibly mutual relationships. It is clearer, instead, the nature of the possible loan-words (or loan-roots and It is clearer, instead, the nature of the possible loan-words (or loan-roots and loan-proto-forms) transmitted by those languages to Indo-European. The root *kar- loan-proto-forms) transmitted by those languages to Indo-European. The root *kar- / *kal- seems to be an example of this process. It could be maybe useful to specify / *kal- seems to be an example of this process. It could be maybe useful to specify that, in this context, the notion of “Mediterranean” defines a word (or a root and/or that, in this context, the notion of “Mediterranean” defines a word (or a root and/or proto-form) exclusively as “pre-Indo-European” and not necessarily as belonging proto-form) exclusively as “pre-Indo-European” and not necessarily as belonging to a possible “pre-Indo-European substratum in the Mediterranean”14. to a possible “pre-Indo-European substratum in the Mediterranean”14.

The Root *kar- and Its Variant *kal- The Root *kar- and Its Variant *kal- Analyzing the word calanco, it seems evident that it shares the presumably Analyzing the word calanco, it seems evident that it shares the presumably pre-Indo-European and, then, Indo-European (proto-Indo-European) root *kar- / pre-Indo-European and, then, Indo-European (proto-Indo-European) root *kar- / *kal- with the place names and hydronyms listed by Tovar and Villar. The word, as *kal- with the place names and hydronyms listed by Tovar and Villar. The word, as highlighted, indicates a very particular and specific (hydro-)geo-morphological highlighted, indicates a very particular and specific (hydro-)geo-morphological phenomenon, constituted by stone ‘washed away’ and/or carved by water. It is not phenomenon, constituted by stone ‘washed away’ and/or carved by water. It is not a case that the geographic area called Carso, in North-Eastern Italy (Eastern Alps), a case that the geographic area called Carso, in North-Eastern Italy (Eastern Alps), gets its name from this *kar- root, expressed through a form *carsa meaning gets its name from this *kar- root, expressed through a form *carsa meaning ‘rock’, ‘stone’. The karstic rock, similar to the calanco’s stone, is involved in a ‘rock’, ‘stone’. The karstic rock, similar to the calanco’s stone, is involved in a 123 123 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO solution process, operated by water, determining particular and specific forms of solution process, operated by water, determining particular and specific forms of surface and even subterranean erosion. surface and even subterranean erosion. Tristano Bolelli has written about the possibly pre-Indo-European origins of Tristano Bolelli has written about the possibly pre-Indo-European origins of the term cala15, defining calanco as an “Originally pre-Indo-European Emilian the term cala15, defining calanco as an “Originally pre-Indo-European Emilian lemma”16. Calanco could also be considered as a ‘Ligurian word’, due to linguistic lemma”16. Calanco could also be considered as a ‘Ligurian word’, due to linguistic (etymological) reasons and to the massive presence of this geological phenomenon (etymological) reasons and to the massive presence of this geological phenomenon especially in some valleys located in the Ligurian hinterland and in the areas of especially in some valleys located in the Ligurian hinterland and in the areas of Southern-Piedmont bordering the Ligurian territory. Southern-Piedmont bordering the Ligurian territory. It is also possible to establish a relationship among the root *kal- and the It is also possible to establish a relationship among the root *kal- and the Latin forms calx (noun), ‘lime’, and calcƗrƱus (adjective derived from calx), Latin forms calx (noun), ‘lime’, and calcƗrƱus (adjective derived from calx), ‘calcareous’, connected with Ancient Greek ȤȐȜȚȟ, ‘pebble’, ‘stone dissolving in ‘calcareous’, connected with Ancient Greek ȤȐȜȚȟ, ‘pebble’, ‘stone dissolving in water’, ‘gravel’, ‘lime’, ‘limestone’ (in Italian calcare)17. The Italian word calcare, water’, ‘gravel’, ‘lime’, ‘limestone’ (in Italian calcare)17. The Italian word calcare, ‘limestone’, in fact, in the definition provided by Giacomo Devoto and Gian Carlo ‘limestone’, in fact, in the definition provided by Giacomo Devoto and Gian Carlo Oli, means “Sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcium carbonate (calcite); it Oli, means “Sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcium carbonate (calcite); it is used as an ornamental and building stone, as well as for the manufacture of lime is used as an ornamental and building stone, as well as for the manufacture of lime and in cement industry”18. The stone characterizing the calanchi is, in its and in cement industry”18. The stone characterizing the calanchi is, in its geological nature, friable such as limestone (calcare). geological nature, friable such as limestone (calcare).

Carcare and Cairo Montenotte Carcare and Cairo Montenotte It could be possible to add to the toponymic list drafted by Antonio Tovar It could be possible to add to the toponymic list drafted by Antonio Tovar and completed by Francisco Villar at least other two place names belonging to two and completed by Francisco Villar at least other two place names belonging to two inhabited centers located in North-Western Italy, Liguria, currently in the Province inhabited centers located in North-Western Italy, Liguria, currently in the Province of Savona: Carcare and Cairo Montenotte. The two villages are surrounded by the of Savona: Carcare and Cairo Montenotte. The two villages are surrounded by the massive presence of calanchi, (hydro-)geological phenomena characterizing this massive presence of calanchi, (hydro-)geological phenomena characterizing this area (Ligurian hinterland) from Prehistory19. area (Ligurian hinterland) from Prehistory19. Carcare and Cairo Montenotte are located in the Ligurian hinterland and Carcare and Cairo Montenotte are located in the Ligurian hinterland and belong to the so-called Bormida Valley that gets its name from the Bormida River. belong to the so-called Bormida Valley that gets its name from the Bormida River. The ancient name of the Bormida River was Burmia. This hydronym is attested, in The ancient name of the Bormida River was Burmia. This hydronym is attested, in this form, during the Middle Ages, starting from the year 1137. Subsequent this form, during the Middle Ages, starting from the year 1137. Subsequent documents show the form Burmea20. This river name derives from a presumably documents show the form Burmea20. This river name derives from a presumably pre-Indo-European (with the voiced bilabial /b/) root *borm- > *Bormo- / *Burm-, pre-Indo-European (with the voiced bilabial /b/) root *borm- > *Bormo- / *Burm-, then transferred, handed down, reused, refunctionalized, and assimilated in / into then transferred, handed down, reused, refunctionalized, and assimilated in / into the Indo-European ‘naming system’ with Indo-European phonetics, meaning the Indo-European ‘naming system’ with Indo-European phonetics, meaning ‘warm waters’. It is possible to connect with the hydronym Bormida, among ‘warm waters’. It is possible to connect with the hydronym Bormida, among others, also the place name Bormio, North-Western Italy, Lombardy, currently in others, also the place name Bormio, North-Western Italy, Lombardy, currently in the Province of Sondrio, famous spa town characterized by ‘warm waters’21. The the Province of Sondrio, famous spa town characterized by ‘warm waters’21. The equivalent (to *borm-) Indo-European root / proto-form should be *gwhermó- / equivalent (to *borm-) Indo-European root / proto-form should be *gwhermó- / *gwhormo-, meaning “warm”22. The *borm- example is an evidence of the remote *gwhormo-, meaning “warm”22. The *borm- example is an evidence of the remote (Prehistoric) origins of the place names and hydronyms in this area (Ligurian (Prehistoric) origins of the place names and hydronyms in this area (Ligurian hinterland), surely inhabited during the Neolithic, but probably also previously, hinterland), surely inhabited during the Neolithic, but probably also previously, starting, at least, from the Upper Paleolithic23. starting, at least, from the Upper Paleolithic23. In this geographic context, toponymy and hydronymy seem to be linked In this geographic context, toponymy and hydronymy seem to be linked precisely to the so-called “pre-Indo-European substratum”. Liguria, indeed, has precisely to the so-called “pre-Indo-European substratum”. Liguria, indeed, has been considered (with, in Italy, the current Southern Piedmont – in ancient times been considered (with, in Italy, the current Southern Piedmont – in ancient times 124 124 Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy

Liguria –, the Tyrrhenian area, the Rhaetia – North-Eastern Italy – and the Eastern Liguria –, the Tyrrhenian area, the Rhaetia – North-Eastern Italy – and the Eastern Sicily) as a territory characterized by the survival of ‘remains’ (and ‘linguistic Sicily) as a territory characterized by the survival of ‘remains’ (and ‘linguistic relics / relicts and/or fossils’) from pre-Indo-European populations24. relics / relicts and/or fossils’) from pre-Indo-European populations24.

