SHIFTING PERCEPTIONS OF SACRED SPACES: CEREMONIAL REUSE OF MAYA ARCHITECTURE AND MONUMENTS AT SAN BARTOLO, GUATEMALA BY Jessica H. Craig Submitted to the graduate degree program in Anthropology and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. _________________________ John Hoopes, Ph.D. Chairperson _________________________ William Saturno, Ph.D. _________________________ Steven Bozarth, Ph.D. _________________________ Linda Brown, Ph.D. _________________________ Peter Herlihy, Ph.D. _________________________ Jack Hofman, Ph.D. Date defended: December 11th, 2009 The Dissertation Committee for Jessica H. Craig certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: SHIFTING PERCEPTIONS OF SACRED SPACES: CEREMONIAL REUSE OF MAYA ARCHITECTURE AND MONUMENTS AT SAN BARTOLO, GUATEMALA _________________________ John Hoopes, Ph.D. Chairperson William Saturno, Ph.D. Steven Bozarth, Ph.D. Linda Brown, Ph.D. Peter Herlihy, Ph.D. Jack Hofman, Ph.D. Date approved: April 26thth, 2010 i Abstract The ancient Maya site of San Bartolo experienced a decidedly turbulent history that is characterized by several phases of occupation and abandonment. This research illustrates how the San Bartolo community reacted, responded, and adapted to these periods of volatility by ritualizing pyramids, palaces, monuments, and other public spaces. Specific ceremonial rites effectively utilized the past as an anchor for the present, while others marked the final exodus from the site some time shortly after A.D. 800. This work draws from archaeological excavations, paleoethnobotanical finds, ceramic analysis, and ethnographic accounts to flesh out both the continuities and disjunctions among a number of religious rites that were performed across the site. Broad issues of social memory, agency, and place emerge at the intersections of these data sets. Ultimately, these investigations demonstrate how the cultural landscape of ancient Maya cities was something constructed, maintained, and reconstructed over time. Finally, the paleoethnobotanical finds indicate that the ancient Maya of Late Classic San Bartolo employed a kind of “floral tool kit” that was utilized in otherwise distinct ceremonies across the site. ii Acknowledgements The completion of a dissertation leaves one positively gushing with gratitude. I cannot possibly thank everyone that helped me complete this work, but I need to extend thanks to an amazing committee as well as a number of friends and family members that helped me reach this goal. I am profoundly grateful to John Hoopes, who has been an incredible advisor, mentor, colleague, and friend since I entered graduate school. He has shaped my teaching, my writing, and my scholarship by example. The quality of his work both in the classroom and in his research kept me driven, focused (well, most of the time), and motivated. I would also like to thank John for being an extraordinary friend and for being supportive through all my choices, both academic and personal. I am also deeply grateful for the guidance and friendship of Bill Saturno. Bill supported me financially for several field seasons at San Bartolo and he encouraged me to apply for the Fulbright grant, which largely funded the research on which this work is based. Being in the field with Bill is an extraordinary experience. He taught me so much about excavating a Maya site, about how to run a camp, and how to be a great project director and parent at the very same time. Thank you, Bill, for all of this and for always having my back. Steve Bozarth was particularly instrumental in shaping this dissertation. I remember contacting him out of the blue from San Bartolo the day I first found a perplexing layer of ash on the façade of the pyramid Las Pinturas. He responded that iii very day with advice on collecting samples. Steve performed the phytolith and pollen analyses on the San Bartolo samples, but was also critical in helping me interpret the results. We spent long hours a La Parilla banging our heads together about certain aspects of the ash (e.g. – algae). I am so grateful for the time and effort he put into this work and I look forward to collaborating with him in the future. I would also like to thank Linda Brown for being an inspiration throughout my research on ancient Maya ritual behavior. It was Linda who first turned me on to Momostenango and encouraged me to go see the shrines there firsthand. Her insight into ancient Maya ceremonial practice and ritual theory made this work stronger. Finally, I would like to thank her for her unwavering encouragement. From that first time I presented at the Simposio to the night before my dissertation defense, she always manages to put me at ease. I am also grateful to Jack Hofman