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Phonological Adoption Through Bilingual Borrowing Phonological Adoption through Bilingual Borrowing Comparing Elite Bilinguals and Heritage Bilinguals Memet Aktürk-Drake Centre for Research on Bilingualism Department of Swedish Language and Multilingualism Stockholm University Doctoral Dissertation 2015 Centre for Research on Bilingualism Department of Swedish Language and Multilingualism Stockholm University Copyright: Memet Aktürk-Drake Printing: Universitetsservice AB, Stockholm 2015 Correspondence: SE-106 91 Stockholm www.biling.su.se ISBN 978-91-7649-080-8 ISSN 1400-5921 Abstract In the phonological integration of loanwords, the original structures of the donor language can either be preserved (i.e. adopted) as innovations or altered to fit the existing system of the recipient language (i.e. adapted). This dissertation aims to contribute to a better understanding of adoption as an underresearched integration strategy by investigating how structural (i.e. phonetic, phonological, morpho-phonological) and non-structural (i.e. socio- linguistic and psycholinguistic) factors interact in determining when a par- ticular donor-language structure will be adopted instead of being adapted. Factors that affect the accuracy of the structure’s perception and production in the donor language as a result of its acquisition as a second language are also given special consideration. The three studies that are included in the dissertation examine how the same phonological structure from different donor languages is integrated into the same recipient language Turkish by two different types of initial borrowers: elite bilinguals in Turkey and heri- tage bilinguals in Sweden. The three investigated phonological structures are word-final [l] after back vowels, long segments in word-final closed syllab- les, and word-initial onset clusters. The hypothesis is that adoption will be more prevalent in heritage bilinguals than in elite bilinguals. Four necessary conditions for adoption are identified in the analysis of the results. Firstly, the donor-language structure must have high perceptual salience. Secondly, the borrowers must have acquired the linguistic competence to produce a structure accurately. Thirdly, the borrowers must have sufficient sociolingu- istic incentive to adopt a structure as an innovation. Higher dominance in the donor language as a second language and positive attitudes in the borrowers contribute to the sociolinguistic incentive. Fourthly, prosodic structures require higher incentive to be adopted than segments (and clusters of seg- ments). The hypothesis is only partially confirmed. Two types of counter- examples are found. On the one hand, the reverse of the hypothesis is attested when the structure has high salience in the language from which the elite bilinguals have borrowed it but has low salience in the language from which the heritage bilinguals have borrowed it. On the other hand, no diffe- rence is found between elite and heritage bilinguals when the structure has a low degree of acquisition difficulty making it equally likely to be acquired and adopted by elite bilinguals as by heritage bilinguals. In other cases, as predicted, heritage bilinguals display significantly higher adoption rates than elite bilinguals. Keywords: loanword phonology, language contact, bilingualism, second- language acquisition, perceptual salience, language dominance, linguistic variation, sociolinguistics, Turkish. Anneme ve babama, sizin desteğiniz olmadan dilbilimci olamazdım. For my parents, I could not have become a linguist without your support. Acknowledgements Writing this dissertation has been a longer and tougher journey than I thought it would be. Many people have helped and accompanied me in pro- fessional and private capacities during this journey. Unfortunately, I cannot thank them all but I would nevertheless like to acknowledge the support of some of them here. First of all, I would like to extend my thanks to all colleagues that I have had at the Centre because they have contributed to my work in their respec- tive ways, some probably even without realising it. Ett hjärtligt tack till er alla på Centret! I would especially like to thank my supervisors Niclas Abrahamsson and Kari Fraurud. Niclas, I really appreciate that you have given me the space and freedom to grow academically. I have always felt your confidence in my abilities and I am grateful for all the strategic advice you have given me over the years. Kari, the critical and caring guidance I have received from you has been invaluable for my development as an academic. Both our professional relationship and the friendship that has grown between us have meant a lot to me. It would not be too much to claim that you have been my sociolinguistic conscience. I am also indebted to Tomas