Carcare Carcare Carcare (geographic coordinates 44°21ƍ28.42ƎN 8°17ƍ26.25ƎE) was an Carcare (geographic coordinates 44°21ƍ28.42ƎN 8°17ƍ26.25ƎE) was an ancient feud of the Del Carretto Marquis family. The village is, currently, located ancient feud of the Del Carretto Marquis family. The village is, currently, located on an important junction in the Ligurian hinterland along the road connecting (in on an important junction in the Ligurian hinterland along the road connecting (in the direction of Savona) the Southern Piedmont with the Ligurian sea-coast. the direction of Savona) the Southern Piedmont with the Ligurian sea-coast. Historical sources witness, for Carcare, the (Late Latin) place name Carcaris, Historical sources witness, for Carcare, the (Late Latin) place name Carcaris, plural ablative attested in a document of the year 1111 and in another document of plural ablative attested in a document of the year 1111 and in another document of the year 117925. Carcaris was, probably, the widespread form for the village name, the year 117925. Carcaris was, probably, the widespread form for the village name, having lost the plural ablative function, with a systematization towards a possible having lost the plural ablative function, with a systematization towards a possible plural nominative *Carcarae, fixed, over time, in Carcare. The place name could plural nominative *Carcarae, fixed, over time, in Carcare. The place name could also derive from a possible plural accusative, *Carcaras, with the fall of the final -s also derive from a possible plural accusative, *Carcaras, with the fall of the final -s and a change of the second /a/ in /e/, as witnessed by the secondary variant and a change of the second /a/ in /e/, as witnessed by the secondary variant Carcheris26. The plural genitive Carcararum is attested later, in 1424. Carcheris26. The plural genitive Carcararum is attested later, in 1424. The place name could have been fixed in the plural form. The local dialectal The place name could have been fixed in the plural form. The local dialectal diction, kòrkre (with velarized /a/ and syncope of the penultimate vowel; the diction, kòrkre (with velarized /a/ and syncope of the penultimate vowel; the standard Ligurian dialectal form is kànkre) shows in its second syllable, -kre, an standard Ligurian dialectal form is kànkre) shows in its second syllable, -kre, an interesting consonantal exchange. interesting consonantal exchange. It seems plausible that the place name derives from the reduplication of the It seems plausible that the place name derives from the reduplication of the presumably (originally) pre-Indo-European root *kar-. This reduplication, indeed, presumably (originally) pre-Indo-European root *kar-. This reduplication, indeed, is a very interesting and relevant feature of the Carcare toponym, because the is a very interesting and relevant feature of the Carcare toponym, because the reduplication phenomenon is not widely productive in Indo-European. For this reduplication phenomenon is not widely productive in Indo-European. For this reason, the phenomenon could also be attributable to pre-Indo-European reason, the phenomenon could also be attributable to pre-Indo-European morphology. The derivation of the village name from the root *kar- could be morphology. The derivation of the village name from the root *kar- could be explained also on the basis of historical semantics (according to the evaluation of explained also on the basis of historical semantics (according to the evaluation of the History and Prehistory of landscape and territory in relationship with the the History and Prehistory of landscape and territory in relationship with the toponyms, as prescribed by the New Convergence Theory – NCT27), being Carcare toponyms, as prescribed by the New Convergence Theory – NCT27), being Carcare surrounded by hills characterized by the widespread and constant over time surrounded by hills characterized by the widespread and constant over time presence of calanchi. According to this reconstruction, it could be also possible to presence of calanchi. According to this reconstruction, it could be also possible to get a new evidence about the association of *kar- and *kal- (with the exchange of get a new evidence about the association of *kar- and *kal- (with the exchange of the liquid consonant from *kal- to *kar-, /l/ ļ /r/, being *kal- a ‘symmetric’ and the liquid consonant from *kal- to *kar-, /l/ ļ /r/, being *kal- a ‘symmetric’ and alternative variant of *kar-, then reduplicated in the place-name Carcare). alternative variant of *kar-, then reduplicated in the place-name Carcare).

Etymological Reconstruction Etymological Reconstruction The etymological restitutions proposed so far by scholars inherently in the The etymological restitutions proposed so far by scholars inherently in the place name Carcare are a little bit simplistic. place name Carcare are a little bit simplistic. A non-documented and highly questionable reconstruction is based on the A non-documented and highly questionable reconstruction is based on the secondary medieval variant of the toponym, Carcheris, interpreted as derived from secondary medieval variant of the toponym, Carcheris, interpreted as derived from Latin carcar, at its turn possible variant of carcƟr, meaning ‘jail’, ‘prison’, but also Latin carcar, at its turn possible variant of carcƟr, meaning ‘jail’, ‘prison’, but also ‘barrier’, ‘enclosure’28. This explanation is surely erroneous at least for two clear ‘barrier’, ‘enclosure’28. This explanation is surely erroneous at least for two clear 125 125 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO reasons ĺ 1) Carcheris is an evident ‘distorted’ form (probably due to reasons ĺ 1) Carcheris is an evident ‘distorted’ form (probably due to mispronunciation) of the ‘original’ place name Carcaris. Speakers (the inhabitants mispronunciation) of the ‘original’ place name Carcaris. Speakers (the inhabitants of the village), over time, lost the original meaning (etymology) of the toponym of the village), over time, lost the original meaning (etymology) of the toponym and they were unable to reconstruct it and to explain its semantics. The association and they were unable to reconstruct it and to explain its semantics. The association of Carcaris with the common (Latin and Late / Vulgar / Vernacular Latin) word of Carcaris with the common (Latin and Late / Vulgar / Vernacular Latin) word carcƟr / carcar (Italian carcere), due to partial homophony, was easy and carcƟr / carcar (Italian carcere), due to partial homophony, was easy and immediate. This ‘assonance’ could be at the origins of the ‘distorted’ form immediate. This ‘assonance’ could be at the origins of the ‘distorted’ form Carcheris; 2) the same Carcheris shows -ch- (/k/), highly incompatible with the Carcheris; 2) the same Carcheris shows -ch- (/k/), highly incompatible with the widespread late pronunciation of -c- (/c/) in carcƟr / carcar. This widespread widespread late pronunciation of -c- (/c/) in carcƟr / carcar. This widespread pronunciation is highly compatible, instead, with the phonetics of a place name pronunciation is highly compatible, instead, with the phonetics of a place name actually derived from the Latin word carcƟr, i.e. Càrceri, village located in North- actually derived from the Latin word carcƟr, i.e. Càrceri, village located in North- Eastern Italy, Veneto, currently in the Province of Padova (Padua), called (without Eastern Italy, Veneto, currently in the Province of Padova (Padua), called (without changes in phonetics) already from the High Middle Ages (year 946) Carcere changes in phonetics) already from the High Middle Ages (year 946) Carcere (even if, probably, the name was related not to the presence of prisons, but to the (even if, probably, the name was related not to the presence of prisons, but to the presence of small stables and horse barns, in Latin also carceres)29. presence of small stables and horse barns, in Latin also carceres)29. The process of toponymic resemantization is widespread in Europe. It shows The process of toponymic resemantization is widespread in Europe. It shows how it is possible to lose and to re-interpret the original meaning of a place name how it is possible to lose and to re-interpret the original meaning of a place name through a natural phenomenon of paretymology by local speakers. Just in order to through a natural phenomenon of paretymology by local speakers. Just in order to exemplify about this topic, it could be useful to briefly analyze, among others, the exemplify about this topic, it could be useful to briefly analyze, among others, the case of the Italian place name Borgomale (Borgo Male)30. Borgomale (geographic case of the Italian place name Borgomale (Borgo Male)30. Borgomale (geographic coordinates 44°37ƍ00ƎN 8°08ƍ00ƎE) is a small village located in North-Western coordinates 44°37ƍ00ƎN 8°08ƍ00ƎE) is a small village located in North-Western Italy, Southern Piedmont, currently in the Cuneo’s Province. Its original name Italy, Southern Piedmont, currently in the Cuneo’s Province. Its original name derives from Latin (Indo-European language) Burgus MƗli and has been derives from Latin (Indo-European language) Burgus MƗli and has been transmitted to Italian (neo-Latin Romance language) as Borgomale (Borgo Male). transmitted to Italian (neo-Latin Romance language) as Borgomale (Borgo Male). The original, Latin meaning of the toponym was ‘village of the apple tree / trees’ The original, Latin meaning of the toponym was ‘village of the apple tree / trees’ (Latin burgus – Italian borgo – means ‘village’, ‘hamlet’). However, over the (Latin burgus – Italian borgo – means ‘village’, ‘hamlet’). However, over the centuries and in the transition among Latin, Vulgar Latin, Vernacular (Vulgar) centuries and in the transition among Latin, Vulgar Latin, Vernacular (Vulgar) Italian, and Italian, the name has changed in meaning (at least since the year 1276) Italian, and Italian, the name has changed in meaning (at least since the year 1276) to indicate ‘bad village’ and/or ‘village of the evil’. Why? This shift can be to indicate ‘bad village’ and/or ‘village of the evil’. Why? This shift can be explained as a typical semantic ‘misunderstanding’ (generating paretymology) that explained as a typical semantic ‘misunderstanding’ (generating paretymology) that is proper to the natural evolution of languages and linked to the transition between is proper to the natural evolution of languages and linked to the transition between a language and another. In Latin the vocalic ‘quantity’ is very important for the a language and another. In Latin the vocalic ‘quantity’ is very important for the metric in poetry and in order to distinguish words and their meanings. Italian, metric in poetry and in order to distinguish words and their meanings. Italian, instead, has lost the vocalic ‘quantity’ (also the Italian poetry is not ‘quantitative’) instead, has lost the vocalic ‘quantity’ (also the Italian poetry is not ‘quantitative’) and this linguistic fact (‘evolution’) has been at the origins of some and this linguistic fact (‘evolution’) has been at the origins of some ‘misunderstandings’. ‘misunderstandings’. In Latin mălum, meaning ‘bad’ / ‘evil’, shows the short vowel ă, In Latin mălum, meaning ‘bad’ / ‘evil’, shows the short vowel ă, characterizing this word. The Italian corresponding forms are male (noun, ‘evil’), characterizing this word. The Italian corresponding forms are male (noun, ‘evil’), malo (adjective, ‘bad’). Latin mƗlum, conversely, with the long vowel Ɨ, means malo (adjective, ‘bad’). Latin mƗlum, conversely, with the long vowel Ɨ, means ‘apple’ / ‘apple tree’, in Italian mela (‘apple’), melo (‘apple tree’). Taking a look at ‘apple’ / ‘apple tree’, in Italian mela (‘apple’), melo (‘apple tree’). Taking a look at the emblem and/or coat of arms of the Borgomale Municipality (dating back to the the emblem and/or coat of arms of the Borgomale Municipality (dating back to the Middle Ages), it is possible to distinguish a row of apple trees on a hill and apple Middle Ages), it is possible to distinguish a row of apple trees on a hill and apple orchards are proven, in that area, during the Middle Ages and in Modern Age. orchards are proven, in that area, during the Middle Ages and in Modern Age.