for always providing excellent feedback on my work. My research has benefitted from his profound insight into archaeological methodological and theory. Thanks to Jack as well for many long conversations about the future over beers. Your encouragement and support was (and is!) always welcome. I would also like to thank Peter Herlihy for helping me think about this work in a broader sense. It was an honor to have him on the committee. Peter is an extraordinary scholar, exceptional person, and does a fantastic imitation of a Trade Wind. iv I am profoundly grateful to Mary Adair, who has been incredibly supportive throughout my graduate career. She also provided me a much-needed office in Spooner Hall, where “the magic happened.” This work would not have been possible without the generous financial support of: The Fulbright Program (International Institute of Education), The Office of Research and Graduate Studies at KU, The Center of Latin American Studies at KU, and the Department of Anthropology at KU. Many thanks. It was my great fortune to work with an extraordinary team of colleagues at San Bartolo. Thanks to Monica Urquizú, Boris Beltran, Monica Pellecer Alecio, Rene Ozaeta, Tom Garrison, Rob Griffin, Josh Kwoka, and Diane Davies for the advice, know-how, and general jungle camaraderie. I am also very grateful to Patricia Rivera Castillo for teaching me ceramic analysis. Additionally, special thanks goes to: Astrid Runggaldier for so much guidance in the field, for always knowing just where I am coming from, and for being the best tent mate EVER; Heather Hurst for walking me through the iconography, for showing me the wonders of Photoshop, and for all the laughs; Edwin Román, for helping me hone my Spanish during many, many, many hours of ceramic analysis, for always being sunny, and for loving Fridays as much as I do; Jaime Saturno for somehow taking care of all of us at the San Bartolo camp and for begin such an inspiring mother; and finally Cenzo and David Saturno for reminding us that the jungle is a magical place. I have benefitted from many good friends at the University of Kansas, all of whom helped me keep it going, keep it real, and sometimes keep my head up: Anne v Kraemer Diaz, Sandra Moran, Rebecca Crosthwait, Andrew Gottsfield, Ann Raab, Norberto Baldi-Salas, Chaya Spears, Melissa Filippi, Shannon Ryan, Kale Bruner, Hai Huang, Brian Lagotte, Mary Sundal, and many other outstanding graduate students in the department. Many thanks to all of you. I took my first archaeology class from Susan Pollock at Binghamton University in 1996. I was a journalism major at the time. Thank you, Susan, for showing me the light. Many thanks to Beth Bruinsma Chang for more than 20 years of friendship. I said it once and I’ll say it again: you are my rock, sister. I am also profoundly grateful for the devotion of my family: Peg DeCoster, Lee DeCoster, Neil Craig, and Celeste Craig. Thank you for believing in me, for supporting me, and for the drive to make you all proud. I love you. Special thanks go to Izzy’s grandmas: Peg Decoster and Alice Williams. While I know babysitting Izzy was absolutely your pleasure, you both helped me so much along the way. Finally, I cannot begin to express my gratitude to Adam Stokes, my husband, my advocate, and my best friend. Thank you for listening, for cheering me on, and for picking me up when I fell. Thank you for enduring the long stints without me and for putting your life on hold to spend the year in Guatemala with me – and what an incredible year it was. I absolutely could not have done this without you. Te amo tan mucho, mi amor. vi This work is dedicated to my daughter, Isabella Riona Stokes, who is my inspiration and in memory of my father, Charles G. Craig. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii List of Figures xi List of Tables xiii Chapter I: Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Theoretical Underpinnings 3 Addressing Meaning in the Past 3 Artifact “Life Histories” 7 Agency 8 Cognitive Archaeology 9 Studying Ritual Behavior at San Bartolo 13 Context, Contents, and Definitions 17 Summary of Chapters 19 Chapter II: Setting the Geographical, Historical, and Theoretical Scene 23 The Physical Setting 23 Climate and Environment 23 Flora 27 Fauna 29 Natural Resources 30 San Bartolo and the Rise and Fall of Cities Across the Lowlands 31 Middle Preclassic Beginning (1000 - 400 B.C.) 34 Late Preclassic Apogee (400 B.C. - A.D. 200) 36 Early Classic Abandonment (A.D. 200 - 600) 40 Late Classic Return (A.D. 600 - 800) 46 Terminal Classic Abandonment (A.D. 800 - 900) 49 Theoretical Setting 57 Ritual Behavior and the Making of Offerings 57 Defining Ritual 57 Structuralist Models 58 Practice Theory 59 Ritual Sacrifice of