Riad for acting as a consulting ex- pert on several parts of the dissertation. Tomas, you have most generously accepted to discuss my work with me at critical junctures, and often on quite short notice. I feel privileged for having had the opportunity to engage in enlightening exchanges with you and to benefit from your experience. I would also like to express my gratitude to Lena Ekberg for her support on several fronts during the planning of the PhD defence and to Pia Nordin for her help with the layout and printing of the dissertation. Working on this dissertation has at times felt like being on an emotional roller coaster with many ups and down. Therefore, I consider myself very lucky for having a loving family and considerate friends in Sweden and Turkey. They have celebrated the ups with me and dampened the impact of the downs. Foremost, I would like to thank my husband Henrik. Ohne deine Liebe hätte ich das alles nicht geschafft. I am also grateful to my parents in Turkey and to my extended family in Sweden for their understanding and support during my intensive research and writing phases. The love and com- fort that I have received from all of you has been invaluable. Canım annem ve babam, ne zaman ihtiyacım olsa yanımda olduğunuz için sağolun. Ett stort tack till Kerstin, Svante, Lisa, Simon, Sara, VT och Sol för att ni är en så underbar familj. PhD colleagues and other friends in academia are perhaps those who appreciate best what an immense challenge it is to do a PhD. Therefore, they have been able to share this journey with me in a different way and deserve special consideration here. Helena, fate has put us on parallel tracks in our graduate studies. Not least in the final spurt, we have shared some triumphs and many obstacles academically, as well as much joy and some sorrow privately. At long last, we have arrived at the destination. I am very glad for having had you by my side through it all. Ulrika, you are a wonderful friend and you were also a passionate PhD comrade in the trenches. Thanks for making being a PhD student more meaningful and fun for me. Especially towards the end of my PhD period, both Lotta and Caroline have patiently listened to my troubles, consoled me and provided me with valuable advice, which gave me strength. Thank you both for being such caring colleagues and wise friends. I would also like to thank Lisa and Richard for being such supportive friends. Richard, your amazing dinners and Lisa, your fabulous desserts, and of course our wonderful chats have given me great comfort and much needed distraction after many a work day filled with frustration. Finally, I would like to thank the nearly one hundred participants who have graciously agreed to contribute to my studies. Without your commit- ment to science, this dissertation would not have existed. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the organisations Turkiska Ungdomsförbundet and Turkiska Student- och Akademikerföreningen in Sweden as well as to the companies Şişecam and Star Group in Turkey, which have facilitated the recruitment and interviewing of participants for my studies. This dissertation has also greatly benefited from my scholarship-funded stay in the creative cross-disciplinary environment of the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul. Memet Aktürk-Drake Stockholm, 7 January 2015 The present thesis is based on the following studies: I. Aktürk-Drake, M. (2011). Phonological and sociolinguistic factors in the integration of /l/ in Turkish in borrowings from Arabic and Swedish. Turkic Languages, 14, 153−191. II. Aktürk-Drake, M. (2014). The role of perceptual salience in bilingual speakers’ integration of illicit long segments in loanwords. Lingua, 143, 162−186. III. Aktürk-Drake, M. (submitted) Adoption in loanword phonology: Looking beyond linguistic competence. Phonological Adoption through Bilingual Borrowing Comparing Elite Bilinguals and Heritage Bilinguals 1 Introduction The beginnings of what has today become the field of loanword phonology can be traced back to Haugen’s (1950) and Weinreich’s (1953) first syste- matic studies on borrowing (Kang 2013). From the 1950s until the early 1990s, phonological aspects of borrowing were not singled out as a special focus in research but rather treated alongside other structural and lexical issues regarding borrowing, notwithstanding certain exceptions such as Hyman (1970) and Holden (1976). This broad approach to research on bor- rowing also encompassed non-structural (i.e. extra-linguistic) aspects such as the sociolinguistic context of borrowing. The breadth of this approach was owed to the fact that most researchers publishing on the subject were more generally interested in linguistic phenomena related to bilingualism and/or language contact (Haugen 1950; Johanson
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