126 126 Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy

The original, Latin name of Borgomale was, therefore, Burgus MƗli = The original, Latin name of Borgomale was, therefore, Burgus MƗli = ‘village of the apple tree’ (extensive ‘village of the apple trees’), and the Italian ‘village of the apple tree’ (extensive ‘village of the apple trees’), and the Italian reconstructed correct (and, of course, not attested) form could be *Borgo Melo (or reconstructed correct (and, of course, not attested) form could be *Borgo Melo (or *Borgomelo, exactly ‘the village of the apple tree’). However, the Italian ‘real’, *Borgomelo, exactly ‘the village of the apple tree’). However, the Italian ‘real’, current, and attested form derives from the ‘quantitative misunderstanding’ – current, and attested form derives from the ‘quantitative misunderstanding’ – become widespread – of the Latin vowel /a/, Burgus Măli = ‘bad village’ / ‘village become widespread – of the Latin vowel /a/, Burgus Măli = ‘bad village’ / ‘village of evil’, and is Borgomale (Borgo Male). of evil’, and is Borgomale (Borgo Male). In order to ‘explain’ this ‘bad’ name, the speakers, having lost the original In order to ‘explain’ this ‘bad’ name, the speakers, having lost the original link of the toponym with Latin mƗlum (‘apple’ / ‘apple tree’), re-interpreted its link of the toponym with Latin mƗlum (‘apple’ / ‘apple tree’), re-interpreted its semantics and invented a legend about a horrible plague or pestilence that would semantics and invented a legend about a horrible plague or pestilence that would have violently decimated, sometime in the Middle Ages, the population of the have violently decimated, sometime in the Middle Ages, the population of the village that, from that time, was called Borgomale (< Latin Burgus Măli), ‘bad village that, from that time, was called Borgomale (< Latin Burgus Măli), ‘bad village’ / ‘village of evil’. village’ / ‘village of evil’. This is a very incisive example of bona fide paretymology in historical This is a very incisive example of bona fide paretymology in historical toponymy. toponymy. A similar phenomenon should have involved the change of the toponymic A similar phenomenon should have involved the change of the toponymic form Carcaris in Carcheris. This ambiguity in the name of the village and in the form Carcaris in Carcheris. This ambiguity in the name of the village and in the explanation of its original meaning is also confirmed by another consideration. explanation of its original meaning is also confirmed by another consideration. Already in the X century Carcare has been also called and identified through a Already in the X century Carcare has been also called and identified through a parallel denomination, Canalicum31, maybe connected with a Roman mansio parallel denomination, Canalicum31, maybe connected with a Roman mansio located along the via Æmilia Scauri, near the village. This name, due to analogy located along the via Æmilia Scauri, near the village. This name, due to analogy and topographic proximity, was inappropriately extended to Carcare. and topographic proximity, was inappropriately extended to Carcare.

Cairo Montenotte Cairo Montenotte A similar reasoning could be also produced about the other above mentioned A similar reasoning could be also produced about the other above mentioned place name, Cairo Montenotte. The village (geographic coordinates 44°23ƍ52.41ƎN place name, Cairo Montenotte. The village (geographic coordinates 44°23ƍ52.41ƎN 8°16ƍ40.04ƎE) is located near Carcare in the same area of the Ligurian hinterland 8°16ƍ40.04ƎE) is located near Carcare in the same area of the Ligurian hinterland (currently in the Province of Savona). During the Middle Ages, it was granted by (currently in the Province of Savona). During the Middle Ages, it was granted by Otto I to the Aleramic March, becoming, later, a feud belonging to the Del Carretto Otto I to the Aleramic March, becoming, later, a feud belonging to the Del Carretto Marquis family. The inhabited center shows the medieval ‘settlement core’ in the Marquis family. The inhabited center shows the medieval ‘settlement core’ in the rectangular construction plan typical of the feudal planned villages. Archaeological rectangular construction plan typical of the feudal planned villages. Archaeological finds from the Roman age suggest the presence of a more ancient built-up area, finds from the Roman age suggest the presence of a more ancient built-up area, maybe a Roman mansio located on the via Æmilia Scauri. Traces of settlement maybe a Roman mansio located on the via Æmilia Scauri. Traces of settlement dating back to the Neolithic allow the archaeologists to hypothesize, as for dating back to the Neolithic allow the archaeologists to hypothesize, as for Carcare, that the place has been inhabited already from remote ages (probably Carcare, that the place has been inhabited already from remote ages (probably from the Upper Paleolithic)32. The definite determinative of the toponym, from the Upper Paleolithic)32. The definite determinative of the toponym, Montenotte, is the name of a small hamlet of the Municipality, famous for the Montenotte, is the name of a small hamlet of the Municipality, famous for the Napoleonic battle that took place there in the year 1796. Napoleonic battle that took place there in the year 1796.

Etymological Reconstruction Etymological Reconstruction The place name is attested already in the year 967 as Carium33 (and The place name is attested already in the year 967 as Carium33 (and Carius34), deriving, therefore, not from *Cair-, but from *Car(i)- < *kar-). The Carius34), deriving, therefore, not from *Cair-, but from *Car(i)- < *kar-). The toponym, in the form Cario, is attested, later (May the 4th of the year 991), in the toponym, in the form Cario, is attested, later (May the 4th of the year 991), in the 127 127 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO

Charta of the founding and donation of the Saint Quentin’s Abbey in Spigno Charta of the founding and donation of the Saint Quentin’s Abbey in Spigno Monferrato (place located not far from Carcare and Cairo Montenotte, in North- Monferrato (place located not far from Carcare and Cairo Montenotte, in North- Western Italy, Southern Piedmont, currently in the Province of Alessandria, on the Western Italy, Southern Piedmont, currently in the Province of Alessandria, on the main road for Savona)35. main road for Savona)35. According to a simplistic and wrong reconstruction36, the place name Cairo / According to a simplistic and wrong reconstruction36, the place name Cairo / Cario would derive from a Roman gentilitial name, Carius, rarely attested and not Cario would derive from a Roman gentilitial name, Carius, rarely attested and not connectable with the village (in that case the toponym would be an improbable connectable with the village (in that case the toponym would be an improbable praedial without suffix, quite inexplicable, lacking any historical reason for this praedial without suffix, quite inexplicable, lacking any historical reason for this possible denomination). The local Piedmontese dialect’s form, Kòiri, shows the possible denomination). The local Piedmontese dialect’s form, Kòiri, shows the velarized /a/, while the local Ligurian dialect’s form is Kàiri. Among different velarized /a/, while the local Ligurian dialect’s form is Kàiri. Among different reconstructions, it has been also proposed a derivation from Latin quădrus37, reconstructions, it has been also proposed a derivation from Latin quădrus37, ‘square’, adjective used by the Gromatici writers as an attribute of termƱnus, ‘square’, adjective used by the Gromatici writers as an attribute of termƱnus, ‘boundary stone’, ‘border’, convention passed – hypothetically – to the Ligurian ‘boundary stone’, ‘border’, convention passed – hypothetically – to the Ligurian dialect, in the form kàiru, indicating a specific kind of building stone. dialect, in the form kàiru, indicating a specific kind of building stone. The notion of ‘stone’ is surely at the origins of the place name, being The notion of ‘stone’ is surely at the origins of the place name, being expressed by the root *kar-. Carius, as well as Carcaris, should derive directly expressed by the root *kar-. Carius, as well as Carcaris, should derive directly from the presumably pre-Indo-European (then transferred and re-used according to from the presumably pre-Indo-European (then transferred and re-used according to a refunctionalization process in the Indo-European – proto-Indo-European – a refunctionalization process in the Indo-European – proto-Indo-European – linguistic system38) root *kar-, ‘stone’, stem that in this case, unlike the case of linguistic system38) root *kar-, ‘stone’, stem that in this case, unlike the case of Carcare, is not reduplicated. Carcare, is not reduplicated. The derivation of Carius from *kar- seems to be confirmed also by the The derivation of Carius from *kar- seems to be confirmed also by the oronym of the Monte Càiro (the Cairo Mountain)39, massif culminating in the pick oronym of the Monte Càiro (the Cairo Mountain)39, massif culminating in the pick having the same name (1669 meters above sea level, geographic coordinates having the same name (1669 meters above sea level, geographic coordinates 41°32ƍ30.48ƎN 13°45ƍ36ƎE). It is a calcareous mount (always involving, in the 41°32ƍ30.48ƎN 13°45ƍ36ƎE). It is a calcareous mount (always involving, in the naming process of its name, the root *kar-, in the variant *kal- of Latin calcƗrƱus) naming process of its name, the root *kar-, in the variant *kal- of Latin calcƗrƱus) rising North of the town of Cassino, in the Latium region (Central Italy), among the rising North of the town of Cassino, in the Latium region (Central Italy), among the valleys of the rivers Melfa, Sacco, and Ràpido. The widespread explanation for this valleys of the rivers Melfa, Sacco, and Ràpido. The widespread explanation for this oronym resides in a sort of popular paretymology and ‘semantic misunderstanding’ oronym resides in a sort of popular paretymology and ‘semantic misunderstanding’ recognizable in the supposed Latin name of the place, Mons Clarius. Clarius, recognizable in the supposed Latin name of the place, Mons Clarius. Clarius, actually, derives from *kar- > *Carius / *Cario > Cairo. Local speakers (having actually, derives from *kar- > *Carius / *Cario > Cairo. Local speakers (having lost the original connection with *kar-), instead, have analogically and improperly lost the original connection with *kar-), instead, have analogically and improperly interpreted Clarius as connected with a celebrated and sacred Ionian place, Claros interpreted Clarius as connected with a celebrated and sacred Ionian place, Claros (Ancient Greek: ȀȜȐȡȠȢ, Latin: Clarus), and – indirectly – with the Latin adjective (Ancient Greek: ȀȜȐȡȠȢ, Latin: Clarus), and – indirectly – with the Latin adjective clƗrus § Clarius. This Clarius / Clarus, according to that popular etymology, clƗrus § Clarius. This Clarius / Clarus, according to that popular etymology, should hypothetically derive from a temple dedicated to Apollo Clarius (Apollo should hypothetically derive from a temple dedicated to Apollo Clarius (Apollo from the Claros’ – ȀȜȐȡȠȢ – sanctuary located on the Ionian Greek coast of from the Claros’ – ȀȜȐȡȠȢ – sanctuary located on the Ionian Greek coast of Turkey, in the territory of Colophon). Speakers ‘misunderstood’ the original Turkey, in the territory of Colophon). Speakers ‘misunderstood’ the original derivation of the oronym from *kar- and assimilated the mountain name, *Carius / derivation of the oronym from *kar- and assimilated the mountain name, *Carius / *Cario > Cairo, with / to Clarius (= from Claros, Latin Clarus), adding another *Cario > Cairo, with / to Clarius (= from Claros, Latin Clarus), adding another paretymological connection with the common Latin adjective clƗrus, linking the paretymological connection with the common Latin adjective clƗrus, linking the place not only to Apollo Clarius, but also to the notion of ‘luminosity’. The temple place not only to Apollo Clarius, but also to the notion of ‘luminosity’. The temple would have been located where now the Monte Cassino Abbey rises. As would have been located where now the Monte Cassino Abbey rises. As mentioned, the paretymological denomination linked to the Apollo Clarius Ionian mentioned, the paretymological denomination linked to the Apollo Clarius Ionian sanctuary was associated by speakers (already in the Middle Ages) with the other sanctuary was associated by speakers (already in the Middle Ages) with the other 128 128 Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy paretymological denomination linked to the Latin adjective clƗrus, expressing the paretymological denomination linked to the Latin adjective clƗrus, expressing the notion of ‘bright landscape’, in an involuntary ‘semantic overlap’. Moreover, notion of ‘bright landscape’, in an involuntary ‘semantic overlap’. Moreover, starting already from the Middle Ages – and during the Modern Age –, the starting already from the Middle Ages – and during the Modern Age –, the mountain was also called Monti di Montecassino (Monte Cassino Mountains)40, in mountain was also called Monti di Montecassino (Monte Cassino Mountains)40, in a sort of redundant ‘re-naming process’. As told, the oronym Càiro is, instead, a sort of redundant ‘re-naming process’. As told, the oronym Càiro is, instead, originally derived from the pre-Latin (proto-)form *carium, meaning ‘stone’, originally derived from the pre-Latin (proto-)form *carium, meaning ‘stone’, ‘cliff’, ‘rock’, directly derived, at its turn, from the presumably pre-Indo-European ‘cliff’, ‘rock’, directly derived, at its turn, from the presumably pre-Indo-European (subsequently proto-Indo-European) root *kar-. (subsequently proto-Indo-European) root *kar-. The stem *kar- interpreted as the original root of the place name Carius / The stem *kar- interpreted as the original root of the place name Carius / Cario (> Cairo [Montenotte]) is, therefore, confirmed also by the oronym Monte Cario (> Cairo [Montenotte]) is, therefore, confirmed also by the oronym Monte Càiro. The hydro-geo-morphology of the territory of Cairo Montenotte (as Càiro. The hydro-geo-morphology of the territory of Cairo Montenotte (as mentioned, located near Carcare, in the Ligurian hinterland) gives another mentioned, located near Carcare, in the Ligurian hinterland) gives another confirmation, being pervasively characterized by the presence of the calanchi. confirmation, being pervasively characterized by the presence of the calanchi. Moreover, also the geological structure of the Monte Càiro (Latium) is mainly Moreover, also the geological structure of the Monte Càiro (Latium) is mainly composed by limestone (Latin adjective calcƗrƱus, Italian noun calcare), dating composed by limestone (Latin adjective calcƗrƱus, Italian noun calcare), dating back to the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods (the formation of the massif often back to the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods (the formation of the massif often experienced violent earthquakes and subsidence). experienced violent earthquakes and subsidence).

