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The Country and the Village: Representations of the Rural in Twentieth-Century South Asian Literatures

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The Country and the Village: Representations of the Rural in Twentieth-Century South Asian Literatures THE COUNTRY AND THE VILLAGE: REPRESENTATIONS OF THE RURAL IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY SOUTH ASIAN LITERATURES by Anupama Mohan A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of English and the Collaborative Program in South Asian Studies University of Toronto © Copyright by Anupama Mohan (2010) THE COUNTRY AND THE VILLAGE: REPRESENTATIONS OF THE RURAL IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY SOUTH ASIAN LITERATURES Anupama Mohan Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of English and the Collaborative Program in South Asian Studies University of Toronto 2010 ABSTRACT Twentieth-century Indian and Sri Lankan literatures (in English, in particular) have shown a strong tendency towards conceptualising the rural and the village within the dichotomous paradigms of utopia and dystopia. Such representations have consequently cast the village in idealized (pastoral) or in realist (counter-pastoral/dystopic) terms. In Chapters One and Two, I read together Mohandas Gandhi’s Hind Swaraj (1908) and Leonard Woolf’s The Village in the Jungle (1913) and argue that Gandhi and Woolf can be seen at the head of two important, but discrete, ways of reading the South Asian village vis-à-vis utopian thought, and that at the intersection of these two ways lies a rich terrain for understanding the many forms in which later twentieth-century South Asian writers chose to re-create city-village-nation dialectics. In this light, I examine in Chapter Three the work of Raja Rao ( Kanthapura , 1938) and O. V. Vijayan ( The Legends of Khasak , 1969) and in Chapter Four the writings of Martin Wickramasinghe ( Gamperaliya , 1944) and Punyakante Wijenaike ( The Waiting Earth , 1966) as providing a re-visioning of Gandhi’s and Woolf’s ideas of the rural as a site for civic and national transformation. I conclude by examining in Chapter Five Michael Ondaatje’s Anil’s Ghost (2000) and Amitav Ghosh’s The Hungry Tide (2005) as emblematic of a recent turn in South Asian fiction centred on the rural where the village embodies a “heterotopic” space ii that critiques and offers a conceptual alternative to the categorical imperatives of utopia and dystopia. I use Michel Foucault’s notion of the “heterotopia” to re-evaluate the utopian dimension in these novels. Although Foucault himself under-theorized the notion of heterotopia and what he did say connected the idea to urban landscapes and imaginaries, we may yet recuperate from his formulations a “third space” of difference that provides an opportunity to rethink the imperatives of utopia in literature and helps understand the rural in twentieth-century South Asian writing in new ways. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS They say completing a thesis often ushers in a “post-partum depression,” or at the very least, a form of ontological unmooring from which it is very hard to recover; and true recovery lies in a head-on plunge into the epistemological circuits of a postdoc or the pedagogical conundrums of an assistant professorship. Phew. Now that I am in this delicious cusp between a completed project and an uncertain future, I look back on these years and I find it hard to come up with anything close to “partum” or “depression.” When it comes to the former, the feminist in me shrinks from the perils of analogical thinking: after all, motherhood is really serious stuff. As for the latter, these past few years have been so wonderful, so exciting, and such an adventure that things could only get better from hereon! I begin this note of gratitude firstly with my stellar committee: Chelva Kanaganayakam, who has been more than a teacher and mentor. His patience, intellectual rigour, and generosity are unparalleled and he has helped form this thesis in more ways than I can count. Chelva has unstintingly, and in the most unobtrusive fashion, guided this dissertation – whether it is by meeting me for a half-hour slot that became a two-hour conversation or by passing on his articles on topics directly tied to my areas of interest. In these past years, he has seen me through heartaches and agonies, imagined and real, and provided an ear and a shoulder that has been my stay all along. Linda Hutcheon, whom it has been my pride and honour and pleasure to come to know, learn from, and enjoy the company of. When I came to Toronto, I had already written three papers during my M.Phil. at Delhi University where I had cited her works and read enough of her writings to hazardously hope that I might be lucky enough to get to work with her at U of Toronto. Imagine my delight when she accepted to be a part of my committee – and now multiply that delight