Carretto Carretto In the same area it is possible to link to the place names Carcaris and Carius In the same area it is possible to link to the place names Carcaris and Carius also the toponym Carretto, currently hamlet of Cairo Montenotte (Carius / Cario), also the toponym Carretto, currently hamlet of Cairo Montenotte (Carius / Cario), land of origin of the Del Carretto Marquis family ruling for a long time over those land of origin of the Del Carretto Marquis family ruling for a long time over those territories. The ruins of the castle of that noble lineage are located on a calcareous territories. The ruins of the castle of that noble lineage are located on a calcareous rocky outcrop, called Carretto, giving the name to the entire locality. The place rocky outcrop, called Carretto, giving the name to the entire locality. The place name Carretto clearly derives from the root *kar- and is associated with the notion name Carretto clearly derives from the root *kar- and is associated with the notion of ‘stone’, ‘limestone’. However, over centuries, a paretymology has become of ‘stone’, ‘limestone’. However, over centuries, a paretymology has become widespread. That paretymology links the place name Carretto with the Italian word widespread. That paretymology links the place name Carretto with the Italian word carretto, ‘handcart’, ‘small chart’, ‘small chariot’, ‘trolley’. Carretto, instead, carretto, ‘handcart’, ‘small chart’, ‘small chariot’, ‘trolley’. Carretto, instead, deriving from the root *kar-, belongs to the ‘toponymic system’ of Carcaris and deriving from the root *kar-, belongs to the ‘toponymic system’ of Carcaris and Carius and to the ‘ononymic family’ of calcare and calanco. Due to bona fide Carius and to the ‘ononymic family’ of calcare and calanco. Due to bona fide paretymology, in the ‘making’ of the Carretto place name, starting from the stem paretymology, in the ‘making’ of the Carretto place name, starting from the stem *kar-, the toponym has been fixed – at least from the Middle Ages – in the current *kar-, the toponym has been fixed – at least from the Middle Ages – in the current form (with the current widespread erroneous semantics) through a number of form (with the current widespread erroneous semantics) through a number of morphological changes and suffixation processes. morphological changes and suffixation processes. Some places, in France, are called Charette, as, for example, Charette, small Some places, in France, are called Charette, as, for example, Charette, small village situated in the Isère Department, in South-Eastern France (Rhône-Alpes village situated in the Isère Department, in South-Eastern France (Rhône-Alpes Region, geographic coordinates 45°48ƍ40ƎN 5°22ƍ15ƎE), or Charette-Varennes, Region, geographic coordinates 45°48ƍ40ƎN 5°22ƍ15ƎE), or Charette-Varennes, another small village located in the Saône-et-Loire Department, in Eastern France another small village located in the Saône-et-Loire Department, in Eastern France (Bourgogne / Burgundy Region, geographic coordinates 46°54ƍ45ƎN 5°12ƍ00ƎE). (Bourgogne / Burgundy Region, geographic coordinates 46°54ƍ45ƎN 5°12ƍ00ƎE). The popular etymology wants these names derived by (or, at least, connected with) The popular etymology wants these names derived by (or, at least, connected with) French charrette, ‘cart’, ‘chariot’ (with the same paretymology for the Italian place French charrette, ‘cart’, ‘chariot’ (with the same paretymology for the Italian place name Carretto with the Italian noun carretto), while the remote root at the origin of name Carretto with the Italian noun carretto), while the remote root at the origin of these place names is always *kar-, linked to the notions of ‘stone’ and ‘rock’. these place names is always *kar-, linked to the notions of ‘stone’ and ‘rock’. 129 129 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO

Calizzano Calizzano Calizzano (geographic coordinates 44°14ƍ06.99ƎN 8°06ƍ55.45ƎE) is an Calizzano (geographic coordinates 44°14ƍ06.99ƎN 8°06ƍ55.45ƎE) is an ancient village developed in the Middle Ages around a castle founded by Henry I, ancient village developed in the Middle Ages around a castle founded by Henry I, Marquis Del Carretto. The center is located in the Ligurian hinterland, currently in Marquis Del Carretto. The center is located in the Ligurian hinterland, currently in the Province of Savona, not far from Carcare and Cairo Montenotte. The territory the Province of Savona, not far from Carcare and Cairo Montenotte. The territory of Calizzano was inhabited probably already in the Upper Paleolithic – surely in of Calizzano was inhabited probably already in the Upper Paleolithic – surely in the Middle Paleolithic41. A pre-Roman castellaro (a primitive fortification the Middle Paleolithic41. A pre-Roman castellaro (a primitive fortification plausibly built by the population of the Ligures Montani) located between plausibly built by the population of the Ligures Montani) located between Calizzano and the nearby village of Bardineto should date back at least at the Iron Calizzano and the nearby village of Bardineto should date back at least at the Iron Age, but the original settlement could have been attested, as told, already in the Age, but the original settlement could have been attested, as told, already in the Middle Paleolithic. The Roman place name was Caliciana, while the toponym in Middle Paleolithic. The Roman place name was Caliciana, while the toponym in the Middle Ages (High Middle Ages) was Caliciano, attested (at least) from 1077, the Middle Ages (High Middle Ages) was Caliciano, attested (at least) from 1077, in a notarial deed about the assignment of the village’s lands and church to the in a notarial deed about the assignment of the village’s lands and church to the Ferrania Abbey (located in the territory of Cairo Montenotte. Ferrania is, currently, Ferrania Abbey (located in the territory of Cairo Montenotte. Ferrania is, currently, one among the hamlets of Cairo Montenotte) from the Saint Peter’s in Varatella one among the hamlets of Cairo Montenotte) from the Saint Peter’s in Varatella Abbey, located in the Toirano’s area (Toirano is a nearby village currently in the Abbey, located in the Toirano’s area (Toirano is a nearby village currently in the Province of Savona)42. The place name, in XIV century, is attested as Carizano and Province of Savona)42. The place name, in XIV century, is attested as Carizano and Calizano. Calizano. The toponym derives from the presumably pre-Indo-European *kar- / *kal- The toponym derives from the presumably pre-Indo-European *kar- / *kal- root, with the addition of a widespread and common suffix *-ano (< Latin *-anum). root, with the addition of a widespread and common suffix *-ano (< Latin *-anum). The two dialectal forms (local diction and standard Ligurian diction), Karitsàn and The two dialectal forms (local diction and standard Ligurian diction), Karitsàn and Calissan, witness this derivation and the alternation of the two variants in /r/ and Calissan, witness this derivation and the alternation of the two variants in /r/ and /l/. /l/. An imaginative and undocumented etymological reconstruction would An imaginative and undocumented etymological reconstruction would suppose, for the place name, a derivation from a non-clearly attested and related suppose, for the place name, a derivation from a non-clearly attested and related Roman gentilitial Canitius, being – according to this highly speculative hypothesis Roman gentilitial Canitius, being – according to this highly speculative hypothesis and proposal – Calizzano a praedial in *-ano (< Latin *-anum) with shift /n/ - /l/ - and proposal – Calizzano a praedial in *-ano (< Latin *-anum) with shift /n/ - /l/ - /r/ from the late Latin speech. This is evidently a paretymology, as, tendentially, /r/ from the late Latin speech. This is evidently a paretymology, as, tendentially, almost all the etymologies trying to connect place names with Roman gentilitials. almost all the etymologies trying to connect place names with Roman gentilitials.

Some Other Toponymic Evidences Some Other Toponymic Evidences The name of the small village of Carezzano (geographic coordinates The name of the small village of Carezzano (geographic coordinates 44°48ƍ29ƎN 8°54ƍ06ƎE), located in North-Western Italy, Southern Piedmont 44°48ƍ29ƎN 8°54ƍ06ƎE), located in North-Western Italy, Southern Piedmont (currently in the Province of Alessandria), phonetically cognate with the toponym (currently in the Province of Alessandria), phonetically cognate with the toponym Calizzano, is derived from the *kar- / *kal- root. Calizzano, is derived from the *kar- / *kal- root. The place rises on the right bank of the Scrivia stream and is divided into The place rises on the right bank of the Scrivia stream and is divided into two different centers, Carezzano Superiore (Upper Carezzano) and Carezzano two different centers, Carezzano Superiore (Upper Carezzano) and Carezzano Inferiore (Lower Carezzano). The upper village, Carezzano Superiore, is located Inferiore (Lower Carezzano). The upper village, Carezzano Superiore, is located on a hill and is the older one, while the lower inhabited center, Carezzano on a hill and is the older one, while the lower inhabited center, Carezzano Inferiore, is quite recent. Carezzano Superiore is an ancient settlement, plausibly Inferiore, is quite recent. Carezzano Superiore is an ancient settlement, plausibly dating back to the Upper Paleolithic43 and increasingly developed in Ligurian age dating back to the Upper Paleolithic43 and increasingly developed in Ligurian age (at least starting from the Iron Age). The local dialectal (Piedmontese) diction is (at least starting from the Iron Age). The local dialectal (Piedmontese) diction is Carzòu, derived from the agglutination of the pre-Indo-European (the proto-Indo- Carzòu, derived from the agglutination of the pre-Indo-European (the proto-Indo- 130 130 Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy

European) root *kar-, meaning ‘stone’, ‘rock’ (> Ancient [archaic] Ligurian car, European) root *kar-, meaning ‘stone’, ‘rock’ (> Ancient [archaic] Ligurian car, ‘height’, ‘hill’) with the Ancient (archaic) Ligurian word san, meaning ‘place’. ‘height’, ‘hill’) with the Ancient (archaic) Ligurian word san, meaning ‘place’. Carzòu / Carezzano could be interpreted, therefore, as ‘place on the stony hill’. Carzòu / Carezzano could be interpreted, therefore, as ‘place on the stony hill’. In the Middle Ages the place name is attested as Careçanus (year 1256), In the Middle Ages the place name is attested as Careçanus (year 1256), Carezzanus (year 1261), and Carenzanus, with epenthesis of /n/ (year 1341)44. Carezzanus (year 1261), and Carenzanus, with epenthesis of /n/ (year 1341)44. The analogy and similarity among the different forms of the place name The analogy and similarity among the different forms of the place name Carezzano and those of the toponym Calizzano are remarkable. Carezzano and those of the toponym Calizzano are remarkable. A place name corresponding to Carezzano is Caranzano (geographic A place name corresponding to Carezzano is Caranzano (geographic coordinates 44°43ƍ11ƎN 8°30ƍ59ƎE), hamlet of the municipality of Cassine, located coordinates 44°43ƍ11ƎN 8°30ƍ59ƎE), hamlet of the municipality of Cassine, located in North-Western Italy, Southern Piedmont, currently in the Province of in North-Western Italy, Southern Piedmont, currently in the Province of Alessandria. The origin of the toponym is the same, from the root *kar- / *kal-, and Alessandria. The origin of the toponym is the same, from the root *kar- / *kal-, and the place is located on a hill characterized by the presence of friable rock, the place is located on a hill characterized by the presence of friable rock, tufaceous and calcareous (*kal- = ‘friable rock’, ‘limestone’). tufaceous and calcareous (*kal- = ‘friable rock’, ‘limestone’). The toponym Calasca, belonging to the village of Calasca-Castiglione The toponym Calasca, belonging to the village of Calasca-Castiglione (geographic coordinates 46°04ƍ00ƎN 8°07ƍ00ƎE), a double mountain settlement (geographic coordinates 46°04ƍ00ƎN 8°07ƍ00ƎE), a double mountain settlement consisting of two inhabited centers, Calasca and Castiglione, located in North- consisting of two inhabited centers, Calasca and Castiglione, located in North- Western Italy, Northern Piedmont, currently in the Province of Verbania, allows Western Italy, Northern Piedmont, currently in the Province of Verbania, allows the strengthening of the etymological links among the place names analyzed so far the strengthening of the etymological links among the place names analyzed so far in this paper and the word calanco45. Calasca derives from a pre-Roman (pre- in this paper and the word calanco45. Calasca derives from a pre-Roman (pre- Latin) stem *cal-, meaning ‘stone’, rock’, and derived, at its turn, from the pre- Latin) stem *cal-, meaning ‘stone’, rock’, and derived, at its turn, from the pre- Indo-European (then proto-Indo-European) root *kar-, in its variant *kal-. The Indo-European (then proto-Indo-European) root *kar-, in its variant *kal-. The ‘Alpine’ word kalanco / kalanca (meaning ‘steep stony descent that serves as a ‘Alpine’ word kalanco / kalanca (meaning ‘steep stony descent that serves as a channel for avalanches’46), equivalent to the Ligurian (and Italian) form calanco, channel for avalanches’46), equivalent to the Ligurian (and Italian) form calanco, derives from that pre-Roman (pre-Latin) stem *cal-, derived, at its turn, from the derives from that pre-Roman (pre-Latin) stem *cal-, derived, at its turn, from the pre-Indo-European (then proto-Indo-European) root *kar-, in its variant *kal-, at pre-Indo-European (then proto-Indo-European) root *kar-, in its variant *kal-, at the origins of the place name Calasca. the origins of the place name Calasca. The toponyms’s suffix -asco / -asca is originally Ligurian and could be an The toponyms’s suffix -asco / -asca is originally Ligurian and could be an evidence of a plausible ‘binary tradition’ of presumably pre-Indo-European roots evidence of a plausible ‘binary tradition’ of presumably pre-Indo-European roots combined with Ligurian suffixes. The municipality of Calasca-Castiglione is combined with Ligurian suffixes. The municipality of Calasca-Castiglione is located in the Anzasca Valley (a mountain valley spreading along the Anza located in the Anzasca Valley (a mountain valley spreading along the Anza stream), place name where the Ligurian suffix -asco / -asca significantly appears stream), place name where the Ligurian suffix -asco / -asca significantly appears again. again. Moreover, also the toponym Charance, indicating the Charance’s domain, Moreover, also the toponym Charance, indicating the Charance’s domain, Alpine locality (geographic coordinates 44° 34ƍ 34ƎN 6° 03ƍ 12ƎE) situated in Alpine locality (geographic coordinates 44° 34ƍ 34ƎN 6° 03ƍ 12ƎE) situated in France, in the Municipality of Gap, capital and largest settlement (it is the France’s France, in the Municipality of Gap, capital and largest settlement (it is the France’s highest Prefecture) of the Hautes-Alpes Department (South-Eastern France, Region highest Prefecture) of the Hautes-Alpes Department (South-Eastern France, Region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, geographic coordinates 44°33ƍ34ƎN 6°04ƍ43ƎE), of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, geographic coordinates 44°33ƍ34ƎN 6°04ƍ43ƎE), derives from the root *kar- / *kal-. Specifically, the original stem for Charance is derives from the root *kar- / *kal-. Specifically, the original stem for Charance is the mentioned ‘Alpine’ root *cal- (< *kar- / *kal-), ‘stone’, ‘rock’, at the origins of the mentioned ‘Alpine’ root *cal- (< *kar- / *kal-), ‘stone’, ‘rock’, at the origins of the above observed word kalanco / kalanca, ‘steep stony descent that serves as a the above observed word kalanco / kalanca, ‘steep stony descent that serves as a channel for avalanches’. The meaning of Charance can be ‘site of the avalanche of channel for avalanches’. The meaning of Charance can be ‘site of the avalanche of stones’, ‘place of the stony landslide’. stones’, ‘place of the stony landslide’.

131 131 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO

Another interesting example of a toponym derived from the root *kar- / Another interesting example of a toponym derived from the root *kar- / *kal- is represented by Calci, name of a village (geographic coordinates *kal- is represented by Calci, name of a village (geographic coordinates 43°43ƍ28ƎN 10°31ƍ09ƎE) located in Central Italy, Tuscany, currently in the 43°43ƍ28ƎN 10°31ƍ09ƎE) located in Central Italy, Tuscany, currently in the Province of Pisa. Calci is an ancient place in the geological basin called Province of Pisa. Calci is an ancient place in the geological basin called Valgraziosa, surrounded by olive groves. The celebrated Charterhouse (Pisa Valgraziosa, surrounded by olive groves. The celebrated Charterhouse (Pisa Charterhouse, Certosa di Pisa, or Calci Charterhouse, Certosa di Calci) and the Charterhouse, Certosa di Pisa, or Calci Charterhouse, Certosa di Calci) and the Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa are located in the Calci Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa are located in the Calci Municipality’s territory. Municipality’s territory. The local dialectal (Tuscan) form for the place name is Càrci. The name The local dialectal (Tuscan) form for the place name is Càrci. The name Calci is attested already in the year 780 (April the 30th) in the Strumento di Calci is attested already in the year 780 (April the 30th) in the Strumento di fondazione della Badia di San Savino presso Calci (Foundation Act of the Saint fondazione della Badia di San Savino presso Calci (Foundation Act of the Saint Savin’s Abbey in Calci). The widespread etymological reconstruction postulates a Savin’s Abbey in Calci). The widespread etymological reconstruction postulates a derivation of the place name from Latin calx (calcis, Italian calce), ‘lime’47. An derivation of the place name from Latin calx (calcis, Italian calce), ‘lime’47. An ancient furnace (oven) for lime is located in the territory of Calci, near the ancient furnace (oven) for lime is located in the territory of Calci, near the neighboring village of Caprona. Limestone is widely present in the stone quarries neighboring village of Caprona. Limestone is widely present in the stone quarries and mines located along the slopes of the mountains surrounding the village. and mines located along the slopes of the mountains surrounding the village. However, the geological structure of the landscape of the Calci’s Municipality is However, the geological structure of the landscape of the Calci’s Municipality is quite older and mainly siliceous. In some documents from the X and XI centuries quite older and mainly siliceous. In some documents from the X and XI centuries Calci is called locus Calcis, with a plausible derivation from Latin calcƟum, Calci is called locus Calcis, with a plausible derivation from Latin calcƟum, intended as ‘the foot and/or the heel of the mountain’ (the altitude of Calci is intended as ‘the foot and/or the heel of the mountain’ (the altitude of Calci is around 50 meters above sea level). Calx (with calcƗrƱus) and calcƟum are, in any around 50 meters above sea level). Calx (with calcƗrƱus) and calcƟum are, in any case, strictly related as the semantic referents from the place name. They can be case, strictly related as the semantic referents from the place name. They can be linked, about the meaning, also to the Ancient Greek ȤȐȜȚȟ, meaning, as above linked, about the meaning, also to the Ancient Greek ȤȐȜȚȟ, meaning, as above mentioned, ‘pebble’, ‘stone dissolving in water’, ‘gravel’, ‘lime’, ‘limestone’. The mentioned, ‘pebble’, ‘stone dissolving in water’, ‘gravel’, ‘lime’, ‘limestone’. The final /i/ of the toponym has been interpreted as a morpheme of feminine plural48. final /i/ of the toponym has been interpreted as a morpheme of feminine plural48. The connection of the place name with the notion of ‘stone’ is self-evident. It is The connection of the place name with the notion of ‘stone’ is self-evident. It is possible, moreover, to appreciate the presence of the root *kar- and of its variant possible, moreover, to appreciate the presence of the root *kar- and of its variant *kal- (definable also as the double root *kar- / *kal-) in the local dialect (Tuscan) *kal- (definable also as the double root *kar- / *kal-) in the local dialect (Tuscan) name of this village, Càrci, and in its standard Italian name, Calci. The ancient name of this village, Càrci, and in its standard Italian name, Calci. The ancient Ligurians settled originally on the Mediterranean coast from the Rhone river to the Ligurians settled originally on the Mediterranean coast from the Rhone river to the Arno river49. Calci, therefore, is a linguistic (onomastic) witness of the ‘continuity’ Arno river49. Calci, therefore, is a linguistic (onomastic) witness of the ‘continuity’ and ‘uniformity’ in the remote (Prehistoric and Proto-Historic) naming process of and ‘uniformity’ in the remote (Prehistoric and Proto-Historic) naming process of place names linked to the semantics of the ‘stone’. place names linked to the semantics of the ‘stone’.