with the iv number of days in each year that I have known her since 2004, and you will have a ballpark measure of how utterly, utterly wonderful it is to benefit from her astute eye, her academic integrity, and her capacious intellect. Neil ten Kortenaar, the man whom time forgot to pass by, and in whose contagious enthusiasm for literature, scholarship, and committed pedagogy, I find a reflection of my own desire to search “the best which has been thought and said” (in Matthew Arnold’s famous words). Neil has, with his perspicacious grasp of theory and text, pushed me into new directions with my own work. Collectively, my committee has been my very own family in Canada. I want to thank various funding bodies whose generosity and financial support made possible this research: the University of Toronto’s full funding program, the Ontario Graduate Scholarship, Delta Kappa Gamma (and Sr. Toni of the indefatigable spirit!), Chancellor Jackman Humanities Scholarship, the Centre for South Asian Studies, and the Asian Institute. I also want to express my gratitude to the libraries of the University of Toronto in Canada; Delhi University, Sahitya Akademi, and Nehru Museum in India; University of Peradeniya, University of Colombo, and International Centre for Ethnic Studies in Sri Lanka. A special vote of thanks for my student, Zainab Wahab, who procured for me some important materials from Sri Lanka, and whose family’s hospitality made our stay in spectacular Sri Lanka very special indeed. I have greatly benefited from the various conferences I have attended and from those anonymous respondents whose insightful comments and questions helped me push the frontiers of my scholarship. At the University of Toronto, I want to especially mention Professors Paul Stevens, Suwanda J. Sugunasiri, Melba Cuddy-Keane, Uzoma Esonwanne, Alexander Rapoport, and Jill Levenson for their invaluable support and wisdom as this v dissertation took shape. I am thankful to my external examiner, Professor Nandi Bhatia, whose insightful comments on the dissertation and at my defence made for an instructive dialogue. I also want to acknowledge the innumerable ways in which Professor Mari Ruti has shaped my work and my life: Mari is a rare being, and her intellectual energy, adroit sense of humour, and strong work-ethic have been truly inspirational. And since I am so lucky and blessed, she is also a wonderful friend: look, Mari, I am through! Of the people in India who have nourished my intellect and work, I owe a great debt to my high-school English teacher Mrs. Meena Nigam, whose love for literature, language, and poetry impelled my own love for these and spurred me on to become a poet and writer. My teachers and colleagues at Jesus and Mary College, in particular Taisha Abraham, Harriet Raghunathan, and Renuka Subbu, were profoundly inspiring. To Professors Malashri Lal, Shormishtha Panja, and Mythili Kaul of Delhi University, my heartfelt gratitude for providing the critical rigour and literary training on which I stand so securely. A special thanks goes to my friend and fellow academic, Subhash Chandra, who introduced me to Chelva and the idea of a PhD at the University of Toronto, and with whom I have now built an intellectual community along with a dear friendship. To my friends in India and Canada, where would I be without you? Pooja, my dearest, most wonderful comrade-in-life: do the years grow shorter each day that I know you? Tarun, her husband, Atlas balancing the world: dude, aaj ki shaam / ek jaam, hamaare naam ? Kanchi and Paritosh: friends, soul-keepers. Julie and Harish, Anjali and Rajit, Vandana and Rajesh, Mahuya and Sangram, Srabani and Shubho, Sridevi and Siva, Jayshree and Subrata – my companions and friends whose constant support in Toronto helped me make a new home in a new land. vi My family in India: Pappa and Mummy, whose care, support, and courage in sending their (at the time) unmarried daughter off to a strange new world is just about balanced by their ever-constant love for me and for that which I love and desire. To Baba and Ma, my family in Calcutta, I owe the lesson of an undying zest for life. To my grandmother in Kerala, the unlikely muse of my life: Ammoomma, ende oppam ennum ondavanam. And finally, Suddhaseel, for whom it now seems I crossed the seven seas. Ami ki bolbo? This dissertation is for you – with all my love. vii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv INTRODUCTION: Representing the Rural 1 Terminologies: Utopia, Dystopia, Heterotopia 12 Religion and Utopia 23 Indian Writing and the Utopian Village 26 Sri Lanka: Buddhist Utopia and the Dissidents 34 The Village in Ceylon and the Three W’s 41 Constructing New Paradigms: Rural Heterotopia 47 CHAPTER 1: Hind Swaraj and Rural Utopia 51 Modernity in Hind Swaraj 54 Civility and the Village 66 Gandhi and the Public Sphere 70 The Ashram and Civil Society 77 The Ashram as Model for Gandhian Utopia 86
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