Conclusion Conclusion Through the analysis of the presence of the *kar- / *kal- root in the Through the analysis of the presence of the *kar- / *kal- root in the toponomastics of Europe (as outlined by Antonio Tovar and Francisco Villar50) and toponomastics of Europe (as outlined by Antonio Tovar and Francisco Villar50) and Italy it is possible to highlight a toponymic system generated, starting from the Italy it is possible to highlight a toponymic system generated, starting from the original (Prehistoric) naming process, by this root. This ‘family’ of place names original (Prehistoric) naming process, by this root. This ‘family’ of place names and oronyms dates back surely to the Neolithic, but it is possible to infer a really and oronyms dates back surely to the Neolithic, but it is possible to infer a really ancient and more remote origin, ascribable to the Upper Paleolithic. ancient and more remote origin, ascribable to the Upper Paleolithic. The *kar- / *kal- root, in fact, could be reconstructed as a pre-Indo-European The *kar- / *kal- root, in fact, could be reconstructed as a pre-Indo-European stem productive not only in the field of European toponymy, but also in the stem productive not only in the field of European toponymy, but also in the linguistic area of the general lexicon of Indo-European languages, being the linguistic area of the general lexicon of Indo-European languages, being the 132 132 Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy original component of a number of words linked to the notions of ‘stone’ and original component of a number of words linked to the notions of ‘stone’ and ‘rock’. That root is widespread on a large territory and is connected with ‘rock’. That root is widespread on a large territory and is connected with landscapes showing the presence of friable, calcareous rock / stone (generating landscapes showing the presence of friable, calcareous rock / stone (generating hydro-geo-morphological phenomena as the calanchi – widespread, for example, hydro-geo-morphological phenomena as the calanchi – widespread, for example, in the Ligurian hinterland – or materials useful for the production of the lime, in in the Ligurian hinterland – or materials useful for the production of the lime, in Latin calx, Italian calce). Latin calx, Italian calce). The plausibly pre-Indo-European root *kar- / *kal- could have been The plausibly pre-Indo-European root *kar- / *kal- could have been assimilated, over time, by Indo-European speakers (after the possible ‘arrival’ of assimilated, over time, by Indo-European speakers (after the possible ‘arrival’ of Indo-Europeans in their European territories) in their linguistic system (and Indo-Europeans in their European territories) in their linguistic system (and adapted to their phonetics), becoming a proto-Indo-European root, according to a adapted to their phonetics), becoming a proto-Indo-European root, according to a convergent process of reuse and refunctionalization of stems and words among convergent process of reuse and refunctionalization of stems and words among different linguistic families, due to linguistic contact. different linguistic families, due to linguistic contact. In the Central Celtic and Ligurian areas the root *kal- seems to be not In the Central Celtic and Ligurian areas the root *kal- seems to be not independent, but a productive variant of the stem *kar-, generated by a change independent, but a productive variant of the stem *kar-, generated by a change and/or passage /r/ ~ /l/ definable as a consonantal exchange (‘lenition’) or ‘pseudo- and/or passage /r/ ~ /l/ definable as a consonantal exchange (‘lenition’) or ‘pseudo- rhotacism’. The root *kar- / *kal- seems to be, therefore, a single root expressed in rhotacism’. The root *kar- / *kal- seems to be, therefore, a single root expressed in / by two equivalent and homologous variants. / by two equivalent and homologous variants. In the Indo-European linguistic system (and, a fortiori, in the Indo-European In the Indo-European linguistic system (and, a fortiori, in the Indo-European toponymy) the *kar- root shows, in the place name Carcare, an interesting toponymy) the *kar- root shows, in the place name Carcare, an interesting reduplication process that has a significant value, being, as mentioned, the reduplication process that has a significant value, being, as mentioned, the reduplication process not widely productive in Indo-European. This morphologic reduplication process not widely productive in Indo-European. This morphologic phenomenon can be, therefore, a linguistic ‘fossil’ (or ‘relic’ / ‘relict’) witnessing phenomenon can be, therefore, a linguistic ‘fossil’ (or ‘relic’ / ‘relict’) witnessing very remote stages in the proto-Indo-European naming process (at least in the field very remote stages in the proto-Indo-European naming process (at least in the field of toponymy) and it can provide some valuable indications about the passage, in of toponymy) and it can provide some valuable indications about the passage, in Europe, between pre-Indo-European and (proto-)Indo-European. Europe, between pre-Indo-European and (proto-)Indo-European. The root *kar- / *kal-, widespread in Indo-European toponymy and general The root *kar- / *kal-, widespread in Indo-European toponymy and general lexicon, could be a significant example of the persistence, over time, of words and lexicon, could be a significant example of the persistence, over time, of words and roots, persistence unveiled by place names and by morphological and phonetic roots, persistence unveiled by place names and by morphological and phonetic phenomena occurring especially during the passage, over time, from a linguistic phenomena occurring especially during the passage, over time, from a linguistic system (the pre-Indo-European, in this context) to another one (the Indo- system (the pre-Indo-European, in this context) to another one (the Indo- European). European).

NOTE NOTE

1 Cf. Pokorny 1959-1969, pp. 531-532; Perono Cacciafoco 2008, pp. 13-24. 1 Cf. Pokorny 1959-1969, pp. 531-532; Perono Cacciafoco 2008, pp. 13-24. 2 Cf. Pokorny 1959-1969, cit., pp. 523-524; Perono Cacciafoco 2008, cit., pp. 13-24. 2 Cf. Pokorny 1959-1969, cit., pp. 523-524; Perono Cacciafoco 2008, cit., pp. 13-24. 3 Cf. Tovar 1977, passim; Tovar 1982, passim. 3 Cf. Tovar 1977, passim; Tovar 1982, passim. 4 Cf. Krahe 1962, passim. 4 Cf. Krahe 1962, passim. 5 It could be possible – at least at a logic level – to hypothesize for the *kar- root a plausibly pre-Indo- 5 It could be possible – at least at a logic level – to hypothesize for the *kar- root a plausibly pre-Indo- European origin (remaining in the field of hermeneutic possibilities). In that case, the stem European origin (remaining in the field of hermeneutic possibilities). In that case, the stem could be considered as the result of an ‘adaptation’ of the same in / to the phonetic system of could be considered as the result of an ‘adaptation’ of the same in / to the phonetic system of Indo-European, starting from a previous stratum. This work will keep into account this Indo-European, starting from a previous stratum. This work will keep into account this possible non-immediately Indo-European (pre-)origin, considering also this analytical key of possible non-immediately Indo-European (pre-)origin, considering also this analytical key of interpretation. However, it is necessary to highlight the fact that the *kar- root, in its interpretation. However, it is necessary to highlight the fact that the *kar- root, in its (phonetic) form and also in its productivity in the ‘making’ of place-names, hydronyms, and (phonetic) form and also in its productivity in the ‘making’ of place-names, hydronyms, and 133 133 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO

oronyms, is safely Indo-European, ascribable to the Proto-Indo-European stage, without a oronyms, is safely Indo-European, ascribable to the Proto-Indo-European stage, without a cogent epistemological need to attribute it to a hypothetical more ancient linguistic layer. cogent epistemological need to attribute it to a hypothetical more ancient linguistic layer. 6 Cf. Villar 1997, pp. 102-103. 6 Cf. Villar 1997, pp. 102-103. 7 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., pp. 126-127. 7 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., pp. 126-127. 8 Cf., for a map of place names presumably derived from *kar- (according to Antonio Tovar), Villar 8 Cf., for a map of place names presumably derived from *kar- (according to Antonio Tovar), Villar 1997, cit., p. 101, map 13. 1997, cit., p. 101, map 13. 9 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., p. 126. 9 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., p. 126. 10 Cf. Benveniste 2001b, pp. 340-346. 10 Cf. Benveniste 2001b, pp. 340-346. 11 As mentioned, the stem *kal- is interpreted, in this work, as a ‘variant’ of *kar-, produced by a 11 As mentioned, the stem *kal- is interpreted, in this work, as a ‘variant’ of *kar-, produced by a ‘pseudo-rhotacistic’ phenomenon – dating back to remote stages in (proto-)Indo-European – ‘pseudo-rhotacistic’ phenomenon – dating back to remote stages in (proto-)Indo-European – implying a ‘change’ or a ‘lenition’ of /r/ in /l/. In this context, *kal- seems, therefore, implying a ‘change’ or a ‘lenition’ of /r/ in /l/. In this context, *kal- seems, therefore, connected with *kar- and it could be defined as a ‘variant’ from a common remote root (*kar- connected with *kar- and it could be defined as a ‘variant’ from a common remote root (*kar- ) possibly at the origins of a ‘family’ of place names associated among themselves not only ) possibly at the origins of a ‘family’ of place names associated among themselves not only through historical phonetics, but also through (diachronic) semantic ‘affinity’. Cf., e.g., through historical phonetics, but also through (diachronic) semantic ‘affinity’. Cf., e.g., Perono Cacciafoco 2008, cit., pp. 13-24. Perono Cacciafoco 2008, cit., pp. 13-24. 12 Cf. Devoto, Oli 1975, p. 406, s.v. calanco, “Calanco, solco d’erosione stretto e profondo, con molte 12 Cf. Devoto, Oli 1975, p. 406, s.v. calanco, “Calanco, solco d’erosione stretto e profondo, con molte ramificazioni, limitato da esili creste, genrl. privo di vegetazione; è prodotto in terreni ramificazioni, limitato da esili creste, genrl. privo di vegetazione; è prodotto in terreni prevalentemente argillosi dalle acque di dilavamento. I c. sono frequenti nell’Appennino prevalentemente argillosi dalle acque di dilavamento. I c. sono frequenti nell’Appennino emiliano-romagnolo”. emiliano-romagnolo”. 13 Cf. Devoto, Oli 1975, cit., p. 404, s.v. cala. 13 Cf. Devoto, Oli 1975, cit., p. 404, s.v. cala. 14 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., p. 104. 14 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., p. 104. 15 Cf. Bolelli 1995, p. 74, s.v. cala. 15 Cf. Bolelli 1995, p. 74, s.v. cala. 16 Cf. Bolelli 1995, cit., p. 75, s.v. calanco, “Calanco, voce emiliana di origine preindoeuropea”. 16 Cf. Bolelli 1995, cit., p. 75, s.v. calanco, “Calanco, voce emiliana di origine preindoeuropea”. 17 Cf. Devoto, Oli 1975, cit., p. 408, s.v. calce (2); Bolelli 1995, p. 75, s.v. calce (2). 17 Cf. Devoto, Oli 1975, cit., p. 408, s.v. calce (2); Bolelli 1995, p. 75, s.v. calce (2). 18 Cf. Devoto, Oli 1975, cit., p. 407, s.v. calcare (1), “Roccia sedimentaria, costituita essenzialmente 18 Cf. Devoto, Oli 1975, cit., p. 407, s.v. calcare (1), “Roccia sedimentaria, costituita essenzialmente di carbonato di calcio (calcite); è impiegato come pietra ornamentale e da costruzione, oltre di carbonato di calcio (calcite); è impiegato come pietra ornamentale e da costruzione, oltre che per la fabbricazione della calce viva e nell’industria del cemento”. che per la fabbricazione della calce viva e nell’industria del cemento”. 19 Cf. Guidi, Piperno 2005, passim. 19 Cf. Guidi, Piperno 2005, passim. 20 Cf. DTI 1999, p. 92, s.v. Bormida. 20 Cf. DTI 1999, p. 92, s.v. Bormida. 21 Cf. Devoto 1999, p. 66; Villar 1997, cit., p. 469. 21 Cf. Devoto 1999, p. 66; Villar 1997, cit., p. 469. 22 Cf. Perono Cacciafoco 2009, pp. 15-24. 22 Cf. Perono Cacciafoco 2009, pp. 15-24. 23 Cf. Biagi 1980, pp. 9-18. 23 Cf. Biagi 1980, pp. 9-18. 24 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., pp. 109-110 and map 15. 24 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., pp. 109-110 and map 15. 25 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 141, s.v. Carcare; Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997, p. 70. 25 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 141, s.v. Carcare; Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997, p. 70. 26 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 141, s.v. Carcare. 26 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 141, s.v. Carcare. 27 Cf. Perono Cacciafoco 2014a, pp. 79-98; Perono Cacciafoco 2014b, pp. 105-127. 27 Cf. Perono Cacciafoco 2014a, pp. 79-98; Perono Cacciafoco 2014b, pp. 105-127. 28 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 141, s.v. Carcare, for the erroneous interpretation of Carcaris as derived from 28 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 141, s.v. Carcare, for the erroneous interpretation of Carcaris as derived from carcer. For the variant Carcheris, without explanation, cf. Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997, cit., p. carcer. For the variant Carcheris, without explanation, cf. Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997, cit., p. 70. 70. 29 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 141, s.v. Càrceri. Carceres also indicates ‘small wells for water collection’ or 29 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 141, s.v. Càrceri. Carceres also indicates ‘small wells for water collection’ or ‘small cells in an abbey’, precisely ‘small rooms with one bed and prie-dieu (faldstool) facing ‘small cells in an abbey’, precisely ‘small rooms with one bed and prie-dieu (faldstool) facing the cloister’. From here, probably, the popular etymology providing a derivation of Càrceri the cloister’. From here, probably, the popular etymology providing a derivation of Càrceri from Latin calcƟus, the footwear of the Camaldolese friars of the local Abbey of Saint Mary, from Latin calcƟus, the footwear of the Camaldolese friars of the local Abbey of Saint Mary, has its origin. In the local dialect, in fact, Càrceri is called Càlzare (almost the Italian word has its origin. In the local dialect, in fact, Càrceri is called Càlzare (almost the Italian word for this kind of footwear = calzàre [singular], calzàri [plural], but with different – very for this kind of footwear = calzàre [singular], calzàri [plural], but with different – very indicative – stress). In addition, cf. Maurisio 1986, pp. 40-41 - paragraphs 84-85, where Leone indicative – stress). In addition, cf. Maurisio 1986, pp. 40-41 - paragraphs 84-85, where Leone da Carcere (Leone from Carcere) is a historical figure from Càrceri. Cf. also Rolandino da da Carcere (Leone from Carcere) is a historical figure from Càrceri. Cf. also Rolandino da Padova 2004, passim. Padova 2004, passim. 30 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 89, s.v. Borgomale. 30 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 89, s.v. Borgomale. 31 Another attested and ‘parallel’ place name for Carcare – years 998-999 – has been Bugile (later 31 Another attested and ‘parallel’ place name for Carcare – years 998-999 – has been Bugile (later variants Bauzile and Boyle) that is connected, in any case, not with the main inhabited center, variants Bauzile and Boyle) that is connected, in any case, not with the main inhabited center, but directly with two localities (historical settlements) of the village, currently called Bugile but directly with two localities (historical settlements) of the village, currently called Bugile Soprano (Upper Bugile) and Bugile Sottano (Lower Bugile). Soprano (Upper Bugile) and Bugile Sottano (Lower Bugile).

134 134 Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre-) Indo-European *kar- / *kal- Root in the Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy Pre-Latin Ligurian Toponymy

32 Cf. Biagi 1980, cit., pp. 9-18; Guidi, Piperno 2005, cit., passim. 32 Cf. Biagi 1980, cit., pp. 9-18; Guidi, Piperno 2005, cit., passim. 33 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Càiro Montenotte. 33 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Càiro Montenotte. 34 Cf. Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997, cit., p. 70. 34 Cf. Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997, cit., p. 70. 35 Cf. Bosio 1972, pp. 140-142. 35 Cf. Bosio 1972, pp. 140-142. 36 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Càiro Montenotte; Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997, cit., p. 70. 36 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Càiro Montenotte; Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997, cit., p. 70. 37 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Càiro Montenotte. 37 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Càiro Montenotte. 38 Cf. Perono Cacciafoco 2014a, cit., pp. 79-98; Perono Cacciafoco 2014b, cit., pp. 105-127. 38 Cf. Perono Cacciafoco 2014a, cit., pp. 79-98; Perono Cacciafoco 2014b, cit., pp. 105-127. 39 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., pp. 113-114, s.v. Càiro, Monte. 39 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., pp. 113-114, s.v. Càiro, Monte. 40 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Càiro, Monte. 40 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Càiro, Monte. 41 Cf. Biagi 1980, cit., pp. 9-18; Guidi, Piperno 2005, cit., passim. 41 Cf. Biagi 1980, cit., pp. 9-18; Guidi, Piperno 2005, cit., passim. 42 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 117, s.v. Calizzano. 42 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 117, s.v. Calizzano. 43 Cf. Biagi 1980, cit., pp. 9-18; Guidi, Piperno 2005, cit., passim. 43 Cf. Biagi 1980, cit., pp. 9-18; Guidi, Piperno 2005, cit., passim. 44 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 143, s.v. Carezzano; Vaccari 2007, passim. 44 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 143, s.v. Carezzano; Vaccari 2007, passim. 45 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Calasca - Castiglione. 45 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 114, s.v. Calasca - Castiglione. 46 Cf. Olivieri 1965, p. 107, s.v. Calasca, and p. 125, s.v. Charance. 46 Cf. Olivieri 1965, p. 107, s.v. Calasca, and p. 125, s.v. Charance. 47 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 115, s.v. Calci. 47 Cf. DTI 1999, cit., p. 115, s.v. Calci. 48 Cf. Bianchi 1886, p. 386. 48 Cf. Bianchi 1886, p. 386. 49 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., p. 465 and p. 469; Perono Cacciafoco 2013a, p. 82, n. 14; Perono Cacciafoco 49 Cf. Villar 1997, cit., p. 465 and p. 469; Perono Cacciafoco 2013a, p. 82, n. 14; Perono Cacciafoco 2013b, p. 21, n. 46; Perono Cacciafoco 2013c, p. 120, n. 15; Pallottino 1981: passim. 2013b, p. 21, n. 46; Perono Cacciafoco 2013c, p. 120, n. 15; Pallottino 1981: passim. 50 Cf. also Alessio 1935, pp. 133-151; Alessio 1936, pp. 165-189. 50 Cf. also Alessio 1935, pp. 133-151; Alessio 1936, pp. 165-189.

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Perono Cacciafoco, Francesco, Remote Origins. The Case of “Water Towns”, of Perono Cacciafoco, Francesco, Remote Origins. The Case of “Water Towns”, of Olbicella, and of Root *alb-, «Annals of the University of Craiova. Series Olbicella, and of Root *alb-, «Annals of the University of Craiova. Series Philology, Linguistics / Analele Universită܊ii Din Craiova. Seria ùtiin܊e Philology, Linguistics / Analele Universită܊ii Din Craiova. Seria ùtiin܊e Filologice, Linguistică», XXXV 1-2 (2013), pp. 106-123. (Perono Filologice, Linguistică», XXXV 1-2 (2013), pp. 106-123. (Perono Cacciafoco 2013c) Cacciafoco 2013c) Perono Cacciafoco, Francesco, Beyond Etymology: Historical Reconstruction and Perono Cacciafoco, Francesco, Beyond Etymology: Historical Reconstruction and Diachronic Toponomastics through the Lens of a New Convergence Theory, Diachronic Toponomastics through the Lens of a New Convergence Theory, «Acta Linguistica. Journal for Theoretical Linguistics», 8 3 (2014), pp. 79- «Acta Linguistica. Journal for Theoretical Linguistics», 8 3 (2014), pp. 79- 98. (Perono Cacciafoco 2014a) 98. (Perono Cacciafoco 2014a) Perono Cacciafoco, Francesco, Diachronic Toponomastics and Etymology: Perono Cacciafoco, Francesco, Diachronic Toponomastics and Etymology: Epistemological Proposals According to the New Convergence Theory, Epistemological Proposals According to the New Convergence Theory, «Annals of the University of Craiova. Series Philology, Linguistics / Analele «Annals of the University of Craiova. Series Philology, Linguistics / Analele Universită܊ii Din Craiova. Seria ùtiin܊e Filologice, Linguistică», 1 / 2 (2014), Universită܊ii Din Craiova. Seria ùtiin܊e Filologice, Linguistică», 1 / 2 (2014), pp. 105-127 (Perono Cacciafoco 2014b) pp. 105-127 (Perono Cacciafoco 2014b) Pokorny, Julius, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch [Indo-European Pokorny, Julius, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch [Indo-European Etymological Dictionary], Bern / München, Francke, 1959-1969. (Pokorny Etymological Dictionary], Bern / München, Francke, 1959-1969. (Pokorny 1959-1969) 1959-1969) Ravera, Pompeo, Tasca, Giovanni, Rapetti, Vittorio (Eds.), I Vescovi della chiesa Ravera, Pompeo, Tasca, Giovanni, Rapetti, Vittorio (Eds.), I Vescovi della chiesa di Acqui. Dalle origini al XX secolo [The Bishops of the Church of Acqui. di Acqui. Dalle origini al XX secolo [The Bishops of the Church of Acqui. From the Origins to the XX Century], Acqui Terme, Editrice Impressioni From the Origins to the XX Century], Acqui Terme, Editrice Impressioni Grafiche, 1997. (Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997) Grafiche, 1997. (Ravera, Tasca, Rapetti 1997) Rolandino da Padova, Vita e morte di Ezzelino da Romano (Cronaca) [Life and Rolandino da Padova, Vita e morte di Ezzelino da Romano (Cronaca) [Life and Death of Ezzelino from Romano (Chronicle)], ed. by Fiorese, Flavio, Milano, Death of Ezzelino from Romano (Chronicle)], ed. by Fiorese, Flavio, Milano, Mondadori / Fondazione Lorenzo Valla, 2004. (Rolandino da Padova 2004) Mondadori / Fondazione Lorenzo Valla, 2004. (Rolandino da Padova 2004) Tovar, Antonio, Krahes alteuropäische Hydronymie und die westindoger- Tovar, Antonio, Krahes alteuropäische Hydronymie und die westindoger- manischen Sprachen [Krahe’s Old European Hydronymy and the Western manischen Sprachen [Krahe’s Old European Hydronymy and the Western Indo-European Languages], Heidelberg, Winter, 1977. (Tovar 1977) Indo-European Languages], Heidelberg, Winter, 1977. (Tovar 1977) Tovar, Antonio, Die indoeuropäsierung Westeuropas [The Indo-Europeianization Tovar, Antonio, Die indoeuropäsierung Westeuropas [The Indo-Europeianization of Western Europe], Innsbruck, Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der of Western Europe], Innsbruck, Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck, 1982. (Tovar 1982) Universität Innsbruck, 1982. (Tovar 1982) Vaccari, Gian Carlo, Carezzano, antica capitale del Vescovato di Tortona Vaccari, Gian Carlo, Carezzano, antica capitale del Vescovato di Tortona [Carezzano: The Ancient Capital of the Tortona’s Bishopric], Carezzano / [Carezzano: The Ancient Capital of the Tortona’s Bishopric], Carezzano / Ovada, Associazione Bibliotecaria Cassanese / Tipografia Pesce, 2007. Ovada, Associazione Bibliotecaria Cassanese / Tipografia Pesce, 2007. (Vaccari 2007) (Vaccari 2007) Villar, Francisco, Gli Indoeuropei e le origini dell’Europa. Lingua e storia (Ed. Villar, Francisco, Gli Indoeuropei e le origini dell’Europa. Lingua e storia (Ed. Or.: Los Indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa. Lenguaje e historia. Or.: Los Indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa. Lenguaje e historia. Segunda edición, Madrid, Editorial Gredos, 1996) [Indo-Europeans and the Segunda edición, Madrid, Editorial Gredos, 1996) [Indo-Europeans and the Origins of Europe. Language and History. 2nd ed.], Bologna, Il Mulino, Origins of Europe. Language and History. 2nd ed.], Bologna, Il Mulino, 1997. (Villar 1997) 1997. (Villar 1997)

137 137 Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO

ABSTRACT ABSTRACT

This paper provides a scientific survey about the proto-Indo-European root *kar- / This paper provides a scientific survey about the proto-Indo-European root *kar- / *kal-, meaning ‘stone’, rock’, and about the related European Prehistoric toponymy *kal-, meaning ‘stone’, rock’, and about the related European Prehistoric toponymy according to a new convergent approach. The stem *kar- is considered, in this study, as a according to a new convergent approach. The stem *kar- is considered, in this study, as a presumably pre-Indo-European root transferred (after the possible ‘arrival’ of the Indo- presumably pre-Indo-European root transferred (after the possible ‘arrival’ of the Indo- Europeans in their European territories) in the linguistic system of proto-Indo-European Europeans in their European territories) in the linguistic system of proto-Indo-European through a process of reuse and refunctionalization of roots and (loan-)words due to through a process of reuse and refunctionalization of roots and (loan-)words due to linguistic contact. Phonetically adapted to the (proto-)Indo-European standards, the root linguistic contact. Phonetically adapted to the (proto-)Indo-European standards, the root *kar- shows, at least in the Ligurian area, a variant *kal- (not an independent stem, but an *kar- shows, at least in the Ligurian area, a variant *kal- (not an independent stem, but an alternative form) involved in the formation of a number of words and place names linked to alternative form) involved in the formation of a number of words and place names linked to the notions of ‘rock’ and ‘stone’ (in particular ‘friable, calcareous rock eroded by water’). the notions of ‘rock’ and ‘stone’ (in particular ‘friable, calcareous rock eroded by water’). The paper tries, moreover, to highlight a particular morphologic phenomenon of The paper tries, moreover, to highlight a particular morphologic phenomenon of reduplication of the root *kar- (very peculiar, because the reduplication is not widely reduplication of the root *kar- (very peculiar, because the reduplication is not widely productive in Indo-European) in the Italian (Ligurian) place name Carcare (< Carcaris). productive in Indo-European) in the Italian (Ligurian) place name Carcare (< Carcaris).

Key words: *kar- / *kal- root; pre-Indo-European and proto-Indo-European; reuse Key words: *kar- / *kal- root; pre-Indo-European and proto-Indo-European; reuse and refunctionalization of roots and (loan-)words and refunctionalization of roots and (loan-)words

REZUMAT REZUMAT

Lucrarea de fa܊ă con܊ine o analiză܈tiin܊ifică a rădăcinii proto-indo-europene *kar- / Lucrarea de fa܊ă con܊ine o analiză܈tiin܊ifică a rădăcinii proto-indo-europene *kar- / *kal-, care înseamnă „piatră”, „rocă” ܈i a toponimiei preistorice europene aferente, conform *kal-, care înseamnă „piatră”, „rocă” ܈i a toponimiei preistorice europene aferente, conform unei noi abordări convergente. Rădăcina *kar- este considerată, în studiul de fa܊ă, o unei noi abordări convergente. Rădăcina *kar- este considerată, în studiul de fa܊ă, o presupusă rădăcină pre-indo-europeană, transferată (după posibila „sosire” a indo- presupusă rădăcină pre-indo-europeană, transferată (după posibila „sosire” a indo- europenilor pe teritoriile lor europene) în sistemul lingvistic proto-indo-european printr-un europenilor pe teritoriile lor europene) în sistemul lingvistic proto-indo-european printr-un proces de reutilizare ܈i refunc܊ionalizare a rădăcinilor ܈i a împrumuturilor ca urmare a proces de reutilizare ܈i refunc܊ionalizare a rădăcinilor ܈i a împrumuturilor ca urmare a contactului lingvistic. Adaptată fonetic la standardele (proto-)indo-europene, rădăcina *kar- contactului lingvistic. Adaptată fonetic la standardele (proto-)indo-europene, rădăcina *kar- prezintă, cel pu܊in în zona ligurică, varianta *kal- (care nu este o rădăcină independentă, ci prezintă, cel pu܊in în zona ligurică, varianta *kal- (care nu este o rădăcină independentă, ci o formă alternativă), implicată în formarea mai multor cuvinte ܈i toponime legate de ideea o formă alternativă), implicată în formarea mai multor cuvinte ܈i toponime legate de ideea de „rocă” ܈i „piatră” (în special „rocă friabilă, calcaroasă, erodată de apă”). Articolul î܈i de „rocă” ܈i „piatră” (în special „rocă friabilă, calcaroasă, erodată de apă”). Articolul î܈i propune, în plus, să eviden܊ieze fenomenul morfologic al dublării rădăcinei *kar- (foarte propune, în plus, să eviden܊ieze fenomenul morfologic al dublării rădăcinei *kar- (foarte interesant, deoarece dublarea nu este un procedeu cu un grad ridicat de productivitate în interesant, deoarece dublarea nu este un procedeu cu un grad ridicat de productivitate în indo-europeană) în toponimul italian (liguric) Carcare (< Carcaris). indo-europeană) în toponimul italian (liguric) Carcare (< Carcaris).

Cuvinte-cheie: rădăcina *kar- / *kal-; pre-indo-europeană܈i proto-indo-europeană; Cuvinte-cheie: rădăcina *kar- / *kal-; pre-indo-europeană܈i proto-indo-europeană; reutilizarea ܈i refunc܊ionalizarea rădăcinilor ܈i împrumuturilor reutilizarea ܈i refunc܊ionalizarea rădăcinilor ܈i împrumuturilor

138 138

Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre‑)Indo‑European *Kar‑ / *Kal‑ Root in the Pre‑Latin Ligurian Toponymy

Continuity in European Toponomastics: the (Pre‑)Indo‑European Kar‑ / Kal‑ Root in the Pre‑Latin Ligurian Toponymy